Word order in questions PPT
小学英语阅读ppt课件ppt课件
1. User satisfaction
Collect user satisfaction with the product through surveys, online evaluations, and other methods to understand user evaluations of product functionality, performance, usability, and other aspects.
3. Customer retention rate
Pay attention to the continuity and loyalty of users in using the product, understand whether users are willing to use the product for the long term, and the value and attractiveness of the product to users.
In the PPT courseware, list the core vocabulary related to the reading materials and provide example sentences and explanations to help students understand and remember.
Reading comprehension exercises
Multiple choice exercises are a common type of reading comprehension exercise They believe of a series of questions with four or five possible answers, and students must select the correct answer from the given options These exercises are designed to test students' understanding of the reading material and their ability to analyze and evaluate information critically
Word Order
• There are no verb conjugations in Chinese language in strict sense,mainly the word order is the grammatical constituent of Chinese language.Chinese sentences are made up of six elements,namely:subject,predicate,object,attr ibutive,adverbial and complement.The word order of a Chinese sentence contains the following features:
tips
• In Chinese language,the word order sometimes contains logical relations,eg: • 他去商店买东西。 • 他买东西去商店。（错）
Sentence Elements
• The attributive precedes the center-words to function as a modifier,eg: • 好茶 • 我的电话号码 • 学校的老师 • 她来北京的时间是三年以前
• 长城是来北京游览的人都要参观的世界闻 名的古迹
• The complement is put after the verb or the adjective to make some additional remarks,eg: • 杯子打碎了 • 他吃完饭就走 • 我说的话你听懂了吗 • 对不起，我来晚了 • 孩子已经睡着了 • 书放在书架上
• Generally,the subject always precedes the prdicate,eg: •ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้这 是我姐姐 • 咖啡 很好喝 • 你们 去哪？ • 我们 喝茶 • 她 头疼 • 上午 有人给你打电话
全新版大学英语4综合教程Unit3完整ppt课件
1. Questions about your experience and your skills.
2. Questions about your interest in the job and knowledge about the company.
Text B • Information about Text • Assignment
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Background Information
Who is Harvey Mackay ?
Harvey Mackay is the author of the New York Times, the bestsellers Swim With The Sharks Without Being Eaten
characters and activities showing these
characters
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• 5. End by requesting an interview. Provide a phone number so the employer can contact you quickly. If you can be reached only at certain times, specify them.—— the third part of the letter.（ In China, application letter is given with resume, so we don’t have to write address and other means for contact）
语言学第四章 ppt课件
性关系
语言学第四章
• EX:
• The _______ smiles.
•
man
•
boy
•
girl
语言学第四章
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
• 替代关系 • The Relation of Substitutability
• , and Paradigmatic Relations （聚合关系） by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的 创始人和主要理论家 ).To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系） or Choice Relations.
语言学第四章
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
语言学第四章
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.(词的单位）
Lesson 1.5 - Word order matters
Lesson 1.5: Word order mattersAccess Lesson 1.5 slides hereThe previous lesson focused on choosing words to use in your query. This lesson concentrates on the way you enter those words, and how those choices impact your results.1. Every word mattersAs you saw in the last lesson, every word you enter into a query has the potential to impact your results. Consider the difference among your results for [who], [a who], and [the who].If you search for [who], what do you expect to see?If you use a query like [who], you get the World Health Organization as the very first result. Notice that the word WHO appears in the title and the web address, and consider that this site is linked to by many other sites around the web.Now, add a single word to the front of that: [a who]. The article "a" added to the front suggests a whole different kind of set of results.In this case, the Internet Movie Database result for Horton Hears a Who! appear first. The first several results focus on the Dr. Seuss book and the movie with this title.Notice that even tiny words, like a single a, could make a big difference, since Google knows that you want to be able to distinguish between the World Health Organization and Horton Hears a Who!To test this out further, consider the query [the who].Again, the meaning of the query changes a lot with the addition of the small word the, bringing you results about the band called The Who.Every small word has the potential to change your results.2. Word order mattersAnother element that can have an impact on your results is the order in which you type in your search terms.Compare the results of the searches [blue sky] and [sky blue].For [sky blue], you start with a science website that talks about why the sky is blue, and then move on to teams and businesses with sky blue in their name. If you switch the order of those two words to [blue sky], you see you see a different set of businesses and movies with blue sky in the name. These examples demonstrate how word order changes meaning, and why word order is so important for determining what you want to find.If it's a natural sequence to you, it's probably the right term to use in the sequence for your query.3. Capitalization does not matterMany people believe that Google pays a lot of attention to the details of words, such as their capitalization. In reality, misspellings, capitalization and special characters don't matter all that much. Consider some examples of that:Consider [red Delicious] and [rEd dElIcIoUs].[red Delicious][rEd dElIcIoUs]Notice that the results are the same. Google does not see uppercase or lowercase in your search terms.4. Punctuation does not matterSimilarly, Google does not see special characters. For example, Google ignores the section symbol (§), paragraph symbol (¶), Yen symbol (¥), Euro symbol (€), and several other special characters in your query. As a result, a query like this [© 2010] only searches for [2010].However, there are a few characters that do make a big difference. Google is able to see the plus sign (+) (e.g., Google+ or C++ or +Google), the pound sign (#), the at symbol (@) and more. Google can also see the dollar sign ($).5. Spelling matters, but you have helpGoogle is extremely good at fixing spelling errors. It turns out that some names are harder to spell than others. Britney Spears is a great case in point. So, if you search for something like Britney with three t's, Spears, Google corrects the error automatically.It finds what you were looking for and actually gives you the correction, showing results for Britney Spears spelled correctly. You still have the option to search for your original spelling, since Google gives a link offering for you to search instead for Brittteny (with three t's) Spears. If, for some reason, you have a friend who spells it with three t's, you can actually find her that way.Keep in mind that the Google spelling correction algorithm is extremely good, and often will help you out in tremendous ways.Takeaways:●Most special characters are ignored, but there are a few that it will search for.●The order in which you type in words matters.●Capitalization doesn't matter.●Punctuation is mostly ignored.●Google will help check spelling.Please give the activity a try!Power Searching with Google © 2012 Google, Inc.。
6.WordOrder
Explaining Syntactic Universals(M ARTIN H ASPELMATH, LSA Institute, MIT, LSA.206, 4 August 2005)6. Universals of word order1. Word order in generative grammar and in typologyWord order is perhaps the most widely discussed grammatical phenomenon in Chomskyan generative grammar (it's much less prominent in other grammatical frameworks such as Relational Grammar, Lexical-Functional Grammar, Role and Reference Grammar, Functional Grammar).Word order is also the area with the best-known typologicalcorrelations/implicational universals (the "Greenbergian word order correlations", Dryer 1992).Greenberg (1963) was building on the work of predecessors such as Schmidt (1926):Universal 36:UA#2000If the genitive precedes the noun it modifies, the language has suffixes and postpositions; if the genitive follows the noun, the language has prefixes and prepositions.Schmidt 1926:382"Steht der affixlose Genitiv vor dem Substantiv, welches er näher bestimmt, so ist dieSprache eine Suffixsprache eventuell mit Postpositionen, steht der Genitiv nach, so ist sie eine Präfixsprache eventuell mit Präpositionen."Universal 37: UA#2000If the genitive precedes the noun, the object precedes the verb; if the genitive follows the noun, the object follows the verb.Schmidt 1926:384"...wird die Voranstellung des Akkusativs vor das Verb in den weitaus meisten Fällen in solchen Sprachen geübt, die auch den Genitiv voranstellen, und ebenso findet sichNachstellung des Objektes überwiegend in den Sprachen mit Genitivnachstellung."– But generative grammarians have typically been occupied with rather different phenomena than word order typologists – because they have been prominently concerned with achieving elegant/cognitively realistic descriptions of individual languages.2. Verb positioning in generative grammarverb-subject inversion in English:(1) a. You will marry me.b. Will you marry me?(2) CP (Radford 2004:152; 'movement' is mentioned here for the first time)C TPmarry meverb-second word order in German (and other Germanic languages):(3) a.Katja hilft heute Oma. 'Katja is helping granny today.'b.Heute hilft Katja Oma.c.Oma hilft Katja heute.(4) ...dass Katja heute Oma hilft.'...that Katja is helping granny today.'(5) CP(spec) C'• such abstract movement operations lead to elegant accounts of underlying word order in these languages• but often these accounts do not make any further claimsRadford 2004:– why should auxiliaries move from T to C in questions?– C is a strong head; a strong head position has to be filled– in main-clause questions, it is filled by a null question particle Q– Q is affixal and therefore must attach to something;it bears a strong tense feature and hence attracts the head of TPanalogously for German:– C is filled by a null declarative particle(?)– but why is spec-C filled in declaratives but not in questions?• such abstract analyses only become interesting when they make falsifiable predictions (e.g. V-to-T movement only occurs when the verb bears significant agreement morphology; cf. older English/French vs. modern English)subject T NEG V object(6) a. French Aïcha (n') aime i pas t i Mahmoud.b. 16thc. English Julia loves i not t i Romeo.c. modern English Pedro (does) not love Doloresd. Haitian Boukinèt pa renmen Bouki? Universal 38:If a VO language has significant subject-agreement morphology on its finite verb, it has a postverbal negative particle (and vice versa?).3. The Greenbergian Word Order CorrelationsUniversals 39ff:If a language has dominant VO (=verb-object) order, it tends to have the orders in the left-hand column of Table 1; if a language has dominant OV (=object-verb) order, it tends to have the orders in the right-hand column.Table 1.Correlation pairs reported in Dryer 1992VO correlate OV correlateadposition - NP NP - adpositioncopula verb - predicate predicate - copula verb‘want’ - VP VP - ‘want’tense/aspect auxiliary verb - VP VP - tense/aspect auxiliary verb negative auxiliary - VP VP - negative auxiliarycomplementizer - S S - complementizerquestion particle - S S - question particleadverbial subordinator - S S - adverbial subordinatorarticle - N' N' - articleplural word - N' N' - plural wordnoun - genitive genitive - nounnoun - relative clause relative clause - nounadjective - standard of comparison standard of comparison - adjectiveverb - PP PP - verbverb - manner adverb manner adverb - verbEach of the correlation pairs also tends to correlate with each of the other correlation pairs. So in fact we have 14! universals here.4. The head directionality parameter4.1. Heads vs. complements (vs. specifiers)Chomsky & Lasnik (1993:518)"We assume that orderings are determined by a few parameter settings. Thus in English, a right-branching language, all heads precede their complements, while in Japanese, a left-branching language, all heads follow their complements; the order is determined by one setting of the head parameter."earlier discussions in Lightfoot (1979:52), Hawkins (1983), Haider (1986:130-141); following Vennemann's (1974) pre-X-bar-theory account in terms of the quasi-semantic notions "operator"/"operand" (roughly, 'modifier/head')Lightfoot (1979:52) also includes "specifiers":"...This permits a grammar to have specifiers of all categories either preceding or following the head; thus all specifiers will be on the same side...if the specifier precedes the head, the complement will follow it, and vice versa...So in English all specifiers precede the head and all complements follow."(7) [the dog] (8) [the picture of Mary][has gone] [lies on the table][right to the kennel] [on the table]But how are operand/operator, head/dependent, head/complement/specifier defined?– Are articles and auxiliaries specifiers or heads?– Are possessive NPs complements or specifiers?– How do relative clauses and manner adverbs fit in?– Wouldn't the order of adjectives, demonstatives, numerals and degreeadverbs be predicted to correlate as well?(I have not found clear answers to these questions. The head directionality parameter's predictions are never discussed in detail, not even in Zepter 2003.)4.2. What to do with exceptionsNone of the correlations is exceptionless. All are statistical universals:Dryer 2005d,b verb-objectobject-verbDryer2005a,bverb-initialverb-finalprep-noun 417 10 prep-noun89 8noun-postp 38 427 noun-postp6 331Dryer 2005d,e verb-objectobject-verbDryer2005d,fverb-objectobject-verbnoun-genitive 352 30 noun-relative370 96genitive-noun 113 434 relative-noun5 109Table 4. Table 5.Dryer 2005e,fnoun-genitivegenitive-nounDryer2005d,gverb-objectobject-verbnoun-relative 291 135 AdvSub-clause279 54relative-noun1(Tigré)107 clause-AdvSub3(Buduma,Guajajara,Yindjibarndi)136If the correlations are to be explained by a head directionality parameter, why would there be exceptions? The directionality parameter predicts that such languages should not be acquirable.Is UG perhaps only a kind of preference structure? Prepositions or prenominal relative clauses in OV languages would be dispreferred by UG, but still learnable (or perhaps by a non-core, non-UG general learning mechanism).Prediction: rare types should be harder to learn(no evidence for this prediction; Newmeyer 1998:§3.3)4.3. What to do with relative quantitiesBaker (2001: 134):"Since the difference between English-style and Japanese-style word order is attributable to a single parameter [Head Directionality], there is only one decision to make by coin flip: heads, heads are initial; tails, heads are final. So we expect roughly equal numbers of English-type and Japanese-type languages.... Within the head-initial languages, however, it requires two further decisions to get a verb-initial, Welsh-type language [the Subject Placement Parameter and the Verb Attraction Parameter]: Subjects must be added early and tense auxiliaries must host verbs. If either of these decisions is made in the opposite way, then subject-verb-object order will still emerge. If the decisions were made by coin flips, we would be predict that about 25 percent of the head-initial languages would be of the Welsh type and 75 percent of the English type. This too is approximately correct …"Newmeyer (2005:§3.2.2.4):"There are serious problems as well with the idea that the rarity of a language type is positively correlated with the number of ‘decisions’ (i. e. parametric choices) that a language learner has to make. Baker’s discussion of verb-initial languages implies that for each parameter there should be a roughly equal number of languages with positive and negative settings. That cannot possibly be right.There are many more non-polysynthetic languages than polysynthetic ones, despite the fact that whether a language is one or the other is a matter of a yes-no choice. The same point could be made for subject-initial head-first languages vis-à-vis subject-last ones and nonoptional polysynthesis languages vis-à-vis optional polysynthetic ones."4.4. The challenge from AntisymmetryKayne (1994:47):"If UG unfailingly imposes [Specifier-Head-Complement] order, there cannot be any directionality parameter in the standard sense of the term. The difference between so-called head-initial languages and so-called head-final languages cannot be due to a parametric setting whereby complement positions in the latter type precede their associated heads."All complement-head orders must be derived by movement (e.g. clause-COMP structures are derived from COMP -clause by movement of the clause into spec-COMP ) – but is there perhaps a cross-categorial movement parameter?typological evidence for antisymmetry: – only postpositions show agreement with their NP complements – wh -movement is generally absent from SOV languages – verbs only move to the initial position (to COMP ), never to final position – that -trace effects are found only with initial complementizers – there are no languages with number agreement only with postverbalsubjects5. Hawkins's processing-based explanation of the word order correlations5.1. Early immediate constituentsbasic insight: word orders are often optimized for processing ; this is found both in performance and in competence (=both in language use and in grammars)language use : e.g. ordering of postverbal PPs(9) a. The woman VP [waited PP 1[for her son ] PP 2[in the cold but not unpleasant wind ]]. b. The woman VP [waited PP 2[in the cold but not unpleasant wind ] PP 1[for her son ]].Table 8: English Prepositional Phrase Orderings by Relative Weight (Hawkins 2000:237) n = 323 PP2 > PP1 by 1 word by 2-4 by 5-6 by 7+[V PP1 PP2] 60% (58) 86% (108) 94% (31) 99% (68) [V PP2 PP1] 40% (38) 14% (17) 6% (2) 1% (1)PP2 = longer PP; PP1 = shorter PPAn additional 71 sequences had PPs of equal length (total n = 394)Speakers evidently prefer shorter Constituent Recognition Domains (Hawkins 1990, 1994; "Phrasal Combination Domains" in Hawkins 2004):"The Constituent Recognition Domain for a node X is the ordered et of words in a parse string that must be parsed in order to recognize all immediate constituents (ICs) of X, proceeding from the word that constructs the first IC on the left, to the word that constructs the last IC on the right, and including all intervening words. (Hawkins 1990:229)"(10) a. The woman VP [waited PP 1[for her son ] PP 2[in the cold but not unpleasant wind ]]. 1 2 3 4 5 ------------------------------- 3 ICs, 5 words: IC-to-word ratio 3/5 (=60%)b. The woman VP [waited PP 2[in the cold but not unpleasant wind ] PP 1[for her son ]]. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9--------------------------------------------------------------- 3 ICs, 9 words: IC-to-word ratio 3/9 (=33%)(11)Early Immediate Constituents (EIC)The human processor prefers linear orders that minimize ConstituentRecognition Domains (by maximizing their IC-to-word]ratios), in proportion to the minimization difference between competing orders. (= The more minimal a CRD is, the more preferred is a word order.)This explains "short before long" in English; but other languages have "long before short":(12) Japanese a. NP [Hanako-ga ] VP [s'[s [kinoo Tanaka-ga kekkonsi-ta ] to ] it-ta ].Hanako-NOMyesterdayTanaka-NOM marry-PSTCOMPsay-PST1 2 3 4 5--------------------------------------------------------------b. s'[s [kinooTanaka-ga kekkonsi-ta ] to ]NP[Hanako-ga ]VP[it-ta ].yesterday Tanaka-NOM marry-PSTCOMP Hanako-NOMsay-PST1 2 3 --------------------------------'Hanako said that Tanaka got married yesterday.'Table 9. Japanese NP-o and PP Orderings by Relative Weight(Hawkins 1994:152; data collected by Kaoru Horie)by 1-2 words [2ICm 1ICm V] 66% (59) 72% (21) 83% (20) 91% (10) [1ICm 2ICm V]34% (30)28% (8)17% (4)9% (1)NP-o = direct object NP with accusative case particle oPP = PP constructed on its right periphery by a P(ostposition) ICm = either NP-o or PP2IC = longer IC; 1IC = shorter ICAn additional 91 sequences had ICs of equal length (total n = 244)5.2. Explaining the Greenbergian correlationsObject-Verb order and Adposition-NP order:(13) a. IP b. IPVP NP VPV NP PPP NP NP PSVO and prepositional (common) SOV and postpositional (common) IC-to-word ratio: 3/4 (75%) IC-to-word ratio: 3/4 (75%)c. IPd. IPNP VP NP VPV NP PP PP NP VNP P P NPSVO and postpositional (rare) SOV and prepositional (rare)IC-to-word ratio: 3/6 (50%) IC-to-word ratio: 3/6 (50%) Genitive-Noun order and Adposition-NP order:(14) a. PP b. PPNP P NP PN NP NP NArt N Art Nhouse the man's in the man's house in Noun-Genitive and postpositional Genitive-Noun and postpositional (rare) (common)IC-to-word ratio: 2/4 (50%) IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%)PP PPc. P NPd. P NPN NP NP NArt N Art Nin house the man's in the man's house Noun- Genitive and prepositional Genitive-Noun and prepositional (common) (rare)IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%) IC-to-word ratio: 2/4 (50%)5.3. The noncorrelating categories: nominal modifiers(demonstratives, adjectives, numerals)(15) a. b.VP VPV NPDem N Dem Nwatch that lion that lion watch Verb-Object and Dem-Noun Object-Verb and Dem-Noun(rare) (common)IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%) IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%)c. VPd. VPV NP NP VN Dem N Demwatch lion that lion that watch Verb-Object and Noun-Dem Object-Verb and Noun-Dem(common) (rare)IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%) IC-to-word ratio: 2/2 (100%)cross-linguistic distribution: Table 10.Dryer 2005d,h verb-object object-verbnoun-demonstrative79/32260/118demonstative-noun75/147 122/285 (genera/languages)(no statistical significance according to Dryer, because the trend is not geographically consistent; several macro-areas reverse the trend)Adjectives have long been known to show less clear correlations (see Dryer 1988, 2005c):Schmidt 1926:479-83 verb-objectobject-verbVO/OV noun-adjectiveadjective-nounNA/ANgenitive-noun18497 3949 4noun-genitive285 3 2310 4 Table 11.5.4. Word order asymmetries(16) Maximize On-line Processing (MaOP)"The human processor prefers to maximize the set of properties that are assignable to each item X as X is processed, thereby increasing On-line Property to Ultimate Property ratios. The maximization difference between competing orders and structures will be a function of the number of properties that are misassigned or unassigned to X in a structure/sequence S, compared with the number in an alternative." (Hawkins 2004: 51)The processor not only prefers minimal domains, but also maximal on-line property assignments. "Garden path" sentences, where misassignment can occur, are dispreferred:(17) Zoo-ga kirin-o taoshi-ta shika-o nade-ta.elephant-NOM giraffe-ACC knock.down-PST deer-ACC pat-PST'The elephant patted the deer that knocked down the giraffe.' (Hawkins 1990:253) At the point where only the first three elements have been processed...(18) Zoo-ga kirin-o taoshi-ta ...elephant-NOM giraffe-ACC knock.down-PST...a different analysis ('The elephant knocked down the giraffe') is very likely, and misassignments are bound to occur. This is dispreferred.Competing motivations (Hawkins 2002):Table 12. Dryer2005d,fverb-object object-verbnoun-relative •Minimize Domains (MiD)• Maximize On-lineProcessing (MaOP)370 languages• Maximize On-lineProcessing (MaOP)96 languagesrelative-noun –5 languages•Minimize Domains (MiD)109 languagesMinimize Domains and Maximize On-line Processing in competition in basicclause order:MaOP prefers the order subject before object (because several properties ofobjects depend on subjects; semantic roles, quantifier scope, c-command)Table 13. Efficiency Ratios for Basic Word Orders(Hawkins 2004:231)(aggregate)m S[V m O] IP CRD: 2/3=67% 84% highVP CRD: 2/2=100%[V]m S[m O] IP CRD: 2/2=100% 75% highVP CRD: 2/4=50%[V m O]m S IP CRD: 2/4=50% 75% lowerVP CRD: 2/2=100%S m[O m V] IP CRD: 2/3=67% 84% highVP CRD: 2/2=100%[O m V]S m IP CRD: 2/4=50% 75% lowestVP CRD: 2/2=100%[O m]S m[V] IP CRD: 2/3=67% 59% lowerVP CRD: 2/4=50%Assumptions (cf. Hawkins 1994:328-339):Subjects and objects are assigned left-peripheral constructing categories formother nodes in head-initial (VO) languages, i.e. mS, mO; and right-peripheralconstructing categories in head-final (OV) languages, i.e. Sm, Om;VP dominates V and O (even when discontinuous), these VP constituentsbeing placed within square brackets […]; IP dominates S and VP;S = 2 words, O = 2, V = 1;V or O constructs VP, whichever comes first (if O, then VP is constructed atthe point m which projects to O by Mother Node Construction and to VP by Grandmother Node Construction, cf. Hawkins 1994).(19) Minimize Domains: SVO, SOV > VSO, VOS, OVS > OSVMaximize On-line Processing: SOV, SVO, VSO > VOS, OSV > OVScombined: SOV, SVO > VSO > VOS > OVS, OSV5.5. Exceptions, relative quantities, asymmetries• Hawkins's approach allows exceptions, because relatively inefficient languages are learnable. Like inefficient structures elsewhere in the grammar, they can arise occasionally as side effects of other changes.• Hawkins's approach makes predictions about relative quantities of languages. The better motivated a structure is, the greater the likelihood that it will occur in languages.• The competing motivations MiD and MaOP predict both symmetries and asymmetries.6. An Optimality approach to word order typology: Zepter 2003H EAD L EFT: A head precedes its complement.H EAD R IGHT: A head follows its complement.B RANCHING R IGHT: Of two non-terminal sister nodes, the one that is part of the extended projection line follows (= specifiers, phrasal adjuncts, complex functional heads precede their sister nodes)L EX H EAD E DGE: A lexical head surfaces at an edge of LexP.G ENERALIZED SUBJECT: An XP which is part of a clause has a specifier.optimal VOS (p. 42):L EX H D E DGE H EAD L EFT G ENS UBJECTB RANCHR IGHTH EADR IGHT—> VOS * * VSO *! ** SOV *!SVO *! * optimal VSO (p. 53):L EX H D E DGE H EAD L EFT B RANCHR IGHTG ENS UBJECTH EADR IGHTVOS *! * —> VSO * ** SOV *!SVO *! * optimal SVO (p. 76):H EAD L EFT G ENS UBJECT B RANCHR IGHTL EX H DE DGEH EADR IGHTVOS *! * VSO *! ** SOV *!—> SVO * *optimal SOV (p. 79):H EAD R IGHT H EAD L EFT B RANCHR IGHTG ENS UBJECTL EX H DE DGEVOS *! *VSO *!* *—> SOV *SVO *! *ReferencesBaker, Mark C. 2001. The atoms of language: The mind's hidden rules of grammar.New York: Basic Books.Chomsky, Noam, and Lasnik, Howard. 1993. "The theory of principles and parameters." In: Jacobs, Joachim et al. (eds.), Syntax, vol. 1, 506-569. Berlin: de Gruyter.DeGraff, Michel. 1997. "Verb syntax in, and beyond, creolization." In: Haegeman, Liliane (ed.) The new comparative syntax. London: Longman, 64-94.Dryer, Matthew S. 1988. “Object-verb order and adjective-noun order: dispellinga myth.” Lingua 74: 77-109.Dryer, Matthew S. 1989. 'Large Linguistic Areas and Language Sampling', Studies in Language 13: 257-292.Dryer, Matthew S. 1991. 'SVO Languages and the OV:VO Typology', Journal of Linguistics 27: 443-482.Dryer, Matthew S. 1992. 'The Greenbergian Word Order Correlations', Language 68: 81-138.Dryer, Matthew S. 2005a. “Order of Subject, Object and Verb.” In: WALS, 330-33. Dryer, Matthew S. 2005b. “Order of Adposition and Noun Phrase.” In: WALS, 346-49.Dryer, Matthew S. 2005c. “Order of Adjective and Noun.” In: WALS, 354-7. Dryer, Matthew S. 2005d. “Order of Object and Verb.” In: WALS, 338-41.Dryer, Matthew S. 2005e. “Order of Genitive and Noun.” In: WALS, 350-53. Dryer, Matthew S. 2005f. “Order of Relative Clause and Noun.” In: WALS, 366-69.Dryer, Matthew S. 2005g. “Order of Adverbial Subordinator and Clause.” In: WALS, 382-85.Dryer, Matthew S. 2005h. “Order of Demonstrative and Noun.” In: WALS, 358-61.Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements." In: Greenberg, Joseph H.(eds.) Universals of grammar, 73-113. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Haider, Hubert. 1986. "Who is afraid of Typology?" Folia Linguistica 20: 109-146. Haspelmath, Martin & Dryer, Matthew S. & Gil, David & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) 2005. The World Atlas of Language Structures. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.Hawkins, John A. 1983. Word Order Universals. New York: Academic Press. Hawkins, John A. 1990. “A parsing theory of word order universals.” Lingustic Inquiry 21: 223-261.Hawkins, John A. 1994. A Performance Theory of Order and Constituency.Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, vol. 73. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.Hawkins, John A. 1999. “Processing complexity and filler-gap dependencies across grammars.” Language 75.2Hawkins, John A. 2000. "The relative order of prepositional phrases in English: Goying beyond manner-place-time." Language Variation and Change 11:231-66. Hawkins, John A. 2004. Efficiency and Complexity in Grammars. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Kayne, Richard S. 1994. The Antisymmetry of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lightfoot, David. 1979. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.Newmeyer, Frederick. 1998. “The irrelevance of typology for grammatical theory.” Syntaxis 1: 161-197.Newmeyer, Frederick J. 2005. "Parameters, performance and the explanation of typological generalizations." Ch. 3 of forthcoming book: Possible and probable languages: a generative perspective on linguistic typology.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Radford, Andrew. 2004. Minimalist syntax: exploring the structure of English.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Schmidt, P. Wilhelm S.V.D. 1926. Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachenkreise der Erde.Heidelberg: Winter.Vennemann, Theo. 1974. "Topics, subjects and word order: from SXV to SVX via TVX,” in J. Anderson & C. Jones (eds) Historical Linguistics I: syntax,morphology, and internal and comparative reconstruction. Amsterdam, NorthHolland.WALS: see Haspelmath et al. 2005.Zepter, Alexandra. 2003. Phrase structure directionality: having a few choices. Ph.D.dissertation, Rutgers University.。
英语商务函电PPT-Unit 9 Orders and Their Fulfillment
Such a letter should: (1) express pleasure at receiving the order; (2) add a favorable comment on the goods ordered; (3) include an assurance of prompt and careful attention; (4) draw attention to other products likely to be interest; (5) hope for further orders.
三、如何确定订单的性质 （1）由买方提出的订单，是为了要求供应具体 数量的货物而提出的一种要求。 如果订单详细列明了所要订购的货物的品质、 规格、数量、包装方式、价格、付款条件和装 运日期，可被视作一项发盘。 订单可填制在印好的格式上，也可以是专门缮 打而成的。 （2）卖方收到定单后，如果能接受，就应该立 即确认接受。
2、卖方责任 2. The seller’s obligations The seller is required by law: (1) to deliver goods exactly of the kind ordered, and at the agreed time; (2) to guarantee that the goods to be supplied are free from faults of which the buyer could not be aware at the time of purchase.
七、我国的进出口贸易在“订单”这一环节上的通常做 法：
（1）在我国的出口贸易中，交易达成后，一般均 由我出口公司（卖方）缮制“售货确认书”或 “售货合同”，经我方签署后，寄给国外买方， 要求买方签署后，退回正本一份，以供存查。 经双方签署的“售货确认书”，就是一份对双方 有约束力的售货合同，双方必须遵守履行。
order课件
Placing & Confirming an Order(订单及确认订单) 订单及确认订单)
Introduction
The following structure can be for your reference in placing an order:
1. Use direct language in the first paragraph to tell the seller of the buyer’s intention to place an order. 2. Describe what is being ordered in great detail. Indicate the catalog numbers, sizes, colors, prices, specifications and all other relevant information that will enable the seller to fill the order without any further questions. 3. Close the letter by expressing willingness to cooperate or suggesting future business dealings.
Placing & Confirming an Order(订单及确认订单) 订单及确认订单)
Introduction
An order should at least contain the following points:
1. description of the goods, such as specification, size, quantity , quality and article number (if any); ) 2. prices(unit prices as well as total prices); ( ) 3. terms of payment; 4. mode of packing; 5. time of transportation, port of destination and time of shipment etc. .
新概念英语第二册 第1课 (共19张PPT)
get 是逐渐变得的意思，接近become e.g. During the night, it got terribly cold.
4. I couldn’t hear the actor.
hear sb. 听见某人说话 hear from sb. 收到某人来信 hear of sb./sth. 知道某人（某事） hear about sth. 听说、得悉某消息 e.g. I can’t hear you.
summary writing.
1、where did the writer go last week? 2、did he enjoy the play or not? 3、who was sitting behind him? 4、were they talking loudly ,or they talking quietly ? 5、could the writer hear the actors or not? 6、did he turn around or not? 7、what did he say? 8、did the young man say ,“the play is not interesting”or did he say ,“this is a private conversation”?
New words
private
adj.私人的 personal. a private company; private life
conversation
n.谈话 talk have a conversation with sb. e.g. I had a quiet conversation with my closest friend. v. converse交谈
问卷法 Questionnaire ppt课件
(4) The paper for printing should be of high quality and the printing itself must be clear and easy to read.
Experience/behaviour (what a respondent does) Opinion (what a respondent thinks) Feeling (what a respondent feels) Knowledge/abilities (what a respondent knows and
I put a lot of effort into learning an L2 is to investigate students’ behavior rather than the view.
(3) Determining the way you process the questionnaire data.
The structure of belief item is “I think/ believe that…” I think learning an L2 well requires painstaking effort is
to find out the respondents’ opinion or view rather than behavior.
By mail: If the respondents are spread out in different cities or
SPIN 发问技巧ppt课件
o 老了以后每个月仍就可以维持现在的 消费水平，你觉得好吗？
o 能让自己的孩子无忧无虑地完成学业， 对你和孩子来说有多重要？
精选版课件ppt
20
让我们一起练练看！
小组讨论
21 精选版课件ppt
居住费用---SPIN
• S：您现在住哪里？房子多大？是自己买的还是租的？ 买房时向银行贷款了吗？每月还款多少？
• I:如果没有充足的准备,退休后有可能因为经 济原因过得拮据,甚至还会拖累到儿女,成为他 们的负担,你愿意这种情况发生吗?
• N:在你60岁以后,每月都能领到一笔退休金,过 上衣食无忧的生活,你觉得怎么样?
精选版课件ppt
26
Needs
Needs=Desired States- Actual States 需求 = 希望状态 - 实际状态
9
S
掌握背景信息
情境性 问题
P
引导至
探索性 问题
显准 露客 出户
隐藏的 需求
..
Байду номын сангаас
I
让准客户感觉 问题更清楚更实际
暗示性 问题
由 发 展 出
N
引导至
解决性 问题
陈准以 述客便
户于
明确的 需求
与成功强烈相关
陈准允
利益
述客许
精选版课件ppt
户 10
拜访前
写下至少三個准客户 可能会有的问题
写下一些真正难题问题 的例子问句来发掘难题
开启式问题： 回答无定式
引导式问题： 确认回答
精选版课件ppt
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提问的技巧
简短的问题 清晰的表达
word order
The comparative study of word order between English and Chinese1.IntroductionIn different countries which have different culture, people speak in different ways, i.e. different speech-communities have different modes of expression .The modes of expression in Chinese differ in thousands of ways from those in English. Both in morphology and in syntax, Chinese has little in common with English. There are many modes of expression. Here we only deal with the word order between the languages.Word order is the arrangement of sentence elements,which varies widely between English and Chinese because of different expressions and idioms in the two languages caused by different thinking ways of Chinese people and English people.In view of the word order differences between English and Chinese,word order should be changed to achieve proper equivalent transformation in the two languages and to ensure the readability of the target text.2.The kinds of word-order2.1Natural word-orderIn certain cases, the natural word-order in Chinese may mean the inverted word-order in English or vice visa. And differences in word-order between the two languages concerned affect directly the resolution of the principal contradiction in translation. The following is some of the examples.Firstly, the word order in our names presents no similarity to that in the names of the native speakers of English. The English surname or family name. corresponds to our “姓”. Contrary to national norm, the surname in English is placed at the end of the full name Thus, in the case of Charles Dickens, Dickens is the surname and Charles is the given name. In translation, however, we generally adopt the established translated names and turn “Charles Dickens”into “查尔斯.狄更斯”. The adoption of the established translated names also prompts us to the rendering of “Bernard Shaw”into “肖伯纳”though the late Irish writer’s name was turned into “伯纳.肖”.Secondly, the differences also exists in the expression of such an idea as “我、你、他”which is always put into “You He and I”in English. The native speakers of English usually say “Robert and I”“Marry, Rose, and I”etc. The native speakers of English always say “Ladies and gentlemen”but we choose to say“先生们、女士们”，although there is a wonderful similarity in the expression of such idea as “bys and girls”and “men and women”between Chinese and English.It’s true that native speakers of English usually say “You and I”“He and I”“They and I”, etc. But that doesn’t mean that there is no exception. In fact, the head of state would say “I and All the Ministers Warmly Welcome Your Highness”. In practicing criticism and self-criticism. You might say “I and he made the mistakes”or “I and they have been too careless”, if you would first of all acknowledge your own faults.In Chinese, we have “衣、食、住”，but the native speakers of English give the translation as “food, clothing and housing”.Thirdly, in many cases the different word-order in compounds or phrases between Chinese and English can be easily perceived, for examples:写信letter writing 一位中国名作家a famous Chinese writer .The word-order in the of-phrase is sometimes similar, but sometimes dissimilar to that in their Chinese versions, e.g.a plenty of time 充足的时间etc.What’s more, “Instead, the Chinese version is “回忆马克思”. . Generally speaking, “one of them”means “其中之一”while “all of them”means “they all”. But a phrase like “four of us”varies in meaning with the context. For instance, we read in Michael Gold’s “hunting for a job”“we have four of us in our family”, in which “four”equals to “us”. In the “Pride and Prejudice”Jane Austin had it: “but it is very likely that he may fall in love with one of them…”, that means “他很可能爱上她们当中的一位…”.2.2 Inverted word-orderBy inverted word-order we mean that the constituent elements of a sentence are arranged in a way different from the natural word-order of the language in question. In English, inversion is meant the placing of the subject after the verb as in “said he”, or after the auxiliary of the verb as in “What did he say?”and “Never shall we seehis like again.”Inversion is the regular and almost invariable way of showing that an English sentence is a question. It has therefore an essential place in the English language. There are other conditions under which inversion is usual, desirable or permissible in English too.According to H.W Fouler, there are nine kinds of inversion in English, they are(1) Interrogative inversion, e.g. What did you do yesterday?(2) Imperative inversion, e.g. “Speak you”, said Mr. Chester, “Speak you, good fellow!”(3) Exclamatory inversion, e.g. How dreadful in this place!(4) Hypothetical inversion, e.g. Was I Brutus and Brutus Antony?(5) Balance inversion, e.g. Through a gap came an elaborately described ray.(6) Link inversion, e.g. On this depends the whole argument.(7) Signpost inversion, e.g. By strategy is meant something wider.(8) Negative inversion, e.g. Not a word did he say.(9) Metrical inversion e.g. As pants the hart for cooling streams.It can be easily seen that inversion is used in Englishas either a regular way of showing a certain kind of syntactic device. As the word order in Chinese is almost fixed, there is little possibility of changing the positions of its constituents. In general, when the subject in a Chinese sentence comes after the predicates or when the object goes before the finite verb, or sometimes even before the subject, the sentence is said to be inverted in word-order. And a Chinese sentence is made inverted chiefly for the sake of emphasis on the object or for the sake of translation from the proceeding sentence. Thus we have“英语书我带来了”and “叫我们写信给党委保证提前完成任务。
_00007-word课件
【当老师不在的时候】一、教学目标：1、知道自觉遵守纪律是搞好学习的保证，人人都要遵守纪律。
2、在学校生活中能自觉遵守纪律，做到老师不在和在时一个样。
二、教学准备1、了解班级中自觉遵守纪律，做到课内课外一个样，老师在与不在一个样的事例，了解学生对自觉遵守纪律的想法及平时的表现。
2、搜集有关纪律是搞好学习的保证的故事。
三、教学过程（一）学文明理1、表演小品：上课请大家谈谈，当大家正专心致志地听课，而有人在不停地讲话，你感觉怎样？排队时，同学们都排得整整齐齐，可有一位同学却磨磨蹭蹭，你的感觉是怎样的呢？小结：是呀，我们每个人都生活在一个集体中，做每一件事时也应该考虑到别人的感受，这就需要大家遵守纪律。
2、看看宋老师为什么要表扬3（1）班的同学？你能说说遵守课堂纪律有什么好处吗？（自觉遵守课堂纪律是搞好学习的保证，我们要做到老师在和不在一个样。
）（二）联系实际指导行为1、作为我们学生来说，生活在学校这个大家庭中，应该遵守学校纪律。
你知道学校有哪些纪律？如果没有学校纪律，学校会变得怎样？2、自觉遵守学校纪律方面，我们班里哪些同学做得比较好？请做得好的同学说说为什么能做得这么好，心里是怎么想的？3、能自觉遵守学校纪律吗？有没有需要大家帮你解决的问题？自评，填写表格。
每周互评，反馈。
对做得好的同学发红花奖以资鼓励。
小结：希望我们记住这句话：战斗，要有纪律；劳动，要有纪律；工作，要有纪律；学习，要有纪律；生活，要有纪律；做小事情，要有纪律；做大事情，更要有纪律；个人做事，要有纪律；集体做事，更要有纪律。
人生活在纪律里面：守纪律，不论做什么，都有成功的可能；不守纪律或全没纪律，就必然要遭到损失或失败。
板书：自觉遵守纪律应做到：不迟到，不早退上课专心听讲按时完成作业遵守课外活动的规则。
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Subject: Verb: Object: ii Subject: Verb: Object: Iii Subject: Verb: Object:
Turn the following declaratives into questions •I cango there? Can I go there. •She must go there. Must she go there? •John shouldsee the doctor? Should John see the doctor. •Youyou go there tomorrow? Will will go there tomorrow.
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Word order in questions
In our first class we saw that English verbs always follow a Subject – (Aux) Verb – Object word order in declarative sentences (when you make a statement).
We looked at the general rules for subject – verb agreement in English. We discussed some irregular forms and exceptions.
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Plan for today
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Recap:
Do Task 3 on your worksheet to revise the things you learned today.
Most English verbs need an auxiliary verb to make a question. In questions, auxiliaries invert with the subject, which means that they go in front of the subject. The only exception to this rule, is the main verb to be. This verb can invert with the subject itself, e.g. “He is an astronaut” becomes “Is he an astronaut?”. When a declarative sentence only has a main verb and no auxiliary verb, we need to add an auxiliary verb to the question to make it grammatically correct. This is the auxiliary verb to do. Like other auxiliaries, it inverts with the subject in questions. In addition, like other auxiliaries it agrees with the subject, so it has a different form in the third person singular. In this case, it is written “does”.
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Class 3: word order in questions.
Last time
We looked at a grammar topic that is usually very difficult for learners of English: subject – verb agreement.
When to be is a main verb, it is the only verb in the sentence and describes a state someone/something is in such as the sentences above.
Do Task 2 on your worksheet
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought and need
No auxiliary?
Look at the question forms for the following declaratives. Are they correct? Declarative We go there. John has a girlfriend. You sleep a lot. The teacher asks questions Question Go we go there? there? Do Has John a have a girlfriend? Does John girlfriend? Sleep you a lot? Do you sleep a lot? Asks the teacher questions? Does the teacher ask questions?
•Word order: in questions •Declaratives with an auxiliary •Turning declaratives with an auxiliary into questions: modals. •No auxiliary? •Exception: main verb to be •Revision: EFL so far...
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Exercise:
With your partner, think of questions that can be asked in these situations:
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Revision: EFL so far...
We’ll use the text about the Olympics on the second handout to revise the grammar points we’ve been looking so far. Please read the text and answer the questions.
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
o o o o •
Turning declaratives with an auxiliary into questions: modals.
In our last class we saw that the modal auxiliaries are a special class of auxiliaries Try to remember some modals with your partner. Modal auxiliary verbs in We saw that modals can behave differently from English: normal auxiliaries.
Example: He (Subject) has (Aux) seen (Verb) a ghost (Object). With your partner, turn this declarative sentence into a question.
Has he seen a ghost? What has happened to the subject and the auxiliary verb? They have changed places, or inverted.
Turn the sentences below into questions.
Am happy? o I Iam happy. Is He is hungry. o he hungry? Are we students? o We are students. Is The theory is correct. o the theory correct? The main verb to be is the only main verb in English which does not need an auxiliary in the question form.
However, in the case of questions they tend to behave in the same way as be and have, except for ought and need. Just like, be and have, they invert with the subject of the sentence.
Declarative:
He has seen a ghost. (S)(Aux)
EAP 1: GRAMMAR
Question
Has he seen a ghost? (Aux)(S)
Declaratives with an auxiliary
• • • In order to form questions, most English verbs need an auxiliary verb as in the example He has (= Aux) seen a ghost. In our last class we saw that to be and to have can function as auxiliary verbs. In this case, there are two or more verbs in the sentence and to be and to have do not have much meaning on their own, e.g. You have been there. Have you been there? He he waiting? Is is waiting. The professor has beenbeen asked a lecture. a lecture? Has the professor asked to give to give The theorytheory been proved wrong? Has the has been proved wrong. Work with your partner and turn the declarative sentences on this slide into questions. Do Task1on your worksheet