完整版the Westward Movement

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Westward Movement

packed all the things on to a wagon
3.Was it easy to get everything ready?
not easy to decide what to take and what to leave behind
the beginning of the journey: by the middle of October 1) We set off for the journey:_____________________ about a year to make the journey. 2) It took us ___________ more than 2,500 miles. 3) The journey covered ___________________
Between1405 1nd 1433, under the command of Zheng He, seven large treasure fleets set sail from the South China Sea across the Indian Ocean to
the west.
( para.2 )
Q: The author mentioned Indian Creek. Where was it and why was it very important? a. It was in Kansas, their first destination. b. It was the frontier at that time . c. It was also the meeting place for people moving to the west.

(完整版)西进运动原因、过程、影响(英文)

Westward Movement is a movement of people from the settled regions of the United States to lands farther west. Between the early 17th and late 19th centuries, Anglo-American people and their society expanded from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast. It plays a vital role in the formation, the development and the present situation of the United States of America. Particularly, Westward Movement has seeped into this young nationality in the sphere of cultural influence. However, at the same time Westward Movement is also the Indians’ tragic history.The causes of Westward Movementrge Population. As early as in 1820’s there was flood of new immigrants fromEurope to the United States. Then the stream of immigration continued. Between 1815 and 1830 over 500 000 Europeans came into the United States. They had expected to live a better life, but they found themselves still poor in the crowded Northeast. As they were dissatisfied with the conditions at home, they hoped to find a more favorable environment on the frontier.2.California Gold Rush. Gold was discovered in California in the 1840s. This rush madelots of people move West with the hopes of becoming rich!3.Cheap, Fertile Land. As for the local farmers, they had no better life and they lost theirland piece after piece because of land speculation. So they moved west to the vast area of wilderness where the land was cheap and great for farming.4.Freedom for Runaway from Slaves. Slaves from the South could have freedom in thenew western territories where they settled in all black communities free from white prejudice.The progress of Westward MovementThe westward movement began in the early 1600's with European settlements along the Atlantic Coast of North America. It continued until the late 1800's. First, some illegal immigrants went into west, and then American government brings these areas into their control. Then, many pioneers located in these areas. At first, pioneers were located in the east of Mississippi River. In the early 19th century, America expended its territory by the way of buying and invasion. In 1803, American government bought the Louisiana from French. From the early age of 19th century, the immigrants move to the west of Mississippi River. By the mid-1840's, adventurous pioneers had reached what are now California and Oregon in the Far West. The last frontier was the Great Plains between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. The settlement of that region began in the 1860's. In 1862, Lincoln promulgated the homestead law and made the westward movement reach the peak.American Westward Movement is not only the process of original accumulation of capital in the development of capitalism, but also the process of promoting extensive exploitation of the west and rapid development of economy.The influences of Westward Movement1.It stimulated the development of American west. It provides ample labors and wealthfor the exploration, and it laid a firm foundation for capitalistic development of American.2.It utterly changed American appearance: large quantities of barren lands werereclaimed; a lot of capital farms were set up; the development of agriculture in west provided a large amount of food, material and domestic market on industrial development; nature recourses were opened up to developed industries.By expanding the nation’s borders to include more than three million square miles, the United States became one of the most powerful countries of the 20th century.3.It Shaping American Characteristics. Western unique survival requirement formedimportant attribute which molded the American nationality disposition and values, and it also planted the spirit and the dream of the American. The vast field of west and the cultural difference provided an opportunity for development of individualism. Under the given condition of Westward Movement, and the competition of the society has fostered American people’s pragmatism.4.Providing Plentiful Sources for American Culture and Art. Westward Movementhas played a premier role in popular culture. Westerns and the stories abouttheir life on the frontier have been popular in the United States and throughoutthe world5.However, this expansion also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural lossfor the Native Americans of North America。

The westword movement(美国西进运动)

• It made the labor force’s layout of United States changed; It promoted the formation of a unified domestic market and developed rapid of the eastern and western commercial complementary.
• The Westward Movement of the U.S. have had a significant and far-reaching impact on economic, political and social.
• The development of agriculture in the western region provided for industrial development a large amount of food, raw materials, exports and domestic markets.
• The western development and utilization of resources also met the needs of industrial development and the rapid development of the transport industry is also ... ... the American Westward Movement inspired American creativity and economic vitality, and the United States improved the national comprehensive strength and international status; It was of great significance for the United States that took off the entire national economy

新托福TPO20阅读原文

新托福TPO20阅读原文(一)：Westward MigrationTPO20-1：Westward MigrationThe story of the westward movement of population in the United States is,in the main,the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat,corn,tobacco,and cotton.After1815improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy.During periods when commodity prices were high,the rate of westward migration increased spectacularly."Old America seemed to be breaking up and moving westward," observed an English visitor in1817,during the first great wave of migration. Emigration to the West reached a peak in the1830's.Whereas in1810only a seventh of the American people lived west of the Appalachian Mountains,by1840more than a third lived there.Why were these hundreds of thousands of settlers—most of them farmers,some of them artisans—drawn away from the cleared fields and established cities and villages of the East?Certain characteristics of American society help to explain this remarkable migration.The European ancestors of some Americans had for centuries lived rooted to the same village or piece of land until some religious,political,or economic crisis uprooted them and drove them across the Atlantic.Many of those who experienced this sharp break thereafter lacked the ties that had bound them and their ancestors to a single place.Moreover,European society was relatively stratified; occupation and social status were inherited.In American society,however,the class structure was less rigid;some people changed occupations easily and believed it was their duty to improve their social and economic position.As a result,many Americans were an inveterately restless,rootless,and ambitious people.Therefore,these social traits helped to produce the nomadic and daring settlers who kept pushing westward beyond the fringes of settlement.In addition,there were other immigrants who migrated west in search of new homes,material success,and better lives.The West had plenty of attractions:the alluvial river bottoms,the fecund soils of the rolling forest lands,the black loams of the prairies were tempting to New England farmers working their rocky,sterile land and to southeastern farmers plagued with soil depletion and erosion.In1820under a new land law,a farm could be bought for$100. The continued proliferation of banks made it easier for those without cash to negotiate loans in paper money.Western Farmers borrowed with the confident expectation that the expanding economy would keep farm prices high,thus making it easy to repay loans when they fell due.Transportation was becoming less of a problem for those who wished to move west and for those who hand farm surpluses to send to market.Prior to1815,western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails.Livestock could be driven across the mountains,but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets.The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes.These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus stimulated the commercialization of agriculture along their routes.Two other developments presaged the end of the era of turnpikes and started a transportation revolution that resulted in increased regional specialization and the growth of a national market economy.First came the steamboat;although flatboats and keelboats continued to be important until the1850’s steamboats eventually superseded all other craft in the carrying of passengers and freight.Steamboats were not only faster but also transported upriver freight for about one tenth of what it had previously cost on hand-propelled keelboats.Next came the Erie Canal,an enormous project in its day,spanning about350miles.After the canal went into operation,the cost per mile of transporting a ton of freight from Buffalo to New York City declined from nearly20cents to less than1cent.Eventually,the western states diverted much of their produce from the rivers to the Erie Canal,a shorter route to eastern markets.TPO20-1译文：移居西部美国西进运动的故事大体说来其实就是美国农业扩张的故事，也就是一场开辟用于饲养家畜以及种植小麦、玉米、烟草和棉花的新土地的运动。

American_Westward_Movement(美国西进运动)

American Westward MovementU.S. Westward Movement is a long and sustained process of development. Back in the United States prior to independence, the Americans began to expand to the western North American continent, but until the United States after independence, the United States westward movement was more active and planned, and continues to the present.Throughout the American West in the history of westward movement can be divided into the following period.Agriculture is the main period of initial developmentFrom the War of Independence to the Civil War is the American West during the first period, mainly agriculture-based initial development period. Land on the western economic development after independence the United States has a special significance, not open to the west is not today's America. Seven years after the war ended, Britain and France, the United Kingdom from France won the west of the Appalachian Mountains of Canada and the east bank of the Mississippi River until the vast area; the same time, the United Kingdom announced that the Appalachian Mountains to the west of all land belongs to the British royal family, which be triggered anti-British colonists in North America one of the factors. Bourgeois desire for expansion of the national territory, land speculators attempt to derive profits, farmers, artisans, and put the western land of immigrants, as from oppression, the only hope for a new life.Integrated development of the industrial periodFrom the Civil War to World War II is the American West in the second period, mainly based on industry-based, integrated development period. The end of the Civil War, especially after the reconstruction of the South, the South won the largest capitalist economy, the development of plantations in northern and southern main bourgeois compromise, there have been relatively stable political situation. At the same time, the second industrial revolution is rapidly rising, the United States began the country from an agricultural to an industrial transformation. Thus, the westward movement of this period, based on industry-based, integrated development.Development of high-tech times the depth of the mainFrom the end of World War II to the present is the American West in the third period, mainly in the depth of the main development of science and technology development period. After the end of World War II, the United States first occurred in a computer network technology, nuclear technology, biotechnology, space technology, space and an important symbol of the third technological revolution. Western United States full use of its scientific and technological revolution in the hotbed of the geographical advantages, to science and technology development as the main use of advanced technology to transform traditional industries, develop new industries, greatly promoted the development of the western United States and the prosperity of the entireU.S. economy and strong support for development of knowledge economy of the United States.Sport natureA constant migration to the west, the process of territorial expansion American Westward Movement, is a constant migration to the west, the process of territorial expansion, and migration to the west, only a prelude to the United States territorial expansion, was the result. First, illegal immigration into the west, and then, the government will map these areas into the U.S., then followed that the influx of large numbers of Reclamation. Independent United States of America, the region is very small, only 13 states Atlantic coast. After independence, large numbers of people flocked to the Wild West. Initially, immigrants mainly settled in areas to the east of the Mississippi. Early 19th century, the United States through the purchase of armed subversion and means of waging war for territorial expansion. In 1803, while Napoleon was busy with the U.S. government war machine in Europe, bought Louisiana from France. 20 years since the 19th century, immigrants migrated to the west of the Mississippi River, a large number of Americans who moved to Texas a division of Mexico, a pioneer of Texas annexation. 40 Americans over the age of the Rocky Mountains, along the Pacific region flocked in groups, setting off the "Oregon Fever" and "California fever" and led to the U.S. territory of coverage of these areas.The same period, the Eurasian region of the shortage of large disaster and war, a large number of European and Asian immigrants flock to the United States. 1857 The first global economic crisis in the eastern U.S. large numbers of workers facing unemployment, a large number of hungry people wandering in the country, many people with great desire to flock to the western land. In 1862, Lincoln government promulgated the "Homestead Act", the Westward Movement to a new climax. According to statistics, from 1815 to 1860, immigration has 500 thousand people; from 1861 to 1914 half-century, migration of more than 2,700 people. A large number of European and Asian immigrants, many come to seek a way out gold or laborers. In human history, like the U.S., scale, scope, length of time, the deep social impact of immigration movement is rare, making the United States as the world's most typical, dynamic nation of immigrants. The contribution of immigrants is apparentAn economic development processAmerican Westward Movement, is an industrial revolution go hand in hand, the coordinated development of industrial and agricultural economic development process. The vast expanse of the western region is rich in mineral resources, water resources and forest resources, has a long coastline and excellent harbor, has the right climate, suitable for agriculture Yi Mu. It provides a superior American industrial conditions and broad market prospects, but also for the development of U.S. agriculture provides the vast world. The 19th century, 60 years, the Ohio River and the Mississippi River north of the development of a "kingdom of wheat", the Mississippi River as "CottonKingdom." The rise of agriculture as the economic prosperity of the United States provides a good foundation for the eastern industrial and urban population with ample raw materials, food.The American Industrial Revolution of the unique characteristics of Western development means the expansion of the domestic market. Tens of millions of immigrants gradually came to settle in Western business, production and labor required for the basic necessities of life are required to purchase materials, market capacity of large, unprecedented. This promoted the development of manufacturing industry in eastern, but also to keep them westward. Large land area, the need to improve traffic conditions in the 19th century built 20 to 30 years and the Ohio Erie Canal - Erie Canal, the Mississippi River, the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean linked together. In particular, from 30 years onwards, the government encouraged and funded the construction of railways in the country set off a boom in decades has built a transcontinental railway lines 5, formed the backbone of the national railway land and water transport system. Accelerate the development of the transport industry the process of industrial revolution in the United States, while it is also an important result of the industrial revolution the United States to promote the mechanization of agriculture production.The process of pioneering the American peopleWestward Movement is the process of pioneering the American people. To face various difficulties and obstacles, the United States abandoned the people of all stereotypes, overcome difficulties and forge ahead, thereby fostering the formation of the American nation reality, optimism and courage of the national character, which is an inexhaustible wealth of a life time.Flooding also killed the movement of indigenous IndianAmerican Westward Movement, is also a drive to kill the movement of indigenous Indians, the Indians a history of hardship. But from the perspective of the evolution of human civilization, it is the United States, the process of capital accumulation, in the form of modern civilization. Advanced capitalist mode of production extended to the western region, making it the capitalist world-system components.Rating:For the American Westward Movement, which is in a free market economy and the territorial expansion against the backdrop of large-scale population movements as the basis for the pilot transport, industry, agriculture and animal husbandry as the main point, in order to promote regional development in growth centers socio-economic development process. The results of the American West, complete the east and west between U.S. political and economic integration, promoting the development of capitalist industrialization, modern agriculture led to the American Revolution, the industrial revolution and the knowledge revolution, foster the pioneering spiritof the American people, especially the United States in the western development embodied in the esteem, fear no sacrifice, high-spirited, constantly finding new lands, new wealth of the cowboy spirit of the frontier spirit, the Americans became indomitable, heroic optimism, courage, to explore more than the spirit of the entire nation. In short, the United States through the Westward Movement, in the hundred millions of years in the development of square kilometers of land. And established in these lands of modern agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, and this growth is the U.S. number one economic power in the world had a decisive impact. So, no westward movement, there is no United States today.。

westward movement

a. land policy. Firstly, the U.S. government issued the procedures and requirements in the statehood in the West. Secondly, the U.S. government enacted the policy to ensure the residents’ access to the land. in 1785 “Land Ordinance” Determined the state-owned land for sale to the immigrants 国有土地向移民出售 From 1802 to 1832 a number of “Relief Act” delayed the period of unpaid confiscation of land 延缓未付土地被没收的期限 (poor farmers got the land) In 1832 Jackson administration allowed farmers to occupy the land, and they could buy the land they have cultivated and improved with the lowest price . In 1862, Lincoln Government the “Homestead Act(宅地法)” required that citizens of 21 years old could acquire at most 160 acres of lands, as long as they could afford 10 dollars and farm it for 5 years.年满21岁的公民从1863年1月1日起，只要付 10美元的费用，就有权取得160英亩或160英亩以下的土地，耕种5年后，土地就归个人所有

Westwardmovement（西进运动）

Westwardmovement（西进运动）Westward expansionAfter 1815 the United States shifted its attention away from foreign policy to internal development. With the end of the wartime British alliance with Native Americans east of the Mississippi River, American settlers moved in great numbers into the rich farmlands of the Midwest. In the 1830s, the federal government forcibly deported the southeastern tribes to the Indian territory (now Oklahoma) via the "Trail of Tears".[50] The steady expansion and rapid population growth of the United States after 1815 contrasted sharply with static European societies, as visitors described the rough, sometimes violent, but on the whole hugely optimistic and forward-looking attitude of most Americans. While land ownership was something most Europeans could only dream of, contemporary accounts show that the average American farmer owned his land, fed his family afar more than European peasants, and could make provisions for land for his children. Europeans commonly talked of the egalitarianism of American society, which had no landed nobility and which theoretically allowed anyone regardless of birth to become successful. For example in Germany, the universities, the bureaucracy and the army officers required high family status; in Britain rich families purchased commissions in the army for their sons for tens of thousands of pounds. Rich merchants and factory owners did emerge in Europe, but they seldom had social prestige of political power. By contrast the US had more millionaires than any country in Europe by 1850. Most rich Americans had well-to-do fathers, but their grandfathers were of average wealth. Poor boys of the 1850s like Andrew Carnegie andJohn D. Rockefeller were two of the richest men in the world by 1900. Historians have emphasized that upward social mobility came in small steps over time, and over generations, with the Carnegie-like rags-to-riches scenario a rare one. Some ethnic groups (like Yankees, Irish and Jews) prized upward mobility, and emphasized education as the fastest route; other groups (such as Germans, Poles and Italians) emphasized family stability and home ownership more. Stagnant cities offered less mobility opportunities, leading the more ambitious young men to head to growth centers, often out west.[51][52]Westward expansion was mostly undertaken by groups of young families. Daniel Boone was one frontiersman who pioneered the settlement of Kentucky. This pattern was followed throughout the West as American hunters and trappers traded with the Indians and explored the land. As skilled fighters and hunters, these Mountain Men trapped beaver in small groups throughout the Rocky Mountains. After the demise of the fur trade, they established trading posts throughout the west, continued trade with the Indians and served as guides and hunters for the western migration of settlers to Utah, Oregon and California.Americans asserted a right to colonize vast expanses of North America beyond their country's borders, especially into Oregon, California, and Texas. By the mid-1840s, U.S. expansionism was articulated in the ideology of "Manifest Destiny". The Oregon Territory had been jointly administered by the US and Great Britain since 1819, but the two nations fell into disputes over the territory. President Polk (Democrat) negotiated a compromise that gave half the area to the US, along the line of the current border with Canada.American annexation of the Republic of Texas in 1845 was unacceptable to Mexico and led to war. In May 1846, Congress declared war on Mexico after a border incident. Troops under the command of General Zachary Taylor defeated Santa Anna's army in northern Mexico while other American troops took possession of New Mexico and California. Mexico continued to resist despite a chaotic political situation, and so Polk launched an invasion of the country's heartland.An army led by Winfield Scott occupied the port of Veracruz, and pressed inland amid bloody fighting. Santa Anna offered to cede Texas and California north of Monterrey Bay, but negotiations broke down and the fighting resumed. In September 1847, Scott's army captured Mexico City. Santa Anna was forced to flee and a provisional government began the task of negotiating peace. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848. It recognized the Rio Grande as the southern boundary of Texas and ceded what is now the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico to the United States, while also paying Mexico $15,000,000 for the territory. The war was opposed by Whigs in the US (including Congressman Abraham Lincoln) who considered it a European-style war of conquest and imperialism. In the presidential election of 1848, Zachary T aylor ran as a Whig and won easily when the Democrats became split, even though he was an apolitical military man who never voted in his life.With Texas and Florida having been admitted to the union as slave states in 1845, California was made a free state in 1850.Major events in the western movement of the U.S. population were the Homestead Act, a law by which, for a nominal price, a settler was given title to 160 acres (65 ha) of landto farm; the opening of the Oregon Territory to settlement; the Texas Revolution; the opening of the Oregon Trail; the Mormon Emigration to Utah in 1846–47; the California Gold Rush of 1849; the Colorado Gold Rush of 1859; and the completion of the nation's First Transcontinental Railroad on May 10, 1869.。

美国西进运动简介

Westward Movement
西进运动
西进运动 - 简介
• 西进运动（Westward Movement）是指美国东部居民向西部地区迁移和进行开发的群众性运动，它始于18世纪末，结束于19世纪末20世纪初
西进运动
• • • • • 历史背景运动主体运动历程及措施运动本质影响
西进运动 - 历史背景
西进运动 - 种族灭绝
• 随着疆土的大踏步向西扩展，资产阶级当权派对印第安人的征讨和屠杀进一步加强了。从1803年一直持续到1892年，差不多进行了整整一个世纪。特别是在19世纪60 年代到90年代，集中发起了1000多次不同规模的军事行动，基本上完成了消灭印第安人的作战任务。
西进运动 - 影响
• 。这一时期的西进运动，是以工业为主的综合开发。美国政府为了更好地促进西进运动，采取优惠政策吸引外商投资基础设施
铁路公司还可得到沿线两侧宽各十公里的土地所有权
（2）采取开放的政策吸引国外优秀劳动力
• 数以百计的梦想者不辞劳苦漂洋过海，来到他们神往的美国“西部花园”，创造了一系列西部文化
• 是美国工业革命所独具的特点
• 与西进运动密切联系、互相促进、同步发展是美国工业革命所独具的特点。西部开发意味着国内市场的扩大。几千万移民陆续来到西部安家创业，衣食住行所需生产劳作之物都须购置，市场容量之大，前所未有。这就推动了东部制造业的发展，也使之不断西移。 • 国土面积大了，需要改善交通条件，19世纪20至 3O年代建成的伊利运河和俄亥俄——伊利运河，把密西西比河、五大湖和大西洋连成一体。尤其是，从30年代起，在政府的鼓励和资助下，全国掀起修筑铁路的热潮，在几十年内便建成了横贯大陆的5条铁路干线，形成了以铁路为骨干的全国水陆交通体系。交通运输业的发展加速了美国工业革命的进程，同时，它又是美国工业革命的重要成果。西部地广人稀，劳动力较缺乏，平坦广袤的草原，促进了农业机械化生产。

Westward movement 西进运动

大批移民纷纷涌向西部，开拓俄亥俄、肯塔基和田纳西等地区，为后来日益扩大的中
西部产粮区奠定了基础；第二次是1815年以后，移民们在大湖区开拓，建立了美国谷物生产和畜牧业的基地，同时在南方的濒临墨西哥湾介于佐治亚南部与路易斯安那之间的平原地区，建立棉花种植园，扩大了南部的奴隶制种植园经济；第三次高潮是19 世纪中期，开拓了俄勒冈、加利福尼亚等地。到1890年，西进运动正式结束。西进运动和领土扩张是交织在一起的，在西进运动过程中，西部得到开发，大大促进了美国经济的发展；但是，随着西进运动的进行，大批印第安人遭到屠杀，幸存者被强行赶到更为荒凉的“保留地”，他们的被迫迁徙之路也被称为印第安人的“眼泪之路”。
淘金热（Gold Rush)
• • 淘金热是美国西进运动的产物，也是其中极为重要的一个环节。对美国18-19 世纪的经济开发，农业扩张交通革命，工商业发展具有重要的意义。淘金热是由于西进运动的发展引发的人口迁移为开端的。在人口第三次大规模的浪潮来临之际，美国移民萨特在加利福尼亚的萨克拉门托附近发现了金矿，并有冒险商人、操纵者、土地投机家布兰那使金矿发现的消息扩大到全世界。西进运动的发展首先是由于布兰那在加利福尼亚的企业中首次与顾客用金沙交换商品并从中捕获商机开始的，由于他的宣传在一定程度上产生了经济效应。更为重要的是美国政府的支持和引导。美国政府支持西部牛仔向西部披荆斩棘，并在淘金热兴起前后准备正式兼并加利福尼亚，即便在加利福尼亚商品匮乏之时也设法调剂和统筹商品货源。初期金矿被发现后，美国沸腾，世界震撼。近在咫尺的圣弗朗西斯科首先感受到了淘金热的冲击，几乎所有的企业停止了营业，海员把船只抛弃在了圣弗朗西斯科湾，士兵离开了营房，仆人离开了主人，涌向金矿发源地，农民典押田宅，拓荒者卡垦荒地，工人扔下工具，公务员离开写字台，甚至连传教士也离开了布道所。这股热潮一直席卷到圣弗朗西斯科北部的俄勒冈及南部的墨西哥。成千上万的淘金者使加利福尼亚人口猛增。并且许多新近出现的城镇很快成为国际性的城市。

Westward Movement

Result
4.politics and democracy: The government made laws to establish the relationship between the western states and federal government.
Result
Negative Influences
Thank you ！
three phases
First: from the late 18th century to the early 19th century: opened up the Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee areas. The second phase :began in 1815, the immigrants moved towards two directions: one part opened up the north region of the Ohio River, and another part went into the plain areas between southern Georgia and Louisiana. The third phase: began in the mid-19th century, immigrants continued to move westward to the direction of the Pacific coast. Until 1890, the Westward Movement formally ended.
The Westward Movement of American
林瑶瑶 241097212
definition： What is the western movement?

西进运动

西进运动Westward Movement(血泪之路/Trail of Tears,关键词印第安人,开发，屠杀，西部)西进运动（Westward Movement）是指美国东部居民向西部地区迁移和进行开发的群众性运动，始于18世纪末，终于19世纪末20世纪初。

运动大大促进了美国经济的发展，但是，随着西进运动的进行，大批印第安人遭到屠杀，幸存者被强行赶到更为荒凉的“保留地”。

印第安人被迫迁徙之路也被称为印第安人的“血泪之路”。

美国西进运动，是指在北美殖民地时期开始的向西移民的活动和对西部的开发，同时也是美国文化本土化的发展历程。

西进运动是美国拓宽疆土，吞并土地的一种侵略行为，它开发了如今的美国西部地区，消灭了众多印第安文明，当时美国只是东边的殖民地地区，需要大量的土地，当地已经满足不了人口和经济发展的需要，于是把目光投向了西部，当时西部的土地都是印第安部落的。

有一帮先驱者向西部探索，并和印第安部落建立了良好的关系，一直行进到太平洋，就是现在墨西哥一带。

后来大量人包括政府和军队涌入西部，通过劫掠、诱导、欺骗、屠杀印第安人，并开发西部地区。

1830年5月，安德鲁·杰克逊总统通过了《印第安人迁移法案》，把印第安人押送出密西西比河以东地区。

美国西进运动中大量的印第安人遭屠杀，其他的被强迫迁移到西部的贫瘠地区。

由此发生了第二次塞米诺尔战争。

1运动主体编辑美国独立以后，废除了英国政府颁布的禁止移民向西进的敕令，许多来自东部沿海地区和欧洲的移民纷纷越过阿巴拉契亚山脉涌向西部。

据统计，阿巴拉契亚以西的人口在1810年只占美国总人口的1/7，10年以后增长为1/4。

这些移民当中，既有南部的奴隶主，也有北部的土地投机商；但人数最多的还是一般贫苦的拓荒者——猎人、矿工、牧民和农民，后者是为谋生来到西部的，他们成为西部早期移民的主体。

2历史背景编辑早在北美殖民地时期，向西移民的活动就开始了。

南部的奴隶主、北部的土地投机商和工业资本家、高利贷者和老百姓，都希望在西部获得土地。

美国历史类托福TPO阅读分析

美国历史类托福TPO阅读分析托福阅读是托福考试当中相对比较容易的科目，也是比较容易拿分的科目，同学们要在这方面多加努力，尽力拿到更好的分数。

下面小编给大家带来美国历史类托福TPO阅读分析。

美国历史类托福TPO阅读分析历史背景：美国殖民历史和西进运动独立战争结束后，美国掀起了长达一个世纪的西迁，出于不同的目的，大批移民从西部原殖民洲迁入东部。

西进运动既是适应自由经济的发展需要，又得益于政策的支持和交通技术的发展。

TPO 20的这篇阅读就以农业发展为切入点讨论了West Migration的发展条件。

原文A段节选The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy.分析：全文分析第一句话是一个典型的长难句，如果我们抓住主干，可以简化为：the story is the story. 两个story的定语关键词分别是west movement 和 American agriculture。

句子主体意思就可以概括为：美国西进运动的故事即美国农业的故事。

次句提出了一个新的要点：交通。

West movement

West movement Introduction介绍American Westward Movement美国西进运动, movement of people from the settled regions of the United States to lands farther west. 、运动的人,来自定居在美国部分地区进一步向西涉足。

Between the early 17th and late 19th centuries, Anglo-American peoples and their societies expanded from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast. 早期和晚期的17th之间19th世纪,英美民族和社会从大西洋海岸扩展到太平洋海岸。

This westward movement, across what was often called the American frontier, was of enormous significance. 这在西进运动是什么,通常被称为美国边境的巨大意义。

By expanding the nation’s borders to include more than three million square miles, the United States became one of the most powerful nations of the 20th century. 通过扩大这个国家的边界,包括超过三百万平方英里,美国成为其中一个最强大的国家的20th世纪。

However, this expansion also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural loss for the Native Americans of North America.然而,这种扩张也导致了极大的痛苦、破坏及文化损失北美本土的美国人。

美国西进运动英文版

Page 9
The Rise of Middle Class
LOGO
In Jacksonian era, the majority of common men found opportunities in the relatively fluid society to achieve material success, as in those that preceded and followed it, established “middle class” respectability. ”
Page 10
The Start of Spoil System
LOGO
When Jackson became President, many wealthy Easterners held federal government offices. Jackson dismissed many of these people from office, replacing them with his supporters. The spoil system is a practice where a political party, after winning an election, gives government jobs to its voters as a reward for working toward victory, and as an incentive to keep working for the party—as opposed to a system of awarding offices on the basis of some measure of merit independent of political activity.

Westward movement 西进运动

Westward movementWestward Expansion is a movement of people from the settled regions of the United States to lands farther west. Since the late 18th centuries to the late 19th centuries, Anglo-American people and their society expanded from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast. This westward expansion crossed what was often called the American frontier. As one frontier area was settled, people began moving farther west into the next unsettled area, sweeping aside Native Americans as they went.It took Americans a century and a half to expand as far west as the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. By 1850, pioneers had pushed the edge of settlement all the way to Texas, the Rocky Mountain and the Pacific Ocean. During the movement rush, a new powerful and fascinating conviction had been shaped which is called the “manifest destiny” later. People believed that it was US destiny to expand towards the Pacific, perhaps further and to spread its ideas of democracy and freedom.In order to pioneer more frontiers, America intrigued the independence of Texas, which finally led to the War between Mexico and America in 1846.America won the war in the end and therefore gained a vast area of land. West movement is also called as Trail of Tears, which is given to the forced relocation and movement of nativeAmerican from southeastern parts of the United States following the Indian Removal Act of 1830. It caused millions of death because of hunger, diseases and cold,which was known as Death March.This is a historical tragedy and also ainerasable reproach in American history.The Gold Rush was one of the most significant events in westward movement. It began in 1848, when gold was discovered in California. The New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold.President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress. News of the discovery soon spread, resulting in some 300,000 men, women, and children coming to California from the rest of the United States and abroad. It brought a lot of workers and vastly promoted the development of society, agriculture, transportation and economy in the west.Looking back to the Westward Movement, many common American values were exactly developed from it such as self-reliance, the rugged individualism, inventiveness, the can-do spirit and equality of opportunity. That’s all should be reserved forever. But we also must not forget those persecuted Native Americans and destroyed environment.。

MOVEMENT

PHILIP LER and IV AN A.SAGFRENCH CLITIC MOVEMENT WITHOUT CLITICS ORMOVEMENTThe French clitic system has posed a persistent challenge to transformational syn-tactic analysis,which has never produced a successful account of problems such as clitic ordering.Lexicalist alternatives,however,have never been reconciled with the full range of familiar problems and the growing body of known lexical idiosyncracies.We present a lexicalist treatment of the French clitic system that treats all‘clitics’as lexical pronominal afﬁxes,whose ordering is templatic in nature.On our account,the order of French pronominal afﬁxes is independent of the general properties of syn-tactic structures;cliticized words–treated as valence-reduced realizations of verbal lexemes–enter the syntax fully inﬂected.The conclusions we reach challenge gram-matical architectures that seek to explain the behavior of clitics in terms of functional projections,head movement and/or the Mirror Principle.I NTRODUCTIONFor more than a quarter century,French pronominal afﬁxes(indeed Romance pronominal afﬁxes in general)have posed a dilemma for generative grammar.2PHILIP LER AND IV AN A.SAGPut simply,the dilemma is that verb forms bearing pronominal afﬁxes,by any number of criteria,are single words,yet the syntactic distribution of these words differs from that of their uncliticized counterparts in system-atic ways that an adequate grammar must explain.Thus in familiar con-trasts as(1)and(2),the presence of a pronominal afﬁx causes a systematic change in the verb’s combinatoric potential(or‘valence’):(1) a.Marie le voit.‘Marie sees him.’b.*Marie le voit Jean.‘Marie sees Jean.’c.Marie voit Jean.‘Marie sees Jean.’(2) a.Marie lui donne le livre.‘Marie gives her the book.’b.Marie le lui donne.‘Marie gives it to her.’c.*Marie lui donne un livre`a Anne.‘Marie gives a book to Anne.’d.*Marie le lui donne le livre.‘Marie gives her the book.’This dilemma has received considerable attention in the generative litera-ture,ever since the seminal studies of Kayne(1969,1975)and Perlmut-ter(1970).In the earliest proposals,pronominal afﬁxes were analyzed in terms of syntactic movement:they were regarded as full NPs in their usual argument position in deep structure and then transformationally attached to the ter proposals included base generated analyses of pronomi-nal afﬁxes(e.g.Rivas1977,Jaeggli1982),whereas others have continued to argue for a movement-based approach(e.g.Kayne1991).Sportiche(1996)provides an interesting discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.He argues that a uniform,strictly base-generated approach to clitic constructions is impossible because“there are many cases in which the clitic appears on a verb to which it bears no lexical relation”(Sportiche1996:219),e.g.the cases illustrated in(3).FRENCH CLITIC MOVEMENT WITHOUT CLITICS OR MOVEMENT3(3) a.Marie l’a vu.‘Marie has seen him.’[l’–argument of vu]b.Le livre lui a´e t´e donn´e.‘The book has been given to him.’[lui–argument of donn´e]c.Pierre lui resteﬁd`e le.‘Pierre remains faithful to him.’[lui–argument ofﬁd`e le]d.Marie en connaˆit laﬁn.‘Marie knows the end of it.’[en–argument ofﬁn]e.Marie le fait lire`a Paul.‘Marie is making Paul read it.’[le–argument of lire]He concludes that‘by the principle of uniformity of analysis[...],this dismisses these analyses altogether’(ibid.).In this study,we show that Sportiche’s conclusion is an artifact of the theoretical framework he assumes(GB).We show this by demonstrating that there is a distinct syntactic framework–Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar(HPSG),speciﬁcally the version of HPSG laid out in Pollard and Sag(1994)–that provides precisely the tools needed to deal systematically with the full distributional complexity of French verbs bearing pronominal afﬁxes without violating their lexical integrity.The analysis we offer here is strictly lexicalist,employs no movement rules(in fact no transformations of any kind),and hence allows the afﬁxed verbal forms to be constructed entirely within the lexicon,e.g.via morpholexical rules.We are thus taking up the challenge set out by Sportiche against strict-ly‘base generated’approaches,providing an analysis which explains both the facts that have been argued to be in favor of a movement analysis,and those in favor of a base generated analysis,within a strictly lexicalist the-ory.In fact,we will argue in the concluding section that the analysis we propose is superior on theoretical grounds to that proposed by Sportiche (1996)and similar approaches within the principles and parameters frame-work of Chomsky(1986,1991),e.g.the analyses of Kayne(1991)and Haverkort(1992).1.T HE A FFIXAL S TATUS OF F RENCH B OUND P RONOUNSTheﬁrst point that we would like to make about French pronominal afﬁx-es is that they should be analyzed as lexically attached inﬂections rather4PHILIP LER AND IV AN A.SAGthan as postlexical clitics.We will brieﬂy present a set of arguments in favor of this analysis,principally based on the criteria for distinguishing afﬁxes from postlexical clitics due to Zwicky and Pullum(1983).It should be noted that Labelle(1985),using the same types of criteria,came to the opposite conclusion,namely that the pronominal afﬁxes are postlexi-cal clitics.However,we claim that she came to this incorrect conclusion because she ignored numerous relevant data which we now very brieﬂy review.Detailed argumentation can be found in Miller(1992a:173–181), providing numerous further examples of the types given below as well as a theoretical justiﬁcation of the criteria invoked here.In addition,Auger’s (1993,1994,1995)arguments(based primarily on Quebec French)lead to the conclusions converging with ours,as do those offered by Bonet(1991) under differing theoretical assumptions,based on data from Catalan,and those of Monachesi(1993a,b,1996),which concern multiple varieties of Italian.The arguments presented here are relevant for the afﬁxal status both of subject and object pronominals.It is important to note here that we are not claiming that pronominal afﬁxes are agreement markers in French.We assume that agreement mark-er vs.pronoun status and afﬁx vs.word status are two independent param-eters,and that in standard French,the bound pronominals are afﬁxal(or ‘incorporated’)pronouns.The major evidence for this is the absence of systematic doubling.The following evidence supports the conclusion that French pronominal afﬁxes are lexically attached inﬂections:D EGREE OF SELECTION WITH RESPECT TO THE HOST:Contrary to the claims of Labelle(1985:91–92),French pronominal afﬁx-es are not VP-initial clitics:in those cases where the VP is not verb initial, the afﬁxes(e.g.lui in(4a))appear on the verb,the head of the VP,as is typical for inﬂection,and not on other VP-initial items.(4) a.Il faut[ne rien lui dire].It is necessary to tell her/him nothing.b.*Il faut[ne lui rien dire].c.[Tout lui donner]serait une erreur.To give her everything would be a mistake.FRENCH CLITIC MOVEMENT WITHOUT CLITICS OR MOVEMENT5d.*[Lui tout donner]serait une erreur.A RBITRARY GAPS IN THE SET OF COMBINATIONS:There are arbitrary gaps in the set of combinations of pronominal afﬁx-es and verbs.This is typical of inﬂection and not of cliticization.For instance,the classical phenomena of pronominal afﬁx incompatibility,e.g. the impossibility of(5b)(whose only grammatical realization is(5c)as opposed to(5a),constitute clear cases of gaps in the paradigm.(5) a.Il le lui a pr´e sent´e.‘He presented him to her.’b.*Il me t’/lui a pr´e sent´e.(putatively same as(5c))c.Il m’a pr´e sent´e`a toi/elle.‘He presented me to you/her.’Similarly,for most verbs there is no acceptable form for the inverted ﬁrst person singular pronominal afﬁx je,as opposed to other persons.The contrast between(6b)and paraphrases such as Je sors?/Je chante?,Est-ce que je sors?/Est-ce que je chante?shows that this is not a semantic or pragmatic problem,but a purely morphological one.(6) a.Sors-tu?‘Are you going out?’Chantes-tu?‘Are you singing?’b.*Sors-je?(putatively‘Am I going out?’)*Chante-je?(putatively‘Am I singing?’)It is very difﬁcult to imagine a principled syntactic account of such data, especially given the fact that,for(5),the strong form alternates are well-formed and that,for(6),some other verbs and all other persons allow inver-sion.M ORPHOPHONOLOGICAL IDIOSYNCRASIES:The combinations of pronominal afﬁxes with verbal stems involve numer-ous morphophonological idiosyncrasies,which are not explainable in terms of productive phonological rules.The precise repertory of idiosyncrasies exhibits geographical variation,although they clearly appear in all varieties of spoken French(see e.g.Morin1979a for extensive data and Auger1993,6PHILIP LER AND IV AN A.SAG1994,1995for discussion of morphophonological idiosyncrasies in Que-bec and standard French).We will mention just two examples:the idiosyn-cratic realization of y asØin front of the future stem ir-of aller,illustrated in(7)(ler(1992a:176–177)),and the idiosyncratic realization of je suis as chuis[ˇs i](note that this is only possible for the verbˆe tre,and not for the homophononous form of suivre‘follow’,je suis,proving that chuis cannot be derived by productive phonological rules)and je sais as chais[ˇs e].(7) a.Pierre*(y)va.‘Pierre is going there.’b.Pierre(*y)ira.‘Pierre will go there.’R IGID AND IDIOSYNCRATIC ORDERING:French pronominal afﬁxes exhibit rigid and idiosyncratic ordering,typi-cal of afﬁxation,rather than of cliticization.For instance,the ordering of dative and accusative pronominal afﬁxes in standard French depends on the persons of the afﬁxes involved.More generally,dialects that are oth-erwise very similar can exhibit variation in afﬁx ordering(see,e.g.Morin (1979b:307),Cummins and Roberge1994b),which conﬁrms the idea that the ordering is not explainable in terms of deep syntactic properties.(8) a.Marie me(dat)le(acc)donne.‘Marie gives it to me.’b.Marie le(acc)lui(dat)donne.‘Marie gives it to her.’P RONOMINAL AFFIXES UNDERGO LEXICAL PHONOLOGICAL RULES: It can be argued that afﬁx+stem units undergo lexical phonological rules, such as obligatory liaison of nasal consonants,lending further evidence that the bound pronominals are lexically attached afﬁxes.(9)Marie en a.([˜a na]/*[˜a a])‘Marie has some.’For a discussion of the difference between this and the similar liaison found in examples like bon ami,see Miller(1992a:166ff).O BJECT AFFIXES CANNOT HAVE WIDE SCOPE OVER COORDINATION: Object afﬁxes cannot have wide scope over a coordination of hosts,as shown in(10).Miller(1992b)argues that this is strong evidence for the lexically attached status of these elements and against clitic status.FRENCH CLITIC MOVEMENT WITHOUT CLITICS OR MOVEMENT7 (10)*Pierre les voit et´e coute.(putatively‘Pierre sees and hears them.’) Compare this,for example,with the behavior of English reduced auxil-iaries,which allow such a wide scope interpretation:(11)[Pat and Leslie]’ll be there...S YNTACTIC EXPLANATIONS FOR CLITIC ORDERING HAVE FAILED: Syntactic accounts of the ordering of pronominal afﬁxes like that of Sportiche (1992)have encountered severe difﬁculties.Further arguments against a syntactic derivation of clitic order can be found in Perlmutter1970and Bonet1991.Other attempts to provide a principled syntactically based explanation of pronominal afﬁx ordering,e.g.that of Fiengo and Gitter-man(1978),have also failed,as has been shown in considerable detail by Morin(1979b).From this body of evidence,we conclude that verb forms bearing pronom-inal afﬁxes should be formed in the lexicon,not in the syntax,as is fre-quently assumed.Further consequences of this conclusion are discussed in the concluding section.2.HPSG:T HEORETICAL B ACKGROUNDHPSG is,ﬁrst and foremost,a constraint-based theory of grammatical competence.All of its representations–lexical entries,rules,and even universal principles–are partial descriptions of(i.e.constraints on)fea-ture structures–the fundamental construct used to model linguistic enti-ties.HPSG linguistic descriptions are declarative,order-independent,and reversible,making them ideally suited for the description of linguistic per-formance,where,as a long tradition of psycholinguistic results has estab-lished,linguistic and nonlinguistic constraints are seamlessly integrated with astonishing speed and accuracy.Linguistic information in HPSG is organized into signs and their com-ponents.Current work is entertaining hypotheses about the internal struc-ture of signs such as the one sketched in(12),which we will assume here.8PHILIP LER AND IV AN A.SAG (12)The Sign in HPSG:signPHON...MORPH...SYNSEM synsemLOCALlocalCATEGORYcategoryHEADhead(VFORM...)(CASE...)...V ALENCESUBJ(X)SPR(X)COMPS list(synsem)(ARG-ST list(synsem))CONTENT...CONTEXT[],...WEIGHT...NON-LOCALSLASH set(local)QU...Not only words,but also phrases will be treated in terms of such fea-ture structures,whose precise nature is guaranteed by the constraints of the grammar.In(12),for example:(1)the HEAD value speciﬁes part of speech and other information(varying according to the part of speech) that a word shares with the phrases it projects;(2)the syntactico-semantic complexes called synsem objects contain the information(part-of-speech, case,agreement properties,semantic content,etc.)that is selectable by a given head;(3)SLASH encodes information about an element that is miss-ing from a sign in an extraction dependency construction;(4)the ARG-ST (ARGUMENT-STRUCTURE)speciﬁes a list of synsem s that correspond to the arguments selected by a lexical head.(5)WEIGHT values(e.g.lite vs.non-lite)are relevant to the account of French linear order phenomena developed by Abeill´e and Godard(in press).FRENCH CLITIC MOVEMENT WITHOUT CLITICS OR MOVEMENT9 HPSG is a lexicalist theory,incorporating the principle of Strong Lex-icalism(see Scalise(1984:101ff)).That is,(1)the principles of word structure are independent from those governing syntactic structure and(2) syntactic operations do not affect(or even‘see’)the internal structure of words.Strong lexicalism precludes any analysis where lexical afﬁxes are assigned lexemic status or undergo syntactic rules.Afﬁx movement oper-ations,assumed in a long tradition from Chomsky1955through Pollock 1989,are hence inconsistent with strong lexicalism and with HPSG,where words,fully formed,ground the recursive deﬁnition of well-formed signs.We will assume here that each inﬂected word must belong simultane-ously to three compatible types:(1)a(CLITIC-)REALIZATION(REALZN) type–either plain-word(pl-wd)or cliticized-word(cl-wd);see sec.3.1.cl-wd is further divided into the two subtypes su(bject)-cl-wd and n(on)s(ubject)-cl-wd;(2)an INFLECTIONAL(INFLN)type,e.g.3sg-pres-indic-vb,2sg-imper-vb,etc.)that speciﬁes an inﬂectional form for a given lexeme;and (3)a LEXEME type that speciﬁes the morphological stem,part of speech, argument structure,and meaning common to a family of inﬂected forms. The hierarchically organized verbal lexeme types correspond to what are normally regarded as lexical entries.The hierarchy of words is thus as par-tially described in terms of the three partitions indicated in(13).(13)wordREALZN INFLN LEXEME cl-wd pl-wdﬁn-vb.........indic-vb VER VOULOIR Following Wechsler(1995)and Davis(1996),much of the informationin the lexical description of a lexeme–in particular information about the linking of ARG-ST members to semantic roles is predictable on seman-tic grounds.To the extent that this is true,a lexemic description need only include information about phonology,grammatical category,and meaning. (14)illustrates the French lexeme LAVER and the form that arises by com-bining its constraints with those associated with the inﬂectional type1st-plural-present-indicative.10PHILIP LER AND IV AN A.SAG (14) VERMORPH STEM lav-SYNSEM LOC CATHEAD verbARG-ST NP,NP CONTwash-relACTOR iUNDERGOER jVER&1st-plural-present-indicativeMORPH I-FORM lavons STEM lav-SYNSEM LOC CATHEADverbVFORM indicARG-ST NP[1pl],NP CONTwash-relACTOR iUNDERGOER jLOCATION presentNote that constraints on the agreement properties of the subject argument have been‘uniﬁed in’and that the description in(14)speciﬁes an I-FORM value,in addition to the STEM value inherited from the lexeme.We will assume that inﬂectional information always combines in this way,that is, monotonically.By contrast,any phenomenon involving a change in the number of arguments in the ARG-ST list will be treated as derivational, rather than inﬂectional,i.e.as involving a lexical relation between distinct lexemes.The FORM value of a plain-word will be identiﬁed with the word’s I-FORM value.Languages differ in how the arguments of a word can be realized;varia-tions exist with respect to argument drop(so called‘PRO drop’),extraction, and–crucially–pronominal afﬁxation(given,as we have already argued, that cliticization is in fact lexical afﬁxation).In the version of HPSG we assume,this is treated by distinguishing ARG-ST from the valence fea-tures(SUBJ,COMPS,SPR)that will specify which arguments a givenhead combines with locally.Thus,while the canonical relation(cross-linguistically,as well)among these is shown in(15),where designates list concatenation(or the‘append’relation),we analyze argument drop, extraction,and pronominal afﬁxation all in terms of arguments(ARG-ST members)that are absent from any valence list.(Boxed numbers are used here and throughout to‘tag’two feature structures as token identical.) (15)Argument Conservation(simpliﬁed):word SS LOC CAT V ALENCESUBJSPRCOMPS ARG-STWe will concern ourselves below with the formulation of constraints that allow such discrepancies precisely when extraction or pronominal afﬁxa-tion occurs in French.In order to understand how words give rise to phrasal signs in HPSG, the following two aspects of the theory are of particular relevance:(16) a.A head-daughter’s HEAD value is identical to that of its mother.b.If a phrase consists of a head daughter and one or more argu-ments(complement(s),subject or speciﬁer),then its value for therelevant V ALENCE feature F(COMPS,SUBJ,or SPR)is thehead daughter’s F value minus the elements corresponding to thesynsem(s)of the non-head daughter(s).Otherwise,a phrase’s Fvalue is identical to that of its head daughter.(16a)is the Head Feature Principle,a universal constraint familiar from X-Bar Theory(see Gazdar et al.1985);(16b)is the Valence Principle,analo-gous to the cancellation of arguments in Categorial Grammar.A small set of principles such as these is sufﬁcient to derive most of the complex prop-erties of phrasal constructions from the properties of words,as illustrated in(17).(17)HEADSUBJCOMPSCONT(=S)HEAD noun SPRCOMPSHEADSUBJCOMPSCONT(=VP)HEAD verbSUBJCOMPSARG-ST,CONTHEAD nounSPRCOMPS(=NP)HEAD detHEADSPRCOMPS(=N)Marie is washing three dogs Here again,the boxed integers indicate identities,in this case those required by the Head Feature Principle and the Valence Principle.The lexical entry for the word lave speciﬁes the part-of-speech verb(tagged),which the Head Feature Principle identiﬁes as the HEAD value of both VP and S. Nouns select their speciﬁers via the feature SPR.Verbs select dependents by cancelling off values for both COMPS and SUBJ,as illustrated in(17). Notice that verbs must select a subject via SUBJ,hence the COMPS list oflave must be singleton,as indicated in(17)in order to satisfy both Argu-ment Conservation in(15)and the semantically determined ARG-ST prop-erties that the word lave inherits from the lexeme LAVE(shown in(14a)).It should be pointed out that ARG-ST is the locus of binding theory in HPSG.Thus the elements of the ARG-ST list of the verb lave in(17) have acquired further information relevant to binding as a side effect of the verb’s combining with the dependents trois chiens and Marie.If,instead, such arguments are anaphors or pronominals,they trigger different side effects for the ARG-ST members of lave.These interact with the con-straints of the HPSG binding theory(Pollard and Sag1992,1994(ch.6); Manning1994)to guarantee the appropriate coindexing or lack of such.Also relevant in the present context are the constraints on semantic pro-jection.Leaving aside issues of quantiﬁcation(v.Pollard and Yoo in press), the semantic content(the CONT value)of each node in(17)is identical to that of the head daughter(thus the appearance of features being‘passed up’).This sketch of the version of HPSG we are assuming is brief;yet it should sufﬁce for understanding the treatment of pronominal afﬁxes devel-oped in the rest of this paper.Further aspects of HPSG are introduced on an‘as needed’basis.3.T HE G RAMMAR OF‘C LITICIZED’V ERB F ORMS3.1.Two Types of Verbal RealizationWe propose to analyze the syntactic core of cliticization in terms of a dis-tinction between the two types of verbal realization already mentioned. Theﬁrst type–plain-word–requires each element of a verb’s ARG-ST list to correspond to an overt phrase that combines with the verb syntac-tically(i.e.locally in a head complement or head-subject structure),and hence also to be present on the verb’s SUBJ or COMPS list.Words of the second type–cliticized-word–are verbs that have at least one argu-ment that is realized afﬁxally,rather than syntactically.Verbal lexemes in French thus give rise to both kinds of inﬂected word and,as a result,there is a systematic absence of overtly realized complements in the presence of a corresponding pronominal afﬁx.In order to guarantee the presence of the appropriate afﬁxes in the phonological form of cl-wd s,our analysis relies on the assumption that synsem objects are further classiﬁed into subtypes as shown in(18): (18)synsemCANONICITY AFFIXALITYnoncan non-affcanon gap affHere canon(ical-synsem)is the type associated with all signs;noncan(onical-synsem)corresponds to an ARG-ST position that is not realized as a local syntactic dependent of the head.The latter subtype is in turn divided into the subtypes aff(ixal-synsem)and gap(-synsem).It is the presence of ele-ments of type aff on a verb’s ARG-ST list that triggers the morphological realization of the corresponding pronominal afﬁxes.The type non-aff pro-vides a cross-cutting classiﬁcation,subsuming all types of synsem other than aff.Theﬁrst type,pl-wd,is subject to the following constraints:(19)pl-wd MORPHFORMI-FORMSYNSEM LOC CATV ALSUBJCOMPSARG-ST(19)guarantees that pl-wd s have an argument structure list corresponding to the simple concatenation of the values of the valence features SUBJ andCOMPS;the SUBJ list must furthermore contain exactly one element. Since the SUBJ and COMPS values get‘cancelled’as a head combines with overt complements and the subject(all of type canon),this constraint has the effect of ensuring that the arguments of a pl-wd are in general real-ized syntactically,rather than afﬁxally.Neither the SUBJ nor the COMPS value is explicitly constrained to contain only non-aff elements,however, because certain pl-wd s(inﬁnitives and past participles)may share argu-ments with other verbs,through raising or composition.Although we allow theﬁrst argument and SUBJ of aﬁnite pl-wd to be of type aff(in order to deal with raising,for example),in fact pl-wd s so speciﬁed are harmless-ly impotent,as they have no other syntactic combinatoric potential:they can never combine with an overt subject;they cannot terminate an extrac-tion dependency;they cannot appear in control constructions,nor can they function as independent clauses.The type cl-wd is subject to the constraints shown in(20).(20)cl-wd MORPHFORM F(,...)I-FORMSYNSEM LOC CATHEAD verbV ALSUBJCOMPS list(non-aff)ARG-ST()nelist(aff)Noteﬁrst that,since our concern here is verbs,whose SPR list is always empty,we systematically omit this feature from consideration.Second,(20)requires that all the members of the COMPS list be of type non-aff,i.e.these complements must either be gap s or else canon s(overt comple-ments).(20)also guarantees that SUBJ and COMPS lists add up to be the ARG-ST list,except that one or more ARG-ST elements of type aff must be absent from the SUBJ or COMPS list,i.e.‘shufﬂed in’to consti-tute the ARG-ST list.Whenever an argument is of type aff and does notbelong to either the SUBJ or COMPS list,then the cliticized verb is real-ized with appropriate pronominal afﬁxation.This effect is obtained via the function F.Note,however,that past participles have a life as cl-wd s in our analysis,yet F requires that such participles bear no pronomi-nal afﬁxes.Instances of the type pl-wd have a FORM value that is simply identiﬁed with their I-FORM value(an inﬂected form that is constrained in terms of both their grammatical category(their CAT value)and the STEM value supplied by their lexeme type).The phonology of cl-wd s,by contrast,is determined by the function F(see below sec.3.2),which requires that the FORM value be related to the I-FORM value via the appropri-ate pronominal afﬁxation.As aﬁnal point of comparison(crucial for our account of clitic‘trapping’),notice that whereas the COMPS list of a pl-wd is unrestricted,all members of the COMPS list of a cl-wd must be non-aff and hence must correspond to overt complements or gaps,rather than pronominal afﬁxes of that verb’s ARG-ST list.The two subtypes of cl-type are subject to the following further con-straints:(21)su-cl-wd SYNSEM LOC CAT V AL SUBJARG-ST[aff,nom],...(22)ns-cl-wd SYNSEM LOC CAT V AL SUBJARG-ST,...These constraints guarantee that a su-cl-wd(e.g.je-lave or je-le-lave)must have an empty SUBJ list and aﬁrst argument that is a nominative NP[aff] (allowing for the possibility that other arguments are also of type aff).The ﬁrst argument of a ns-cl-wd(e.g.le-lave),by contrast,must also appear on the SUBJ list.If this argument is an aff,it will be impotent(as described above);it may be a canon element that combines with a subject syntac-tically;alternatively it is a gap and corresponds to an instance of subject extraction.In addition,there must be an aff elsewhere in its ARG-ST list (because the ARG-ST list of all cl-wd s must include at least one aff ele-ment that is not on any valence list).The various subtypes of aff(e.g.3sgm-acc-aff,de-aff,...)are all fur-ther classiﬁed as either anaphor-afﬁx(a-aff)or personal-pronominal-aff (p-aff)and are constrained to bear speciﬁcations that would be appropriate for overt anaphors or pronouns;however,these afﬁxal synsem s are never associated with an overt pronoun.Syntactically independent(‘strong’)pro-nouns are signs and hence always have a SYNSEM value of type canon.The noncanonical subtypes of aff(which must be enumerated and associ-ated with appropriate constraints,just as all types are)serve to distinguish various kinds of ARG-ST lists.These diverse list values in turn trigger particular inﬂectional realizations of the verb,as sketched below.The following examples are typical of the words allowed by our analysis.(23)pl-wd&DONNER&3sg-pres-indic-vbMORPH FORM donne I-FORM donneSS LOC CAT HEADverbVFORM indicV ALSUBJCOMPS,ARG-ST NP[3sg],NP[acc],NP[`a](24)ns-cl-wd&DONNER&3sg-fut-indic-vbMORPH FORM lui-donnera I-FORM donneraSS LOC CAT HEADverbVFORM indicV ALSUBJCOMPSARG-ST NP[3sg],NP[acc],NP[p-aff,`a,3sg]。

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How Did They Go There?
• The pioneers struggled westward across hills, mountains, and prairies on foot and on horseback. Some floated through the Erie Canal on barges or traveled down rivers on flatboats and steamboats. Others crossed the rugged wildernmany pioneers, the Cumberland Gap, the Oregon Trail, and other roads west became paths to opportunity.
Movies about it
• • • • • • The Great Train Robbery 火车大劫案 (1903) The Furies 复仇女神 (1950) The Searchers 搜索者(1956) How the West Was Won 西部开拓史(1962) Far and Away 大地雄心(1992) Bad Girls 致命女人香(1994)
By that time, the western frontiers of the United States had been conquered. An abundance of land and other natural resources lured America's pioneers westward. Fur traders, cattle ranchers, farmers, and miners led the push to the west. Merchants and other business people followed.
Some literary works of the Westward Movement
• The Pioneers《拓荒者》(1823), The Last of the Mohicans 《最后的莫希干人》(1826) by James Fenimore Cooper(詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库柏 ); • O Pioneers! 《啊，拓荒者》(1913) , A Lost Lady 《迷途的女人》(1923) by Willa Cather (薇拉·凯瑟 );
Negative Influences
• Aboriginal Indians • Loss of natural sources
Conclusion
• American Westward Movement is on the one hand a great history, on the other hand a miserable history. • The two opposite and related sides of Westward Movement are one of the most influential forces to shape North American history.
◆By expanding, the U.S became one of the most powerful nations of the 20th century. ◆However, also resulted in great suffering, destruction, and cultural loss
An Outstanding Western Cowgirl
• Annie Oakley (安妮·奥克利) an American sharpshooter and exhibition shooter. • Oakley‘s most famous trick is perhaps being able to repeatedly split a playing card, edge-on, and put several more holes in it before it could touch the ground, while using a .22 caliber rifle, at 90 feet（大约27.5米）。 • In 1894 Oakley performed in Edison‘s Kinetoscope （活动电影放映机） film, The “Little Sure Shot” of the “Wild West,” which made her the first American female superstar.
The Spirit of Cowboy
• Cowboy spirit produced between the 18th century and the late 19th century in the United States. • The spirit of enduring hardship and the independence. • The spirit as a spiritual support not only encourages Americans in less than a century to reclaim territory, but also paves the way for the modernization of the United States.
◆This expansion also meant North America was dominated by English institutions. The Spanish and French were also exploring and settling North America; these Anglo-American settlers was one of the most influential forces to shape North American history.
• Ranches were established and cattle industry boomed. • Cowboy
• A birth of modern America • Democracy • Literature (Frontier Literature) Willa Cather-O Pioneers James Jenimore Cooper-The Leather-Stocking Tales • Opportunities • American characteristics
Westward Movement in America
鲜美娇岳慧艳高娜
A Brief Introduction
A process of a large scaled colonial expansion; ◆Began after the North American War of Independence; ◆The climax : mid-19th century; ◆Ended in the late 19th century..
◆People from the settled regions of the United States to lands farther west. ◆Between the early 17th and late 19th centuries, the American frontier, enormous significance.
It can be divided into three phases:
First: from the late 18th century to the early 19th century: opened up the Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee areas. The second phase :began in 1815, the immigrants moved towards two directions: one part opened up the north region of the Ohio River, and another part went into the plain areas between southern Georgia and Louisiana. The third phase: began in the mid-19th century, immigrants continued to move westward to the direction of the Pacific coast. Until 1890, the Westward Movement formally ended.
Why Did They Go There?
• In the hope of making a better life for themselves and their children. • For wealth or adventure. • Improve their social position or increase their political power.
Westward Movement in America
• Time:1600’s --- late 1800’s The westward movement began in the early 1600's with European settlements along the Atlantic Coast of North America. It continued until the late 1800's.
The Effects of the Westward Movement
Positive Contributions