语言学Coordination Rule
《英语语言学》术语(英汉对照)表
语言学术语（英-汉对照）表Glossary and Index(备注：因教材改版，部分章节标注等内容有出入。
) Aabbreviation 缩写词，略语3.3.1Abercrombie 10.3.2ablative 夺格，离格4.1.1abstractness 抽象性1.3.2accent 重音（符）2.4.4；2.4.5accuracy 正确性11.6.4accusative 宾格4.1.1achievement test 成绩测试11.6.3acoustic phonetics 声学语音学1.7.1；2.1acquisition 习得6.1.2acronym 缩略语3.3.1action process 动作过程12.2.3actor 动作者4.4.2；12.2.3addition 添加3.3.2address form 称呼形式7.2.3addressee 受话人1.4；9.4.1addresser 发话人1.4；9.4.1adjective 形容词3.1.2；4.1.1；5.5.2adjunct 修饰成分；附加语12.2.3adverb 副词3.1.2affix 词缀3.2.1affix hopping 词缀跳跃4.3.1affixation词缀附加法7.1.4affricate 塞擦音2.4.3；2.4.5；2.9.1agreement 一致关系4.1.3airstream 气流2alliteration 头韵9.3.2；9.3.6allomorph 词/语素变体3.2.4；4.3.1allophone 音位变体2.8allophonic variation 音位变体2.8.3allophony音位变体现象2.8.3alveolar ridge 齿龈2.2alveolar 齿龈音2.4.4；2.4.5ambiguity 歧义4.2.2；4.3.1；6.2.3；8.2.2；8.3.2 ambiguous歧义的5.5.2；6.3American descriptive linguistics 美国描写语言学12.3 American English 美式英语10.3.5American Indian languages 美国印第安族诸语言12.3 American structuralism 美国结构主义10.3.2；12.3 analogical creation 类推造字3.3.1anapest 抑抑扬格9.3.3anaphor 前指替代4.3.3anaphoric reference 前指照应4.3.2Anderson 6.3.1Animal communication system 动物交际系统1.2；1.3 animate 有生命的4.2.1annotation 注解10.3.4；10.3.5antecedent 先行词；前在词4.3.2anthropological 人类学的12.3.1anthropological linguistics 人类语言学1.8.3；7.1.1 anticipatory coarticulation 逆化协同发音2.6.1 antonomasia 换称；代类名7.1.4antonym 反义词5.4antonymy 反义(关系) 5.3.2appellative 称谓性4.4.2applied linguistics 应用语言学11applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学7.2.4 appropriacy 适宜性11.6.4appropriateness 适宜性；得体性11.2.5 approximant 无摩擦延续音2.4.3；2.4.5Apte 7；7.2.1aptitude test 素质测试11.6.2Arabic 阿拉伯语3.3.1；4.4.1arbitrariness 任意性1.3.1；12argument 中项；中词；主目4.3.3；5.5.2article 冠词3.1.2；4.1.1；4.2.1articulation 发音2.6articulator 发音器官2.4.2；2.4.3articulatory phonetics 发音语音学1.7.1；2.1 artificial speech 人工言语10aspect 体4.1.2aspirated 吐气；送气2.6.2；2.8.2 assimilation 同化2.9.1；3.2.4；3.3.2；6.2.4 associative 联想4.2.1associative meaning 联想意义5.3 assonance 准压韵；半谐音9.3.2；9.3.6 Atkinson, A.M. 2.1attributive 属性；修饰语；定语4.2.2；12.2.3 auditory phonetics 听觉语音学1.7.1；2.1 Austin, John Langshaw 8.1；8.1.2authentic input 真实投入11.4.2authorial style 权威风格9.4.3authoring program 编程10.1.3autonomy 自主性1.8auxiliary 助词3.1.2；12.4.3auxiliary verb 助动词3.1.2；12.2.3Bbabbling stage 婴儿语阶段12.4.1back-formation 逆构词法3.3.1Bally, Charles 9.1Bar-Hillel 10.2.1Barnhart & Barnhart 7.1.4base component 基础部分4.3.2；12.4。
新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram
The criteria on which categories are determined
确定词的范畴的标准
Meaning (意义) Inflection (屈折变化) Distribution(分布)
11
Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. e.g.
9
Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
14
‘s; -ed, -ing; -er, -est… Although inflection is very helpful in determining a
word’s category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. Moisture, fog, sheep; Frequent, intelligent Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.
因此, 一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化 能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.
16
Phrase categories and their structures
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(句法学) 【圣才出品】
第4章句法学I. Multiple choices:1. Among the branches of linguistics, ______ studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. pragmaticsD. morphology【答案】A【解析】句法学研究的是句子结构；词、词组和短语组成句子的规则。
B项为语义学，C 选项为语用学，D选项为形态学均不符合题意。
因此，本题的正确答案为A。
2. In traditional grammar, only eight categories, called parts of speech, arerecognized. The addition of such non-traditional categories as ______ increases this number in current theories of grammar.A. conjunction and determinerB. determiner and qualifierC. qualifier and interjectionD. interjection and degree words【答案】B【解析】传统语法只承认8种范畴，称为词类，分别为名词、动词、形容词、介词、副词、冠词、连词、代词, 但当今的语法理论增加了一些非传统的范畴，如：限定词determiner、程度词degree word和修饰词qualifier。
因此，本题的正确答案为B。
3. Which of the following is NOT the element that phrases formed of more than one word usually contain?A. Head.B. Specifier.C. Word category.D. Complement.【答案】C【解析】由多个单词构成的短语通常包括：中心语、标志语和补语。
语言学常用术语英汉对照表
语言学常用术语英汉对照表(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学常用术语英汉对照表Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics语言学简介1. anthropological linguistics 人类语言学2. applied linguistics 应用语言学3. arbitrariness任意性4. competence 语言能力5. computational linguistics 计算机语言学6. cultural transmission 文化传递性7. descriptive (grammar) 描写（语法）8. descriptive function 描写功能9. design features识别特征10. diachronic linguistics 历时语言学11. duality二重性12. displacement不受时空限制的特征13. emotive function 表情功能14. expressive function表达功能15. general linguisitcs 普通语言学16. ideational function概念功能17. interpersonal function人际功能18. langue语言19. linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学20. morphology 形态学21. mathematical linguistics 数理语言学22. metalinguistic function23. neurological linguistics 神经语言学24. phonetics 语音学25. phonology 音系学26. pragmatics 语用学27. prescriptive (grammar)规定（语法）28. psycholinguistics 心理语言学29. parole 言语30. performance语言运用31. productivity能产性32. poetic function诗学功能33. phatic communion 交感性谈话34. referential function所指功能35. semantics 语义学36. social function社会功能37. socio-linguistics 社会语言学38. synchronic linguistics共时语言学39. syntax句法学40. textual function语篇功能41. Traditional Grammar传统语法Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. acoustic phonetics声学语音学2. articulatory phonetics发音语音学3. affricate破擦音4. allophone音位变体5. alveolar齿龈音6. auditory phonetics听觉语音学7. aspiration送气8. assimilation rules同化现象9. back vowel后元音10. bilabial双唇音11. broad transcription宽式音标12. central vowel中元音13. close vowel闭元音14. complementary distribution互补分布15. deletion rules省略规则16. dental齿音17. diphthong双元音18. fricative摩擦音19. front vowel前元音20. glide滑音21. glottal声门音22. hard palate硬腭23. International Phonetics Alphabet国际音标24. intonation语调25. labiodental唇齿音26. liquid流音27. manner of articulation发音方式28. minimal pair 最小对立体29. minimal set最小对立组30. monophthong单元音31. narrow transcription严式音标32. nasal鼻音33. nasal cavity鼻腔34. open vowel开元音35. oral cavity口腔36. palatal硬腭37. pharyngeal cavity咽腔38. place of articulation发音部位39. phone因素40. phoneme音素41. phonemic contrast音位对立42. rounded vowel元唇元音43. semi-close vowel半闭元音44. semi-open vowel半开元音45. sequential rules序列规则46. segment切分成分切分48. soft palate软腭49. stop塞音50. stress 重音51. suprasegmental features超切分特征52. teeth ridge齿龈53. tone声调54. unrounded vowel非圆唇元音55. uvula小舌56. velar软腭音57. velum软腭58. voicing浊音化Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1. affix词缀2. allomorph语素变体3. base词基4. bound morpheme黏着语素5. lexicon词汇6. closed class words封闭词类7. compound words 合成词8. derivation派生；派生过程9. derivational morphem派生语素10. free morpheme自由语素11. inflectional morpheme屈折语素12. infinitive marker不定式标记13. morph形素14. morphological rules形态规则15. open class words开放词类16. root 词根17. stem词干Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1. auxiliary助动词2. category范畴3. complement补足语；补充成分4. complement clause补足分句5. coordination rule并列规则6. coordinate structure并列结构7. deep structure深层结构8. determiner限定词9. head中心词10. head movement中心词移位11. insertion插入12. inversion倒装13. major lexical categories主要词汇范畴14. matrix clause主句15. minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴16. phrase structure短语结构17. modifier修饰成分18. qualifier后置修饰成分19. specifier标志语20. subcategorization次范畴化21. surface structure表层结构22. syntactic category句法范畴23. trace语迹24. transformation转换Chapter 5 Semantics语义学1. antonymy反义现象2. argument谓元；变元3. behaviorism行为主义4. co-hyponym并列下义词5. collocational synonym搭配同义词6. complementary antonym互补反义词7. complete homonym完全同形异义词8. componential analysis成分分析9. conceptualist view概念论10. contextualism语境主义11. contradition自相矛盾的说法12. dialectal synonym方言同义词13. emotive meaning情感意义14. entailment蕴含15. evaluative meaning评价意义16. gradable antonym层级反义词17. homograph同形异义词18. homonymy同音同形异义关系19. homophone同音异义词20. hyponym下义词21. hyponymy下义关系22. inconsistency自相矛盾23. polysemy多义关系24. polysymous word多义词25. presupposition预设26. predication analysis述谓分析27. predicate谓词28. naming theory命名论29. no-place predicaiton空位述谓解耦股30. one-place predication一位述谓结构31. reference（所指）语义32. referent所指物；所指对象33. relational opposite关系反义词34. semantic triangle语义三角35. sense意义36. stylistic synonym语体同义词37. superordinate上坐标词38. symbol符号39. synonym同义词40. synonymy同义关系41. two-place predicaiton二位述谓结构42. three-place predication三位述谓结构Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学1. Commissives承诺类2. Cooperative Principle合作原则3. constatives述事话语4. context语境5. conventional implicature规约含义6. declarations宣告类7. directives指令类8. expressives表情类9. illocutionary act言外功能10. illocutionary point言外之的11. implicature蕴含；含义；会话含义；言外之意12. indirect speech act间接言语行为13. locutionary act言内行为14. maxim of relation关系准则15. maxim of manner方式准则16. maxim of quality质准则17. maxim of quantity量准则18. particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义19. perfomatives行事话语20. perlocutionary act言后行为21. presupposition前提22. primary speech act 主要言语行为23. representatives表述类24. secondary speech act次要言语行为25. sentence meaning 句子意义26. speech act theory言语行为理论27. utterance meaning话语意义Chapter 7 Language Change语言变化1. acronyms 词首字母缩略词2. back-formation 逆成法3. blending混成法4. borrowing借词5. clipped words截略词6. coinage创新词7. functional shift功能性变化8. historical linguistics历史语言学9. Middle English中世纪英语10. Modern English现代英语11. morphological change形态变化12. negation rule否定规则13. Old English古英语14. phonological change音位变化15. semantic change语义变化16. semantic shift语义转移17. syntactic change句法变化Chapter 8 Language and society语言与社会1. bilingualism双语制2. Black English黑人英语3. creole克里奥尔语4. diglossia双语；双言制5. ethnic dialect种族变体6. field of discourse语场7. gender性别8. idiolect个人变体9. mode of discourse语式10. multilingualism多语制11. pidgin洋泾浜语12. regional dialect地域方言13. register语域14. sociolect社会变体15. speech community言语社团16. speech variety言语变体17. tenor of discourse语旨Chapter 9 Language and culture语言与社会1. acculturation 同化过程2. amalgamation混合3. assimilation同化（现象）；同化（作用）4. connotative meaning内涵意义5. colour words颜色词6. cultural overlap文化重叠7. cultural imperialism文化帝国主义8. denotative meaning外延意义9. linguistic relativity语言相对性10. metaphor隐喻11. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12. socialization社会化13. taboo禁忌语14. intercultural communication跨文化交际15. linguistic imperialism语言学中的帝国主义16. linguistic nationalism语言学中的民族主义Chapter 10 Language acquisition语言习得1. aphasia失语症2. behaviorist 行为主义者3. caretaker talk保姆式语言4. cognitive linguistics认知语言学5. content word实词6. Critical Period Hypothesis临界期假说7. dysgraphia书写困难8. dyslexia失读症9. feedback反馈10. function element起功能作用成分11. hearing impairment听力受损12. innatist语法天生主义者13. interactionist互动主义者14. Language Acquisition Device语言习得机制15. lexical contrast词汇对比16. mental retardation智障17. motherese保姆式语言18. over-extension过度扩展19. prototype theory 原型理论20. recast修正性重复21. stuttering口吃22. telegraphic speech电报式言语23. under-extension扩展不足24. Universal Grammar普遍语法Chapter 11 Second language acquisition 第二语言习得1. affect/social strategies 社会策略2. age of acquisition习得年龄3. cognitive strategies认知策略4. comprehensible input可理解性输入5. Constrastive Analysis对比分析6. cross-association互相联想7. Error Analysis错误分析8. foreign language外语9. foreigner talk外国人谈话10. fossilization语言石化（现象）11. Input Hypothesis输入假说12. instrumental motivation工具动机13. intake 纳入14. integrative motivation综合动机15. interference干扰16. interlanguage中介语17. interlingual errors语际错误；受母语影响的错误18. Intralingual error语内错误19. intrinsic motivation内在动机20. intuition知觉；语感21. learner language学习者语言22. learning strategies学习策略23. language aptitude语言能力24. language transfer语言迁移25. metacognitive strategies元认知策略26. motivation动机27. modified input修改后的输入28. modified interaction变化性的互动29. negative transfer消极迁移；负迁移30. overgeneralization概括过头31. personality人格；性格；个性32. positive transfer积极迁移；正迁移33. resultative motivation结果动机34. second language第二语言35. second language acquisition第二语言习得36. teacher talk教师谈话37. target language目标语Chapter 12 Language and the brain 语言与大脑1. acquired dysgraphia习得性书写障碍2. acquired dyslexia习得性失读症3. angular gyrus隅骨4. autopsy studies尸检研究5. brain stem脑干6. Broca’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7. Broca’s area布罗卡区8. bottom-up processing自下而上处理过程cerebrum大脑9. central sulcus中央沟10. cerebellum小脑脑向背侧突出的一个较大的部分，尤与肌肉的共济运动和维持身体平衡有关11. cerebral hemisphere大脑半球12. cohort model交股模型13. Computarized Axial Tomography计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法14. corpus（语言）素材15. corpus callosum胼胝体16. cortex大脑皮层17. deep dyslexia深层诵读困难18. Dichotic listening studies双耳分听实验19. event-related potential experiment20. eye movement experiment眼动实验21. fissure裂缝；裂隙22. fluent aphasia流利性失语症23. frontal lobe额叶（大脑半球的前部，其下部位于颅前窝，后界中央沟24. Functional MRI功能磁共振成像25. garden path sentence花园路径句26. global aphasia整体性失语症27. gyrus回28. hierarchical structure层级结构29. late closure principle后封闭原则；晚封闭原则30. lateral fissure侧脑裂31. lateralization侧化32. lesion损害33. lexical decision词汇判断；词汇确定法34. lobes叶，身体器官的由表面的沟裂分出的部分35. longitudinal fissure纵裂36. Magnetic Resonance Imaging磁共振成像37. neuron神经细胞，神经元38. minimal attachment principle最低限度结合原则39. module模块；组块40. non-fluent aphasia失语症41. occipital lobe枕叶大脑半球的后叶，呈三面的锥形，与前方的顶叶和下方的颞叶没有明显的界限42. parietal lobe顶叶Positron emission Tomography正电子发射X射线层析照相术；计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43. phological dyslexia拼音性失读症44. priming启动45. priming effect启动效应46. priming experiment启动实验47. right ear advantage右耳优势；右耳听力强48. selectional restriction选择限制49. sentence ambiguity句子歧义50. “Sodium Amystal “Test阿米妥纳实验Spoonerism斯本内现象51. split brain studies裂脑研究52. sulcus沟53. surface dyslexia浅层诵读困难54. syntactic parser句法处理器55. temporal lobe颞叶56. timed-reading experiment限时阅读实验57. top-down processing自上而下处理过程58. Wernicke’s aphasia韦尼克失语症11。
简明语言学整理笔记
简明语言学整理笔记精品文档第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2．The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <="">Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users③Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。
英语 语言学 知识点整理
★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter2 Phonology★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) ★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~)★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.(intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphology★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words:conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Chapter4 Syntax★determine a word’s category:①meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty”to the lady.) ②inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. ③distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card ④小结A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.★phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. ①The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. ②The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. ③The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.★phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.★XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. (XP-----> (specifier) X (complement))★coordination rule:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. (Four important properties:①There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. ②A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. ③Coordinated categories must be of the same type. ④The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)★deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). //The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 Semantics★The naming theory: (Greek scholar Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.★The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.★Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. {A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}★Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. //Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. //关系: ①Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. ②Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star. ③Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.★Hyponymy:It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.★X entails Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)★componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features:The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. //Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.★Predication Analysis:①The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.②There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)……(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmatics★Context(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. ★Speech act theory(John Austin)★Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something. 3commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. ///Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.★cooperative Principle(CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.★Historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.★semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day which we don’t have to work.★semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animal—a particular kind of animal)★semantic shif t: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.★sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.★Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for snow, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.E.g. the use of postvocalic [r] in England and in New Y ork city.★speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.★speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registers★Register: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. {A) Field of discourse---- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.---- why/ what---vocabulary, phonological, grammatical features B) Tenor of discourse---- role: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other. ---- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse ---- means of communication.-----how ( speaking or writing).}★degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozen★culture: A）In a broad sense: Culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.★The relationship between language and culture:①language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. ②reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. ③language is a part of culture.★Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.------interdependence of language and thought….(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)★Greetings and terms of address:A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate people’s influential st atus.★cultural overlap: The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being★cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.★linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language.★language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist{ LAD= Language Acquisition Device}, the interactionist view{motherese, child directed speech, caretaker talk}★under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. E.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal.★over-extension:Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. E.g, baby uses apple for all fruit.★Atypical Development:hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.★second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.★Connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: ①Theoretically----The new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. ②Practically------The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. ③second language acquisition is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. ★interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions. It is also called learner language.-- its main feature is fossilization.★overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable. E.g: Jane suggested me to give up smoking (×).★cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association. E.g. The apricot is too sour to eat it(×). ★Individual Differences:①Language aptitude ②motivation（instrumental motivation; integrative motivation; resultative motivation; intrinsic motivation pleasure from learning.）③learning strategie (cognitive strategies; metacognitive strategies; affect/ social strategies)④Age of Acquisition. ⑤Personality★Neurolinguistics: is the study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.★Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.★psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It concerns the representation of language in the mind, the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, and language acquisition.front central backClose (high) i:I u:uSemi-close (middle)eз:。
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Sy
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---SyntaxChapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
（把单词凑在一起形成句子）二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relativelysmall number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaningthat words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type ofstructures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：（1）包括单词所表达的意义的类别，（2）它们所带词缀的类别，（3）它们所能出现的结构的类别。
4.2.1 word level category词层面类型（对于句法学而言最核心的类型）1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型（词性）：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj,Adv（open开放性词类,can add new words）P43图（在句子构成中起重要作用）1）主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词（N）：student linguistics lecture动词（V）： like red go形容词（adj）： tall lovely red副词（adv）： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型（词性）：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int （close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词）P43图2）次要词类又称闭合词类。
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Meaning：
N.: to denote entities and objects e.g., John, Mary, pen, book V.: to designate action, sensation and states e.g., run, hate, exist Adj.: to modify property of nouns e.g., pretty lady
NP
NVPVFra bibliotekAPA
PP
P
--
--
phrase level
word level
Phrase categories
The structure:
a picture on the wall
specifier + head + complement
标志语 中心词 补语
Head: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads Complement: the words on the right side of the heads
语言学导论第4章syntax语言学导论认知语言学导论算法导论第三版答案算法导论第二版答案算法导论第三版pdf算法导论第二版第二语言习得导论软件工程导论第5版算法导论第三版
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
英语语言学名词解释练习含答案
名词解释Unit1nguage:can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(5ˊ)2.Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of timein history.(5ˊ)3.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.(5ˊ)4.Parole:refers to the realization of langue in actual use and the naturally occurring language events.(5ˊ)petence and performance:competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language﹔(2ˊ)and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication(3ˊ).Unit26.Phonetics:is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage(1ˊ)；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’slanguages(2ˊ),these three branches of phonetics are labeledarticulator phonetics，auditory phonetics，an acoustic phonetics respectively(2ˊ)．7.Diacritics:diacriticswhich are added to the letter-symbols to bring outthe finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do．(5ˊ)8.Broad transcription and narrow transcription:one is the transcription with letter-symbols only(2ˊ),the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(3ˊ)．9.phoneme:a phoneme is a phonological unit：it is a unit that is of distinctive value(3ˊ);it is an abstract unit(2ˊ)．10.Sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.(5ˊ)Unit311.Morpheme:The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.(5ˊ)12.Perivtion:It is an affixational proless that forms a word with a meaning(2ˊ) and/or category distinct from that of its bases(3ˊ).13.Word:Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language.(5ˊ)14.Free morpheme:A morpheme which can be a word by itself.(5ˊ)15.Root:The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major.(5ˊ)Unit416.Phrase structure rule:A cortain word can only concur with certain other words(1ˊ).There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate position that specifiers,heads,and complements occupy in phrase structure(2ˊ).Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule(2ˊ).17.Syntax:syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.(5ˊ)18.Coordination rule:For example,some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the relp of a conjunction such as and or(3ˊ).Such phrases are called coordinate structures(2ˊ).19.Deep structure and surface structure:The first,formed by the XP rule in a accordance with the head's subcategorization properties,is called deep stmcture(3ˊ).The second,corresponding to the final syntanicform of the sentence which resuts from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure(2ˊ).20.Categories:Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulficl the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb(3ˊ).Word level categories are divided in two kinds:major lexical categories and minor lexical categories(2ˊ).Unit521.semantics:can be simply defined as the study of meaning(2ˊ),meaning is central to the study of communication(3ˊ).22.Contextualist:The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts(3ˊ).Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context(2ˊ).23.Behaviorism:Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer."(5ˊ)24.Sense:sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form.(5ˊ)25.Reference:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world(2ˊ)﹔it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience(3ˊ).26.Synonymy:refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning(1ˊ).Polysemy:while different words may have the same or similar meaning,the same one word may have more than one meaning(1ˊ).Homonymy:refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form(1ˊ).Hyponymy:refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word(1ˊ).Antonymy:antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning(1ˊ).。
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题
Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is syntax?----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “arrangement” or out together”．Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or withoutappropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence..Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentencesWhat is a sentence?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certainorder in accordance with grammatical rules.A sequence c an be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.Knowledge of sentence structureStructural ambiguityStructural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. Forexample, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.Word orderDifferent arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the wordsTom, love and Mary, we may say T om loves Mary o r Mary loves Tom.Grammatical relationsNative speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For, the word enough is example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boatsrelated to different words in the two sentences.RecursionThe same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that youare happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that youare happy.Sentence relatednessSentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.Syntactic categoriesA syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without lossof grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:The child found the knife.A policeman found the knife.The man who just left here found the knife.He found the knife.All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The nounThe knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.phrases in these sentences function as subject.Traditional grammarIn traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs(predicates), predicatives, …Structural grammarStructural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with theinter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are notjust independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.Transformational-generative (TG) grammarChomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.Adequacy of observationAdequacy of descriptionAdequacy of explanationWriting a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrase structure rules andtransformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.Systematic-functional grammarBackground and the goal of systemic-functional grammarM. A. K. HallidayLanguage is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realizedthrough forms.The three meta-functions of languageIdeational functionInterpersonal functionTextual functionCategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.The criteria on which categories are determinedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criter ion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rulesThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The XP ruleNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typewith the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated;the categories must be of the same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Phrase elementsSpecifierHeadComplementSpecifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP. Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…；aI believed that she was innocent.I sentence-l ike construction may also function as a complement such as in “That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” introduced by complementizers are complement clause.Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Sentences (the S rule)S NP VPS NP infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstracts tense and agreement.category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’Infl realized by a tense labelInfl realized by an auxiliaryTransformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDeep structure & surface structureWh-movementMove α and constraints on transformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C.Auxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Deep structure & surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences m ight be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisThe organization of the syntactic componentWh-movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?What can you talk about ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences a re composed of sequence o f words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level ofD-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. XP can be written as (specifier) X (complement), X is called the_____.23. In a tree diagram, _____is the root of tree.24. The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed________.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.VI. Given examples for word classes by using the words in the following sentence.Her dog always sleeps under the old tree.VII. Construct a sentence that has the following sentences.S Det, A, N, V, P, Det, NVIII. For each of the following sentences, supply three distinct surface structure sentences which may be regarded as derived from them:a.I told him to stop the car.b.He took his coat off.IX. Draw tree diagrams for each of the following entences.1.Mary advised John to see the dentist.2.Mary promised John to see the dentist.3. A clever magician fooled the audience.4.The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.5.They knew that the senator would win the election.6.The mouse ran up the rock.7.The mouse ate up the cheese.8.John gave Mary the book.9.John gave the book to Mary.10.John went to the supermarket.11.The man who came to see me last night is my brother.12.The candle on the desk blows in the wind.13.She passed him the hammer and saw through the window. (2 tree diagrams)14.The boy saw the girl in the car. (2 tree diagrams)15.Flying planes can be dangerous. (2 tree diagrams)16.Old men and women were more careful. (2 tree diagrams)17.The man in the room helps me every day.18.John is easy to please.19.John is eager to please.Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a setof abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (calleda lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences a re identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter4
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Auxiliary movement (助动词移位)
Two steps: Step 1: Use XP rule to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl. Step 2: Use the transformation of inversion (倒 置) to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.
Determiner (Det) 限定词: the, a, an, this, those, … Degree word (Deg) 程度词: quite, very, more, so, … Qualifier (Qual) 修饰语: often, always, seldom, … Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词: must, should, can, will, … Conjunction (Con) 连词: and, but, or, …
Figure 4-4: Infl realized by a tense label
Figure 4-5: Infl position realized by an auxiliary
Ex. 9, 10, 11 (p60)
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Transformations (转换)
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
语言学 修改
nguage:Linguistics is gengrally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The language means: Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies in general.3.语言学分为：General linguistics(语言学的核心),Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study.4.语言学研究的核心：The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.5.psycholinguistics属于interdisciplinary,不属于general linguistics 的六个分支6.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.7.Synchronic:Language exists in time and changes through time. Descriptions of a language in its current existence.ngue and Parole:by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century.9. Abstract langue语言学家的任务:Discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistics.10.现代语言学的开端：F.de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”11.A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett in 1960.12.Arbitrariness任意性:language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary.13.Funcitions of language:descriptive,ex pressive function,social function14.addresser-Emotive Adressee-Conative Context-Referntial Message-Poetic Contact-Phatic communionCode-Metalinguistic15.Phonetics:Phoneticsis defined as the studyof the phonic mediumof language,the soundsoccur in the languages.16.Articulatoryphonetics(has thelongest history),auditoryphonetics,acousticphonetics.ans ofspeech:pharyngealcavity(This is the firstpoint where soundmodification mightoccur),oralcavity,nasalcavity(the velum)18.A small raised“h”isused to show aspiration.19.元音辅音区别：Inthe production of thelatter category it isobstructed in one wayor another.20.A phone is aphonetic unit orsegment.1.A phone does notnecessarily distinguishmeaning.2.Although phonemesare the minimalsegments of languagesystema,they are nottheir minimalelements.2.If a word begins witha {l}or a ｛r｝,then thenext sound must be avowel.3.The phonemicfeatures that occurabove the level of thesegments are calledsuprasegmentalfeatures.4.复合词的重音在第一个成分上5.English not Tonelanguage.6.Morphology:grammar that is concerned withword formation andword structure.7.They are the contentwords of alanguage,which aresometimes calledOPEN CLASSWORDS.The number of suchwords is small andstable since few newwords areadded,therefore suchwords gave beenreferred to as CLOSEDCLASS WORDS8.Linguists define theword as the smallestfree form found inlanguage.9.词素Morpheme:thesmallest unit oflanguang that carriesinformation aboutmeaning or function.10.The variant forms ofa morpheme are calledits allomorphs.11.Syntax is a branch oflinguistics that studiesthe that govern thaformation of sentences12.Syntacticcategories:Afundamental fact aboutwords in all humanlanguages is that theycan be grouped togetherinto a relatively smallnumber of classes.13.Phrases can consistof just one word14.The informationabout a word’scomplement is includedin the head and termedsubcategorization15.The sentenceintroduced by thecomplementize is calleda complementclause.thus the wholeunderlined part in theabove sentence is calleda complementphrase.Theconstryction in whichthe complement phraseis embedded is calledmatrix clause.16.All lexical categoriescan have modifiers.17.Sentence head—Inflposition can be taken byan abstract categoryencoded in a verbwhich indicates thesentence’s tense or anauxiliary as shownbelow.18.The second step informing a yes-noquestion requires atransformation.转换的规则：In thecase we areconsidering,atransformation knownas inversion moves theauxiliary from the Infiposition to a position tothe left of the subiect.(1)It does not changethe categories ofwords (2)It cannoteliminate any partof the structuralconfigurationcreated by thephrase structurerules.19.Marked by thesymbol e(“empty”)andcalled a trace.20.Whentransformations are notnecessary,therepresentations of thesetwo levels look thesame.21.In English anotherkind of questionsbeginning with awh-word are called whquestions such as theones below.22.Move a wh phrase tothe specifier positionunder CP.23.This general rule isreferred to as Moveα(α代表被移动的成分)简答题一.General linguistics:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
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Fourth
1.连词要连多少个成分是 没有限制的。 2.任何层次都可以并列。 3.词类必须一致，前面是 介词短语后面也必须是介 词短语。 4.并列短语的词类和其各 个部分的类型一致。
X→X *ConX X stand for ‘a category at any structural level’ indicating that either an X or an XP can be coordinated. * indicates that one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con(=conjunction) Explanation: This rule served to explain coordinate structures.
• Coordinated categories must be of the same type. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Four properties:
First
Second Third
• No limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction.
• A category at any level (a head or an entire XP)can be coordinated.
Coordiபைடு நூலகம்ation Rule
Coordinate structures:
The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction. Such as and ,or.