English Linguistic
英语语言学复习专题
英语语⾔学复习专题英语语⾔学复习专题A Review on English LinguisticsTiger ZhouSchool of Foreign Languages,Shanghai Dianji University⼀.Explain the following terms1.dualityDuality refers to the fact that language is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.At the lower level,there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves. At the higher level,there is a structure of meanings where the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning./doc/6b316456657d27284b73f242336c1eb91b37336b.html plementary distributionWhen two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments,then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.3.categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of familiar functions in a particular language such as sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.4.phrase structure ruleA certain word can only co-occur with certain other words.There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers,heads and complements occupy in phrase structure.Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.5.homonymyHomonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.6.displacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.7.minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.8.deep structureIt is the structure that is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties and that corresponds most closely to the meaningful grouping of words.9.contextIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.10.hyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.(The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate,and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.)⼆.Short AnswersChapter1Introduction2.What are the major branches of linguistics?What does each of them study?The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics:it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly,modem linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second,modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.Traditional grammarians,on the other hand,tended to emphasize,maybe over-emphasize,the importance of the written word,partly because of its permanence.from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?In modem linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?The main features of human language are termed design features.They include:a)ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.b)ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences,including sentences they have never heard before.c)DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning,which are found at the higher level of the system.d)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past,present,or future,or in far-away places.In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.This is what “displacement”means.e)Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity能⼒for language has a genetic basis,i.e.,we were all born with the ability to acquire language,the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learned.Chapter2Phonology2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,i.e.the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the finedetails as it is necessary for their purpose.The example is the consonant[p].We all know that[p]is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound[p]is pronounced with a strong puff of air,but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit,the[p]sound is said to be aspirated and in the case ofspit,the[p]sound is unaspirated.This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription,a small raised“h”is used to show aspiration,thus pit is transcribed as [p?it]and spit is transcribed as[spit].3.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowels may be distinguished as front,central,and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion,i.e. the openness of the mouth.Accordingly,we classify the vowels into four groups:close vowels, semi-close vowels,semi-open vowels,and open vowels.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels,i.e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels,with the exception of[a:],are rounded.Then theEnglish vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound.The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. 4. A.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate[?]2)voiceless labiodental fricative[f]3)voiced alveolar stop[d]4)front,close,short[?]5)back,semi-open,long[?:]6)voiceless bilabial stop[p]B.Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]voiceless alveolar stop2)[l]voiced alveolar liquid3)[?]voiceless palatal affricate4)[w]voiced bilabial glide5)[?]back,close,(rounded)short6)[?]front,open,(unrounded)short9.Explain with examples the sequential rule,the assimilation rule,and the deletion rule.Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English.For example,if a word begins with a[l]or a [r],then the next sound must be a vowel.That is why[lbik][lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by“copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes.When we speak,we tend to increase the ease of articulation.This“sloppy慵懒的;马虎的”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign,design,and paradigm,there is no[g]sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g.But in their corresponding formssignature,designation,and paradigmatic,the[g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as:Delete a[g]when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Given the rule,the phonemic representation of the stems in sign–signature,resign–resignation,paradigm–paradigmatic will include the phoneme/g/,which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10.What are suprasegmental features?How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone.The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.There are two kinds of stress:word stress and sentence stress.For example,a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun,to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English.When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter3Morphology1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a.micro+filmb.be+draggle+edc.announce+mentd.pre+digest+ione.tele+communicate+ionf.fore+fatherg.psycho+physics h.mechan+ist6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle(blacken)the inflectional affixes.a)The farmer’s cow s escap ed.b)It was rain ing.c)Those sock s are inexpensive.d)Jim need s the new er copy.e)The strong est rower continu ed.f)She quickly clos ed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.Chapter4Syntax1.What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements(i.e.specifiers,heads, and complements)that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP,VP,AP,and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...The general phrasal structural rule(X stands for the head N,V,A or P):The XP rule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)3.What is category?How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed,namely meaning, inflection and distribution.A word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4.What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Coordinate structures exhibits four important properties:a)There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.b)A category at any level(a head or an entire XP)can becoordinated.c)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.d)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of theelements being conjoined.6.What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure.The first,formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties,is called deep structure(or D-structure).The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations,is called surface structure(or S-structure).8.The following phrases include a head,a complement,and a specifier.Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.13.The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation.Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of thesesentences.a)Would you come tomorrow?b)What did Helen bring to the party?c)Who broke the window?Chapter5Semantics1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.So words are just names or labels for things.2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times.This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.,between language and the real world);rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation,use,context ––elements closely linked with language behavior.The representative of this approach was J.R. Firth,famous British linguist.4)Behaviorism attempts to define the meaning of a language form as the“situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory,somewhat close to contextualism,is linked with psychological interest.2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms,stylistic synonyms,emotive or evaluative synonyms,collocational synonyms,and semantically different synonyms.3.Explain with examples“homonymy”,“polysemy”,and“hyponymy”.1)Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.,different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.When two words are identical in sound,they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling,they are complete homonyms.2)While different words may have the same or similar meaning,the same one word may have more than one meaning.This is what we call polysemy,and such a word is called a polysemic word.There are many polysemic words in English,The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.3)Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word anda more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called itshyponyms.Hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion;in terms of meaning,the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.5.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:1)“T om’s wife is pregnant”presupposes“T om has a wife.”2)“My sister will soon be divorced”presupposes“My sister is a married woman.”3)“He likes seafood”is entailed by”He likes crabs.”4)“They are going to have another baby”presupposes“They have a child.”8.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:1)The man sells ice-cream.MAN,ICE-CREAM(SELL)2)Is the baby sleeping?BABY(SLEEP)3)It is snowing.(SNOW)4)The tree grows well.TREE(GROW)Chapter6Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study?How does it differ from traditional semantics?Generally speaking,pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context.It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process.In order to have a successful communication,the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention.The development and establishment of pragmatics in the1960s and1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of semantics.However,it is different from the traditional semantics.The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way,while semantics studies meaning in a static way.Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not.Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Various contents of shared knowledge have been identified,e.g.knowledge of the language they use,knowledge of what has been said before,knowledge about the world in general,knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place,and knowledge about each other.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the heater’s interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge,linguistic communication would not be possible,and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.Look at the following sentences:(1)How did it go?(2)It is cold in here.(3)It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.Sentence(1)might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination,or two surgeons talking about an operation,or in some other contexts;(2)might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater,or leave the place,or to put on more clothes,or to apologize for the poor condition of the room,depending on the situation of context;(3)makes sense only if the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related,and how do they differ?A sentence is a grammatical concept,and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract,intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered(or used).So it is impossible to tell if“The dog is barking”is a sentence or an utterance.It can be either.It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it.If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context,then we are treating it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore,while the meaning of a sentence is abstract,and decontextualized,that of anutterance is concrete,and context-dependent.The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.Now,take the sentence“My bag is heavy”as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG(BE HEAVY).Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered.For example,it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy.It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect,polite request,asking the hearer to help him carry the bag.Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “My bag is heavy”.How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences,some utterances do not,and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.5.According to Austin,what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance.Give an example.According to Austin’s new model,a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act,illocutionary act,and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases,clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention;it is the act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something;it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance;it is the act performed by saying something.Let’s look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words“you”,“have”,“door”,“open”,etc.,thus expressing what the words literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i.e.asking someone to close the door,or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance.If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door,the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to;then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.7.What is indirect language use?How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit,roundabout way,we can say he is using indirect language.8.What are the four maxims of the CP?Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature? Cooperative Principle,abbreviated as CP.It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific,there are four maxims under this general principle:1)The maxim of quantitya)Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).b)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2)The maxim of qualitya)Do not say what you believe to be false.b)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3)The maxim of relationa)Be relevant.4)The maxim of mannera)Avoid obscurity of expression.b)Avoid ambiguity.c)Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity).d)Be orderly.。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习
P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions
⑵Productivity
Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.
（4）Langueandparole语言和言语必考名解P4
TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.
Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.
《英语语言学》复习重点(1)
《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。
英语语言学笔记
英语语言学笔记最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！太平洋英语，免费体验全部外教一对一课程： What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users‟ knowledge of the rules of his langu age Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Characteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quo tation from Shakespeare‟s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
语言学学名词解释
1)Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific or systematic study of (human) language.word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, . English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general.word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”.word scientific refers to the way in whichlanguage is studied.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules,systems and principles of human languages. It deals with a wide range of linguistic phenomena,analyzes them,and makes general statements about them.2)Linguistics is always guided by the 3 canons of science:(e c e)exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statementeconomy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex. (e c e)3) The subject matter of linguistics is all natural language, living or dead.4) Linguistics has 2 main purposes:it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established.It examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human lifelinguistics differs from traditional grammar at least in 3 basic ways: Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. Linguists are interested in what is said. So they are often said to be descriptive. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary. It is believed that speech came into being first for any human language and the writing system came along much later. Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.For a student of language, some knowledge of linguistics is of both interest and importance.For a teacher of foreign languages, he will definitely a great deal from the knowledge of linguistics.For a researcher, there is even more scope for displaying his abilities.Why study linguistics1. Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, andfocus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields.2.It is an interdisciplinary subject.3.Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapiddevelopment, and it is “a pilot science”.What and how linguists study language1. nature of language (focus on language itself)2. nature of acquisition (focus on learners)3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers)The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows:.First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;.Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations;.And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.General linguistics: The study of language as a whole. It deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Microlinguistics（微观语言学）includes 6 branches, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself. Macrolinguistics （宏观语言学）studies language in use--- practical usage. macrolinguistics includes:Sociolinguistics studies the relations between language and society: how social factors influence the structure and use of language. Another name for sociolinguistics is the sociology of language.Psycholinguistics is the study of language and mind: the mental structures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension and production of language.Neurolinguistics or neurological linguistics is the study of language processing and language representation in the brain.Stylistics is the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. It usually refers to the study of written language, including literary texts, but it also investigates spoken language sometimes.Discourse analysis, or text linguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used.Computational linguistics is an approach to linguistics which employs mathematical techniques, often with the help of a computer.Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.Apart from the different branches of linguistics, there are some distinctions of linguistics, such as: functional linguistics vs formal linguistics; theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics.Applied linguistics is primarily concerned with the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which havearisen in other areas of experience.Phonetics（语音学）:Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. It is a pure science and examines speech sounds in general.Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds.Phonology（音系学/音位学）: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. It can be seen as the functional phonetics of a particular language.Morphology（形态学，词法学）:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemes.Syntax（句法学）:The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences.Syntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.Semantics(语义学） is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when they communicate with one another.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language.Language as system ---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles.Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain language.The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional. The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary.A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.Romeo and JulietThe relation between sound and meaning is almost always conventional《荀子·正名》：“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。
英语语言文学 英语
英语语言文学英语【释义】English language and literature英语语言文学【短语】1英语语言文学硕士学位English Language Studies - MA2英语语言文学硕士MA English Studies3英语语言文学文学学士BA English Language and Literature4英语语言文学干事English Language and Literature General5英语语言文学教育硕士English Language &Literature Teaching6英语语言文学方向English Language and Literature7英语语言文学博士English Language &Literature8英语语言文学师范教育English/Language Arts Teacher Education9英语语言文学及相关English Language and Literature/Letters, Other ; English h Language and Literature/Letters, Other【例句】1湖南师范大学英语语言文学硕士。
He graduated in English language and literature from London University. 2你学习英语语言文学的原因是什么？Why do you study English LITERATURE?3他毕业于伦敦大学英语语言文学专业。
He graduated in English language and literature from London University. 4本人现就读于扬州大学英语语言文学专业。
I am reading in the English linguistic and Literature department of Yangzhou University.5日本语语言文学和英语语言文学为省级重点学科。
Linguistic characteristics of standard English
Linguistic characteristics of standard English These notes were prepared by members of the joint Committee for Linguistics in Education (CLIE) to provide a statement by experts in the field of English sociolinguistics, as a basis for CLIE's work in education. We have tried to cover the complexities of what is involved in standard English (SE) in a form accessible to non-experts, but without addressing popular misconceptions, nor drawing pedagogical conclusions about how standard English should be taught. We hope that others will be able to use this statement in their own work on these important issues.BackgroundWhat does linguistics tell us about SE? SE plays a crucial role in our educational system as the kind of English that all children are expected to be able to use, in speaking as well as in writing, by the end of compulsory education. It is often mentioned in official documents such as the National Curriculum for England, but it is never defined, so teachers are left to interpret it as best they can. Linguistic and sociolinguistic scholarship (e.g. on processes of standardization, language variation and change) may usefully inform educational discussion of standard English (see bibliography).The present status of SE is the result of a historic process of standardization. This process started many centuries ago, and is still continuing as part of the ongoing development of English as a whole. Set against the process of standardization are other linguistic processes such as the maintenance of features of non-standard varieties and ongoing change within and across all varieties.In contemporary England and Wales there are now relatively few linguistic differences between standard and non-standard varieties of English, though SE can be combined with a wide range of different accents. The relationship between these varieties is, however, fairly complex, as we discuss below. The situation in Scotland and Northern Ireland is different again.What is standard English?Linguistic characteristics of standard EnglishSE is one variety of modern English, alongside a wide range of non-standard varieties. SE may be distinguished from non-standard varieties according to a relatively small number of linguistic features, exemplified in the following incomplete list:Almost all these differences consist of alternative ways of expressing the same meaning, and in almost every case the differences are linguistically trivial and show no communicative advantage either for standard or for non-standard. For example, the sentences He ain't done nothing and He hasn't done anything are different ways of expressing the same meaning, each of which follows a clear set of grammatical principles. It is not the case that non-standard shows worse logic or less care in speaking, any more than this would be true of (say) French. English and French are very different linguistic systems, and similarly, standard and non-standard varieties of English are slightly different linguistic systems.In discussing language variation, it is conventional to distinguish between dialects (varieties that differ in terms of pronunciation, grammar, lexis, semantics) and accents (varieties that differ just in terms of pronunciation). According to this distinction, SE is a dialect that may be spoken in a range of accents, including received pronunciation (RP) and regional accents. A distinction may also be made between standard/nonstandard varieties (based on the social and regional background of speakers) and registers, associated with particular contexts of use (e.g. the language of law, education, casual chat between friends). There is however a relationship between these different dimensions of variation, in that SE is commonly associated with more formal registers such as those of law and education though it also has a range of casual registers like any other dialect. While it is possible to identify some linguistic characteristics of standard and non-standard varieties of English, as in the list above, the relationship between these varieties is more complex than the list suggests:∙While some non-standard features are widespread (e.g. Nobody said nothing, He ran real quick), many are local so they vary from place to place (e.g. us forstandard our, as in We had us tea, found in Yorkshire, Central and EastLancashire and parts of the East Midlands)∙Equally important is the regional variation in SE, with small but recognisable differences even between England/Wales and Scotland (e.g. standard ScottishEnglish That mustn’t be true meaning the same as standard English English Thatmay not be true), not to mention the international variation discussed below.∙Differences within SE also occur because informal SE is different from formal writing (e.g. There's about ten people outside). Equally there are hyper-correctforms such as between you and I, which are hard to classify as either standard ornon-standard.∙Because differences between standard and nonstandard varieties are relatively small, there are also considerable overlaps between varieties.∙All varieties, including SE, change over time (e.g. the older Have you any children? is giving way to Have you got any children? or Do you have anychildren?).∙Individual speakers vary in the way they use language, and may also shift between varieties for stylistic effect.Varieties of language, therefore, do not exist as discrete, fixed, unified entities, and indeed ‘SE’ may be better regarded linguistically as an idealization.Geographical variation in standard and non-standard EnglishIn Scotland, a standard variety of English (Scottish Standard English) exists alongside a minority language, Scots. Both Scots and English have similar roots (as Germanic languages), which distinguishes them from Gaelic (a Celtic language). Scots shows some significant differences from Standard English in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar. Some examples of grammatical differences (taken from the SCOTS corpus, ) are presented below:Like the differences between Standard and non-standard varieties of English, the differences between Scots and English tend to cluster around particular aspects of grammar, such as negation, question formation, and the use of auxiliary verbs.The spread of English around the world, and contact between speakers of English and other typologically distinct languages, has resulted in the development of a wide variety of 'new Englishes'. Some of these new Englishes have developed standard and vernacular varieties of their own. For instance, in Indian English, there are some significant differences between standard and non-standard wh-question formation and embedded question formation. The standard form is identical to standard British English: What has she read?He was wondering what she has readHowever, vernacular Indian English uses different structures:What she has read?He was wondering what has she readContact with other languages may also mean that structural characteristics and lexical items of one language may be transferred into the English spoken in a given area. For instance, it has been suggested that the high degree of contact between English and Chinese in Singapore may be one reason for the prevalence of null-subject sentences in Singapore English, even in fairly formal circumstances. The following example (from Deterding 2007: 58) comes from an interview with a Chinese trainee teacher; the asterisks mark places where UK SE would require an overt subject:so in the end ... * didn't didn't try out the rides, so initially * want to to take theferris wheel ... but then ... the queue is very long and too expensive, so * didn't,didn't take any ... * spent about two hours there looking at the thingsIndeed, a fascinating aspect of English in such contact situations concerns the emergence of standard forms which don't correspond to the standard forms of other Englishes: what constitutes the standard is often negotiated at a fairly local level, so there is a range of standard Englishes across the world.Social characteristics of standard and non-standard English SE is often defined socially, rather than linguistically as a ‘language of wider communication’, i.e. a variety which is widely understood and used. This definition suggests a neutral medium that facilitates communication between people from different regional and social backgrounds. However, there is no evidence that it is in fact more widely understood than non-standard varieties, and indeed it is likely that accent is more of a barrier to understanding than dialect.Moreover, SE tends to be spoken at home by members of higher social classes (estimates put the number at not more than 15% of the population in Britain). The association of SE with social class and level of education is inconsistent with ideas of social neutrality and SE is sometimes seen more critically as a class dialect that serves to exclude rather than include other speakers. SE will have a range of associations for speakers – as neutral, educated, a language of social advancement, posh, exclusive, snobby. Such social meanings will affect how SE forms are taken up and used by speakers – something that needs to be taken into account in any attempt to teach SE.Most economically advanced nations have one or more official or national standardized languages which at least some children learn at school and which are used in public and formal situations. In many countries, however, non-standard dialects have much higher social status than in Britain; for instance, in German-speaking Switzerland and in most parts of the Arabic-speaking world everyone uses the local non-standard variety at home so the link to social class is absent. Such evidence shows that standard and non-standard dialects can co-exist in a complementary relation, without being seen as in competition. This ‘bi-dialectism’ is comparable with the bilingualism of many speakers of community languages in Britain. This seems a satisfactory and sustainable outcome, and, in spite of the proscriptive attitudes of previous generations, there is no reason to assume that SE has to replace non-standard varieties.Standard and non-standard English in educationSE and education are closely entwined, since education is the main channel for transmitting SE to speakers of other varieties and of teaching formal and written registers to all; and SE is the medium of most lessons and of the formal discourse of education. At one time there was a debate about whether schools should teach SE at all, and in particular about the need to teach spoken SE, but this debate has now been replaced by general agreement that schools should teach both written and spoken SE. (In practice, given the overlaps between varieties mentioned above, this would involve teaching, or drawing attention to, features that distinguish standard and non-standard forms.) CLIE sees no reason to disagree with this view.A similar consensus exists, at least on paper, about responses to non-standard forms. These are no longer described in educational circles as 'wrong' or as 'mistakes', but are recognised as linguistically equivalent to their standard alternatives: official publications contain few negative references to non-standard varieties. Indeed, it would be fair to say that official publications hardly mention non-standard varieties at all (and equally rarely try to define SE).This benign neglect is not enough to give non-standard varieties the status they should have as the varieties used by most school-children. The principle of 'starting where the child is' demands more serious attention, both in policy documents and in the classroom, to the varieties of English that most children know already. The arguments are familiar from the literature on community languages and English as an Additional Language; but they are rarely applied to non-standard varieties.CLIE therefore believes that local non-standard forms should be much more ‘visible’ in the curriculum. As the normal speech of most pupils, they should be the starting point both for learning about SE and for exploring general principles of language –‘Knowledge About Language’. We urge educationalists to devote more research to the question of how best to realise this principle.Paradoxically, therefore, we end a statement about the teaching of SE by focussing on the importance of teaching about non-standard varieties.References and further readingDeterding, David. 2007. Singapore English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hogg, Richard. 2000. The standardiz/sation of English. Paper presented to the Queen’s English Society.Kerswill, Paul. 2007. Standard and non-standard English. In D. Britain (ed.) Language in the British Isles (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 34-51. Trudgill, Peter. 1999. Standard English: What it isn’t. In Tony Bex & Richard J. Watts eds. Standard English: the widening debate. London: Routledge, 1999, 117-128 Williams, Ann. 2007. Non-standard English in education. In D. Britain (ed.) Language in the British Isles (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 401-416.Williams, Ann. 2008. Discourses about English: Class, codes and identities in Britain. In Marilyn Martin-Jones et al, (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education (2nd edition)Vol 3: Discourse and Education, Springer, 237-50.。
英语语言概论
1第一阶段基础测验单选 1.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true? C2第一阶段基础测验单选 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A3第一阶段基础测验单选 3. What is the most important function of language? C4第一阶段基础测验单选 4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A 5第一阶段基础测验单选 5.According to Chomsky,which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language? A6第一阶段基础测验单选 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, is n't it?" is B 7第一阶段基础测验多选 1. Which of the following statements about language is true?8第一阶段基础测验多选 2. Which of the following features is one of the design features of language?9第一阶段基础测验多选 3. What isn't the most important function of language?10第一阶段基础测验多选 4.Who put NOT forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?11第二阶段基础测验单选23. "Big" and "Small" are a pair of B opposites.12第二阶段基础测验单选24.According to C.Morris and R.Carnap,which is studies the relationship between symbols and their interpreters? C 13第二阶段基础测验单选9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? A14第二阶段基础测验单选25.There are B diesis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.15第二阶段基础测验单选10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language?B 16第二阶段基础测验单选 In the following conversation:- Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?- And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.The second person violates the C17第二阶段基础测验多选11. Minimal pairs are NOT used to B .18第二阶段基础测验多选27.The maxim of requires that a participant's contribution be relevant to the conversation. D19第二阶段基础测验多选 1. Language is NOT a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human 20第二阶段基础测验多选 2. Which of the following words is NOT entirely arbitrary?21第三阶段基础测验单选 3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100degrees Centigrade.” is22第三阶段基础测验单选ually,suprasegmental features include D ,length and pitch.23第三阶段基础测验单选 1. The sentence structure is ________.24第三阶段基础测验单选13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable? D25第三阶段基础测验单选 2. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.26第三阶段基础测验单选14.Which is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content? B27第三阶段基础测验多选 3. The ________rules are NOT the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.28第三阶段基础测验多选15.Which studies not the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed? A29第三阶段基础测验多选4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives.Which functions does not it perform?30第三阶段基础测验多选16. Lexeme is not B31第四阶段基础测验单选5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place,due to this feature of language,speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?32第四阶段基础测验单选17.Which of the following sounds does not belong to the allomorphs of the English plural morpheme ? C33第四阶段基础测验单选 6. Study the following dialogue.What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day,isn ’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.34第四阶段基础测验单选18. All words contain a A35第四阶段基础测验单选19. The relationship between "fruit" and "apple" is B36第四阶段基础测验单选6. __________is the act performed by or resulting from saying something;it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.37第四阶段基础测验多选7. __________not refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.38第四阶段基础测验多选4. A sentence is not considered ____when it does not conform to the grammati ¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.39第四阶段基础测验多选8. When a dog is barking,you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.It couldn ’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone.This indicates the design feature of __________.40第四阶段基础测验多选 5. A __________in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.41第五阶段基础测验单选9. __________answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.42第五阶段基础测验单选 6. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.43第五阶段基础测验单选7. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.44第五阶段基础测验单选10. __________deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.45第五阶段基础测验单选 1. Pitch variation is known as __________when its patterns are imposed on sentences.46第五阶段基础测验单选8. The head of the phrase “the city Rome ”is __________.47第五阶段基础测验多选 2. Conventionally a __________is NOT put in slashes (/ /).48第五阶段基础测验多选9. The phrase “on the shelf ”NOT belongs to __________ construction.49第五阶段基础测验多选 3. An aspirated p,an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are NOT __________ of the p phoneme.50第五阶段基础测验多选10. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.”is NOT a __________sentence.51第六阶段基础测验单选4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as52第六阶段基础测验单选8.Although_______are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features,they are rule-governed,like any human language.53第六阶段基础测验单选7. A____is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.54第六阶段基础测验单选5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as__________ diphthongs.55第六阶段基础测验单选 _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.56第六阶段基础测验单选6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds did not call__________.57第六阶段基础测验多选5. _________does not mean that certain authorities,such as the government choose,a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.58第六阶段基础测验多选7. Which does not branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?59第六阶段基础测验多选4. _______areNOT the major source of regional variation of language.60第六阶段基础测验多选 __________ is NOT speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.61第七阶段基础测验单选8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?62第七阶段基础测验单选The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.63第七阶段基础测验单选9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?64第七阶段基础测验单选_______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.65第七阶段基础测验单选10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?66第七阶段基础测验单选1.Nouns,verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.67第七阶段基础测验多选6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds did not call__________.68第七阶段基础测验多选The grammaticality of a sentence is NOT governed by _______.69第七阶段基础测验多选Words that are close in meaning areNOT called ______________.70第七阶段基础测验多选2.Morphemes that represent tense,number,gender and case are NOT called __________ morpheme.71第八阶段基础测验单选8. ___________refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.72第八阶段基础测验单选3.There are__________morphemes in the word denationalization.73第八阶段基础测验单选7. _________deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.74第八阶段基础测验单选 4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________. 75第八阶段基础测验单选“Alive” and “dead” are ______________.76第八阶段基础测验单选5. The three subtypes of affixes are:prefix,suffix and __________.77第八阶段基础测验多选5. ___________is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.78第八阶段基础测验多选6.__________is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.79第八阶段基础测验多选“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”80第八阶段基础测验多选7.The word TB is NOT formed in the way of__________.81第九阶段基础测验单选 3. Which of the following is NOT true?82第九阶段基础测验单选8.The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.83第九阶段基础测验单选“We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______84第九阶段基础测验单选9. The stem of disagreements is __________.85第九阶段基础测验单选 1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.86第九阶段基础测验单选10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.87第九阶段基础测验多选__________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.88第九阶段基础测验多选__________ Grammar is NOT the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.89第九阶段基础测验多选4. Generally speaking,the__________specifies whethera certain tagmeme is NOT in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.90第九阶段基础测验多选6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds did call__________.91第十阶段基础测验单选9. In normal situations,____speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their____counterparts with the same social background.92第十阶段基础测验单选10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.93第十阶段基础测验单选What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.94第十阶段基础测验单选The person who is often described as“father of modern linguistics” is __________..95第十阶段基础测验单选2. A sentence is a_________concept,and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.96第十阶段基础测验单选 The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.97第十阶段基础测验多选10.TG grammar has NOT seen__________stages of development.98第十阶段基础测验多选7. In Halliday’s view,the__________function is not the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.99第十阶段基础测验多选9. Chomsky does not follow__________in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.100第十阶段基础测验多选8. The rheme in the sentence“On it stood Jane”is not __________.Language is a system Animals also have languageSymbolic Dua ProductiveInterpersonal Phatic InformativeSaussure Chomsky . Hallidaycompetence parole performanceinformative phatic directiveLanguage is a system Language is symbolic Animals also have languageSymbolic. Dua ProductiveInterpersonal Phatic. InformativeSaussure Chomsky Halliday. complementary gradable completesyntax semantics pragmaticsPhonetics Phonology Semantics345 Phonetics Phonology SemanticsQuantity Maxim Quality Maxim Relation Maximfind the distinctive features of a language find the phonemes of a language compare two wordsquantity quality mannercontact communication relation. tree typewriter crash. interrogative directive informative phoneme speech sounds syllablesonly linear only hierarchical complexCoda Onset Stem. large small finite Word Morpheme Allomorphlexical morphological linguistic Morphology Syntax PhonologyInterpersonal EmotivePerformativea physically definable unit . the common factorunderlying a set of forms a grammatical uniTransferability Duality. Displacement. [s] [iz] [ai]Emotive Phatic Performative root morphemebound morphemeprefix homonymyhyponymypolysemyA locutionary act An illocutionary act. A perlocutionary actPerformanceCompetence Langue rightwronggrammaticalcultural transmission productivity displacementcoordinator particle prepositionPsycholinguistics .Anthropological linguistics Sociolinguisticsrecursivegrammaticalsocialhow words and phrases form sentences.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words how people produce and recognize possible sentencesLinguistic theory Practical linguistics Applied linguisticsintonation tone pronunciation the city Romecityallophone phone phoneme endocentric exocentri subordinate analogues tagmemesmorphemes simple coordinate. compound glottisvocal cavity. pharynxvernacular languages creoles pidginsingua franca register Creolewide closing narrowRegional variation Changes in emotions Variation in connotations minimal pairs allomorphs . phones Language interference . Language changes Language planningAcoustic phonetics Articulatory phonetics. Auditory phoneticsGeographical barriers Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechPhysical discomfort andpsychological resistance to changeRegional variation Language variation Social variation[n] [m] [ b ]. use of words use of structures accent[i:] [ u ] [e]Psycholinguistics . Sociolinguistics Applied linguistics Voiceless Voiced Glottal stop lexical words grammatical words function wordsminimal pairs allomorphs phonesgrammatical rules selectional restrictions semantic ruleshomonyms polysemies hyponymsnflectional free boundPolysemy Synonymy Homonymythree . four fiveReference . Concept Semanticsprefixes suffixes infixesgradable antonyms relational antonyms complementary antonyms derivational affix inflectional affix infixPredication analysis Componential analysis Phonemic analysisinsertion back-formation insertion is synonymous with is inconsistent with entailsacronymy clipping initialismSense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Sense is the collection of all thefeatures of the linguistic form.Sense is abstract anddecontextualized.. blending clipping back-formation the conceptualist viewcontexutalismthe naming theory agreement agree disagreePlato Bloomfield Geoffrey Leech lexeme phoneme morphemeStratificational Case Relational Traditional Structural FunctionalSlot Class Roleminimal pairs allomorphs phones. female; male . male; female old; youngslang euphemism jargon. reference speech act practical usage Firth Saussure Halliday pragmatic grammatical mentalfunction meaning signsthree four five. personal heuristic imaginativeempiricism . behaviorism relationalismOn it stood On it stood. Language is arbitrary C2 Arbitrary AMetalingual C2 Anonymous A22 langue Aperformative B2 . Language is arbitrary ABD33 Arbitrary BCDMetalingual ABC33 Anonymous BCDconverse B22 sociolinguistics C2 Pragmatics A36ACDPragmatics ACD33 Manner Maxim ABDfind the allophones of language B33 relation ABCcommunity B2 bang A22 performative C2 stress Dboth linear and hierarchical D2 Peak D2 infinite C22 Root B3 combinationa bcd3 Semantics bcd3 Recreational abc3 an indefinable unit acd2 Arbitrariness D2 [is] C2 Interpersonal Asuffix A2 synonymy B22 A performative act C3 Parole abc3 ungrammatical ABD3 duality ABC3 subordinator D2 Applied linguistics Afunctional D22 all of the above.D2 Comparative linguistics C2 voice Athe city Rome D2 morpheme ABD33 coordinate ACD3 allophones ABC3 complex BCD2 uvula A2 sociolects C2 national language A2 centering A2 Stylistic variation D2 allophones D3 Language transfer abd3 None of the above ACD3 Social barriers BCD3 Register variation BCD2 [p]A2 morphemes C2 [ i ]B2 General linguistics B2 Consonant B2 form words A3 allophones BCD3 semantic features BCD3 synonyms ABC3 derivational BCD2 Hyponymy C2 six C2 Sense Astems B2 . None of the above C22 None of the above B3 Grammatical analysis ACDaddition ACD3presupposes D3 blending ABD3 Sense is the aspect of meaningdictionary compilers are not interested in D2acronymy A2 behaviorism B2 disagreement D2 Firth A2 allomorph B2 Montague A3 Generative BCD3 Cohesion ABD3 allophones ABC3 young; old A2 taboo D2 context D2 Chomsky C2 conceptual B2 system A2 six abd3 informative ACD3 mentalism ABD3 Jane ABC3。
关于方言对英语语音影响的研究文献
关于方言对英语语音影响的研究文献
方言对英语语音的影响是学术界研究的一个重要课题。
以下是一些关于方言对英语语音影响的研究文献:
1. "The Influence of 方言 on English Pronunciation"(2006):该论文由英国牛津大学的研究人员撰写，研究了不同地区英语发音的差异。
论文指出，方言会影响英语发音的纯正度，特别是在元音和辅音方面。
2. "Dialect and English Grammar"(1991):该论文由英国剑桥大学的研究人员撰写，研究了方言对英语语法的影响。
论文指出，方言会影响英语的句型结构和语言表达方式。
3. "The Role of dialects in English Learning"(2001):该论文由加拿大多伦多大学的研究人员撰写，研究了方言对英语学习者的影响。
论文指出，方言会影响英语学习者的听力和发音能力，从而影响他们的英语学习。
4. "Dialectical Variation and English Linguistic Diversity"(2012):该论文由美国加州大学洛杉矶分校的研究人员撰写，研究了方言对英语语言学多样性的影响。
论文指出，方言会影响英语的发音、语法和句型结构等方面，同时也会影响英语语言学的研究。
这些研究文献表明，方言对英语语音和语法的影响是显著的，同时也有助于理解不同地区的英语发音差异。
英语语言学导论
Course Name:Introduction to LinguisticsSept. 2012, for Grade 2010 Classes 1-6English Undergraduate ProgramDepartment of EnglishSchool of Foreign Language StudiesNanchang University (NCU)Course Instructor: Prof./Dr. JIANGSyllabusCourse Description:This course aims at providing undergraduate juniors of English major with a fundamental and systematic account of the basic knowledge of the studies of linguistics at the modern time with explanations, illustrations, and necessary examples from the course book and also from present English and Chinese language uses, to help develop the students’ interest in this study, to facilitate their understanding of the linguistic terms and theories, and to build a systematic knowledge of the said study.Major Books Used for this Course:1)Hu, Zhuanglin 2006.Linguistics. A Course Book (Third Edition). BeijingUniversity Press, used as students’ course book.2) Robins, R. H. 1967/1997. A Short History of Linguistics (4th edn). London, NewY ork: Longman.4) Yule, George. 2000. The Study of Language.Beijing: Foreign Language Teachingand Research Press.5) Keith Brown et al. (eds.) 2006. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd edn),Oxford: Elsevier.6) Collinge, N. E. (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopaedia of Language. London, New Y ork:Routledge.7) Strazny, Philipp (ed.) 2005. An Encyclopedia of Linguistics.New Y ork, Oxon:Fitzroy Dearborn.8) Wikipedia. /9) Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. the electronic edition can be accessible on theinternet.Course Requirements:1)Attentive listening, active participation, quick note-taking and understanding,nice presentation in class and all the related activities2)Complete preview, in-class and after-class assignments3)Pass the final examinationCourse Schedule:1)General Introduction2)Chapter 1—Design features, origin, and functions of language3)Chapter 1 — Main branches, macro-linguistics, and important distinctionsin linguistics4)Chapter 2—Phonetic studies5)Chapter 2—Phonological studies6)Chapter 3—W ord and Formation7)Chapter 3—W ord/lexical changes8)Chapter 4—Syntactic relation, construction, and function9)Chapter 4—Grammatical categories, phrasing and beyond10)Chapter 5—Meaning and sense relation11)Chapter 5—Meaning analyses12)Chapter 8—Pragmatics (1)13)Chapter 8—Pragmatics (2) --Post-Gricean developments14)Chapter 11—Linguistics and foreign language teaching15)SummaryLecture 1General Introduction:Modern Linguistics and Earlier Linguistic StudiesIn this lecture, we shall make a general introduction to the development of modern linguistics and the linguistic studies before that. The students will get a general view/picture of the developments, the main linguistic schools, and their studies through attending this lecture.0.Leading in: What does your mind do most of the time? Or what do you do most ofthe time in your life including the dreaming time when you sleep? What is your major? What is English? Language is what you use most of the time in your life and is also your major. Since you are language majors, very likely you will use it for your future work. Why not learn about it then? What is language? What does it cover? …These are the questions for linguistics.1.The beginning of MODERN linguistics: 1916—(Q1. When did modern linguistics begin?)1) The first modern linguistic approacha. The ―father of modern linguistics‖-- Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔(1857-1913)(Q2. Who was the father of modern linguistics?)b. The first modern linguistic book ―A Course on General Linguistics‖(1916).《普通语言学教程》Saussure’s two students pieced their notes takenfrom attending their teacher’s lectures and got it published in 1916/Englishversion in 1959.(Q3. What was the first modern linguistic book?)(Q4. Who published it?)2) Why is it ―modern‖?Because of the scientific views and the researchmethods introduced in this book. Eg. Language is a system of signs.Language has a sound system and a meaning system. Language has associative relation and paradigmatic relation.(Q5. In what sense is it called a ―modern‖ linguistic book?)2.What happened before Saussure?Some traditional approaches to language—there are three successive phases before Saussure’s time(Q6. Who were the earliest scholars of language? What did they study?)1) The Greek researchers and their studies--―Traditional Grammar‖ wasinstituted;Based on logic;Aiming solely at providing rules;Distinguishing correct from incorrect forms;Classic study, philosophical, logical, meaning.(Q7. What were studied about language during the Middle Ages?)2) The researches during the Middle Ages--PhilosophyAlexandria, the ―philosophical‖ school, religious, literary, linguistic;Linguistic structure is not the central concern, but meaning is;Seeking primarily to establish, interpret and comment upon texts;Applying the method of criticism;Comparison of texts of different periods and of different writers;Data—written language, exclusively Greek & Roman antiquityPrescriptive grammar;Paved the way for historical linguistics.(Q8. What were the two establishments in the 19th century?)3) Linguistic researches during 1800-1900--―Comparative grammar‖a. The establishment of linguistic family trees—The Indo-European Family Tree印欧语系The Sino-Tibetan Family Tree 汉藏语系, etc*In 1816, ―The Sanskrit Conjugation(动词变位) System‖ by Franz Bopp was a study of the connections between Sanskrit（梵文）, Germanic, Greek, Latin, andother European languages. The primitive elements that Sanskrit maintained are vital for the purposes of reconstruction of Indo-European language family.b. The establishment of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标and the publication in 1888, based on French teachers’ practice of teachingLatin and some other related languages.Later representatives—Max Müller, G. Curtius, A. Schleicher;Historical and comparative, etymological (语源学的);Comparativist school was the dominating study of the time.3. What does modern linguistics cover?1) Saussure and his study: the first structuralist approach2) Prague School布拉格学派The leading figure—V. Mathesius马泰休斯(1882-1946);Flourished during 1920s-30s;Mainstream structuralism; synchronic;Approach language structurally and functionally —form-functionalapproach;Followed both Polish B. de Courtenay (库尔特内) and Swiss F. de Saussure;First functionalist;Founded the International Functional Linguistic Association 1976;Distinguished contributions:a) Established the theory of phonology; distinguished between phoneticsand phonology; developed phonology as an independent study in 1939;b) Mathesius’ functional analysis of sentence components—very close tothe present division of given/new or theme/rheme, functional syntacticanalysis.3) American Structuralism/ Also called descriptive linguistics 美国结构主义/美国描写语言学Developed independently from the anthropological studies by Americanscholars such as Boas, Sapir, etc.；The representative figure—Leonard Bloomfield布龙菲尔德(1887-1946),his Language《语言论》(1933)；Flourished during 1930s-1950s；Structural and behavioral；Major focus—syntactic analysis；Contribution—IC analysis (immediate constituent analysis)4) The Chomskian approachThe leading figure—Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基(1928--);Influential during 1960s-1980s;Formal approach, deep structure/surface structure; NP VP;Psychological; we were born with LAD (language acquisition device);Innateness;Major focus—syntax;Contributions— a. Phrase Structure Theory;b. Transformational-Generative Grammar.5) London School 伦敦学派Leading figures:a. Malinowsky马林诺夫斯基(1884-1942) — anthropologist;b. Firth 弗斯(1890-1960) the 1st professor of General Linguistics in GreatBritain;c. M. A. K. Halliday韩礼德(1925-- ) Systemic-Functional Grammar;Influential from the 1980s;Functional approach and anthropological;Major focus—meaning in society and functional grammar;Contribution — functional analysis6) Cognitive Linguistics: a new perspective on how language is used; how weview the world and express it in language; how language tells different cognition of the same world in which human beings live.Leading figures: R. Langacker兰盖克; G. Lakoff 拉可夫;M. A. K. Halliday (partly);N. Chomsky (partly)7) Computational Linguistics: a branch of linguistics about how to teachcomputer to receive, comprehend, produce and translate natural languages. It reflects human ambition.4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview 1.1--1.5 of Chapter 1.3) What is language defined by different people? What is linguistics? How does asound come to have meaning?Lecture 2Design Features, Origin and Functions of LanguageIn this section, we shall mainly discuss some important features and functions of language. As widely discussed, there are four features and seven main functions.(Q9. What is linguistics? p14.What is language?p3.)0.Check students’ homework orally in class; ask them to give some presentation;offer them some different definitions (cf. Essentials of Linguistics pp.1 & 14);underline the key words in the definitions; explain them one by one with examples from English and Chinese to facilitate their understanding and memorizing.1) ―Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. ---It is a system since linguistic elements are arranged systematically rather than randomly. It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. It is symbolic because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. It is vocal because sound or speech is the primary medium for a human language. It is human in that no other animals possess such language.‖2) ―Modern linguistics is the scientific study of language. ---It studies the rules and principles whereupon human languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication. ‖(Q10. What is a design feature of language?)(Q11. How many design features are there and what are they?)1. 4 Design features of languageThe features that define human languages are called design features. (p3) (Q12. What is arbitrariness?)1)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no natural relationship between meaningand form, as well as meaning and sound of a language.Eg 1. fish (in English)le poisson (in French)鱼(in Chinese)*The above words and sounds all mean the same and all refer to the same kind of animal living in water, yet they take different forms.Eg 2. eat (in English)manger (in French)吃(in Chinese)(Q13. What is duality?)2)Duality 双重性Word is a combination of sound and meaning. Language has alevel of sounds/ a sound system and a level of meaning/ meaning system.Or: language has two systems—sound system and meaning system.(Q14. What is creativity?)3)Creativity 创造性(productivity 能产性in other linguistic books)a.W e can create new words;b.W e can create endless new sentences with limited number of words.(Q15. What is displacement?)4)Displacement 不受时空限制性a.One can refer to someone/sth. in the past, at the present or in thefuture;b.One can refer to someone/sth in another place or in another world,real or imagined.(Q16. What is convention?)*Convention 约定俗成is a community’s or society’s acceptance, use, and carrying on of a certain sound or form for a meaning.2. Origin of Language(Q17. How did language possibly begin?)1) Language is the very thing that makes us human.2) William C. Stokoe’s interpretation of language origin: language may have begunwith gestural expressions.Instrumental manual actions may have been transformed into symbolic gestures, and vision would have been the key of language evolution.(Q18. What is the possible relationship between language and gesture?)3) The relationship between language and gesture—whether it is one of unity orduality. Should we consider gesture and language as different and independent phenomena?A unity for language and gesture is a more reasonable understanding (Adam Kendon, in McNeill 2000).*Our knowledge and understanding of the nature of language and other related types of communication is limited and calls for ceaseless exploratory endeavor.(Q19. How many functions are there of human language? What are they?)(Q20. What is informative function?)3. 7 Functions of language1) Informative function: 信息功能(also understood as ideational function)Language is used to note down, to carry, and to pass information.(Q21. What is interpersonal function?)2) Interpersonal function: 人际功能Language is used for human communication/for communication amongpeople. It is used to establish and maintain people’s status in society/ orestablish and maintain social rules.(Q22. What is performative function?)3) Performative function: 行事功能W e can use language/words to do things.a. W e can use it to make others do something;b. W e do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something.(Q23. What is emotive function?)4) Emotive function: 情感功能(expressive function in other books)Language can be used to express feelings or emotions.Egs. ―My God.‖―Alas!‖―Ouch!‖―Damn it!‖―Wow.‖(Q24. What is phatic function?)5)Phatic [\feitik] function: 酬应功能Language can be used to indicate or to maintain relationship.This function originated fro m Malinowski’s study of the functions oflanguage.Egs. ―Good morning.‖―God bless you.‖―I’m sorry to hear it.‖―Good day.‖ ―Hello!‖ ―Good-bye.‖(Q25. What is recreational function?)6)Recreational function: 娱乐功能Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation.Egs. Jokes,Chinese cross talk,songs and lyrics,poetry in general(Q26. What is metalingual function?)7)Metalingual function: 元语言功能Language can be used to talk about itself.Eg. ―book‖ is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…*What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function--touse language to explain language.4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview sections 1.7 -- 1.9 of Chapter 1. Write about differences andsimilarities between phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax, semantics and pragmatics, and hand in this homework next time.Lecture 3Main Branches, Interdisciplinary Branches and Important Distinctions0.Collect homeworkAn oral check of the questions discussed last time.(Q27. How many main branches of linguistics are there? What are they?)(Q28. What is phonetics?)1. 6 Main branches of linguistics1)Phonetics: 语音学The study of speech sounds. It studies and describes any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not.Eg. three ―p‖sound s are noted in ―speak‖(un-aspirated不送气, as [p=]), ―peak‖(aspirated送气, as indicated by the diacritic h in [p h]), and ―deep‖(the neutral one [p]).(Q29. What is phonology?)2)Phonology: 音位学/音系学The study of the sound system of language--of the minimal/smallest meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three ―p‖s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of one meaningful phoneme.*Y et, in ―tip‖ and ―sip‖, or ―tip‖ ―dip‖ the change of ―t‖ to ―s‖ or ―t‖ to ―d‖ brings about another word. T herefore, ―t‖ and ―s‖ are two independent phonemes.(Q30. What is morphology?)3)Morphology:形态学The study of the internal structure of words or of the formation of words.Prefix, suffix, root all help to form words.Eg. ab | norm | alfriend | lyglob | al | iz | ationdialogue, monologue, onomatopoeicinternationalism, localization(Q31. What is syntax?)4)Syntax:句法学The study of the structure/formation of sentence.Eg. I speak French.traditional analysis: Chomsky’s analysis:S Pr O SNP VPV NP(Q32. What is semantics?)5)Semantics: 语义学The study of meaning.a.meaning of words and their relations;b.meaning of sentences/ or: sentence meaning.Eg1. flower ( a super-ordinate word)rose lily tulip daffodil (hyperboles)Eg2. buy/purchase; begin/commenceEg3. in/out; give/take(Q33. What is pragmatics?)6)Pragmatics: 语用学The study of meaning in context, or meaning in use.How can people understand the following utterances correctly? Pragmatics tries to explain how and why people get the inference/implied meaning ofutterances other than the superficial/literal meaning expressed by the words.Eg1. A: How do you think of my new dress?B: The one you wore last week is really beautiful.2. A: Shall we go to the cinema?B: I have to complete the homework.3. Butterflies in one’s stomach.4. Apple in one’s eye.5. John is a lion. Queen Victoria was made of iron.(Q34. What is macrolinguistics or interdisciplinary linguistics?)2.Macrolinguistics宏观语言学It is the interdisciplinary(跨学科/跨专业) studies of linguistics, the study of language involving other fields.(Q35. What is psycholinguistics?)1)Psycholinguistics心理语言学: it is the study of the interrelation betweenlanguage and mind(语言与心智), about how language is produced, understood, and acquired/learned.(Q36. What is sociolinguistics?)2)Sociolinguistics社会语言学: it is the study of the characteristics oflanguage varieties, language functions and language speakers within a speech community/society.(Q37. What is anthropological linguistics?)3)Anthropological linguistics人类语言学:it is the study of the unwrittenlanguage, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages over thousands of years through human development.(Q38. What is computational linguistics?)4)Computational linguistics计算（机）语言学: it studies the use of computersto process or produce human language, including machine translation, computer-aided teaching, corpus(语料库), information retrieval(信息提取), and artificial intelligence, etc.3. 4 Important distinctions in linguistics(Q39. What is the distinction between descriptive and prescriptive?)1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive study: 描写性/规定性The former describes how things are; the latter prescribes how thingsought to be.*The 18th century grammar books are mainly prescriptive and the modern onesare mainly descriptive.(Q40. What is the distinction between synchronic and diachronic?)2)Synchronic vs. diachronic: 共时性/历时性The former describes phenomenon of language of a certain/single period;the latter describes language by analyzing its development throughdifferent period of time.Egs: 1) the study of the development of the Chinese ―ba-construction‖;2) the development of the sound“阿”from ―[e]‖ to ―[a]‖;3) meaning changes of words (“小姐”,“老板”, ―girl‖, ―bird‖ etc).(Q41. What is the distinction between langue and parole?)3)Langue & parole: 语言/言语The former refers to the abstract innate system of language; thelatter—the outcome (words and sentences) or what we actually utter/write.(Q42. What is the distinction between competence and performance?)4)Competence & performance: 语言能力/语言使用（或语言行为）The former refers to one’s knowledge or ability of a language; the latterthe use of it.[*The difference between pairs 3) and 4) above: Langue & parole are a pairof notions distinguishing rules and production by people following the ruleswhile competence & performance are a pair of notions focusing on languageuser’s power and the performing of it.]4.Homework: 1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Preview 2.1 & 2.23) What is ―fanqie‖反切? How to use it? What is 注音字母？Howdid it occur? How to use it? When and how did ―pinyin‖拼音begin?And the significance of its occurrence?Lecture 4PhoneticsIn this section, we shall start a new chapter—discussing speech sounds. The students will learn about 1）the main areas of the study；2）the speech organs；3）the manners and places of sound production; and 4）the description of consonants and vowels of English.0.Check students’ homework in class(Q43. What are the three branches of phonetics?)1.Three main areas of phonetics1) Articulatory Phonetics发声语音学--the study of sound production2) Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学--the study of physical properties of sounds3) Auditory Phonetics听觉语音学--the study of how sounds are perceived and understood(Q44. What organs do we use in producing speech sounds?)2. Vocal organs and sound notation1) Speech organs/ vocal (of voice) organs●Lung, trachea (wind pipe), throat, nose, mouth●Tongue, palate (腭roof of the mouth)●pharynx咽, larynx喉●vocal folds (vocal cords)声带, vocal tract 声道●oral cavity, nasal cavity 口腔，鼻腔(Q45. What is a coronal, a dorsal, a radical sound? p25. What is a voiceless sound, a voiced sound? p27.)*In phonetics, the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root. In phonology, the sound made with the tip and blade is referred to as a coronal sound, with front and back as a dorsal sound, with root as a radical sound.*When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is a voiceless sound. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other the resultant sound is voiced.(Q46. What is sound/phonetic notation/transcription? What’s the principle for establishing the IPA?)2) Phonetic transcription/sound notation语音标示/音标●The use of sets of symbols for transcribing speech sounds or torepresent language sounds.●The main principles were that there should be a separate letter foreach distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be usedfor that sound in any language in which it appears.●International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), developed first by a group ofFrench language teachers based on their teaching experience around1930s.●Danish grammarian Otto Jesperson 叶斯柏生(1860-1943) formallyproposed it in 1886.●The first publication was in 1888.●Revised and corrected several times afterwards, widely used indictionaries and textbooks.●The very recent version came out in 2008.(Q47. What is a pulmonic sound, a non-pulmonic sound? p29)*Pulmonic sounds are produced by pushing air out of the lung, as in mostcircumstances, while non-pulmonic sounds are produced by either suckingair into the mouth or closing the glottis and manipulating the air betweenthe glottis and a place of articulation.(Q48. What are the manners of articulation? )3. Manner and place of sound production1) Manner of articulation● 1. stop/ plosive塞音/爆破音● 2. nasal 鼻音● 3. fricative 摩擦音● 4. approximant 延续音/畅音● 5. lateral 边音● 6. trill颤音●7. tap and flap触音/闪音eg. better, letter, city, pretty, bottom, button●8. affricate 塞擦音*Find examples for them from English.(Q49. What are the places of articulation? Give examples for each.)2) Place of articulation:● 1. Bilabial 双唇[b] [p] [m][w]● 2. Labio-dental唇齿[f] [v]● 3. Dental 齿[θ][δ]● 4. Alveolar 齿龈[t][d][n][s] [z][l][r]● 5. Postal velar后齿龈[∫] [з][t∫] [dз]egs. chew, true, child, tried, choose, truth, joke, drove, jam, drum● 6. Retroflex卷舌[r]●7. Palatal 颚[j]●8. Velar 软颚[k] [g] [η] eg. English, ink●9. Uvular 小舌[r] in French●10. Pharyngeal咽头Glottal 声门[?] egs. fat[f æ?t], pack[p æ? k], beaten[bi:?n], lantern, button[h] egs. glottal fricative: home, hold, hand, hat4. English speech sounds(Q50. How to describe a consonant sound of English?)1) English consonants (24 symbols according to recent revision)2) The description of consonants usually involves the place and the manner and is made with a sequence of a) the place of articulation; b) the manner.Eg 1. bilabial stop—where bilabial is the place and stop is the manner. [p] [b]Eg 2. bilabial nasal [m]Eg 3. bilabial approximant [w]*Notice: whenever there are two members in the same box in the table above,a third distinction –voice-- is needed and is mentioned in the first place:Eg 4. [p] a voiceless bilabial stop[b] a voiced bilabial stopEg 5. a voiceless labial-dental fricative [f]a voiced labial-dental fricative [v]3) English vowels (20 symbols according to recent revision)front central backhigh i: u:I umid-highз: əo:mid-low e٨ Dlow æ α:(Q51. How to describe a vowel sound of English? p37.)4) The description of English vowels is made in terms of 4 aspects:(1) the height of the tongue (high, mid, low)—tongue height(2) the position of the higher part of the tongue (front, central, back)—tongueposition(3) the length or tenseness of the sound (tense vs. lax, or long vs. short)(4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. un-rounded)Egs. [i:] high front tense un-rounded vowel[I] high front lax un-rounded vowel[α:]low back tense un-rounded[æ]low front un-rounded[ə]mid central un-rounded4. Homework:1) Go over the questions discussed.2) Find how many mistakes you make in your pronunciation of the 44 basicsounds of English. What are they and why do they occur?3) Hand in next time: What is Mandarin Chinese? How many dialects has it? Whatis the difference between language branch(语族), language, and dialect? What is a dialectic island and the significance of its existence?Lecture 5Phonological analysis0. Collect homework and check the other two parts of the homework orally inclass by asking individual students.(Q52. What is co-articulation? What is anticipatory co-articulation and perseverative co-articulation? p38.)1. Co-articulation and different transcriptions1) Co-articulation协同发音Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)Eg. ―map‖ where [æ] is influenced by [m], making it a bit nasalized.―lamb‖ where [æ] becomes more like the following sound [m].*If a sound becomes more like the following sound, it is anticipatoryco-articulation. If a sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it isperseverative co-articulation.(Q53. What is nasalization? p38.)* When a non-nasal sound carries some feature of a neighboring nasal sound,this phenomenon is called nasalization.(Q54. What is narrow/broad transcription?)2) Narrow/broad transcription: 严式标音/宽式标音The former intends to symbolize all the possible speech sounds while the latter indicates only those capable of distinguishing one word from another.Egs. 1）[p=] [p h] [p] for variations of sounds in ―speak‖ ―peak‖―deep‖2）[p] for all of them(Q55. What is a phone, a phoneme, and an allophone?)2. Phonology—some basic concepts1) Phone, phoneme, and allophone●Phone 音素—a phonetic unit or segment. Any smallest speech soundwe hear and produce.Eg. [pit] [tip] [spit] we can identify three different /p/s;It is what ―n arrow transcription‖ describes;It may or may not distinguish meaning.●Phoneme音位—a phonological unit. It has distinctive value; anabstract unit in the sound system that has no particular sound;represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Eg. /p/ is realized differently in [pit] [tip] [spi:k]./æ/is realized by an un-nasalized [æ]and a nasalized [æ].。
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料一：名词解释1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them. 19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before othermorphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.二：简答题1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it issaid to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准)To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.三：问题回答1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。
88个英语语言学、语言论文题目选题参考
88个英语语言学、语言论文题目选题参考1、把握英文演讲中的“演”技2、Study on Non-verbal Language in Communication3、A Talk on Figures of Speech in English Writing4、A study of the causes of Chinglish in writing5、Lexical Features of Advertising English.6、On the Function of Intonation.7、Major Differences between Spoken Discourse and Written Discourse8、广告英语语言特色的分析与研究英汉文化道歉语比较研究9、美国俚语社会语言学研究10、委婉语的社会语言学研究11、从语用角度谈英语委婉语12、报刊英语的语用特色从心理特征看言语委婉的根源13、礼貌的文化内涵和中西会话语用结构对比分析14、论言语模糊及其语用效果15、网络发展中的英语进化Change in English in the Development of Internet16、英式英语和美式英语的差异和将来的发展趋势On British English and America English （differences; the tendency of future development）17、语言学某一领域的研究如词汇研究18、英语习语与历史发展English Idioms and History19、英语习语与文化艺术（English Idioms and Art ）20、英汉共同的委婉语手段（The Similarities of Euphemism in Chinese and English）21、英汉广告中修辞格的使用特色The Use of the figures of speech in Chinese and English advertisements22、广告英语的词汇特色研究 A study of the lexical features of advertising English23、双关的妙用On the magic functions of pun24、On the Ambiguity of English Language 论英语语言的歧义现象25、现代英语词汇迅速发展的源泉26、网络英语的词汇类型及其特点27、广告英语的词汇特点28、英语教学中词汇的处理29、英语词汇意义的特点与词汇教学30、论中英文中动物词汇的文化差异31、英汉文化内涵在动物词汇上的体现32、试论篇章词汇衔接的语义基础33、英汉词汇文化内涵探析34、女性相关词汇及其文化内涵35、动物词汇的应用及其隐喻性的探索36、就词汇空缺谈旅游英语翻译技巧37、汉英语姓名文化对比研究38、英语颜色词的词义及文化对比研究39、论提高大学英语词汇教学40、浅析词汇的记忆与词的形态理据之问的关系41、试析英语中的歧义现象42、大学英语词汇教学的有效方法43、英语词汇教学新探44、英语词汇的联想与搭配探析45、英汉词汇比较中文化内涵的展现46、Influence of Chinese Cultural Circumstances on English Learning汉语环境对英语学习的影响47、Social Psychological Factors and Their Influence on ESL社会心理因素和他们对英语学习的影响。
linguistics语言学
What is linguistics? the science of language the scientific study of language more design features cultural transmission mutual interchangeability
Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. Children learn their mother tongue in very different environments. But they follow more or less the same stages in acquisition: the babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-word utterance, developing grammar, nearadult grammar, and full competence.
Displacement
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement gives human the power to handle generalizations and abstraction. Displacement make it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms. e.g. Non-things: beauty and truth
英语语言学English Linguistic
Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学 descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质) 1. language is a system 2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue 1.language is a systemthe speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1. Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2. Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3. Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留 下 文 字 记录Language is arbitrary Language is creativeLanguage is double-structured Language is changeableLanguage is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speechsound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to?---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite numberof sentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools) Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic,langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫V owels ：is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。
Chinese and English Linguistic Taboo
中英文禁忌语言的对比研究A Comparative Study on Chinese and English Linguistic Taboo内容摘要语言是人们在活动过程中产生和发展起来的一种社交工具，其功能就是沟通信息，但在特定的语言行为中，却被赋予了它自身所没有的超人的感觉和超人的力量。
社会成员竟认为语言本身能给人类带来某种吉祥或不幸，人为地设置了种种语言禁区。
他们相信谁要是违背这些语言禁忌，谁就会受到应有的惩罚。
反之，谁要是忠实遵循了语言禁忌的约束，谁就会得到相应的庇护和保佑。
语言禁忌存在的历史悠久，它不仅存在于原始社会的迷信时期，还存在于男性主宰的封建时期，也存在于现代人们生活的各个方面，是一种普遍存在的社会现象。
在汉英两种语言中，有些忌讳是一致的。
中英语言禁忌在语音层面、词汇方面具有相似性。
但是由于汉英民族文化背景、意识形态、价值观念等的不同，中英语言禁忌的内容和形式也有一些差异，因此中英语言禁忌在私人话题、数字及命名称谓的方面具有差异性。
这些异同往往会给跨文化交际带来一些障碍，为此，有效避免使用禁忌语的方法主要是使用委婉语代替禁忌语，并充分了解异国的文化背景。
研究禁忌语言能帮助英语学习者加深英汉两种语言和文化的理解，提高跨文化交际能力，避免交际失败，达到理想的交际效果。
关键词：语言禁忌；对比研究；委婉语AbstractLanguage, as the carrier of culture, is created during the process of human beings’ productive labor and serves as the tool of communication to convey the message between people. However, it has been endowed with magic and power in particular language acts. As the old saying goes, troubles come out of the tongue. Superstitious people think that the language itself can bring about fortune or misfortune, therefore the restriction of the use of taboo language are created. Anyone who violates them will get punishment, whereas those who faithfully obey the restrictions of taboo language will get protection.Taboo language has a long history. It existed in primitive superstitious times, feudal patriarchal times, but also exists almost every aspect of people's life in modern times. And it is a universal social phenomenon in China and Britain. Both Chinese and English cultures are in agreement about linguistic taboos such as pronunciation taboo, and vocabulary taboo. However, influenced by different cultural backgrounds, ideologies and the concepts of value, Chinese and English linguistic taboos also have differences in the aspects of taboo subjects, taboo numbers, names and literature. These similarities will often bring some obstacles to cross-cultural communication. There are two effective ways of avoiding taboo, that is, using euphemism and having a good knowledge of the taboo culture. It can help English learners improve their ability of cross-cultural communication and achieve better communicational effects.Key Words：linguistic taboo; comparative study; euphemismContentsIntroduction (4)1. The Existence of Linguistic Taboo (5)1.1 The Old Times (6)1.2 The Modern Times (8)2. The Similarities between Chinese and English Linguistic Taboo (9)2.1 Pronunciation (10)2.2 Vocabulary (11)2.2.1 Inelegance (12)2.2.2 Discrimination (14)2.2.3 Terms Concerning Disease, Death and Physical Disability (16)2.2.4 Terms Concerning Parts or Excretion of the Body (17)3. The Differences between Chinese and English Linguistic Taboo (18)3.1 Subjects (18)3.2 Numbers (19)3.3 Names (20)4. Ways of Avoiding Linguistic Taboo (21)4.1 Using Euphemisms (21)4.2 Having a Good Knowledge of the Taboo Culture (22)Conclusion (24)Notes (25)References (26)IntroductionTaboo language has a long history. Because many unconvients have brought by it and many people can’t stand up for it in daily life. So people study it generation by generation no matter in abroad or domestic. Long before people had studied which situation that language taboo existed, but it is far away to enough. It is manifested in language: persons, things and activities that are taboo should not be talked about or should be mentioned in a roundabout way in language. Words and expressions related to these social taboos are linguistic taboos. ” The above definition shows that linguistic taboo, as an integral part of language, is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a social phenomenon.Like other parts of language, the origin of linguistic taboo is deeply rooted in the primitive social and cultural background and its change is greatly influenced by the development of human society in order to satisfy human beings' needs for smooth communications. With the advancement of science and technology, many puzzles about the universe are solved, and with the increase of material wealth, human demands for spiritual civilization are also becoming higher. Evidently, linguistic taboos are a reflection of these social development and the value concepts and beliefs of the culture in which they are born. It exists in every aspect of people's life.4There are some similarities in English and Chinese linguistic taboo, but different cultures may not all agree on what is or is not a taboo in a specific context. So the differences also exist between English and Chinese linguistic taboo. A Lack of knowledge in this field or improper use of linguistic taboos may lead to misunderstandings, conflicts and other unknown serious consequences in the cross –culture communications which is increasingly frequent and wider now.This paper intends to study the evolution of linguistic taboo, to analyze the similarities between Chinese and English linguistic taboo in pronunciation and vocabulary, and present the differences from the aspects of names, numbers as well as taboo subjects in both cultures. Last but not least, two effective ways are proposed to avoid linguistic taboos.1. The Existence of Linguistic TabooThe word taboo (also spelled as “tabu”, “tapu” and “kapu”) was borrowed from Tonga, an island group in Polynesia, and its first recorded use in English was by Captain James Cook (1729-1779), a British navigator. He came to the Archipelago of Tonga during his explorations in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean. There he heard the word from the local people, which originally referred to persons, activities (including speech), or things under prohibition because5they were considered, on the one hand, ”sacred” and “consecrated”, and on the oth er, “uncanny”, “dangerous” and “unclean”. He introduced it into English in his description of his third voyage around the world in 1777. But taboo phenomena are not unique in Tonga. Instead, it has long existed in all cultures and language throughout the world.As we have mentioned above, linguistic taboo is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a kind of social phenomenon. The development of society has influenced the development of linguistic taboo. So if we want to reveal the whole picture of linguistic taboo, we must have a review of the history of linguistic taboo. The existence of linguistic taboo has generally experienced two times according to the history of human society: the old times and the modern times1.1 The Old TimesAs we all know, In the ancient times, people didn't get to know well about nature, most natural phenomena such as lightning, thunder, storm, earthquake, were beyond the understanding of human beings. When these phenomena happened, they thought that certain supernatural creatures possessed great power. They thought that if they were loyal to these supernatural creatures, they would be safe or rewarded. If they acted against them, they would be punished severely.6As a result, the primitive people created different kinds of gods. They held a strong religious conviction that these gods controlled the world that they were living in. So the first thing they did was to respect these gods through language. In a word, the earliest linguistic taboo emerged as a result of the ignorance and superstition of the primitive people in ancient times.Feudal society is rigidly stratified. A country of feudalism is usually controlled by the royals and sometimes together with those considered with great power given by god. During the feudal times, people were not equal to the rulers and were suppressed by their superiors. The distinction between the upper and the lower classes was also reflected in the evaluation of the language used by them respectively. The words of upper class used were considered good and elegant while those used by the lower class were regarded as vulgar and indecent and should be avoided in the speech of ladies and gentlemen. For example, when referring to “出汗” , duchesses used the word “perspire”, but the female servants used “sweat”during the feudal times, men usually play a dominant role in family. We can see it from the Chinese expressions “三从四德” ,“三纲五常”etc. In order to strengthen their position and to prevent their subjects from violating them, the royals and kings put forward different kinds of prohibitions and bans. For instance, to show their authority and majesty, the name of the emperor and his ancestors should not be mentioned. Most linguistic taboos during this period were put into effect by rulers in order to maintain their7superior social position and keep the society under their control. However, some of them, because of their deep-rooted influence on people's mind, still remain in language even after the collapse of the social system.1.2 The Modern TimesIn modern society, as a result of the development of science and technology, many natural phenomena are no longer mysterious. Human beings not only constantly improve their abilities to exploit the world where they are living through their great wisdom and knowledge, but also make efforts to explore the extraterrestrial world. Science has much more say in today's society. Thereby, the superstitious elements in linguistic taboos decrease while those reflecting spiritual civilization increase.During such an open-minded period, people value freedom, equality and democracy very much. Many minorities struggle for equal rights with the majorities. As a result, linguistic taboos concerning racial discrimination arise. For example, in the United States, “nigger” was widely used to call black people in the 1960s but now it is forbidden in normal interaction because such form of addressing shows contempt for the black and goes against the spirit of human rights.8In addition, more and more women step outside their houses to work together with men. They don't want to depend on men any longer. However, the traditional ideas about women stifle the fulfillment of their abilities and they are often treated unfairly in work. This forces women to rise and fight for equalities with men and more and more men begin to learn to respect women, which will have an influential effect on the language. As a result, taboos on sexist language increase. Besides, in an era of peace, the relative stability of society and the fast pace of life, people don't bother much to avoid things in the objective world. Instead, they prefer living a pleasant and harmonious life. They enjoy spiritual entertainment very much, so they try to avoid those words and behaviors that may make others feel unpleasant to keep the harmonious relationship. Those professions that were looked down upon in the past are beautified now. The substitution of “sanitation engineer” for “garbage collector” is a good example for this. As a whole, since the third stage, people today show more respect for science and technology and human rights so that the superstitious and feudal elements in linguistic taboos tend to reduce while those reflecting the advancement of human society and spiritual civilization tend to increase.2. The Similarities between Chinese and English Linguistic Taboo9There are taboos for religion, sex, death, disease, social bias, etc. in both Chinese and English cultures and they are reflected in their respective language and become a kind of linguistic phenomenon. The similarities of Chinese and English linguistic taboo mainly embody in the following aspects:2.1 PronunciationBoth Chinese people and English people believe that saying words that imply misfortunes or disasters may bring them trouble, and they thought misfortunes can be prevented by replacing the words with homophones that have better meanings.In China, many taboos have been caused by superstitions. In Shanxi province of China, there is a custom that mulberries can not be planted in front of the house and willows can not be planted behind the house, because the Chinese character “桑(mulberry)”sounds the same as “丧（mourning）and “柳（willow）”sounds the same as “绺”. They may indicate that there will be a funeral and something will be stolen. Chinese people will not present a clock as a gift in weddings or other ceremonies, because “ clock” pronounces “zhong (钟)”, which has the same pronunciation as “zhong/终(end)”, meaning death in Chinese. [1]10Many other examples also can be found in Chinese. Some fisherman in South China avoid saying such word as “fan/翻(turn over)” or “chen/沉(sink)” and any other words with similar sounds. Some even change their surname “chen/陈” which sounds the same as “chen/沉”. It is said that the chopsticks people in the East use when having meals were originally called “zhu/箸” in ancient China. Since it had the same sound as “zhu/住（stop）”, it was replaced later by “kuaizi /筷子” since “kuai/筷” sounds like “kuai/快（quick）”.In western countries, there are also many such kinds of examples. When a word sounds the same as a taboo word, it needs changing into another expression. For instance, in earlier 18th century, the female in English and American countries always tried to avoid using the word ‘arse(the bottom part of the body one sits on)', which was considered inelegant. So people called the a nimal “ass” as “donkey”. Another typical example is that “fuck(a sail)”, “feck” or “fack(fact)” are seldom used or even go out of use, because they pronounce the same as “fuck”. Neaman made a co nclusion that the reason why some words disappeared were related to the fact that their pronunciation are the same as some taboo words.2.2 VocabularyWe use vocabulary everyday, and we also try our best to avoid use taboo words. “Roughly speaking, tabo o words in English fall into three types, namely obscenities, profanities and vulgarities”. These kinds of vocabulary are analyzed into three types, that is analyzed into inelegance vocabulary, discrimination vocabulary and others.2.2.1 IneleganceInelegance words refer to words may cause offence to the social moral principles. It includes obscene words profanity words and vulgarity words. In both English and Chinese, these words are to be avoided in polite conversations, because they may cause strong disapproval.Obscene words are related to human beings sexual behaviors. In America, the Sexual Revolution in 1960s and 70s made people more open toward sex, but now words such as “making love” and “having sex” still seldom appear directly in writing, let alone in conversation. Western people are serious towards sex terms to a certain degree, so to speak.The Chinese people also treat terms on sex seriously. Chinese people always use the expression of “ 作风问题”or“不正当关系”to show the immoral relationship between a man and a woman.Profanities refer to religious words used in a way that shows a lack of respect for God or holy things. Religion is a fertile field of this type of taboo terms. A typical example is that Christian cannot refer to God or God's name. “The Ten Commandments forbid people to ‘take the name of the Lord your God in vain'. So it is considered very rude to say ‘goddame' or ‘goddamned'”. The words such as “God,” “Jesus,” “damn” and “hell” etc, are considered holly and only properly used in religion. If they appear in daily communication, they will make people unpleasant and disgusted. So people always try to avoid using these taboo words directly. Some people also avoid referring to the devil, which is considered disrespectful. So they use “the deuce”, “the dickens”, “ old Nick” to substitute “ the devil”. We can find similar examples in Chinese. In religion, people use some complimentary address to refer to awesome gods, e.g. “大帝”, “大圣”, “佛陀(Buddha)”. [2]Both in English and Chinese the vulgar words are usually rude and offensive and bring about unpleasantness, anger or conflicts. Swearwords in English are often called four-letter words, because most of them are short, and many are made up of four letters, e.g.: piss, shit, crap, fuck. These so-called four letter words are considered vulgar. Swearwords formed by employing some of the animals' names are vulgarities too.In Chinese, there are also many similar sayings, such as “小兔崽子”, “羊巴羔子”, “狗娘养的”, “小王八” etc. These words are used to insult others. Peoplealways try to avoid using them in a normal and polite communication. The existence of taboo language indicates that taboos involve in almost every field of life.2.2.2 Discrimination“In recent years, there is a growing tendency to regard as taboo language that reflects a demeaning attitude towards certain social or ethnic groups. Racist language and sexist language, for example, are offensive to the social or ethnic groups th at are discriminated against.” [3]Discrimination against woman is a universal and unreasonable phenomenon in the society. And its reflection on language is sexist language. Both in English and Chinese, there are traces of sexist language. Unless one is careful enough with his/her speech, one may easily offend others unconsciously. In China, under the control of strict hierarchy feudal society, the females were regarded inferior. They depend on male and were dominated by male. So the discrimination and prejudice against women is the long-term accumulation, which is inevitably reflected in Chinese. For example, the sayings “妇人之见”, “头发长见识短”, “男子汉不和妇人一般见识”, “长舌妇”, etc, reflect the pejorative attitude toward women. Since the Chinese women’s social statuses have increased, these sayings are used much less frequently. The using of thescornful and pejorative words for women in public often gets criticism and resentment.In English, there are also many sexist expressions. For example, a person of unknown sex is referred as “he”, or “him” rather than “she” or “her”. A person who presides a meeting is the “chairman”, even if she is a woman. “Nowadays, perhaps as a result of the Woman's Liberation Movement in the 1960s and 70s in western countries, especially the U.S.A and socio-culture development, most native English speakers try to avoid sounding like a sexist.” [4] When referring to human beings, people begin to use “humankind” or “ the human race” instead of “man” or “mankind”.“Racism is the belief that certain human races are inherently inferior to others and racist language is that which shows a biased attitude towards certain r acial or ethic groups.”[5]In English, no matter intentionally or not, the following words are against black people and annoying them unsatisfied. For example, “white” means “pure”, “clean”, “benevolent”, which have positive meaning. While “black” is related to “evil”, “wrongdoing”, and “dirty” such as “blackguard”, “blacklist”, “blackmark” etc. Besides, “nigger” and “boy”, for a black adult man, often have offensive meaning.In Chinese, there is also racist language. For example, using “蒙古大夫” for an inco mpetent doctors; using “小鬼子” for Japanese. “洋鬼子”,“大鼻子”for westerners. [6] Most of these words are derogatory. It shows off that Chinese is more superior than other racial or ethic groups.2.2.3 Terms Concerning Disease, Death and Physical DisabilityEither in English or in Chinese culture, disease, death, and physical disability may horrify people. So people don't like to mention these directly in conversations. Therefore, they are considered taboos.In both English and Chinese, death is viewed as “departing”. In English, we can find many euphemisms for death, such as “go”, “depart from this world”, “go to a better world”, “go the ways of all flesh”, “pass away” etc. In Chinese, we also can find similar euphemisms: “去了”, “离开了我们”, “辞世”, “去见马克思了”, “归西”,“升天” etc. In both English and Chinese, death is compared to “sleeping”, “sleep” in English correspond to “正寝”，“长眠”，or “永眠” in Chinese. [7]Words denoting terrible disease are also sources of horror. In English, people don't like to talk about terrible disease or disease related to sexual organs directly. For instance, they use “V.D.” instead of “veneral disease”; use “big C”, “long disease”, or “terminal illness”to replace “cancer”. Abbreviations are often used to alleviate the shocking effect. For instance, SARS is used to substitute the terrible name “Severe Acute Respiratory Syndromes”.In Chinese, when we talk to a patient, we may say “你今天不舒服，别上班了”.Here, we use “不舒服” instead of “病”. As a soldier, we may say “挂彩了” instead of “伤”. Mental illnesses are thought not to be mentioned directly. For example, when referring to a mental illness, we just say “a little eccentric” or “a little confus ed”.Either in Chinese or Western, people have sympathy for one's physical disability. If someone looks ugly, we will say she/he looks plain/ordinary and we won't use the word “fat” to describe a man. We only use “heavily set” or “on the heavy side”. If a girl is thin, we won't use skinny. We just say slender, and when we refer to a crippled, we will say, “physically handicapped”. In Chinese, if one is deaf, we will say “耳朵背”. In English, it is called “hard of hearing”.2.2.4 Terms Concerning Parts or Excretion of the BodyIn both cultures, people think that certain parts of the body and the excretion of body cannot be mentioned in daily conversations. They are often considered taboos.For example, in English, there are so many euphemisms for lavatory, such as “washroom”, “restroom”, “and bathroom”, “comfort station”. If they want to go to lavatory, they will say: “go to the bathroom”, “do their business”, “answernature's call”. In Chinese, “厕所” is always avoided in public occasion, one may say :“去一号” or“去方便一下”.3. The Differences between Chinese and English Linguistic TabooAlthough there are many similarities in English and Chinese, different views about what is or isn’t taboo can be foun d in two cultures. Differences between Chinese and English linguistic taboo embody the following aspects:3.1 SubjectsEnglish people place a high value on privacy. “The English have a saying ‘ A man's home is his castle, meaning a man's home is sacred t o him; no one should come in without permission. So it is also with his life and personal affairs'”. [8]Chinese people often like to greet to others like “Have you had a meal?” This common greeting indicates we begin our conversation with our acquaintance, just as foreigners ask “How nice the weather!” But the Chinese greeting will make the foreigners suspect that you want to invite him to join the dinner. Sometimes when we get together and talk naturally about these questions: “ How about your salary?” “Are you married?”, “What do your wife/husband do?”, “How much is your skirt?” In this way, we express our care for our friends.Generally speaking, we never feel embarrassed about these conversations, but when we ask the westerners the same questions, they will think we may involve in their privacy.3.2 NumbersIn China, the number “4” and the word “死(death)” almost sound the same. People do not like the number “4”, because it reminds them of “death”. Among old people, they think “73” and “84” are two key ages. If you are 73 or 84 years old, you will die before the King of hell invites you. So many old people avoid talking their exact ages.While in western countries, one of the most influential taboo numbers is 13. According to the story of “The last supper”: Judas, the person who betrayed Jesus, sat in the No.13 chair, therefore, Number thirteen is universally considered to be unlucky. No door's number is thirteen; no hotel has the No.13 Room; they don't allow 13 people have dinner together. All in a word, they avoid number thirteen in every aspect. Another number concerning taboo in western is Friday. It also has long been considered as an unlucky day. “This taboo term affects people probably not only because they believe that Jesus Christ was put to death on the cross on Friday, but also because Friday is formany years the day of execution of criminals, commonly called “hangman's day”. [9]Another striking contrast is that Chinese people like even numbers. Chinese people especially like the even number “6” and “8”. The saying “六六大顺” can prove it . But in western countries, they like odd numbers. “The Roman poet Virgil says, ‘The god delights in an odd number’. In Shakespeare’s play Merry wives of Windsor, Falstaff says, ‘Good luck lies in odd numbers—' They say, “there is divinity in odd numbers, either in nativity, chance or death.'” [10]3.3 NamesHow to call others in verbal communication is very important. In Chinese, the ancestors' and the older generation's names cannot be referred directly. For example, because the second name of Sima Qian's father was “谈”. So we cannot find such a Chinese character “谈” in the Historical Records. [11] But in the English culture, there are no such name taboos. The younger generation can refer the elder generation’s name directly. It shows that they are equal, friendly and intimate. English babies may be named after their grandparents or other relatives to show respect or to honor them. This practice was quite different from Chinese culture which was characterized by a clearly delineated stratified society in which the names, for example, of one's relatives, one or twogenerations above, or officials, or other influential figures were taboos to the ordinary Chinese, no one dared to name his babies after them.4. Ways of Avoiding Linguistic TabooIn order to have good behavior before people, we try to avoid linguistic taboo. It's good for us to build good relationships between people. Because taboo language brings so many obstacle in our daily life, it's necessary to take action to avoid linguistic taboo in our daily life. There are two ways of avoiding linguistic taboo as follows:4.1 Using euphemismsFrom the above discussion, we know that some harsh, blunt, unpleasant offensive and taboo things or acts should not be expressed directly in our daily life. So it is very important for us to know how to avoid these linguistic taboos.Most linguistic taboos can be avoided by the employment of euphemisms. Euphemism refers to the use of pleasant, vague or indirect words or phrases to take the place of more accurate direct or taboo ones. In other words, euphemism is a means of expressing the words or things that are prohibited.Euphemisms are used almost in all fields of life. For example, when a judge gives the criminal a sentence, he will directly say: “I hereby sentence you to f ive years in prison.” But the criminal himself or his relatives will tell others: “Somebody is sent to the big house.” for the purpose of saving face. At the same time, we must realize that language is alive and changing all the time. Influenced by the social psychology and its culture, euphemisms change constantly. A euphemism may quickly acquire the stigma of the word it replaced and becomes a taboo after people use it for a time. For example, there is a series of expressions about the word “poor”. “At fi rst I was poor, then, I became needy, later I was underprivileged. Now I'm disadvantaged. I still don't have a cent to my name, but I sure have a great vocabulary.” [12] Another example is that, in American English, euphemisms for the word “buttocks” are “ass”, “can”, “tail”, “cheeks”, “caboose”, “fundament” and now the newest one is “sitting-down place”.4.2 Having a Good Knowledge of the Taboo CultureLanguage and culture rely on each other and influence each other. Languages are formed and develop under certain cultural background. Linguistic taboo is a kind of social phenomenon. Its existence and development are restricted and influenced by specific cultural background. Some words areprohibited in English; some words are banned in Chinese and some words are prohibited in both languages. As a result, if one wants to avoid violating taboos, he or she should have a good knowledge of what is or is not a taboo in this culture. For example, in China, the word “old” means “experience” and “wisdom”. At the sam e time, Chinese people are influenced by the long-term concept of respecting the old and taking care of the young. Chinese people seem to like to address each other as “老（old）” ,for example, “老爷爷”, “老奶奶”, “老林”, “老吴”, “老教授”. But English people always connec t the "old" with "uselessness" and "death". Therefore, when contacting with English people, the saying of “somebody is old” should be avoided in order not to arouse unpleasantness. For Example, we cannot call somebody “old Smith” or “old Brown”. Especially for women who are sensitive to age, no matter how old they are, we should not call them “奶奶” or “大娘” ,though they are pleasant greetings in China. In English, expressions such as “senior citizens”, “advanced in age”, “golden years” etc. are produced in order to avoid “old”. A smooth cross-cultural communication greatly benefits from the good command of a foreign language's cultural background knowledge. It is hard to imagine a Chinese who has a poor knowledge of English taboo culture can intercommunicate with the English people smoothly and without offending them, and vice versa.。
英语语言学 第一章
English linguistics is a scientific study of English
language.
nguage
1.1 Why study language?
A tool for communication An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection
between a linguistic form and its meaning.
Symbols----words are just the
symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.
Lecture I Introduction to the Course
Linguistics & English linguistics
Linguistics is a scientific study of language. It is a
major branch of social science.
Human ----language is human-specific.
Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.
英语语言学English Linguistic讲课教案
英语语言学E n g l i s h L i n g u i s t i cChapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质)1. language is a system2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue1. language is a system the speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his languagePerformance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1.Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2.Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3.Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留下文字记录Language is arbitraryLanguage is creativeLanguage is double-structuredLanguage is changeableLanguage is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speech sound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式 physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式 conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? ---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性 the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number ofsentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识 sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识 how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识 whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识 meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人 come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools) Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法 TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic, langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官 articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫Vowels ： is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。
广东省历年专升本英语试卷真题作文
广东省历年专升本英语试卷真题作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1English Composition: Reflecting on Guangdong's Zhuan Sheng Ben ExamAs a student arduously preparing for the English portion of Guangdong's highly competitive Zhuan Sheng Ben exam, I've pored over countless past test questions and sample compositions. This crucible of an assessment, serving as the gatekeeper to prestigious undergraduate programs, has plagued generations of examinees with its linguistic challenges. Yet, an analysis of prior years' prompts reveals insights that may illuminate the path forward for future test-takers.The most striking aspect of these past Zhuan Sheng Ben English compositions is their sheer breadth of scope. One year, students may have been tasked with expounding on a philosophical quandary: "Is moral absolutism pragmatic in a globalized world?" While the next, the prompt nudged us towards far more concrete matters: "Evaluate Guangdong's infrastructure initiatives and their socioeconomic impacts." Thesheer variety of topics that one could potentially encounter seems almost sadistic in its scale.However, this wolf-in-sheep's-clothing quality of the exams does bestow one crucial gift — the obligation to achieve mastery over the entire gamut of English linguistic mastery. A student cannot simply rely on rote memorization of idioms or knowledge silos. We must be polymaths, ready to discourse with equal poise on abstract theory as data-driven analysis. This crucible forges mental dexterity and flexibility in thought.As I revisited sample compositions from astronomical scoring students, a thematic trait emerged — a seamless synergy of forma and substance. Top-scoring responses did not simply communicate substantive ideas, they did so with an artful mastery of language. Arguments flowed with a logical cadence, awash with vivid yet precise descriptors. Metaphors and analogies illuminated concepts rather than obfuscating them. In essence, these were not just essays, but finely-chiseled artifacts that gestured towards the acme of English linguistic dexterity.Of course, such zenith-level compositions are labyrinthine objectives for most students rather than assured realities. Yet, in nestling our inner Lose Manilas, we too can ascend towards that rarefied plane of expression through tenacious practice andcognitive plasticity. The path is arduous, requiring us to become founts of vocabulary, syntax gurus, and meaning philosophers. But is not the edulcolate with of undergraduate admission worth such exertions?Beyond the compositions themselves, I have grow to admire the sheer legacy of these Guangdong exams and all they represent about the purest of academic veneers. In a culture and era where many denounce the SATs and similar high-stakes tests as crass metrics, these open-ended English prompts celebrate an antidote to reductionism. We are not just compiling grades or checking boxes, but showcasing a combinatorial mastery of history, culture, logic, rhetoric, and language. Thismulti-dimensional gauntlet separates the truly erudite from the slightly proficient.As my own exam day draws ever nearer, I admittedly vacillate between utter trepidation and surges of resolve. On one hand, the compositional component looms like a monolithic language viking, hungry to devour any students whose English skills prove lacking. Yet with each practice essay, I feel my skills honing further towards that elusive precipice of elocutionary excellence. Is the path grueling and ulcer-inducing? Absolutely. But I am buoyed by the knowledge that once this trialis.surmounted, Guangdong's most hallowed academic halls will await.This exam is more than just an obstacle - it is a mu'stang, separating the dilettantes from the Wiz-kids of language and thought. Those who crest this peak earn a plaque of cognitive fortitude, not based on multiple choice bubbles but a full-body displaying of keen intelligence and wded orators. So evbrag I return to my practice prompts with furrowed brow and twitching pen, summoning IQ reservoirs for just one more dete on the futural Renaissance thinker within.篇2Past English Essay Questions on the Guangdong Province ExamEvery year, thousands of students in Guangdong Province take the English exam as part of the academic qualification tests to qualify for admission to universities and colleges. While the reading, listening, and grammar sections are important, the essay portion often causes the most stress and anxiety fortest-takers. In this high-stakes environment, a strong essay can make or break your chances at your dream school.Over the years, the Guangdong English exam essay prompts have covered a wide range of topics that test not only your language skills, but also your critical thinking abilities. From personal experiences to social issues and ethical dilemmas, these essay questions require you to formulate a clear thesis, provide specific examples and evidence, and present a logical argument. Let's take a look at some previous essay prompts to get a sense of what to expect.Personal NarrativesOne common type of essay asks you to reflect on a personal experience or achievement. For example: "Describe a challenge or obstacle you overcame and how it shaped you as a person." With this type of prompt, the key is to tell an engaging narrative with vivid details that demonstrate qualities like perseverance, resilience, and growth mindset.In 2018, one essay asked students to "Discuss a time when you had to make a difficult decision and how you arrived at your choice." This requires careful introspection and the ability to thoughtfully analyze your decision-making process. Strong responses don't just describe the dilemma, but also provide insight into your values, maturity, and judgment.Social and Ethical IssuesMany Guangdong exam essay prompts tap into broader societal topics and ethical debates. These questions evaluate your ability to think critically about complex issues from multiple perspectives. A 2020 essay asked: "In an era of rapidly developing technology, what are the potential benefits and risks that society needs to consider? Explain your position with examples."This type of technology-focused prompt requires discussion of real-world pros and cons, showcasing your knowledge while taking a substantiated stance. Other essays have focused on environmental protection, educational reform, media influence, and more. The strongest essays present a nuanced understanding of all sides before articulating and defending a clear viewpoint.Another challenging prompt from 2022 stated: "Discuss the factors that contribute to a harmonious and just society. How can individuals promote these ideals through their actions?" This explores core ethical principles like equality, human rights, and social responsibility. Responses need to go beyond simply defining these concepts to provide tangible examples of how to manifest them in daily life.You may also encounter open-ended prompts about influential figures, major events, or important works of literature that shaped society. For instance, "What lessons can we learn from the life and work of [famous person/author/historical figure]?" These essays judge your understanding of context, ability to extract deeper meanings, and skill at connecting ideas.Future Visions and Calls to ActionLooking ahead, recent Guangdong essay prompts have asked students to contemplate the future and the role they can play in shaping it. A 2021 prompt asked: "What positive changes would you like to see in your community in the next decade? Develop a plan to help create this vision."This type of forward-thinking prompt requires creativity and problem-solving skills as you identify specific goals and actionable steps. You may need to address potential obstacles and opposing viewpoints as part of your proposed solution.Another example: "If you could send one message to the youth of the world, what would it be and why?" This deceptively broad prompt challenges you to crystalize core values and a unifying message in an inspirational, persuasive way.Overarching StrategiesWhile the specific topics will continue to evolve, there are some consistent strategies that can elevate your Guangdong English essay:• Have a clear, focused thesis statement that directly addresses the prompt• Use specific examples and evide nce to illustrate and support your main ideas• Demonstrate logical reasoning and analytical thinking• Consider multiple perspectives and address counterarguments• Write with clarity, proper grammar, and an academic essay structure• Incl ude relevant background information to contextualize the issue• Connect your ideas to broader concepts, principles, or themes• Conclude with insight that expands your thesis or calls the reader to actionUltimately, the Guangdong exam essays aim to evaluate your language proficiency along with your critical thinking,cultural awareness, and ability to articulate nuanced positions on complex topics. By understanding the common prompt types and honing your writing skills, you can approach thesehigh-stakes essays with confidence. The effort is well worth it to showcase your full potential and maximize your chances of admission success.篇3Prompt: In today's world, many young people face immense pressure to succeed academically and professionally. What are the major sources of this pressure? Is it a positive or negative force? Provide concrete examples to support your views.The Mounting Pressure to SucceedAs I reflect on my own journey through education and now the pursuit of upgrading to a bachelor's degree, the relentless pressure to achieve looms large. This burden weighs heavily on the minds of countless youth today, a perpetual undercurrent shaping our attitudes, decisions, and overall well-being. While the desire to excel can be a powerful motivating force, the overwhelming expectations imposed both internally and externally raise concerns about the toll on mental health and personal fulfillment.The primary source of this intense pressure emerges from within – an innate drive instilled from a young age to outperform our peers academically. In today's fiercely competitive academic landscape, securing admission to elite universities and ascending the educational hierarchy has become tantamount to validating one's self-worth. Exemplary grades, a laundry list of extracurricular accolades, and flawless standardized test scores serve as the coveted golden tickets to future success. Failure to meet these lofty standards is perceived as a personal shortcoming, fueling relentless self-criticism and emotional turmoil.Take my own experience as a case study. From the moment I could grasp the concept of academic achievement, an ingrained belief took root – only the top ranks were acceptable. Receiving a mere 90% on an exam was met with profound disappointment rather than celebration. The pursuit of perfect scores became an obsession, overshadowing the inherent joy of learning itself. Nights were consumed by feverish studying, sacrificing sleep, social interactions, and overall wellness at the altar of academic prowess. The fear of falling short and disappointing my family's expectations haunted my every waking moment.This unrelenting internal drive is compounded by immense external pressures exerted by parents, educators, and society at large. In traditional Chinese culture, academic excellence is revered as the paramount marker of a promising future, a cornerstone of familial pride and honor. Parents,well-intentioned as they may be, inadvertently transfer their lofty aspirations onto their children's shoulders, equating stellar report cards with evidence of their devotion and parenting aptitude. The dreaded question "What did you score on that exam?" carries immeasurable weight, shaping self-perception and relationships.Moreover, today's rapidly evolving job market has heightened the pressure exponentially. The once surefire pathway to professional prosperity – a university degree – now serves merely as the entry criterion. Globalization and。
从古至今英语高级表达
从古至今英语高级表达The Evolution of Sophisticated English Expression: A Linguistic Odyssey Through Time.The English language, a tapestry woven with threads of history, culture, and global interactions, has undergone a remarkable journey of linguistic evolution. From its Anglo-Saxon origins to its current status as a global lingua franca, English has absorbed influences from diverse sources, shaping its vocabulary, grammar, and expressive capabilities.The Anglo-Saxon Roots.The foundations of English can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxons, Germanic tribes who settled in Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Their language, Old English, possessed a robust vocabulary and a relatively simple grammatical structure. The influence of Old English is evident in the core vocabulary of modern English, includingwords like "house," "king," and "love."Norman Conquest and the Norman-French Influence.In 1066, William the Conqueror led the Norman invasion of England, bringing with him the Norman-French language. This event had a profound impact on the evolution of English. Norman-French became the language of the royal court and the ruling class, leading to the incorporation of numerous French words into English. These borrowed words, known as "French loanwords," greatly expanded the English lexicon and introduced new concepts and ideas.Examples of French loanwords include "justice," "government," and "cuisine." The influence of French is also evident in English grammar, such as the use ofarticles ("the," "a," "an") and the possessive form (-'s).The Rise of Middle English.During the 13th and 14th centuries, a gradualtransition occurred from Old English to Middle English.This transition was marked by a simplification of grammar, the loss of certain inflectional endings, and the adoptionof more French loanwords. The language also became more standardized, thanks to the rise of a common literary standard based on the dialect spoken in London.Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," written in Middle English, played a pivotal role in shaping the English language. His vivid descriptions, witty dialogue, and use of vernacular speech captured the essence of everyday life and helped establish English as a literary language.The Early Modern Period: Renaissance and Reformation.The 15th and 16th centuries witnessed a surge of intellectual and artistic activity known as the Renaissance. This period saw a renewed interest in classical languages, such as Greek and Latin, and their influence on English was significant. Numerous classical roots and affixes were incorporated into English, enriching its vocabulary and expressive capabilities.The Reformation, a religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, also played a role in the development of English. The translation of the Bible into English by William Tyndale and others made the language accessible to a wider audience and contributed to its standardization.The Elizabethan Era and the Birth of Modern English.The Elizabethan era, marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, is often considered the golden age of English literature. During this period, the language flourished, reaching a level of sophistication and expressiveness that laid the foundation for modern English.William Shakespeare, the greatest writer of the Elizabethan era, played a transformative role in the evolution of English. His plays and poems introduced countless new words and phrases, expanded the language's vocabulary, and established new standards for literary expression.The Enlightenment and the Rise of Scientific Prose.The 17th and 18th centuries saw the emergence of the Enlightenment, a period characterized by scientific inquiry, rationalism, and a shift towards a more secular worldview. The language of science and philosophy became more precise and specialized, leading to the development of newtechnical terms and the adoption of Latin and Greek roots. Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Isaac Newton were among the influential thinkers who shaped the language of scientific discourse during this period.The Industrial Revolution and the Expansion of Vocabulary.The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, led to a rapid expansion of English vocabulary. New inventions, industries, and technologies required the creation of new words and phrases to describe them. Terms such as "steam engine," "factory," and "electricity"entered the language, reflecting the changing technological landscape.The 19th Century: Romanticism and the Exploration of Emotion.The 19th century was marked by the Romantic movement, a literary and artistic trend that emphasized emotion, imagination, and the natural world. Romantic writers, such as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and John Keats, explored the depths of human experience and sought to express their feelings through vivid and evocative language.The Romantic era also saw an increase in the use of literary devices, such as metaphors, similes, and personification, which added to the richness and expressiveness of English prose and poetry.The 20th Century and the Rise of Modernism.The 20th century brought about a series of radical changes in English language and literature, particularly with the advent of modernism. Modernist writers, such asJames Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and T.S. Eliot, experimented with language in innovative ways, breaking traditional rules and conventions.Modernist literature often employs stream-of-consciousness techniques, interior monologues, and non-linear narratives, challenging the reader to engage with the text on a more complex and introspective level. These experimental approaches expanded the boundaries of English expression and opened new possibilities for literary communication.The 21st Century and Beyond.In the 21st century, the English language continues to evolve rapidly, influenced by globalization, technology, and the ever-changing nature of contemporary society. The internet and social media have facilitated the emergence of new forms of communication and the rapid spread of new words and phrases.The proliferation of English as a global lingua francahas also led to the adoption of words and phrases fromother languages, resulting in an ever-more diverse and dynamic English lexicon. The language shows no signs of slowing down, adapting and evolving to meet the changing needs and demands of a globalized world.Conclusion.The evolution of English has been a remarkable journeyof linguistic transformation, influenced by countlessfactors throughout history. From its humble beginnings as Old English to its current status as a global language, English has absorbed influences from diverse sources, expanding its vocabulary, grammar, and expressive capabilities.Through the Anglo-Saxon roots, Norman-French influence, the rise of Middle English, the Renaissance and Reformation, the Elizabethan era, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Romantic movement, modernism, and the 21st century, English has undergone a continuous process of linguistic evolution. It is a language that has witnessedthe rise and fall of civilizations, the birth and death of ideas, and the changing nature of human experience. Its richness, diversity, and adaptability ensure that English will continue to evolve and thrive, serving as a powerful tool for communication, expression, and the dissemination of knowledge for generations to come.。
The linguistic feature of English news英语新闻的语言学特点
Slang and colloquialism
Cops: Man Wanted in N.J. Arrested.警方称， 新泽西州通缉犯已被抓获
Florida Court Oks Proposed Office Smoking Ban佛州法院通过办公室禁止吸烟提案
Pioneer Colleagues Face Axe一些实验学院 面临坎削
One of the Lost Tribes of Israel Surfaces In India一个被忘却的以色列部落在印度出现
“The Departed〞 Lands Best Picture Oscar? 无间道行者?获79届奥斯卡最正确影片奖
广泛使用非谓语动词
Five Ways To Be Romantic New Efforts To Learn About Planet Mars Helping the Homeless to Help Themselves Looking Back to Look Ahead Four Killed and Five Hurt in a House Fire
Location of 2007 Grammy in Question2007年 度，格莱美奖颁奖地点未定
英文标题的修辞特点
简约 short and simple 使用俚俗词语 slang and colloquialism 使用修辞格 figure of speech
One word headlines and the use of phrase
英国小学中体罚之风又起gopshakedowncruise共和党的竞选试航揭开序幕midgetwordshelpassistancetryattemptcarvehicleeasefacilitatehomeresidenceenoughsufficientfireconflagrationbeginimplementprobeinvestigatefeudcontroversyrowconflictpactagreementtalkaddressenvoyambassadorabbreviationsacronymsinitialsnpcthenationalpeople?scongression全国人民代表大会cppccchinesepeople?spoliticalconsultativeconferenceunescounitednationseducationalscientificandculturalorganization联合国科教文组织nasanationalaeronauticsspaceadministration美国国家航空和宇宙航行局nukesnuclearweaponsabbreviationclippedwordsbizbusinesscopterhelicoptergrammaticalfeatures句法结构上省略是标题的最大特点journalisticpresenttensefrenchculturedoldrums法国文化颓然不振wifeteamunlocknewgenesecrets夫妻联手解开新的基因奥秘losttribesisraelsurfacesdepartedlandsbestpictureoscar无间道行者获79届奥斯卡最佳影片奖fivewaysneweffortslearnaboutplanetmarshelpthemselveslookingbacklookaheadfourkilledfivehurthousefireellipsiscloningtechnologyunlikelytakeovertendiekashmirtempleattack喀什米尔附近发生火灾十人死亡andersonchiefquitrescuefirm安然总裁为挽救公司辞职2007grammyquestion2007年度格莱美奖颁奖地点未定简约short使用俚俗词语slang使
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Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质)1. language is a system2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue1.language is a system the speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his languagePerformance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2.language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的) 3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1. Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2. Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3. Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留 下 文 字 记录Language is arbitraryLanguage is creativeLanguage is double-structuredLanguage is changeablede Saussure 的理论 Chomsky 的理论Language is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speechsound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to?---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite numberof sentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支Phonetics 语音学Study speech sound 研究语音的科学Phonology 音系学Study sound system 研究语音体系的科学Phoneme音素Morphology 形态学Word formation and the internal structure of work 构词法和词的内部结构Morpheme词素Syntax 句法How word are combined to form phrases 单词如何构成短语How phrases are combined by rules to form sentence 短语如何构成句子PS rules T rulesSemantics 语义学The meaning of words and sentence 单词和短语的意义6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人come from Swiss) 现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools)Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic,langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫V owels ：is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。