OnLinguisticFeaturesofTranslationeseinEnglishChine
英语考研 胡壮麟版 语言学教程英语考研 Chapter 11
Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself.
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1. Linguistics and language learning
Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories.
In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.
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The role of instruction
Child: I taked a cookie. Mother: oh, you took a cookie. Child: yes, I taked it by myself.
A great number of adults learn a second language through formal instruction. Studies have produced mixed results.
Linguistics and Translation
但是它有一些根本性的弱点，主要表现为，它使用的是像词类和短语 类那样的单 一标记，因而不能有效地指明和解释自然语言中的结构歧义问题。 也是机器 翻译常碰到的问题。如：The turkey is ready to eat, 根据theturkey是做主语还 是宾语这个句子可以理解成“火鸡准备吃东西”或者是“火鸡被吃”。
第五阶段：语言学与翻译的联系
由萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说中不同语言间是否存在翻译这一探讨可知，语言学家已 经开始了研究语言与翻译之间的关系了。而雅各布逊、奈达的深入研究，进 一步明确了他们之间的关系。 雅各布逊：雅各布逊(Jakobson)博学多才。他是美国语言学家和文学评论家,莫斯 科语言学会的创始人之一,结构主义发展的串线人物,也是布拉格学派翻译理论 家。1959年,雅各布逊发表了题为《论翻译的语言学问题》(On LinguisticAspect ofTranslation)的论文,从语言学和符号学的角度,对语言和翻 译的问题、翻译的重要性及普遍性存在的问பைடு நூலகம்,作了非常精辟的论述。由于其 论前人所未及,因而一直被西方翻译理论界奉为翻译研究的经典作品,是翻译研 究中引用最多的文献之一。国内学者对这篇论文也有很多的评论。《论翻译 的语言学问题》被看作是“现代翻译学阶段”开始的标志。
因为他们对梵语与古希腊语的关系提出了新见解， 老一辈语言学家如G.库尔蒂乌斯等深为不满，称 他们为“青年语法学派”，含有揶揄之意。但是 他们欣然接受了这个名称，后来人们也就沿用下 来。在语言学界，现在一般叫做“新语法学派”。 第三阶段：语言系统的研究方法 在德国新语法学派的影响下，其他国家的语 言学家也开始对语言进行系统的研究。索绪尔就 是其中一个杰出的代表。
2、语言和言语 20世纪早期，索绪尔把言语活动分成“语言”(langue)和“言语”（parole）两 部分。语言是指一个话语社区所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，而言语是语 言在实际运用中的实现。语言是所有的语言使用者必须遵守的一套规范和原 则，而言语是这些规则的具体运用。 3、能指和所指 能指”和“所指”都是索绪尔语言学的术语。索绪尔认为，任何语言符号是由 “能指”和“所指”构成的，“能指”指语言的声音形象，“所指”指语言 所反映的事物的概念。比如英语的“tree”这个单词，它的发音就是它的“能 指”，而“树”的概念就是“所指”。“能指”和“所指”是不可分割的， 就像一个硬币的两面；但是，索绪尔认为，某个特定的能指和某个特定的所 指的联系不是必然的，而是约定俗成的。比如在“树”这个词中，树的概念 和“树”的特定发音不是必然结合在一起的，“树”在英文中的读音和在法 文、拉丁文中的读音明显不同，但却都能表达了“树”的意思。这就是符号 的任意性原理。符号的任意性原则是索绪尔语言学的一条重要原则，它支配 着索绪尔的整个语言的语言学系统，是头等重要的。 继索绪尔之后，美国语言学家乔姆斯基则强调语言学研究对象为语言能力而非语 言现象。他将语言分为深层结构和表层结构。乔姆斯基提出的短语结构规则 和推导模式说明了他的结构和转换方法。短语结构语法（Phrase Structure Grammar，简称PSG）不能有效地描写自然语言。PSG在Chomsky语言学理 论中占有重要地位，并且在自然语言的句法描写中担当举足轻重的角色 。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
英语语言学考研真题与典型题详解1【精选文档】
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3考研真题与典型题详解I。
Fill in the blanks. 1。
The features that define our human languages can be called ______ features. （北二外2006研）2。
Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研)3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication.4。
In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences b ased on limited rules。
This feature is usually termed______5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______。
6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rul es for people to observe.7。
One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing.8。
The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______。
（完整版）尤金·奈达EugeneNida翻译理论
（完整版）尤金·奈达EugeneNida翻译理论Eugene NidaDynamic Equivalence and Formal EquivalenceEugene A. Nida (1914-- ) is a distinguished American translation theorist as well as a linguist. His translation theory has exerted a great influence on translation studies in Western countries. His work on translatoin set off the study of modern translation as an academic field, and he is regareded as “the patriarch of translation study and a founder of the discipline” （Snell-Hornby 1988:1; Baker 1998:277）Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence is his major contribution to translation studies. The concept is first mentioned in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating”(1959)（《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》）as he attempts to define translating. In his influential work Toward a Science of Translating (1964) （《翻译原则科学探索》）, he postulates dynamic equivalent translation as follows: In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that existed between the original receptors and the message (1964:159) However, he does not give a clear definition of dynamic equivalence untill 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Thoery and Practice of Translation（《翻译理论与实践》）, dynamic equivalence is defined “ in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptores in the source language”(1969:24) Theexpression “dynamic equivalence” is superseded by “functional equivalencev” in his work From One Language to Another (1986, with De Waard)（《从一种语言到另一种语言》）. However, there is essentially not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of “functional equivalence” is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term “dynamic”, which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact ( Nida 1993:124). In Language, Culture and Translating(1993)（《语言与文化：翻译中的语境》, “functional equivalence” is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the max imal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence” is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and aprreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did” (Nida 1993:118; 1995:224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ieal. For Nida,good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida 19954:224). It can be noted that “functional equivalence” is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy. Dynamic EquivalenceA term introduced by Nida(1964) in the context of Bible translation to describe one of two basic orientations found in the process of translation (see also Formal Equivalence). Dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transportedinto the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors”(Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200, emphasis removed). In other words, a dynamically equivalent translation is one which has been produced in accordance with the threefold process of Analysis, Transfer and Restructuring (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200); formulating such a translation will entail such procedures as substituting TL items which are more culturally appropriate for obscure ST items, making lingguistically implicit ST information explicit, and building in a certain amount of REDUNDANCY(1964:131) to aid comprehension. In a translation of this kind one is therefor not so concerne d with “matching the receptor-language message with the source-laguage”; the aim is more to “relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture” (Nida 1964:159). Possibly the best known example of a dynamically equivalent solution to a translation problem is seen in the decision to translate the Biblical phrase “Lamb of God” into and Eskimo language as “Seal of God”: the fact that lambs are unkown in polar regions has here led to the substitution of a culturally meaningful item which shares at least some of the important features of the SL expression (see Snell-Hornby 1988/1955:15). Nida and Taber argue that a “high degree” of equivalence of response is needed for the translation to achieve its purpose, although they point out that this response can never be identical with that elicited by the original(1969/1982:24). However, they also issue a warning about the limits within which the processes associated with producing dynamic equivalence remain valid: fore example, a comparison with the broadly simialr category of Linguistic Translaton reveals that only elements which are linguisticallyimplict in TT-rather than any additional contextual information which might be necessary to a new audience—may legitimately be made explicit in TT. The notion of dynamic equivalence is of course especially relevant to Bible translation, given the particular need of Biblical translations not only to inform readers but also to present a relevant message to them and hopefully elicit a response(1969/1982:24). However, it can clearly also be applied to other genres, and indeed in many areas ( such as literary translation) it has arguably come to hold sway over other approaches (Nida 1964:160). See also Fuctional Equivalence. Further reading: Gut 1991; Nida 1964,1995: Nida & Taber 1969/1982.奈达（Nida）（1964）在《圣经》翻译中所采用的术语，用来描述翻译过程的两个基本趋向之一（另见Formal Equivalence[形式对等]）。
当代西方翻译理论
当代西方翻译研究的三大突破，两大转向三大突破1）20世纪50年代以来的西方翻译研究开始从一般层面上的对两种语言转换的技术问题的研究，也即从“怎么译”的问题，深入到了对翻译行为本身的深层探究。
提出了语音、语法、语义等一系列的等值问题。
当代西方翻译研究中的等值论等研究，虽然有它的局限，但它对翻译所作的微观分析，无疑使人们对翻译的过程和目标，看得更加清楚了，更加透彻了。
2）当代西方的翻译研究不再局限于翻译文本本身的研究，而把目光投射到了译作的发起者、翻译文本的操作者和接受者身上。
它借鉴了接受美学、读者反应等理论，跳出了对译文与原文之间一般字面上的忠实与否之类问题的考察，而注意到了译作在新的文化语境里的传播与接受，注意到了翻译作为一种跨文化的传递行为的最终目的和效果，还注意到了译者在这整个的翻译过程中所起的作用。
3）当代翻译研究的最大突破还表现在把翻译放到一个宏大的文化语境中去审视。
研究者开始关注翻译研究中语言学科以外的其他学科的因素。
他们一方面认识到翻译研究作为一门独立学科的性质，另一方面又看到了翻译研究这门学科的多学科形式，注意到它不仅与语言学，而且还与文艺学、哲学甚至社会学、心理学等学科都有密不可分的关系。
但是翻译研究最终关注的当然还是文本在跨文化交际和传递中所涉及的一系列文化问题，诸如文化误读、信息增添、信息失落等。
两大转向1）语言学派的转向2）从文化层面来审视翻译的转向当代西方翻译理论语言学派理论从20世纪50年代起，西方出现了一批运用现代语言学的结构理论、转换生成理论、功能理论、话语理论、信息论等理论的学者，他们把翻译问题纳入到语言学的研究领域，从比较语言学、应用语言学、社会语言学、语义学、符号学、交际学等角度，提出了相对严谨的翻译理论和方法，开拓出了翻译研究的新领域，给传统的翻译研究注入了新的内容。
他们是当代西方翻译史上名副其实的翻译理论家，其中最主要的代表人物有：雅可布逊（Roman Jakobson）尤金·奈达（Eugen A. Nida）卡特福特（J.C. Catford）彼得·纽马克（Peter Newmark）从严格意义上而言，是这批学者对翻译问题的学术探讨，揭开了当代西方翻译史上的理论层面。
《翻译理论与实践》第二版
by Lu Pandeng(卢攀登) Email: pandengzhumulama@gmail.co m
课程介绍
“翻译理论与实践”是英语专业高年级的一 门理论与实践课程，其主要任务一是介 绍翻译的基础理论，包括翻译的历史、 定义、本质、标准、单位、可译性，以 及英汉两种语言在词汇、句法、文化、 思维方式等方面的对比；二是传授英汉 互译的基础知识，包括英汉互译的思考 及操作过程，英汉互译ing consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the sourcelanguage message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber, 1982:12)
From the end of the Opium War to 1919
Translation of western political and literary works 清朝的林纾(字琴南)第一个把西方的文学作品介 绍给中国读者，被称为文学翻译的始祖。《巴黎 茶花女遗事》，林纾一生共译文学作品170余部， 字数达1200万。其中最著名的有《块肉余生述》 (David Copperfield), 王 子 复 仇 记 》 (Hamlet),《撒克逊劫后英雄略》(Ivanho)、 《黑奴吁天录》(Uncle Tom's Cabin)等。
教材： 《英汉翻译教程》，张培基等编著， 上海外语教育出版社，1980年 《新编汉英翻译教程》，陈宏薇 上海外语教育出版社，2004年 《新编英汉翻译教程》，孙致礼编著， 上海外语教育出版社，2003年
Linguistics语言学归纳
Lin guisticsI. The scope of linguistics: （a branch of linguistics that ….）phonetics （语音学）:the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.（study of the phonic medium of Ian guage）phono logy :（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to con vey meaning in lin guistics com muni catio n.morphology :（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formati on of senten ces.semantics:（语义学）the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics :（语用学）a branch of lin guistics that studies the con text of language use to effect successful com muni cati on.Some distinctions in linguistics:1） Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and an alyze the Ian guage people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for correct & standard” behavior in using Ian guage.（doctor）2) Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a Ianguage at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a Ianguage as it changes through time.3) Langue & parole 语言& 言语Lan gue: refers to the abstract lin guistic system shared by all the members ofa speech com mun ity.Parole: refers to the realization of Ian guage in actual use.4) Compete nee & performa nee 语言能力& 语言运用Compete nee: the ideal users kno wledge of the rules of his Ian guagePerformanee: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic com muni cati on.Desig n features of Ian guage:1) arbitrariness:(任意性) means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and soun ds.2) Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsig nals by its users.3) Duality:(双重性) duality of structure or double articulation of Ianguage enables users to talk about anything within their kno wledge.4) Displaceme nt: Ian guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from theimmediate situati ons of the speaker.不受时空限制5) Cultural transmission 文化传播(eg:狼孩)2. F un cti ons of Ian guage:1) Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, whichcan be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2) Expressive function: supplies information about the user'feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.3) Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:(音素)is a phonetic unit or segment.Phon eme:(音位)is a phono logical un it. It is a unit that is of disti nctive value. It is an abstract un it.3. Morphemes 词素一the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of Ianguage that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes :(彳衍生词素)the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conj oined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-e n,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-ti on，-sive,-er) ________ 标出Inflectional morphemes :(曲折词素)they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) O标出4. Category : refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar fun cti ons in a particular Ian guage such as a senten ce, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditi onal categories: determ in er(Det)限定词，degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)Phrase eleme nts : specifiers, compleme nts(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordanee with the head's subcategorization properties.没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense is concerned with the in here nt meaning of a lin guistic form, the collect on of all its features; it is abstract and de-c on textualized.Eg: dog-ge neral meaning of dog, featuresReferenee: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Con text: it is gen erally con sidered as con stituted by the kno wledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (Joh n Firth)Speech act theory: (Joh n Aust in)Locutionary act :(言内行为)is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act :(言外之意)is the act of expressing the speakersintention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act :(言后行为)is the act of performed by or resulting from say ing someth in g; it is the con seque nee of, or the cha nge brought about by the uttera nee.Cooperative principle -CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of qua ntity:Say no less tha n the con versati on requires. Say no more tha n the con versati on requires. The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evide nee.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of releva nee Be releva nt.7. Lan guage cha ngeAdditi on of new words:1) Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citize n mouse potato2) Clipped words:缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gy mn asium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger3) Blending:紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog br un ch-breakfast+l unch camcorder-camera+recorder 4) Acronyms:首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT- in formatio n tech no logyEU VIP B2B CPI5) Back-formation:逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/d on ate/orie nt/hawk/aviate/appreciate6) Function shiftadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7) BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8) Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal excit ing impressive dislike restatean ti-pollutio n un fair realize happ in ess9) Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rain bow spo on feed sleepwalk inborn off-lice nseUn dertake without Ian dlady handover whitewash8. Register 语域Field of discourse 话语范围:refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the Ian guage activity.Tenor of discourse 话语基调:refers to the role of relati on ship in the situati on in questi on: who the participa nts in the com muni cati on groups are and what relati on ship they sta nd to each other.Mode of discourse 话语方式:refers to the mea ns of com muni cati on. It is concerned with how ” com muni cati on is carried out.n.-v. To kn ee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreat9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH)萨丕尔•沃尔夫假说Lan guage filters people'perceptio n ang the way they categorize their experie nces.10. Lan guage Acquisiti onTheories of child Ian guage acquisiti on:1) The behavioristImitati on and practice are prelim in ary, and discrim in ati on and gen eralizati on are crucial to Ian guage developme nt.(habit-form ing)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the Ian guage.2) The innatistLan guage Acquisiti on device(LAD) ChomskyIt proposed that huma n beings are born with an inn ate ability.It said that the the black box” contain principles that are universal to all huma n Ian guage.Un iversal Grammar (UG)3) The interactionistIt holds that Ian guage develops as a result of the complex in terplay betwee n the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric Lenn ebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time —aspecific and limited time period for Ianguage acquisition.Two vers ionsStrong one suggests that childre n must acquire their first Ian guage bypuberty or they will n ever be able to lear n from subseque nt exposure.The weak holds that Ian guage lear ning will be more difficult and in complete after puberty.11. Second Lan guage Acquisiti onPositive transfer 正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderIn terla nguage 中介语It was established as lear ners in depe ndent system of the sec ond Ian guage, which is of n either the n ative Ian guage nor the sec ond Ian guage, but a con ti nuum or approximati on from one extreme of his n ative Ian guage to the other of the sec ond Ian guage.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurri ng from time to time in which in correct lin guistic features become a perma nent part of the way a pers on speaks or writes a Ian guage.Acquisiti on 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Lear ning 学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second Ianguage knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.欢迎下载11。
【考查论文写作方法】_Procedure_of_Stylistic_Analysis
The Phonological Category
categories, figures of speech, and cohesion (the state of sticking together) and context.
•
Style in Fiction
A checklist of linguistic description
• The Phonological Category • The Graphological Category • The Lexical Category • The Syntactic /Grammatical Category • Semantic Category
• Phonology is used here to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language, which includes the following aspects:
• a. elision (the omission of a sound or sounds in speech,as in we'll, don't, and let's)
The latter--to study the attributes of single lexical items (vocabulary), the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meaning.
Paralinguistic features of languages
Paralinguistic features of languagesGood morning, everyone. Today we'll continue our discussion on describing language. Last week we examined such features of language as grammar, vocabulary, the sounds of language, etc. In this lecture, we'll look at another important aspect of language. Perhaps some of you may wonder what is this important aspect of language. Let me tell you. It refers to features of communication that takes place without the use of grammar and vocabulary. They are called ‘paralinguistic features of language'. These features fall into two broad categories: those that involve voice and those that involve the body.Now, the first category, is what we call vocal paralinguistic features. V ocal features are actually tones of voice. While they are, perhaps, not central to meaning in communication in the same way as grammar or vocabulary, they may, nevertheless, convey attitude or intention in some way. Let me give you some examples. The first is whispering, which indicates the needs for secrecy. The second is breathiness. This is to show deep emotion. The third is huskiness, which is to show unimportants. The fourth is nasality. This is to indicate anxiety. The last is extra lip-rounding, which expresses greater intimacy, expecially with babies, for example. So we can see that there are a number of ways of altering our tone of voice. And when we do this consciously, we do it to create different effects in communication.Now, let's come to the second category, physical paralinguistic features, which involves the body. In addition to convey meanings with tone of voice, we can also express our intentions through the ways in which we use our bodies. You may ask: what are the ways, then? Let me sight some brief examples. The expression on our face, the gestures we make and even proximity or way we sit, are some of the ways we send powerful messages. About how we feel, or what we mean. Let me explain some of these in more detail. First, facial expression. Facial expression is a powerful conveyer of meaning. We all know smiling is an almost universal signal of pleasure or welcome. But there are other facial expressions that may not be so common. For instance, raising eye-brows - suggest that you are surprised or interested in something. Other facial actions, such as biting your lip, which indicates that you are deep in thinking, or are uncertain about something; compressing the lips, which show that you are making decisions; and a visible clenching of the teeth, to show that you are angry, are all powerful conveyers of meaning, too. The second in this category is gesture. You see, we use gesture to indicate a wide range of meanings. Though I have to emphasize that the actual gestures we use may be specific to particular cultures. That is to say different cultures have their own favorite gestures in conveying meaning. Here, a few examples may show you how powerful gestures can be. In British English behavior, shrugging shoulders may indicate an attitude of ‘I don't care', or ‘I don't know'. Crossing your arm s may indicate relaxation. But it can also powerfully show you are bored. Waving can mean welcome and farewell. While scratching your head may indicate that you are at a loss. In other cultures, placing your hand upon your heart is to indicate that you are telling the truth. Pointing your finger at your nose means it's a secret. That's why we say that gestures are culture bound. The third is proximity, posture and echoing. Proximity refers to the physical distance between speakers. This can indicate a number of things and can also be used to consciously send messages about intent. Closeness, for example, indicates intimacy or threat to many speakers. But distance may show formality, or lack of interest. Once again, I'd like to say, proximity is also both a matter of personal style, and isoften culture bound. So, what may seem normal to a speaker from one culture may appear unnecessarily close or distant to a speaker from another. And standing close to someone may be quite appropriate in some situations such as an informal party, but completely out of place in other situations, such as a meeting with a superior. Next, posture. Posture means the way in which someone holds his or her body, especially the back, shoulders and head, when standing, walking or sitting. A few examples. Hunched shoulders and a hanging head give a powerful indication of whether the person is happy or not. A lowered head when speaking to a superior, with or without eye contact can convey the appropriate relationship in some cultures. On the other hand, direct level eye contact, changes the nature of interaction, and can been seen as either open or challenging. Last, echoing. Now, what is echoing? Let me start with an example. Some of you may have noticed this phenomenon in your experience. When two people are keen to agree each other, they would likely, though unconsciously adopt the same posture, as if an imitation of each other. They sit or stand in the same manor. When used in this way, echoing appears to complement the verbal communication. Of course, when such imitation is carried out consciously, it often indicates that someone is marking at another speaker.Ok, in today's lecture, we looked at some paralinguistic features, such as tone of voice, gesture and posture. These features, together with linguistic features of language, like grammar, or vocabulary, are all part of the way we communicate with each other in face to face encounters. In our next lecture, we'll watch some video material, and see how people actually use paralinguistic means in communication to express their intention or desire or mood.整理一下，整篇文章的要点非常清晰：I. V ocal Paralinguistic Features1. whispering- the needs for secrecy2. breathiness- deep emotion3. huskiness- unimportants4. nasality- anxiety5. extra lip-rounding- greater intimacyII. physical paralinguistic features1. facial expression- powerful conveyer of meaning.--e.g.1 smiling: pleasure or welcome--e.g.2 raising eye-brows: surprised or interested in something--e.g.3 biting your lip:deep in thinking/ uncertain about something--e.g.4 compressing the lips: making decisions--e.g.5 clenching of the teeth: angry2. gesture- culture bound--e.g.1 shrugging shoulders: 'I don't care', or 'I don't know'--e.g.2 crossing your arms: relaxation/ bored--e.g.3 waving: welcome and farewell--e.g.4 scratching your head: at a loss--e.g.5 placing your hand upon your heart: telling the truth--e.g.6 pointing your finger at your nose: it's a secret3. proximity, posture and echoing1). proximity: personal style & culture bound--e.g.1 closeness: intimacy, threat--e.g.2 distance: fomality, lack of interest2). posture: the way in which someone holds his or her body--e.g.1 Hunched shoulders and a hanging head: happy or not--e.g.2 A lowered head, eye contact: the appropriate relationship --e.g.3 direct level eye contact: open or challenging3). echoing: to complement the verbal communication来源:/tem8/201003/97995.shtml。
linguistic features
第三章区别性特征3.1 区别性特征概念的滥觞上文提到具有相同语音特征的音才能成为音位，音位与音位之间有相同语音参数的音构成自然类音，一个语言的语音参数越少，系统中的空音越少，越合乎经济原则。
所谓「语音参数」(parameter)用更专门的术语来说就是「区别性特征」(DISTINCTIVE FEATURE)。
结构主义语言学派音韵学家把「音位」定义为「能够区别意义的最小语音单位」，既说是「最小」的，言下之意，这「音位」是不能再细分了。
不过布拉格学派的俄籍学者特鲁别茨柯伊(Trubetzkoy)站在类型的(typological)观点，将语音特征加以分类，采用了几个有限的语音参数，把音位组织成一个系统。
比如英语的双唇塞音有两个：/p/, /b/，两者的区别是/b/多了一个[浊音] 特征，需要标示[浊音]特征，谓之「有标」(marked)；而清音的/p/则不需要标示[浊音]特征，谓之「无标」(unmarked)，只有两个音有双向对立(two-way opposition)时才需要标上标示值(markedness)。
特鲁别茨柯伊的做法实际上已经在把「音位」作了分析。
当特鲁别茨柯伊热中于语音类型的研究时，同属布拉格学派、又同为俄籍的学者雅各逊(Jakobson)及其同僚在研究音韵对立的普遍性问题，他们假设人类的语音变体虽然多到无以数计，但是区别音位对立的「特征」(feature)却是有限的，当时发现的区别性特征只有十几个。
雅各逊坚持音位分析的「二分法」(binarism)，一对最小区别的自然类音位的区别就是特征值有(+)或无(–)的区别。
比如下面塞音的区别是[＋浊音]或[－浊音]的区别。
一个系列的音，如果统统加上一个特征值，比如「清塞音」的一类，加上了[+浊音]值，就增加了一类「浊塞音」，两两相对，这就是「对称」。
：[－浊音] p t k[＋浊音] b d g特鲁别茨柯伊和雅各逊的区别性特征分析在音韵学史上具有非常重大的意义。
A Comparative Study on the Two Chinese Versions of
Journal of Literature and Art Studies, May 2019, Vol. 9, No. 5, 473-478doi: 10.17265/2159-5836/2019.05.005A Comparative Study on the Two Chinese Versions of TheApple Tree by John GalsworthyJIAO JingShanxi University, Taiyuan, ChinaThe author establishes parallel corpus of The Apple Tree by John Galsworthy and two translated Chinese versionsby Huang Zixiang and Dong Hengxun. Wordsmith and ICTCLAS are applied to make a quantitative study on thelinguistic features of the source and the target language. A comparative study is made on the translation skills andstyles of the two Chinese versions. Translation samples are analyzed and appreciated. It is concluded that theform and the literal meaning of the source language is retained more in Huang’s version while the impliedmeaning is conveyed more in Dong’s version, with more standard, fluent, and natural Chinese and more flexiblesentence structures. The socio-cultural contexts of the two translators are also considered in analyzing their stylesand translation choices.Keywords: corpus, The Apple Tree, comparative study, Wordsmith, ICTCLASAll Rights Reserved.IntroductionWith the capability of mining and analyzing enormous linguistic information, the corpus software provides researchers with laws underlying the linguistic phenomena and features of the linguistic material, whichensures the objectivity of the translation criticism. Yang Xiaorong (2005, p. 38) argues that during the efforts ofseeking examples for translation, the researchers should not be satisfied with only a few representatives but becommitted to find the groups of the examples or corpora which reflect the latent laws or nature of the languagefeatures. The middle of 1990s witnessed the birth and rise of the bilingual or multilingual corpus established fortranslation study in an attempt to detect the linguistic features of the texts. Professor Mona Baker is one of theleading scholars in this field whose translation research center initiated the first Translational English Corpus inthe world. The widely used corpus softwares are Wordsmith and Paraconc. Wordsmith Tools was designed anddeveloped by Mike Scott from Liverpool University and published by Oxford University. The software isapplied to probe the linguistic features of the source and the target languages in this study. The ICTCLAS isintroduced to analyze the lexical structure of the translated Chinese versions before they are processed by theWordsmith Tools.The last decade saw the emergence of the research on the corpus-based literature translation orcorpus-driven literary translation (Liu Jinbao, 2018; Soares Cybelle Safa, 2018; Toolan Michael, 2018; Ju LeeHyun, 2018; Hyun Joo Lee, 2018; Choi Enyung, 2018; Bai Jingang, 2017; Yan Xiaowen & Ren Xiaofei, 2015;JIAO Jing, Ph.D., (lecturer), School of Economics and Management Study, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China.474A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE TWO CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE APPLE TREESiepmann Dirk, 2015; Lee Chang-Soo, 2014; Wang Qing & Li Defeng, 2012; Marais Jacobus & NaudeJacobus A., 2007). But the corpus-based research on the translated Chinese versions of The Apple Tree by JohnGalsworthy is limited. As a critical realist novelist and dramatist in Britain, John Galsworthy (1867-1933) wonthe Nobel Prize for Literature for The Forsyte Saga. The Apple Tree is one of his novelettes, which is said to beone of his best stories in the author’s dairy. The work’s structure is masterfully designed with the echoingbeginning and ending. The tragedy Hippolytus by the Greek poet Euripides is quoted at the starting and theending part of the work, implying the novel’s tragic color. The writer presents elaborate descriptions on theappearance, language, behavior, and psychology of the characters and the colorful, poetry scenery depictionsare especially impressive.Two Chinese versions of The Apple Tree are studied by the author, Huang Zixiang’s version produced in 1963 and the version by Dong Hengxun published at the end of 1990s. Examples from the two versions areexcerpted and their different styles are analyzed from the perspectives of the translator’s style and their time andsocial backgrounds.A Quantitative Study on the Source and Target Texts With WordsmithThe author searches the key words apple, apple tree, blue in Wordsmith. The words that frequently collocate with “apple” are tree (24), under (10), big (8) and blossoms (9). In British culture, the image of apple is oftenregarded as valued treasure and the romantic and fragrant “apple blossoms” are also mentioned nine times in thenovel. The high-frequency collocations of “apple tree” are “under” (8) and “big” (8). The poetry and idylliclandscape descriptions are attractive in the whole work, in which the picture of “under the big apple tree” is All Rights Reserved.typical in the novel. The image not only echoes the title of the novel but presents the main senario of the story.The frequency of the word “blue” is 25, underlying the tragic color of the novel. The word “eyes” collocates withblue most frequently, so the “blue eyes” are frequent descriptions of the characters in the novel.The wordlists are provided by Wordsmith and the results show that the type token ratio (TTR) is 16.52 and the standardized TTR is 45.11, which is the indicator of the vocabulary richness. The mean word length is 4.18(letters), with a standard deviation of 2.01. “If the mean word length is less than 4 in the text, the language issimple and plain. The text is more complex and complicated if its mean word length is more than 4” (Xu, 2006, p.56). In the source text of The Apple Tree, the three-letter words are most widely found, namely, 5,129, signifyingthe simplicity of the language (see Figure 1). The mean sentence length is also considered to judge the difficultylevel of the text. 1,457 sentences are detected in the source text, with an average length of 13.81 (words) andstandard deviation of 12.31. Since the standard for long and difficult sentences is 20 to 30 words, the language ofthe source text is comparatively plain.A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE TWO CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE APPLE TREE 475Figure 1. The word length in the source text.After lemmatization, the content wordlists of the source text are obtained and the high-frequency ones are Ashurst, little, come, Megan, face, tree, night, eyes, old, and apple, in which Ashurst and Megan are the hero andheroine’s names in the novel respectively. The “face” and the “eyes” are the key elements for depicting theappearances of the heroine: They impress Ashurst so deeply that they seem to “open just on that day they meet”:dewy and innocent. Besides, the “trees”, “apple”, and the “nights” are all the landscape elements intensivelyportrayed by the author.Lexical analysis is made for the two translated Chinese versions with ICTCLAS, which are then processed by Wordsmith. Their indicators of the TTR, standardized TTR, the mean word length, and the standard deviationare approximately the same (see Table 1).Table 1Vocabulary Statistics of the Two Chinese VersionsAll Rights Reserved.TTR Standardized TTR Average word length Word length SD Dong’s version 1.57 48.47 1.46 0.62Huang’s version 1.56 48.65 1.45 0.61A Comparative Study on the Translation Examples From the Two VersionsThrough the quantitative analysis with Wordsmith, the author gets overall and objective knowledge about the linguistic features of the source and target language. In the following section, the author attempts to analyzethe different styles and features of the two Chinese versions by introducing representative examples. Theunderlined part in each example serves as the focus of discussion.Example (1) …and this, between the golden furze and the feathery green larches smelling of lemons in thelast sun of April—this, with a view into the deep valley and up to the long moor heights…而现在这个地方，处于金黄的金雀花和在四月的斜阳里散发着柠檬味儿的绿叶蓬松的落叶松之间，可以远眺深深的山谷，仰望长长的荒原群丘…… (Huang’s version)这地方，一边是黄澄澄的荆豆叶子，一边是茵绿细软的落叶松，在四月阳光的余晖里发出一阵阵柠檬的香气——这地方，往下看得见深深的峡谷，往上是一长溜荒原的山岗…… (Dong’s version)Discussion: The prepositional phrase “between...and” is translated as “处于……之间” in Huang’s version, while Dong translates it into “一边……一边”. In Huang’s version, the form of the source language is kept but theDong’s version deals with it more flexibly, producing more natural and standard Chinese.476A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE TWO CHINESE VERSIONS OF THE APPLE TREEExample (2) Whoever lay there, though, had the best of it, no clammy sepulchre among other hideous gravescarved with futilities—just a rough stone, the wide sky, and wayside blessings!不过，不管躺在坟墓里的是谁，他占据着最有利的地位——这不是挤在雕刻着废物的其他丑坟之间的阴湿的陵墓——有的只是一块粗糙的石头、广阔的天空和路旁的自然景物！ (Huang’s version)可是躺在这里的倒是得天独厚，不必进那湿冷的墓穴，挤在阴森可怕、志文俗烂的坟墓中间，只消石头一块，就独享辽阔的天空，陌路人的悼念！ (Dong’s version) Discussion: This excerpt describes the heroine’s tomb. The Chinese expressions such as “最有利的地位”, “雕刻着废物的其他丑坟” and “路旁的自然景物” reflect mechanically the form and meaning of the source text.In Huang’s version, more prepositive attributives are applied to reflect the original structure of the sourcelanguage. More short sentences are presented in Dong’s version and the phrases like “阴森可怕”, “志文俗烂的坟墓” and “陌路人的悼念” convey the spirit of the source text more appropriately with more fluent and standardChinese.Example (3) …here among the little fronds of the young fern, the starry blackthorn, while the bright cloudsdrifted by high above the hills and dreamy valleys here and now was such a glimpse. But in amoment it would pass—as the face of Pan, which looks round the corner of a rock, vanishes atyour stare.……周围是幼小的凤尾草的小叶和星星般的刺李，明亮的云片飘浮在群山和梦一般的山谷之上的高空……，就像潘的脸儿那样，刚从岩石后面露出来，你一注视，便消失了。
linguistic features例子
linguistic features例子Linguistic Features: Understanding the Role of ExamplesLinguistic features refer to the various elements of language that contribute to its structure, meaning, and communication. Examples play a crucial role in understanding and illustrating these features. Through examples, linguistic features are demonstrated, allowing learners to grasp the nuances of language usage. In this article, we explore the significance of linguistic features through the lens of examples, providing a deeper understanding of their practical applications.One important linguistic feature is syntax, which encompasses the arrangement of words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences. Examples aid in clarifying the rules of syntax by showcasing how words and phrases are organized within a sentence. For instance, a simple example like "The cat climbed the tree" demonstrates the basic subject-verb-object ordering, making it easier to comprehend and apply this linguistic feature in one's own writing or speech.Another linguistic feature is phonetics, which focuses on the sounds of language. Examples are invaluable in phonetic analysis, as they allow learners to understand the articulation and pronunciation of specific sounds. Consider the example of the English phoneme /θ/ as in the word "think." By demonstrating the correct positioning of the tongue and teeth, examples assist learners in accurately producing this sound and distinguishing it from similar phonemes.In addition, examples are instrumental in exploring the semantic aspect of language, which deals with meaning and contextual understanding. They enable learners to grasp the connotation, denotation, and pragmatic use of words and phrases. For instance, an example like "The young girl is a butterfly, always flitting from one activity to another" illustrates the figurative usage of the word "butterfly" to describe someone's behavior. Through examples, learners can comprehend the subtleties of language and effectively express themselves in various situations.Linguistic features are also closely related to sociolinguistics, the study of language in societal and cultural contexts. Examples help shed light on how language varies across different social groups, regions, or situations. By presenting diverse examples from various dialects or sociolects, learners become aware of the variations in vocabulary, pronunciation, and syntax that exist within a language. This understanding fosters inclusivity, promoting effective communication and tolerance in multicultural environments.In conclusion, examples play a pivotal role in understanding linguistic features. They elucidate the intricacies of syntax, phonetics, semantics, and sociolinguistics, enabling learners to grasp these features more comprehensively. Through examples, learners develop a deeper understanding of language structure and usage, enhancing their proficiency in both written and spoken communication. So, let us embrace the power of examples to harness the full potential of linguistic features.。
jakobson_linguistic[1]
![jakobson_linguistic[1]](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/73ecd3196bd97f192279e9ed.png)
The Translation Studies Reader 2000 (ed. Lawrence Venuti).London & New York: Routledge, 113-118.Roman Jakobson (1959)On linguistic Aspects of TranslationAccording to Bertrand Russell, “no one can understand the word …cheese‟ unless he has a nonlingu istic acquaintance with cheese.”1If, however, we follow Russell‟s fundamental precept and place our “emphasis upon the linguistic aspects of traditional philosophical problems,” then we are obliged to state that no one can understand the word “cheese” unl ess he has an acquaintance with the meaning assigned to this word in the lexical code of English. Any representative of a cheese-less culinary culture will understand the English word “cheese” if he is aware that in this language it means “food made of pre ssed curds” and if he has at least a linguistic acquaintance with “curds.” We never consumed ambrosia or nectar and have only a linguistic acquaintance with the words “ambrosia,” “nectar,” and “gods” - the name of their mythical users; nonetheless, we understand these words and know in what contexts each of them may be used.The meaning of the words “cheese,” “apple,” “nectar,” “acquaintance,” “but,” “mere,” and of any word or phrase whatsoever is definitely a linguistic - or to be more precise and less narrow - a semiotic fact. Against those who assign meaning (signatum) not to the sign, but to the thing itself, the simplest and truest argument would be that nobody has ever smelled or tasted the meaning of “cheese” or of “apple.” There is no signatum without signum. The meaning of the word “cheese” cannot be inferred from a nonlinguistic acquaintance with cheddar or with camembert without the assistance of the verbal code. An array of linguistic signs is needed to introduce an unfamiliar word. Mere pointing will not teach us whether “cheese” is the name of the given specimen, or of any box of camembert, or of camembert in general or of any cheese, any milk product, any food, any refreshment, or perhaps any box irrespective of contents. Finally, does a word simply name the thing in question, or does it imply a meaning such as offering, sale, prohibition, or malediction? (Pointing actually may mean malediction; in some cultures, particularly in Africa, it is an ominous gesture.)For us, both as linguists and as ordinary word-users, the meaning of any linguistic sign is its translation into some further, alternative sign, especially a sign “in which it is more fully developed” as Peirce, the deepest inquirer into the essence of signs, insistently stated.2The term “bachelor” may be converted into a more explicit designation, “unmarried man,” whenever higher explicitness is required. We distinguish three ways of interpreting a verbal sign: it may be translated into other signs of the same language, into another language, or into another, nonverbal system of symbols. These three kinds of translation are to be differently labeled:1 Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs bymeans of other signs of the same language.2 Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signsby means of some other language.3 Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs bymeans of signs of nonverbal sign systems.The intralingual translation of a word uses either another, more or less synonymous, word or resorts to a circumlocution. Yet synonymy, as a rule, is not complete equivalence: for example, “every celibate is a bachelor, but not every bachelor is a celibate.” A word or an idiomatic phrase-word, briefly a code-unit of the highest level, may be fully interpreted only by means of an equivalent combination of code-units, i.e., a message referring to this code-unit: “every bachelor is an unmarried man, and every unmarried man is a bachel or,” or “every celibate is bound not to marry, and everyone who is bound not to marry is a celibate.”Likewise, on the level of interlingual translation, there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units, while messages may serve as adequate interpretations of alien code-units or messages. The English word “cheese” cannot be completely identified with its standard Russian heteronym “сыр,” because cottage cheese is a cheese but not a сыр. Russians say: принесисыруитворогу“bring cheese and [sic] cottage cheese.” In standard Russian, the food made of pressed curds is called сыр only if ferment is used.Most frequently, however, translation from one language into another substitutes messages in one language not for separate code-units but for entire messages in same other language. Such a translation is a reported speech; the translator recodes and transmits a message received from another source. Thus translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes.Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. Like any receiver of verbal messages, the linguist acts as their interpreter. No linguistic specimen may be interpreted by the science of language without a translation of its signs into other signs of the same system or into signs of another system. Any comparison of two languages implies an examination of their mutual translatability; widespread practice of interlingual communication, particularly translating activities, must be kept under constant scrutiny by linguistic science. It is difficult to overestimate the urgent need for and the theoretical and practical significance of differential bilingual dictionaries with careful comparative definition of all the corresponding units in their intention and extension. Likewise differential bilingual grammars should define what unifies and what differentiates the two languages in their selection and delimitation of grammatical concepts.Both the practice and the theory of translation abound with intricacies, and from time to time attempts are made to sever the Gordian knot by proclaiming the dogma of untranslatability. “Mr. Everyman, the natural logician,” vividly imagined by B. L. Whorf, is supposed to have arrived at the following bit of re asoning: “Facts are unlike to speakers whose language background provides for unlike formulation of them.”3 In the first years of the Russian revolution there were fanatic visionaries who argued in Soviet periodicals for a radical revision of traditional language and particularly for the weeding out of such misleading expressions as “sunrise” or “sunset.” Yet we still use this Ptolemaic imagery without implying a rejection of Copernican doctrine, and we can easily transform our customary talk about the rising and setting sun into a picture of the earth‟s rotation simply because any sign is translatable into a sign in which it appears to us more fully developed and precise.A faculty of speaking a given language implies a faculty of talking about this languag e. Such a “metalinguistic” operation permits revision and redefinition of thevocabulary used. The complementarity of both levels - object-language and metalanguage - was brought out by Niels Bohr: all well-defined experimental evidence must be expressed i n ordinary language, “in which the practical use of every word stands in complementary relation to attempts of its strict definition.”4All cognitive experience and its classification is conveyable in any existing language. Whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loan-words or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions. Thus in the newborn literary language of the Northeast Siberian Chukchees, “screw” is rendered as “rotating nail,” “steel” as “hard iron,” “tin” as “thin iron,” “chalk” as “writing soap,” “watch” as “hammering heart.” Even seemingly contradictory circumlocutions, like “electrical horse-ear” (электрическаяконка), the first Russian name of the horseless street ear, or “flying steamship” (jena paragot), the Koryak term for the airplane, simply designate the electrical analogue of the horse-ear and the flying analogue of the steamer and do not impede communication, just as there is no semantic “noise” and disturbance in th e double oxymoron - “cold beef-and-pork hot dog.”No lack of grammatical device in the language translated into makes impossible a literal translation of the entire conceptual information contained in the original. The traditional conjunctions “and,” “or” are now supplemented by a new connective - “and/or” - which was discussed a few years ago in the witty book Federal Prose - How to Write in and/or for Washington.5 Of these three conjunctions, only the latter occurs in one of the Samoyed languages.6Despite these differences in the inventory of conjunctions, all three varieties of messages observed in “federal prose” may be distinctly translated both into tradition al English and into this Samoyed language. Federal prose: 1) John and Peter, 2) John or Peter, 3) John and/ or Peter will come. Traditional English: 3) John and Peter or one of them will come. Samoyed: John and/ or Peter both will come, 2) John and/ or Peter, one of them will come.If some grammatical category is absent in a given language, its meaning may be translated into this language by lexical means. Dual forms like Old Russian брата are translated with the help of the numeral: “two brothers.” It is more difficult to remain faithful to the original when we translate into a language provided with a certaingrammatical category from a language devoid of such a category. When translating the English sentence “She has brothers” into a language which discriminates dual and plural, we are compelled either to make our own choice between two statements “She has two brothers” –“She has more than two” or to leave the decision to the listen er and say: “She has either two or more than two brothers.” Again in translating from a language without grammatical number into English one is obliged to select one of the two possibilities - “brother” or “brothers” or to confront the receiver of this mes sage with a two-choice situation: “She has either one or more than one brother.”As Boas neatly observed, the grammatical pattern of a language (as opposed to its lexical stock) determines those aspects of each experience that must be expressed in the give n language: “We have to choose between these aspects, and one or the other must be chosen.”7In order to translate accurately the English sentence “I hired a worker,” a Russian needs supplementary information, whether this action was completed or not and whether the worker was a man or a woman, because he must make his choice between a verb of completive or noncompletive aspect - нанял or нанимал - and between a masculine and feminine noun - работникаor работницу. If I ask the utterer of the English sentence whether the worker was male or female, my question may be judged irrelevant or indiscreet, whereas in the Russian version of this sentence an answer to this question is obligatory. On the other hand, whatever the choice of Russian grammatical forms to translate the quoted English message, the translation will give no answer to the question of whether I “hired” or “have hired” the worker, or whether he/she was an indefinite or definite worker (“a” or “the”). Because the information required by the English and Russian grammatical pattern is unlike, we face quite different sets of two-choice situations; therefore a chain of translations of one and the same isolated sentence from English into Russian and vice versa could entirely deprive such a message of its initial content. The Geneva linguist S. Karcevski used to compare such a gradual loss with a circular series of unfavorable currency transactions. But evidently the richer the context of a message, the smaller the loss of information.Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey. Each verb of a given language imperatively raises a set of specific yes-or-no questions, as for instance: is the narrated event conceived with or without reference toits completion? Is the narrated event presented as prior to the speed event or not? Naturally the attention of native speakers and listeners will be constantly focused on such items as are compulsory in their verbal code.In its cognitive function, language is minimally dependent on the grammatical pattern because the definition of our experience stands in complementary relation to metalinguistic operations - the cognitive level of language not only admits but directly requires recoding interpretation, i.e., translation. Any assumption of ineffable or untranslatable cognitive data would be a contradiction in terms. But in jest, in dreams, in magic, briefly, in what one would call everyday verbal mythology and in poetry above all, the grammatical categories carry a high semantic import. In these conditions, the question of translation becomes much mare entangled and controversial.Even such a category as grammatical gender, often cited as merely formal, plays a great role in the mythological attitudes of a speech community. In Russian the feminine cannot designate a male person, nor the masculine specify a female. Ways of personifying or metaphorically interpreting inanimate nouns are prompted by their gender. A test in the Moscow Psychological Institute (1915) showed that Russians, prone to personify the weekdays, consistently represented Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday as males and Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday as females, without realizing that this distribution was due to the masculine gender of the first three names (понедельник, вторник, четверг) as against the feminine gender of the others (среда, пятница, суббота). The fact that the word for Friday is masculine in some Slavic languages and feminine in others is reflected in the folk traditions of the corresponding peoples, which differ in their Friday ritual. The widespread Russian superstition that a fallen knife presages a male guest and a fallen fork a female one is determined by the masculine gender of нож“knife” and the feminine of вилка“fork” in Russian. In Slavic and o ther languages where “day” is masculine and “night” feminine, day is represented by poets as the lover of night. The Russian painter Repin was baffled as to why Sin had been depicted as a woman by German artists: he did not realize that “sin” is feminine i n German (die Sünde), but masculine in Russian (грех). Likewise a Russian child, while reading a translation of German tales, was astounded to find that Death, obviously a woman (Russian смерть, fem.), was pictured as an old man (German der Tod, masc.).My Sister Life, the title of a book of poems by Boris Pasternak, is quite natural in Russian, where “life” is feminine жизнь, but was enough to reduce to despair the Czech poet Josef Hora in his attempt to translate these poems, since in Czech this noun is masculine život.What was the initial question which arose in Slavic literature at its very beginning? Curiously enough, the translator‟s difficulty in preserving the symbolism of genders, and the cognitive irrelevance of this difficulty, appears to be the main topic of the earliest Slavic original work, the preface to the first translation of the Evangeliarium, made in the early 860‟s by the founder of Slavic letters and liturgy, Constantine the Philosopher, and recently restored and interpreted by A. Vaillant.8“Greek, when translated into another language, cannot always be reproduced identically, and that happens to each language being translated,” the Slavic apostle states. “Masculine nouns …river‟ and …star‟ in Greek, are feminine in another language as рекаand звездаin Slavic.” According to Vaillant‟s commentary, this divergence effaces the symbolic identification of the rivers with demons and of the stars with angels in the Slavic translation of two of Matthew‟s verses (7:25 and 2:9). But to this poetic obstacle, Saint Constantine resolutely opposes the precept of Dionysius the Areopagite, who called for chief attention to the cognitive values (силеразума) and not to the words themselves.In poetry, verbal equations become a constructive principle of the text. Syntactic and morphological categories, roots, and affixes, phonemes and their components (distinctive features) - in short, any constituents of the verbal code are confronted, juxtaposed, brought into contiguous relation according to the principle of similarity and contrast and carry their own autonomous signification. Phonemic similarity is sensed as semantic relationship. The pull, or to use a more erudite, and perhaps more precise term - paronomasia, reigns over poetic art, and whether its rule is absolute or limited, poetry by definition is untranslatable. Only creative transposition is possible: either intralingual transposition - from one poetic shape into another, or interlingual transposition - from one language into another, or finally intersemiotic transposition - from one system of signs into another, e.g., from verbal art into music, dance, cinema, or painting.If we were to translate into English the traditional formula Traduttore, traditore as “the translator is a betrayer,” we would deprive the Italian rhyming epigram of all itsparonomastic value. Hence a cognitive attitude would compel us to change this aphorism into a more explicit statement and to answer the questions: translator of what messages? betrayer of what values?Notes1 Bertrand Russell, «Logical Positivism,»Revue Internationale de Philosophie, IV(1950), 18; cf. p. 3.2 Cf. John Dewey, «Peirce‟s Theory of Lin guistic Signs, Thought, and Meaning,»The Journal of Philosophy, XLIII (1946), 91.3 Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality (Cambridge, Mass.,1956), p. 235.4 Niels Bohr, «On the Notions of Causality and Complementarity,»Dialectica, I(1948), 317f.5 James R. Masterson and Wendell Brooks Phillips, Federal Prose (Chapel Hill,N. C., 1948), p. 40f.6 Cf. Knut Bergsland, «Finsk-ugrisk og almen språkvitenskap,»Norsk Tidsskriftfor Sproavidenskap, xv (1949), 374f.7 Franz Boas, «Language,»General Anthropology (Boston, 1938), FP, 132f.8 Andre Vaillant, «Le Préface de l‟Évangeliaire vieux-slave,»Revue des ÉtudesSlaves, XXIV (1948), 5f.。
胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记Chapter11
胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记Chapter11Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 T he relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching1. Both linguistics and foreign language teaching take language as their subject.Linguistics is the scientific study of language, so it is clearly related withlanguage teaching. However, linguistics and language teaching differ in theirattitudes, goals and methods towards language.2. Linguistics regards language as a system of forms, while the field of foreignlanguage teaching considers it as a set of skills. Linguistics research isconcerned with the establishment of theories which explain the phenomenaof language use, whereas foreign language teaching aims at the learners’mastery of language.3. Applied linguistics serves to reconcile and combine linguistics and foreignlanguage teaching.(1) Applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction oflanguage learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to makebetter decisions on the goal and content of the teaching.(2) Applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistictheories have on the language teaching methodology.11.2 V arious linguistic views and their significance in language learning and teaching11.2.1 Traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description and a pre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latinor Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use ofLatin models, and the priority of written language. Prescription was its keytone.11.2.2 Structuralist linguisticsModern linguistics, in spite of theoretical diversities, is primarily descriptive. Structuralist linguistics describes linguistics features in terms ofstructures and systems. It describes the current spoken language, whichpeople use in daily communication. Its focus, however, is still ongrammatical structures.11.2.3 Transformational-generative (TG) linguisticsTG grammar sees language as a system of innate rules. A native speaker possesses a linguistic competence, or a language acquisition device.Although Chomsky does not intend to make his model a representation ofperformance, i.e., the language actually used in communication, appliedlinguistics find TG grammar useful in certain aspects. Butbecause it is aformal and abstract grammar, it remains limited in language teaching.11.2.4 Functional linguisticsTaking a semantic-sociolinguistic approach, M. A. K. Halliday’s systemic-functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used toperform various functions in social interaction. It concerns not only with theformal system of language but also the functions of language in society, andits scope is wider than that of former theories.11.2.5 The theory of communicative competenceThe concept competence originally comes from Chomsky. It refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do withthe actual use of language in concrete situations. This concept of linguisticcompetence has been criticized for being too narrow. To expand the conceptof competence, D. H. Hymes (1971) proposes communicative competence,which has four components:1. Possibility – the ability to produce grammatical sentences;2. Feasibility – the ability to produce sentences which can be decodedby the human brain;3. Appropriateness –the ability to use correct forms of language in aspecific socio-cultural context;4. Performance – the fact that the utterance is completed.What is the role of grammar in language teaching?Currently, the general consensus is that although language learning should be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial for language learners to pay a certain degree of attention to the study of grammar.Research in second language acquisition has indicated that grammar has its due value in the process of language learning. The study of grammar facilitates the internalization of the structures of the target language. The problems unsolved are what grammar or what aspects of grammar learners should learn and how they can learn them.11.3 S yllabus design11.3.1 What is syllabus?Syllabus is the planning of a course of instruction. It is a description of the course content, teaching procedures and learning experiences.11.3.2 Major factors in syllabus design1. Selecting participants2. Process3. Evaluation11.3.3 Types of syllabus1. Structural syllabus: Influenced by structuralist linguistics, thestructural syllabus is a grammar-oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness. The major drawback of such a syllabus is that it concentrates only on the grammatical forms and the meaning ofindividual words, whereas the meaning of the whole sentence is thought to be self-evident, whatever its context may be. As a result, students trained by a structural syllabus often prove to be communicatively incompetent.2. Situational syllabus: The situational syllabus does not havea stronglinguistic basis, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of this syllabus is specifying the situations in which the target language is used. The selection and organization of language items are based on situations. Because it relies on structuralist grammar, it is essentially grammatical. The situations described in a textbook cannot be truly “authentic.”Moreover, the arrangement of the situations is not systematic.3. Notional-functional syllabus: Notional-functional syllabus is directlyin fluenced by Halliday’s functional grammar and Hymes’s theory of communicative competence. Notion refers to the meaning one wants to convey, while function refers to what one can do with the language. Its problems are: first of all it is impossible to make an exhaustive list of notions and functions, and it is hard to order them scientifically. Secondly, there is on one-to-one relationship between notions / functions and language forms. Thirdly, the notional-functional syllabus treats language as isolated units, only they are notional rather than structural isolates. Such a syllabus cannot achieve the communicative competence which it aims at.4. Communicative syllabus: The communicative syllabus aims at thelearner’s communicative competence. Based on a noti onal-functional syllabus, it teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.5. Fully communicative syllabus: The communicative syllabus stressesthat linguistic competence is only a part of communicative competence. If we focus on communicative skills, most areas of linguistic competence will be developed naturally. Therefore, what we should teach is communication through language rather than language for communication.6. Communicative-grammatical approach (only cases, so this part isomitted.)11.4 L anguage learning11.4.1 Grammar and language learning1. Focus on form: Although language learning should generally bemeaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessaryand beneficial to focus on form occasionally.2. Universal grammar: A theory which claims to account for thegrammatical competence of every adult no matter what language heor she speaks. It claims that every speaker knows a set of principleswhich apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that canvary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.11.4.2 Input and language learningThe Input hypothesis is a theory proposed by Krashen (1985) to deal with the relationship between language input and learner s’acquiringlanguage. According to this hypothesis, learners acquire a language as aresult of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen brought forwardthe concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language that learners are exposed toshould be just far enough beyond their current competence that they canunderstand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input shouldneither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so closeto their current stage that they are not challenged at all.11.4.3 Interlanguage in language learningInterlanguage is a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. It formed when the learner attempts to learn a newlanguage, and it has features of both the first language and the secondlanguage but is neither.11.5 E rror analysis11.5.1 Errors, mistakes, and error analysis[In this part, there is difference between my understandings (according to the reference book I used) of errors and mistakes. According to IntroducingLinguistics by Professor Yang Zhong, errors and mistakesmean differentlyfrom what they mean in Professor Hu’s book. Refer to section 9.3“Analyzing learn ers’language”on pages 122~123 of Yang’s book. –icywarmtea]1. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.2. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correctgrammatically but improper in a communicational context.3. Lapse: Lapse refers to slips of the tongue or pen made by eitherforeign language learners or native speakers.4. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and isconfined to the language learner.11.5.2 Attitudes to errors1. The structuralist view2. The post-structuralist view11.5.3 Procedure of error analysis1. Recognition2. Description3. Explanation11.5.4 Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis1. Contrastive analysis (CA): CA is the comparison of the linguisticsystems of two languages. E.g. the comparison of the sound or thegrammatical system.2. Transfer: Transfer refers to the carrying over of learned behaviorfrom one situation to another.(1) Positive transfer (facilitation): Positive transfer is learning inone situation which helps or facilitates learning in another latersituation. E.g. when the structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer.(2) Negative transfer (interference): Negative transfer is learning inone situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.3. Overgeneralization: A process common in both first and secondlanguage learning, in which a learner extends the use of agrammatical rule of linguistic item beyond its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more regularpattern. E.g. in the sentence “* He speaked English.”, “speaked” iswrong (overgeneralized).4. Hypercorrection: Overgeneralization of a rule in language use. E.g.some learners constantly miss the articles in English, and after theyare corrected, they tend to overuse them.11.6 T esting11.6.1 Two different approaches to testing1. Psycholinguistic-structuralist approach2. Psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic approach11.6.2 Types of test1. Aptitude test: Aptitude tests attempt to measure the learner’saptitude or natural abilities to learn languages. This type of testusually consists of some different tests which measure respectivelythe ability to identify and remember sound patterns in a new language, etc. In order to assess these abilities, artificial languagesare often employed.2. Proficiency test: The purpose of proficiency tests is to discover whatthe testee already knows about the target language. Proficiency testsare not concerned with any particular course but the learner’sgeneral level of language mastery. An example of proficiency tests isthe American TOEFL.3. Achievement test: Achievement tests assess how much a learner hasmastered the contents of a particular course. Clearly, the items insuch tests should be based on what has been taught. The midtermand final term exams held in schools and colleges are often typicaltests of this kind.4. Diagnostic test: Diagnostic tests are designed to discover mainlywhat the testee does not know about the language, e.g. a diagnosticEnglish pronunciation test may be used to show which sounds astudent is and is not able to pronounce. A test of such kind can helpthe teacher to find out what is wrong with the previous learning andwhat should be included in the future work.11.6.3 Requirements of a good testValidity and reliability are the two basic requirements for a good test, as was proposed by R. Lado (1961).1. Validity is the degree to which a test measure what is meant to. If thecandidates know some items before the exam the validity will bereduced. There are four kinds of validity.(1) Content validity refers to the extent to which the test adequatelycovers the syllabus area to be tested.(2) Construct validity requires the test to prove the theoreticalconstruct whereupon it is based.(3) Empirical validity demands the results of the test to correlatewith some external criteria.(4) Face validity is based on the subjective judgment of an observer,unlike the other forms of validity. If the test appears to bemeasuring what it intends to measure, the test is consideredtohave face validity.2. Reliability can be defined as consistency. If a test produces the sameresults when given to the same candidates twice in succession orgraded by different people, it is regarded as having a high degree ofreliability. There are two kinds of reliability.(1) Stability reliability is estimated by testing and retesting the samecandidates and ten correlating their scores.(2) Equivalence reliability means that a measuring device isequivalent to another if they produce the same results when used on the same objects and subjects.11.6.4 Test contents and test form1. Structural tests2. Communicative tests11.6.5 Marking and interpretation of scores 11.7 S ummary(Omit.)。
Linguistic Features of Business English and Its Tr
• With regard to the translation of names, attention should be
paid to the specific nouns. For example, “Mr. Wang” may be translated into Chinese “王先生” or “汪先生”. So, if the translator can not decide what the “Mr. Wang” refers to, he should do some investigations rather than guess by himself. The translation about the name of a company is also common in business translation
For example: Party A shall have a right of first refusal whenever
party B wishes to sell an .B方任何时候有意出售其持有之本集团任何股份，A方一
律拥有优先拒绝权。
Linguistic Features of Business English and Its Translation
Abstract
– The article analyses the linguistic features of business English from three aspects: words, sentence and text. I think that business English translators should follow the three principles of “faithfulness, exactness and consistency”. “Faithfulness” is the first principle for business English translators to follow; “exactness” is the key of these three principles; “consistency” can give us a unified and standard translation.
Paralinguistic features of languages
Paralinguistic (副语言学的)features of languagesGood morning, everyone. Today we'll continue our discussion on describing language. Last week we examined such features of language as grammar, vocabulary, the sounds of language, etc. In this lecture, we'll look at another important aspect of language. Perhaps some of you may wonder what is this important aspect of language. Let me tell you. It refers to features of communication that takes place without the use of grammar and vocabulary.They are called ‘paralinguistic (副语言学的)features of language'. These features fall into two broad categories: those that involve voice and those that involve the body. Now, the first category, is what we call vocal （有声的，发音的）paralinguistic features.Vocal features are actually tones of voice. While they are, perhaps, not central to meaning in communication in the same way as grammar or vocabulary, they may, nevertheless, convey attitude or intention in some way. Let me give you some examples. The first is whispering （耳语，低语）, which indicates the needs for secrecy. The second is breathiness. This is to show deep emotion. The third is huskiness（粗嘎声）, which is to show unimportants. The fourth is nasality（用鼻音发声）. This is to indicate anxiety. The last is extra lip-rounding, which expresses greater intimacy,expecially with babies, for example. So we can see that there are a number of ways of altering our tone of voice. And when we do this consciously, we do it tocreate different effects in communication.Now, let's come to the second category, physical paralinguistic features, which involves the body. In addition to convey meanings with tone of voice, we can also express our intentions through the ways in which we use our bodies. You may ask: what are the ways, then? Let me sight some brief examples. The expression on our face, the gestures we make and even proximity(接近，附近）or way we sit, are some of the ways we send powerful messages. About how we feel, or what we mean. Let me explain some of these in more detail. First, facial expression. Facial expression is a powerful conveyer of meaning. We all know smiling is an almost universal signal of pleasure or welcome. But there are other facial expressions that may not be so common. For instance, raising eye-brows（眉毛）- suggest that you are surprised or interested in something. Other facial actions, such as biting your lip, which indicates that you are deep in thinking, or are uncertain about something; compressing the lips, which show that you are making decisions; and a visible clenching （咬紧）of the teeth, to show that you are angry, are all powerful conveyers of meaning, too. The second in this category is gesture. You see, we use gesture to indicate a wide range of meanings. Though I have to emphasize that the actual gestures we use may be specific to particular cultures. That is to say different cultures have their own favorite gestures in conveying meaning. Here, a few examples may show you how powerful gestures can be. In British English behavior, shrugging shoulders may indicate an attitude of ‘I don't care', or ‘I don't know'. Crossing your arms may indicate relaxation. But it can also powerfully show you are bored. Waving can mean welcome and farewell. While scratching（抓，挠）your head may indicate that you are at a loss. In other cultures, placing your hand upon your heart is to indicate that you are telling the truth. Pointing your finger at your nose means it's a secret. That's why we say that gestures are culture bound（界限）. The third is proximity, posture and echoing. Proximity refers to the physical distance between speakers. This can indicate a number of things and can also be used to consciously send messages about intent. Closeness, for example, indicates intimacy or threat to many speakers. But distance may show formality, or lack of interest. Once again, I'd like to say, proximity is also both a matter of personal style, and is often culture bound. So, what may seem normal to a speaker from one culture may appear unnecessarily close or distant to a speaker from another. And standing close to someone may be quite appropriate in some situations such as an informal party, but completely out of place in other situations, such as a meeting with a superior. Next, posture. Posture means the way in which someone holds his or her body, especially the back, shoulders and head, when standing, walking or sitting. A few examples. Hunched（使...隆起）shoulders and a hanging head give a powerful indication of whether the person is happy or not. A lowered head when speaking to a superior, with or without eye contact can convey the appropriate relationship in some cultures. On theother hand, direct level eye contact, changes the nature of interaction, and can been seen as either open or challenging. Last, echoing. Now, what is echoing? Let me start with an example. Some of you may have noticed this phenomenon in your experience. When two people are keen to agree each other, they would likely, though unconsciously adopt the same posture, as if an imitation（模仿）of each other. They sit or stand in the same manor. When used in this way, echoing appears to complement the verbal communication. Of course, when such imitation is carried out consciously, it often indicates that someone is marking at another speaker.Ok, in today's lecture,we looked at some paralinguistic features, such as tone of voice, gesture and posture. These features, together with linguistic features of language, like grammar, or vocabulary, are all part of the way we communicate with each other in face to face encounters. In our next lecture, we'll watch some video material, and see how people actually use paralinguistic means in communication to express their intention or desire or mood.I. Vocal Paralinguistic Features1. whispering- the needs for secrecy2. breathiness- deep emotion3. huskiness- unimportants4. nasality- anxiety5. extra lip-rounding- greater intimacyII. physical paralinguistic features1. facial expression- powerful conveyer of meaning.--e.g.1 smiling: pleasure or welcome--e.g.2 raising eye-brows: surprised or interested in something--e.g.3 biting your lip:deep in thinking/ uncertain about something--e.g.4 compressing the lips: making decisions--e.g.5 clenching of the teeth: angry2. gesture- culture bound--e.g.1 shrugging shoulders: 'I don't care', or 'I don't know'--e.g.2 crossing your arms: relaxation/ bored--e.g.3 waving: welcome and farewell--e.g.4 scratching your head: at a loss--e.g.5 placing your hand upon your heart: telling the truth --e.g.6 pointing your finger at your nose: it's a secret3. proximity, posture and echoing1). proximity: personal style & culture bound--e.g.1 closeness: intimacy, threat--e.g.2 distance: fomality, lack of interest2). posture: the way in which someone holds his or her body--e.g.1 Hunched shoulders and a hanging head: happy or。
翻译与批评----潜力与制约解读
These last criteria gain significance when judging the translation of form-focused and appeal-focus text. P.64
In any event, translator will most probably acknowledge the principle that critics should regard it as a self-evident presupposition never to make a judgment without first consulting the original.
3.2 The lexical elements
If full equivalence with the source text is the criterion by which the semantic components of the target text are to be judged, the standard for the lexical components must be adequacy. P.57
Microcontext usually embraces only the words in the immediate context, only rarely extending beyond the limits of a sentence, while the macrocontext can include not only the paragraph but the whole of the text. P. 53
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语言学的英语作文
Linguistics is the scientific study of language,encompassing its structure, development,and use in communication.Here are some key aspects to consider when writing an essay on linguistics:1.Introduction to Linguistics:Begin your essay by defining linguistics and its significance in understanding human communication.Mention the various branches of linguistics such as phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,and pragmatics.2.Historical Development:Discuss the evolution of linguistics as a discipline,from the early studies of language by ancient Greeks and Romans to the modern structural and generative linguistics of the20th century.3.Phonetics and Phonology:Explain the difference between these two subfields. Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds,while phonology is the study of the abstract system of sounds in a language.4.Morphology:Describe how linguistics looks at the structure of words,including the smallest units of meaning morphemes and how they combine to form words.5.Syntax:Discuss the rules that govern the arrangement of words and phrases to create wellformed sentences in a language.6.Semantics and Pragmatics:Explain how semantics deals with meaning in language, while pragmatics is concerned with how context influences the interpretation of meaning.7.Sociolinguistics:Explore how language varies with different social groups and how it reflects social identity and power dynamics.8.Psycholinguistics:Mention the study of language processing in the mind,including how language is acquired,understood,and produced.putational Linguistics:Discuss the intersection of linguistics and computer science,focusing on how machines can be programmed to understand and generate human language.nguage Change:Address the dynamic nature of languages and the factors that contribute to their evolution,such as borrowing,diffusion,and internal changes.nguage and Culture:Reflect on the relationship between language and culture,and how language can both reflect and shape cultural practices and worldviews.12.Endangered Languages:Discuss the issue of language endangerment and the efforts to document and preserve languages that are at risk of disappearing.13.Conclusion:Summarize the importance of linguistics in understanding not just languages,but also the human mind and society.Highlight the interdisciplinary nature of linguistics and its applications in various fields such as education,translation,and artificial intelligence.Remember to support your essay with relevant examples and references to linguistic theories or research e clear and precise language to convey complex concepts, and ensure your essay is wellstructured with a logical flow of ideas.。
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2462019年12期总第452期翻译研究ENGLISH ON CAMPUSOn Linguistic Features of Translationese in English-Chinese Translation文/张啸宇【Abstract】With the increasingly extensive international communication and culture exchange, translation, as an important communicative media, undertakes the responsibility to facilitate interlingually mutual understanding. It isevident that the translation between English and Chinese is the most frequent one among all interlingual translations. In the course of translating English to Chinese, translationese arises, which has features distinct from both ST (Source Language) and TL (Target Language) and influences both of them. So far, the study on translationese has becomea focus of scholars at home and abroad. On the basis of the analysisof original English and Chinesecorpuses, the comparison will be done between original corpus and translation corpus, especially English-Chinese translation corpus, in attempt to explore the linguistic features of translationese in English-Chinese translation.【Key words】Linguistic features; translationese; English-Chinese translation【作者简介】张啸宇(1998-)，男，山东莱芜人，武汉大学外国语言文学学院2016级本科生。
conjunction words in English, such as “if” in this sentence, are always omitted in Chinese in ordinary context. Therefore, “如果你想来你就来” is a typical version of translationese(2) Translationese in E-C translation features the over-frequent use of inanimate subjects. It’s known that impersonal subjects are more common in English than in Chinese. For instance, the decent Chinese expression of “Bitterness fed on the man who had made the world laugh” is “这位曾给全世界带来欢笑的人，自己却饱尝辛酸” instead of “苦痛哺育了这位曾使全世界欢笑的人”. Apparently, the latter version is translationese because in Chinese, it is not frequent to start a sentence with an inanimate subject.(3) The overuse of passive voice is another featureof Translationese in E-C translation. In English, passive voice is used more widely and it can be applied to morecontexts. While passive voice is less common in Chinese. To illustrate, the translationese version of “the importance of oceanography is seldom appreciated by people” is，which evidently mars the smooth expression of original Chinese.Therefore, by comparison, “人们几乎不理解海洋学的重要性”is more readily accepted version.2. ConclusionTranslation is not merely a trans-lingual communicationprocess, but a trans-cultural one, in a deep layer. Based on the full understanding of original linguistic features of languages, the trace of translationese can be more likely to be eliminated.References：[1]Ren Xiaofei. On Formal Correspondence of C/E Translation in Terms of Hypotaxis and Parataxis[J]. Chinese Translators Journal,23, 33-35.[2]He Shanfen, Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese Languag-es[J].2002.1. Literature reviewT h i s pa r t w i l l m a i n l y p re s e n t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f translationese given by certain famous scholars and will point out its linguistic features.1.1 Definitions of translationeseIn The Theory and Practice of Translation, Eugene. A. Nidadefined translationese as “formal fidelity with no no constantattention to the content and the effect of the message”. Almost 20 years later, in A Textbook of Translation, Peter Newmark described it as “literal translation that makes littlesense or is unnatural”. In Dictionary of Translation Studies, “translationese” is defined as “A general pejorative term used to refer to TL usage which because of its obvious reliance on features of SL is perceived as unnatural, impenetrable or even comical”. Therefore, translationese should be understood as a degenerative target language which, to a large extent, is effected by the source language, particularly in theaspect of language-syntax.1.2 Features of translationese in English-Chinese translationAccording to the definitions of translationese mentioned above, we are clear that the SL influences translationese so deeply that translationese is different from original TL in light of the syntactic level. Therefore, it is of great necessity to discuss the differences between translationese and TL as well as the features of translationese. I sum up three main features of translationese in English-Chinese translation as follow.(1) Translationese in E-C translation features thesuperfluous use of preposition and conjunction words dueto its reliance on the syntactic manner of English. It has beenacknowledged among most linguists that English is more hypotactic while Chinese is more paratactic. For example,“想来你就来吧”, rather than “如果你想来你就来”, is the standard translation of “Come if you like”. Because the。