GMATARGUMENT课堂笔记总

Development in Argument典型中间段的结构（顺序如下）1．写出原文中的一个推理/assumption/结论2．驳斥该推理/assumption/结论3．指出该推理/assumption/结论的各种可能的错误4．得出相应结论------------------------------1．写出原文中的一个推理/assumption/结论2．驳斥该推理/assumption/结论1）直驳式 2）反问式 3）因果式 4）让步转折式1)直驳式2. “When the Apogee Company had all its operations in one location, it was more profitable than it is today. Therefore, the Apogee Company should close down its field offices and conduct all its operations from a single location. Such centralization would improve profitability by cutting costs and helping the company maintain better supervision of all employees.”First, the author assumes that centralization would improve profitability by cutting costs and streamlining supervision of employees. This assumption is never supported with any data or projections.-----------------------------14. The following appeared as part of a newspaper editorial.“Two years ago Nova High School began to use interactive computer instruction in three academic subjects. The school dropout rate declined immediately, and last year’s graduates have reported some impressive achievements in college. In future budgets the school board should use a greater portion of the available funds to buy more computers, and all schools in the district should adopt interactive computer instruction throughout the curriculum.”First, the argument assumes that the decline of school dropout and theachievements of last year’s graduates’ results from the adoption of interactive computer instruction. However, there are several reasons why this might not be true.------------------或写为To begin with, this argument is a classic instance of “after this, therefore because of this” reasoning. The mere fact that the introduction of interactive computer instruction preceded the impressive performance of recent graduates and the decline in the dropout rate is insufficient to conclude that it was the cause of these events.----------------------2）反问式Second, the only reason offered by the author is the claim that Apogee was more profitable when it had operated from a single, centralized location. But is centralization the only difference relevant to greater past profitability? It is entirely possible that 3）因果式1. Over time, the costs of processing go down because as organizations learn how to do things better, they become more efficient. In color film processing, for example, the cost of a 3-by-5-inch print fell from 50 cents for five-day service in 1970 to 20 cents for one-day service in 1984. The same principle applies to the processing of food. And since Olympic Foods will soon celebrate its twenty-fifth birthday, we can expect that our long experience will enable us to minimize costs and thus maximize profits.”Second, it is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from the color-film processing industry are applicable to the food processing industry.Differences between the two industries clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy highly less than valid.带让步的因果式37 “Motorcycle X has been manufactured in the United States for over 70 years. Although one foreign company has copied the motorcycle and is selling it for less, the company has failed to attract motorcycle X customers—some say because its product lacks the exceptionally loud noise made by motorcycle X. But there must be some other explanation. After all, foreign cars tend to be quieter than similar American-made cars, but they sell at least as well. Also, television advertisements for motorcycle X highlight its durability and sleek lines, not its noisiness, and the ads typically have voice-overs or rock music rather than engine-roar on the sound track.”To begin with, the first reason rests on the assumption that what automobile customers find appealing is analogous to what motorcycle customers find appealing. This assumption is weak, since although there are points of comparison between automobiles and motorcycles, there are many dissimilarities as well.------------------------------4）让步转折式The author’s second reason is also problematic.Although the engine noise of Motorcycle X is not explicitly touted in advertisements, it does not necessarily follow that engine noise is not an important selling feature.Because Motorcycle X has been manufactured in the U.S. for over 70 years, its reputation for engine noise is probably already well known and need not be advertised.Moreover, the advertisers might userock music on Motorcycle X ad soundtracks for the specific purpose of suggesting, or even simulating, its loud engine noise.8．“The common notion that workers are generally apathetic about management issues is false, or at least outdated: a recently published survey indicates that 79 percent of the nearly 1,200 workers who responded to survey questionnaires expressed a high level of interest in the topics of corporate restructuring and redesign of benefits programs.”A third problem with the argument is that it makes a hasty generalization about the types of issues workers are interested in. It accords with common sense that workers would be interested in corporate restructuring and redesign of benefits programs, since these issues affect workers very directly. However, it is unfair to assume that workers would be similarly interested in other management issues—ones that do not affect them or affect them less directly.原文中的一个推理/assumption/结论2．驳斥该推理/assumption/结论也可以并成一句话10. The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.“This past winter, 200 students from Waymarsh State College traveled to the state capitol building to protest against proposed cuts in funding for various state college programs. The other 12,000 Waymarsh students evidently weren’t so concerned about their education: they either stayed on campus or left for winter break. Since the group who did not protest is far more numerous, it is more representative of the state’s college students than are the protesters. Therefore the state legislature need not heed the appeals of the protesting students.”First, the author assumes that because only one-tenth of the students tookpart in the p rotest, these students’ views are unrepresentative of the entirestudent body. This assumption is unwarranted.------------------合并为First, the author unwarrantedly assumes that because only one-tenth ofthe students took part in the protest, these studen ts’ views areunrepresentative of the entire student body.1.原文中的一个推理/assumption/结论也可以展开为两句11. The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.“In the first four years that Montoya has served as mayor of the city of San Perdito, the population has decreased and the unemployment rate has increased.Two businesses have closed for each new business that has opened. Under Varro, who served as mayor for four years before Montoya, the unemployment rate decreased and the population increased. Clearly, the residents of San Perdito would be best served if they voted Montoya out of office and reelected Varro.”First of all, the author assumes that the Montoya administration causedthe unemployment in San Perdito as well as its population loss. The lineof reasoning is that because Montoya was elected before the rise inunemployment and the decline in population, the former event caused thelatter.-------------------------------------3. 指出该推理/assumption/结论的各种可能的错误1）反例法2）正反例法3）他因列举法（it is possible that）（他因越合理、越细致就越有效）-----------------------------------1）反例法1．Over time, the costs of processing go down because as organizations learn how to do things better, they become more efficient. In color filmprocessing, for example, the cost of a 3-by-5-inch print fell from 50 centsfor five-day service in 1970 to 20 cents for one-day service in 1984. Thesame principle applies to the processing of food. And since OlympicFoods will soon celebrate its twenty-fifth birthday, we can expect that ourlong experience will enable us to minimize costs and thus maximizeprofits.”Second, it is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from the color-film processing industry are applicable to the food processing industry.Differences between the two industries clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy highly less than valid.For example,problems of spoilage, contamination, and timely transportation all affect the food industry but are virtually absent in the film-processing industry. Problems such as these might present insurmountable obstacles that prevent lowering food-processing costs in the future.---------------------------2）正反例法8. The following appeared in the editorial section of a corporate newsletter.“The common notion that workers are general ly apathetic about management issues is false, or at least outdated: a recently published survey indicates that 79 percent of the nearly 1,200 workers who responded to survey questionnaires expressed a high level of interest in the topics of corporate restructuring and redesign of benefits programs.”First, the statistics cited in the editorial may be misleading because thetotal number of workers employed by the corporation is not specified. For example, if the corporation employs 2000 workers, the fact that 79 percent of the nearly 1200 respondents showed interest in these topics provides strong support for the conclusion.《正例》On the other hand, if the corporation employs 200,000 workers, the conclusion is much weaker.《反例》3）他因列举法（it is possible that）5. The following appeared in an announcement issued by the publisher of The Mercury, a weekly newspaper.“Since a competing lower-priced newspaper, The Bugle, was started five years ago, The Mercury’s circulation has declined by 10,000 readers. The best way to get more people to read The Mercury is to reduce its price below that of The Bugle, at least until circulation increases to former levels. The increased circulation of The Mercury will attract more businesses to buy advertising space in the paper.”Ther e are many other factors that might account for a decline in The Mercury’s popularity. For instance, readers might be displeased with the extent and accuracy of its news reporting, or the balance of local to other news coverage. Moreover, it is possible The Mercury has recently changed editors, giving the paper a locally unpopular political perspective. Or perhaps readers are unhappy with the paper’s format, the timeliness of its feature articles, its comics or advice columns, the extent and accuracy of its local event calendar, or its rate of errors4. 得出相应结论即对本段首句引述的原文中的一个推理/assumption/结论给予负面的评价1）否定段首句中推理/assumption/结论6. The following appeared as part of an article in a magazine devoted to regional life.“Corporations should look to the city of Helios whe n seeking new business opportunities or a new location. Even in the recent recession, Helios’s unemployment rate was lower than the regional average. It is the industrial center of the region, and historically it has provided more than its share of the reg ion’s manufacturing jobs. In addition, Helios is attempting to expand its economic base by attracting companies that focus on research and development of innovative technologies.”To begin with, it is questionable whether the available labor pool in Helios could support all types of corporations. Given thatHelios has attracted mainly industrial and manufacturing companies in the past, it is unlikely that the local pool of prospective employees would be suitable for corporations of other types. For example, the needs of research and development companies would not be met by a labor force trained in manufacturing skills. For this reason,it’s unlikely that Helios will be successful in its attempt to attract companies that focus or research and development of innovative technologies.------------------------------10. The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.“This past winter, 200 students from Waymarsh State College traveled to the state capitol building to protest against proposed cuts in funding for various statecollege programs. The other 12,000 Waymarsh students evidently weren’t soconcerned about their education: they either stayed on campus or left for winter break. Since the group who did not protest is far more numerous, it is morerepresentative of the state’s college students than are the protesters. Therefore the state legislature need not heed the appeals of the protesting students.”Discuss how well reasoned... etc.First, the author assumes that because only one-tenth of the students took part in the protest, these students’ views are unrepresentative of the entire student body. This assumption is unwarranted. If it turns out, for example, that the protesting students were randomly selected from the entire student body, their views would reflect the views of the entire college. Without information regarding the way in which the protesting students were selected, it is presumptuous to conclude that their opinions fail to reflect the opinions of their colleagues.--------------------------------------------------2)缺信息，无法判断8. The following appeared in the editorial section of a corporate newsletter.“The common notion that workers are generally apathetic about management issues is false, or at least outdated: a recently published survey indicates that 79 percent of the nearly 1,200 workers who responded to survey questionnaires expressed a high level of interest in the topics of corporate restructuring and redesign of benefits programs.”Another problem with the argument is that the respondents’ views are not necessarily representative of the views of the work force in general. For example, because the survey has to do with apathy, it makes sense that only less apathetic workers would respond to it, thereby distorting the overall picture of apathy among the work force. Without knowing how the survey was conducted, it is impossible to assess whether or not this is the case.-------------------------3)排除他因，才能判断Unless the author can rule out other factors relevant to diminishing profits, this argument commits the fallacy of assuming that just because one event (decreasing profits) follows another (decentralization), the second event has been caused by the first.----------------------------4)需要什么信息，就可能做判断Moreover, the author provides no evidence about how the survey was conducted. Lacking more information about the survey, we cannot acceptthe speaker’s conclusion.如果能对这个SURVEY提出具体要求，就更好了(可以参照”八大处”中的DOUBTFUL SURVEY)EXAMPLE的重要性•以反例为主,正例为辅•设例多于具例和泛例•越细节越好ACT满分例The following appeared as part of an article in a daily newspaper:79 "Most companies would agree that as the risk of physical injury occurring on the job increases, the wages paid to employees should also increase. Hence it makes financial sense for employers to make the workplace safer: they could thus reduce their payroll expenses and savemoney."首段This argument states that it makes financial sense for employers to make the workplace safer because by making the workplace safer then lower wages could be paid to employees. This conclusion is based on the premise that as the list of physical injury increases, the wages paid to employees should also increase. However, there are several assumptions that may not necessarily apply to this argument.For example, the costs associated with making the workplace safe must outweigh the increased payroll expenses due to hazardous conditions. Also, one must look at the plausability of improving the work environment. And finally, because most companies agree that as the risk of injury increases so will wages doesn't necessarily mean that the all companies which have hazardous work environments agree.中1The first issue to be addressed is whether increased labor costs justify large capital expenditures to improve the work environment. Clearly one could argue that if making the workplace safe would cost an exorbitant amount of money in comparison to leaving the workplace as is and paying slightly increased wages than it would not make sense to improve the work environment.For example, if making the workplace safe would cost $100 million versus additional payroll expenses of only $5,000 per year, it would make financial sense to simply pay the increased wages. No business or文档收集于互联网，已重新整理排版.word版本可编辑,有帮助欢迎下载支持. business owner with any sense would pay all that extra money just to save a couple dollars and improve employee health and relations. To consider this, a cost benefit analysis must be made. I also feel that although a cost benefit analysis should be the determining factor with regard to these decisions making financial sense, it may not be the determining factor with regard to making social, moral and ethical sense一个典型的设例中2This argument also relies on the idea that companies solely use financial sense in analysing improving the work environment. This is not the case. Companies look at other considerations such as the negative social ramifications of high on-job injuries. For example, Toyota spends large amounts of money improving its environment because while its goal is to be profitable, it also prides itself on high employee morale and an almost perfectly safe work environment. However, Toyota finds that it can do both, as by improving employee health and employee relations they are guaranteed a more motivated staff, and hence a more efficient staff; this guarantees more money for the business as well as more safety for the employees.一个典型的具例中三Finally one must understand that not all work environments can be made safer. For example, in the case of coal mining, a company only has limited ways of making the work environment safe. While companies may be able to ensure some safety precautions, they may not be able to provide all the safety measures necessary. In other words, a mining company has limited ability to control the air quality within a coal mine and therefore it cannot control the risk of employees getting black lung. In other words, regardless of the intent of the company, some jobs are simply dangerous in nature.一个典型的泛例1文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.。