266_pdfsam_旋元佑文法GrammarBook
grammar_sakuin
～には だいたい ⑬ Noun に おける / において ⑭ ～もまた ⑮ なんだ ⑯ ほら
第 14 課
⑦ Noun ＋風 ⑧ Noun と共に ❾ ～ずつ ⑩ Noun1 から Noun2 に至るまで Noun ＋同士 Verb べき ⑬ Noun からすると ⑭ Verb ぬ
❼ Noun を中心 と / に する ❽ 逆～ ❾ ～はず ～点 ますます Verb-masu 直す
（が / けれど） ⑬ ～ことは～
ほとんど
（ような） 気がする ～
Verb ところ
第6 課
❶ ～に気がつく
（と）願う / 祈る ② Verb-non-past ように
❶ ～ても～なくても ② 前者は～、後者は～。 ③ ～といった Noun
（で） 、 ；Sentence 一方 （で） ❹ 一方
～わけだ Noun でよければ 結構 なかなか Adjective そう言えば ～ということ ⑰ ～は～となっている
第7 課
❺ あるいは ❻ なかなか～ない ❼ つまり ⑧ そこで ❾ ～以外 の Noun/ に 決して～ない Sentence という理由で ⑫ - ら ～に対して ～限り ～にもかかわらず せっかく ～ と / って 言っても ⑱ 思うように～ない
（contracted forms） 話し言葉の縮約形 （という） わけ ではない / じゃない ～
❼ Noun1 でも Noun2 でも ⑧ したがって
（という） のは事実だ ❾ ～
第8 課
❶ Noun は Noun と / に 関係がある
（こと） によって ❷ ～
谢孟媛_初级英文文法讲义【全】整理版——可直接打印
实用标准初级英文文法ⅠUnit 1 名词、冠词---------------------11.名词的种类2.名词的数3.名词的所有格4.冠词Unit 2 be 动词、一般动词的现在式--------------------31.be动词的现在式-am、are、is2.一般动词的现在式3.一般动词的否定句Unit 3 be动词、一般动词的过去式--------------------------51.be动词的过去式2.be动词(过去式)的否定句3.be动词(过去式)的疑问句4.一般动词的过去式5.一般动词(过去式)的否定句6.一般动词(过去式)的疑问句Unit 4 代名词------------------------71.人称代名词2.所有代名词3.反身代名词4.指示代名词5.不定代名词Unit 5 时态--------------------121.现代简单式2.过去简单式3.现在进行式4.过去进行式5.未来式Unit 6 WH问句、祈使句、感叹句-------------------151.WH问句2.祈使句3.感叹句Unit 1 名词、冠词名词，用来表示人或事物、动物，能做为主语、补语、受词。
其中可计数的，称为可数名词；不可计数的，称为不可数名词。
1. 名词的种类表示具有一定形状的个体，为可数名词，有单数/复数之分。
例：book(书)、pencil(铅笔)、dog(狗)、spaceship(太空船)等。
表示一个单位的群体，或者表示被视做整体的人、事、物的集合体。
例：class(班级；班上的同学)、family(家庭；家人)、audience(听众)等。
例 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers. 我的家人都起得早。
如人名、地名等，用来表示其一特定的名称。
无冠词，第一个字母须大写。
例：Bob(鲍伯)、Smith(史密斯)、April(四月)、London(伦敦)……等。
旋元佑英文文法书旧稿
前言英文文法是英文写作必备的基础。
写作牵涉到的问题可说千头万绪，小自用字、中间是句子、大到文章组织，每一个环节都必须处理得当。
在「听、说、读、写」的英文学习过程中，写作一向是最后、也是最困难的一步。
英文文法探讨的对象是「句子」；学习文法的目的在于认识英文句子的构造与所有的变化、看懂最复杂的句子，进一步能够写出从单句到复合句到减化子句、清楚正确而又富有变化的各种英文句子。
初级句型这本文法书将带领读者，分成三个层次逐步打通英文句子写作的所有环节。
第一个层次是最基本的单句层次，介绍英文单句的五种基本句型。
这个部分的目标在于建立一个架构：最基本的英文单句必须符合五种基本句型之一，才是正确的英文句子。
这个部分最简单，但也可以说是最重要，因为单句是往后架构复合句以及减化子句等一切变化的基础。
英文单句中可能出现的一些元素，包括名词词组、动词词组、修饰语（形容词与副词、含介系词词组）等等，这些元素本书也都安排在单句的层次一一处理。
处理名词词组这个元素时将一并处理到限定符的用法。
处理动词词组时将一并处理到一些依赖动词来表现的变化，包括时态、语气（含助动词与假设法）、以及语态（主动与被动）等等。
处理这些问题时难免要牵扯到复句的观念进来，例如解说时态的变化必须提到时间副词子句。
但是本书在单句这个层次并不会深入探讨复句，只是先引用一些复句做为例子、留待以后再做更完整的说明。
接下来本书将处理一些介乎单句与复句之间的元素：动名词词组、现在分词词组、过去分词词组、不定词词组、原形动词等等。
这些元素，传统文法视为词组看待，统称为动状词（verbals），仍然属于单句的层次。
新的文法观念则将其视为子句看待，统称为非限定子句（nonfinite clauses）。
本书在单句的层次将先采取传统文法的认定、以词组的角度向读者介绍一次这些元素，留待后面再来做更深入完整的探讨。
中级句型告别了初级的单句层次，接下来就要进入复合句的层次了。
这个部分可以称为中级句型的层次。
谢孟媛_初级英文文法讲义【全】整理版——可直接打印
实用标准初级英文文法ⅠUnit 1 名词、冠词---------------------11.名词的种类2.名词的数3.名词的所有格4.冠词Unit 2 be 动词、一般动词的现在式--------------------31.be动词的现在式-am、are、is2.一般动词的现在式3.一般动词的否定句Unit 3 be动词、一般动词的过去式--------------------------51.be动词的过去式2.be动词(过去式)的否定句3.be动词(过去式)的疑问句4.一般动词的过去式5.一般动词(过去式)的否定句6.一般动词(过去式)的疑问句Unit 4 代名词------------------------71.人称代名词2.所有代名词3.反身代名词4.指示代名词5.不定代名词Unit 5 时态--------------------121.现代简单式2.过去简单式3.现在进行式4.过去进行式5.未来式Unit 6 WH问句、祈使句、感叹句-------------------151.WH问句2.祈使句3.感叹句Unit 1 名词、冠词名词，用来表示人或事物、动物，能做为主语、补语、受词。
其中可计数的，称为可数名词；不可计数的，称为不可数名词。
1. 名词的种类表示具有一定形状的个体，为可数名词，有单数/复数之分。
例：book(书)、pencil(铅笔)、dog(狗)、spaceship(太空船)等。
表示一个单位的群体，或者表示被视做整体的人、事、物的集合体。
例：class(班级；班上的同学)、family(家庭；家人)、audience(听众)等。
例 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers. 我的家人都起得早。
如人名、地名等，用来表示其一特定的名称。
无冠词，第一个字母须大写。
例：Bob(鲍伯)、Smith(史密斯)、April(四月)、London(伦敦)……等。
旋元佑文法(第三篇)---精品模板
第三篇高级句型—-减化从句第十九章从属从句减化的通则减化从句英文语法以句子为研究对象.英文句型有结构较单纯的单句与结构较复杂的复句、合句之分,本书前面的章节已分别探讨过.单句的结构比较单纯，只有五种基本句型的变化。
作文中若只用单句，除了风格不够成熟外，表达力亦嫌薄弱。
间杂复句、合句于作文中，有助于表达较为复杂的观念,亦可丰富句型的变化、使风格趋于成熟.然而，复句、合句包含两个以上的从句，其间往往有重复的元素，因而有可以精简的空间。
若剔除所有重复或空洞的元素，让复句、合句更加精简、又不失清楚，这样产生出来的就是减化从句.如果说单句是初级句型，复句、合句是中级句型，那么精简的减化从句就是高级句型。
这种句型可以浓缩若干句子的意思于一句,同时符合修辞学对清楚与简洁的要求，是修辞效果最佳的句型.复句当中的从属从句可分成名词从句、形容词从句、副词从句三种，这三种从属从句的减化有一些共通的原则.一般语法书称这三种从属从句的减化结果为「非限定从句」（n onfinite clauses)，并称其中的Ving（动名词或现在分词）、Ven（过去分词)与to V(不定词短语）为「非限定动词」（nonfinite verbs)。
为何不称「非限定从句」？读者可能会感到奇怪，为何本书不沿用行之有年的「非限定从句」观念，而要提出新的「减化从句」（reduced clauses）概念.原因有二：第一，「非限定从句」的概念固然很好，但是对于各种非限定动词的由来、变化、以及如何分辨等等问题所提出的说明，欠缺完整性,不易让学习者很快通盘了解.至少从笔者接触的学习者及教学经验中观察是如此。
第二,非限定从句往往被与非限定动词划上等号.亦即，许多学习者只知有to V, Ving与Ven,而不知还有许多其他的变化。
因此，笔者尝试建立一套统一、易懂的架构，来诠释比较复杂的高级句型变化。
减化从句的观念就是如此产生的。
这个观念回溯到修辞的根源，以修辞的两大要求——清楚(clear）与简洁（concise）--为出发点，借着探讨如何由完整的限定从句减化为非限定从句等等的过程，帮助学习者了解各种句型变化的道理。
Grammar Rules
Grammar RulesFinding Subjects and VerbsNOTE: We will use the convention of a thin underline for subjects and a thick underline for verbs.Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of agreement.Example:The list of items is/are on the desk.Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas and semicolons as you will see later.Definition. A Verb is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, and so on).Examples:He ran around the block.You are my friend.Rule 1.If a verb follows to, it is called an infinitive phrase and is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive phrase.Examples:I like to walk.The efforts to get her elected succeeded.Definition. A Subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb.Example:The woman hurried.Woman is the subject.Rule2.A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of.Example: A bouquet of yellow roses will lend color and fragrance to theroom.Rule 3.To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb.Examples:The jet engine passed inspection.Passed is the verb. Who or what passed? The engine, so engine is the subject. If youincluded the word jet as the subject, lightning will not strikeyou. Technically, jet is an adjective here and is part of what isknown as the complete subject.From the ceiling hung the chandelier. The verb is hung. Now, ifyou think ceiling is the subject, slow down. Ask who or whathung. The answer is chandelier, not ceiling. Therefore,chandelier is the subject.Rule 4.Any request or command such as "Stop!" or "Walk quickly." has the understood subject you because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be you.Example:(You) Please bring me some coffee.Bring is the verb. Who is to do the bringing? You understood.Rule 5.Sentences often have more than one subject, more than one verb, or pairs of subjects and verbs.Examples:I like cake and he likes ice cream.Two pairs of subjects and verbsHe and I like cake.Two subjects and one verbShe lifts weights and jogs daily.One subject and two verbsSubject and Verb AgreementBasic Rule.The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a plural subject takes a plural verb.NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular orplural verb.Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to determine which verb is singular andwhich one is plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.Example:talks, talkWhich one is the singular form? Which word would you use with he? We say, "He talks." Therefore,talks is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is plural.Rule 1.Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb.Example:My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.Rule 2.Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor require a singular verb as in Rule 1.Examples:Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.Rule 3.When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.Example:Neither she nor I am going to the festival.Rule 4.When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.Rule 5.When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.Example:Neither Jenny nor the others are available.Rule 6.As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and.Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.Rule 7.Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural verb.Examples:The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the causeof her shaking.Rule 8.The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.Examples:Each of the girls sings well.Every one of the cakes is gone.NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words when the meaning iseach one.Rule 9.With words that indicate portions—percent, fraction, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth —look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If theobject of the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.Pie is the object of the preposition of.Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.Pies is the object of the preposition.One-third of the city is unemployed.One-third of the people are unemployed.NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.All of the pie is gone.All of the pies are gone.Some of the pie is missing.Some of the pies are missing.None of the garbage was picked up.None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, "Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).Rule 10.The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression a number is followed by a plural verb.Examples:The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.A number of people have written in about this subject.Rule 11.When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.Examples:Neither of them is available to speak right now.Either of us is capable of doing the job.Rule 12.The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here or there, the subject follows the verb.Examples:There are four hurdles to jump.There is a high hurdle to jump.Rule e a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.Examples:Ten dollars is a high price to pay.Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.Rule 14.Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is singular,use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.Examples:Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.He is one of the men who does/do the work.The word in front of who is men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.Rule 15.Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence.Examples:The staff is in a meeting.Staff is acting as a unit here.The staff are in disagreement about the findings.The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.The sentence would read even better as:The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.PronounsDefinition. - A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, Object, or Possessive.Rule 1.Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.Example:______ did the job.I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are,therefore, subject pronouns.Rule 2.Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.Examples:It is he.This is she speaking.It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.NOTE: In spoken English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns. Many English teachers support (or at least have given in to) this distinction between written and spoken English.Example:It could have been them.B etter:It could have been they.Example:It is just me at the door.Better:It is just I at the door.Rule 3.Object pronouns are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.Examples:Jean talked to him.Are you talking to me?To be able to choose pronouns correctly, you must learn to identify clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a verb and subject.Rule4a.A strong clause can stand on its own.Examples:She is hungry.I am feeling well today.Rule 4b.A weak clause begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.Examples:Although she is hungry...If she is hungry...Since I am feeling well...Rule 4c.If a sentence contains more than one clause, isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct.Examples:Weak Strong[Although she is hungry,][she will give him some of herfood.][Although this gift is forhim,][I would like you to have ittoo.]Rule 5.To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.Examples:Tranh is as smart as she/her.If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say, "Tranh isas smart as she is." Therefore, she is the correct answer.Zoe is taller than I/me.Mentally completing the sentence, we have, "Zoe is taller than Iam."Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.We can mentally complete this sentence in two ways: "Danielwould rather talk to her than to me." OR "Daniel would rathertalk to her than I would." As you can see, the meaning willchange depending on the pronoun you choose.Rule 6.Possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes. Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirsNOTE The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.Examples:It's a cold morning.The thermometer reached its highest reading.Rule 7.Reflexive pronouns - myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.Correct:I worked myself to the bone.Incorrect:My brother and myself did it.The word myself does not refer back to another word.Correct:My brother and I did it.Incorrect:Please give it to John or myself.Correct:Please give it to John or me.Who vs. Whome the he/him method to decide which word is correct.he = whohim = whomExamples:Who/Whom wrote the letter?He wrote the letter. Therefore, who is correct.For who/whom should I vote?Should I vote for him? Therefore, whom is correct.We all know who/whom pulled that prank.This sentence contains two clauses: We all know and who/whompulled that prank. We are interested in the second clausebecause it contains the who/whom. He pulled that prank.Therefore, who is correct. (Are you starting to sound like ahooting owl yet?)We want to know on who/whom the prank was pulled.This sentence contains two clauses: We want to know and theprank was pulled on who/whom. Again, we are interested in thesecond clause because it contains the who/whom. The prankwas pulled on him. Therefore, whom is correct.Whoever vs. WhomeverRule 1.To determine whether to use whoever or whomever, here is the rule: him + he = whoeverhim + him = whomeverExamples:Give it to whoever/whomever asks for it first.Give it to him. He asks for it first.Therefore, Give it to whoever asks for it first.We will hire whoever/whomever you recommend.We will hire him. You recommend him.him + him = whomeverWe will hire whoever/whomever is most qualified.We will hire him. He is most qualified.him + he = whoeverRule 2.When the entire whoever/whomever clause is the subject of the verb that follows the clause, look inside the clause to determine whether to use whoever or whomever.Examples:Whoever is elected will serve a four-year term.Whoever is elected is the subject of will serve.Whoever is the subject of is.Whomever you elect will serve a four-year term.Whomever you elect is the subject of will serve.Whomever is the object of you elect.That vs. WhichRule1.Who refers to people. That and which refer to groups or things.Examples:Anya is the one who rescued the bird.Lokua is on the team that won first place.She belongs to an organization that specializes in savingendangered species.Rule2.That introduces essential clauses while which introduces nonessential clauses.Examples:I do not trust products that claim "all natural ingredients"because this phrase can mean almost anything.We would not know which products were being discussedwithout the that clause.The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appearedin the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.The product is already identified. Therefore, which begins anonessential clause.NOTE:Essential clauses do not have commas surrounding them whilenonessential clauses are surrounded by commas.Rule 3.If this, that, these, or those has already introduced an essential clause, you may use which to introduce the next clause, whether it is essential or nonessential.Examples:That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life.Those ideas, which we've discussed thoroughly enough, donot need to be addressed again.NOTE:Often, you can streamline your sentence by leaving out which.Example:That is a decision which you must live with for the rest of your life.Better:That is a decision you must live with for the rest of your life.Adjectives and AdverbsDefinition - Adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.).Definition - Adverbs are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where.The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question how, so focus on these.Examples:He speaks slowly.Answers the question how.He speaks very slowly.Answers the question how slowly.Rule 1.Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there.Examples:She thinks slow/slowly.She thinks how? slowly.She is a slow/slowly thinker.Slow does not answer how, so no -ly is attached. Slow is anadjective here.She thinks fast/fastly.Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fastnever has an -ly attached to it.We performed bad/badly.Badly describes how we performed.Rule 2.A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly.Examples:Roses smell sweet/sweetly.Do the roses actively smell with noses? No, so no -ly.The woman looked angry/angrily.Did the woman actively look with eyes or are we describing herappearance? We are only describing appearance, so no -ly.The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches.Here the woman did actively look with eyes, so the -ly is added.She feels bad/badly about the news.She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.Good vs. WellRule3.The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb.Examples:You did a good job.Good describes the job.You did the job well.Well answers how.You smell good today.Describes your odor, not how you smell with your nose, sofollow with the adjective.You smell well for someone with a cold.You are actively smelling with a nose here, so follow with theadverb.Rule4.When referring to health, use well rather than good.Examples:I do not feel well.You do not look well today.NOTE: You may use good with feel when you are not referring tohealth.Example:I feel good about my decision to learn Spanish.Rule 5. A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form for comparison. For instance, to describe one thing we wouldsay poor, as in, "She is poor." To compare two things, we should say poorer,as in, "She is the poorer of the two women." To compare more than twothings, we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all."Examples:One Two Three or Moresweet sweeter sweetestbad worse worstefficient* more efficient* most efficient**Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use more or most in front of the words.Rule6.Never drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparison form.Correct:She spoke quickly.She spoke more quickly than he did.Incorrect:She spoke quicker than he did.Correct:Talk quietly.Talk more quietly.Incorrect:Talk quieter.Rule 7.When this, that, these, and those are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.Examples:This house is for sale.This is an adjective here.This is for sale.This is a pronoun here.Rule 8.This and that are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. This points to something nearby while that points to something "over there."Examples:This dog is mine.That dog is hers.This is mine.That is hers.Rule 9.These and those are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there."Examples: These babies have been smiling for a long time.These are mine.Those babies have been crying for hours.Those are yours.Rule10.Use than to show comparison. Use then to answer the question when.Examples:I would rather go skiing than rock climbing.First we went skiing; then we went rock climbing. Problems with PrepositionsRule1.You may end a sentence with a preposition. Just do not use extra prepositions when the meaning is clear without them.Examples:Correct:That is something I cannot agree with.That is something with which I cannot agree.Correct:Where did he go?Incorrect:Where did he go to?Correct:Where did you get this?Incorrect:Where did you get this at?Correct:I will go later.Incorrect:I will go later on.Correct:Take your shoes off the bed.Incorrect:Take your shoes off of the bed.Correct:You may look out the window.Incorrect:You may look out of the window.Correct:Cut it into small pieces.Incorrect:Cut it up into small pieces.Rule e on with expressions that indicate the time of an occurrence.Examples:He was born on December 23.We will arrive on the fourth.Rule 3.Of should never be used in place of have.Correct:I should have done it.Incorrect:I should of done it.Rule 4.Between refers to two. Among is used for three or more.Examples:Divide the candy between the two of you.Divide the candy among the three of you.Rule 5.The word like may be used as a preposition and in informal writing, as a conjunction. In formal writing, use as, as if, or as though rather than like as the conjunction.Examples:Prepositional usageYou look so much like your mother.Conjunction usageYou look like you are angry.ORYou look as if you are angry.Effective WritingRule e concrete rather than vague language.Examples:Vague:The weather was of an extreme nature on the west coast.Concrete:California had very cold weather last week.Rule e active voice whenever possible. Active voice means the subject is performing the verb.Examples:Active:Barry hit the ball.Passive:The ball was hit.Notice that the responsible party may not even appear whenusing passive voice.Rule 3.Avoid overusing there is, there are, it is, it was, and so on.Example:There is a case of meningitis that was reported in thenewspaper.Correction: A case of meningitis was reported in the newspaper.Even Better:The newspaper reported a case of meningitis. (Active voice)Example:It is important to signal before making a left turn.Correction:Signaling before making a left turn is important.ORSignaling before a left turn is important.ORYou should signal before making a left turn. (Active voice) Example:There are some revisions which must be made.Correction:Some revisions must be made.Even Better:Please make some revisions. (Active voice)Rule4.To avoid confusion, don't use two negatives to make a positive.Incorrect:He is not unwilling to help.Correct:He is willing to help.Rule e similar grammatical form when offering several ideas. This is called parallel construction.Correct:You should check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation.Incorrect:You should check your spelling, grammar, and punctuating.Rule 6.If you start a sentence with an action, place the actor immediately after or you will have created the infamous dangling modifier.Incorrect:While walking across the street, the bus hit her.Correct:While walking across the street, she was hit by a bus.ORShe was hit by a bus while walking across the street.Rule7.Place modifiers near the words they modify.Incorrect:I have some pound cake Mollie baked in my lunch bag.Correct:In my lunch bag, I have some pound cake that Mollie baked.Rule 8. A sentence fragment occurs when you have only a phrase or weak clause but are missing a strong clause.Example of SentenceFragment:After the show ended.Example of Sentence:After the show ended, we had coffee. Writing NumbersRule 1.Spell out single-digit whole numbers. Use numerals for numbers greater than nine.Correct Examples: I want five copies.I want 10 copies.Rule 2.Be consistent within a category. For example, if you choose numerals because one of the numbers is greater than nine, use numerals for all numbers in that category. If you choose to spell out numbers because one of the numbers is asingle digit, spell out all numbers in that category.If you have numbers in different categories, use numerals for one category and spell out the other.Correct Examples:My 10 cats fought with their 2 cats.My ten cats fought with their two cats.Given the budget constraints, if all 30 history students attend the four plays, then the 7 mathstudents will be able to attend only two plays. (Students are represented with figures; playsare represented with words.)IncorrectExample:I asked for five pencils, not 50.Rule 3.Always spell out simple fractions and use hyphens with them.Examples:One-half of the pies have been eaten.A two-thirds majority is required for that bill to pass in Congress.Rule 4. A mixed fraction can be expressed in figures unless it is the first word of a sentence.Examples:We expect a 5 1/2 percent wage increase.Five and one-half percent was the maximum allowable interest.Rule 5.The simplest way to express large numbers is best. Round numbers are usually spelled out. Be careful to be consistent within a sentence.Correct:You can earn from one million to five million dollars.Incorrect:You can earn from one million to $5,000,000.Correct:You can earn from five hundred to five million dollars.Correct:You can earn from $5 hundred to $5 million.Incorrect:You can earn from $500 to $5 million.Incorrect:You can earn from $500 to five million dollars.Rule 6.Write decimals in figures. Put a zero in front of a decimal unless the decimal itself begins with a zero.Examples:The plant grew 0.79 of a foot in one year.The plant grew only .07 of a foot this year because of the drought.Rule 7.With numbers that have decimal points, use a comma only when the number has five or more digits before the decimal point. Place the comma in front of the third digit to the left of the decimal point. When writing out suchnumbers, use the comma where it would appear in the figure format. Use the word and where the decimal pointappears in the figure format.Examples:$15,768.13: Fifteen thousand, seven hundred sixty-eight dollars and thirteen cents$1054.21: One thousand fifty-four dollars and twenty-one centsNote: If the number has no decimal point, authorities disagree on whether to begin using thecomma with four-digit numbers or to begin using the comma with five-digit numbers. When writingout these numbers, I recommend using the comma where it appears in the numerical form.1,054 schools OR 1054 schools: one thousand, fifty-four schools OR one thousand fifty-fourschools12,154 schools: twelve thousand, one hundred fifty-four schoolsExamples:Rule 8.The following examples apply when using dates:Examples:The meeting is scheduled for June 30.The meeting is scheduled for the 30th of June.We have had tricks played on us on April 1.The 1st of April puts some people on edge.Rule 9. When expressing decades, you may spell them out and lowercase them.Example:During the eighties and nineties, the U.S. economy grew.Rule 10.If you wish to express decades using incomplete numerals, put an apostrophe before the incomplete numeral but not between the year and the s.Correct:During the '80s and '90s, the U.S. economy grew.Incorrect:During the '80's and '90's, the U.S. economy grew.Rule 11.You may also express decades in complete numerals. Again, don't use an apostrophe between the year and the s.Example: During the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S. economy grew.Rule 12.Normally, spell out the time of day in text even with half and quarter hours. With o'clock, the number is always spelled out.Examples:She gets up at four thirty before the baby wakes up.The baby wakes up at five o'clock in the morning.Rule e numerals with the time of day when exact times are being emphasized or when using A.M. or P.M.Examples:Monib's flight leaves at 6:22 A.M.Please arrive by 12:30 sharp.She had a 7:00 P.M. deadline.Rule e noon and midnight rather than 12:00 P.M. and 12:00 A.M.Rule 15.Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.Examples:Forty-three persons were injured in the train wreck.Twenty-three of them were hospitalized.Rule 16.Write out a number if it begins a sentence.Examples:Twenty-nine people won an award for helping their communities.That 29 people won an award for helping their communities was fantastic! ORThat twenty-nine people won an award for helping their communities was fantastic。
谢孟媛英文初级文法全集笔记完美版
名词的功用。
当主语，补语，受词1. 名词的种类单数/复数普通名词book pencil. Dog. Spaceship宇宙飞船、集合名词class, family, audience 听众。
例如 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers 起早的人。
我家人都起的很早. 专用名词Bob, Smith, April, London.-----专用名词前不能加冠词不加S 下面的专用名词需要加上定冠词。
The united states . 美国The united Nations .联合国。
物质名词glass wood paper butter fruit数字＋容器（度量衡）＋of ＋物质名词a loaf of bread 一片面包。
Loaves of bread 很多面包A cup of coffee. 一杯咖啡。
A sheet of paper. 一张纸。
Two sheets of paper.两张纸 A spoonful of sugar 一勺糖。
抽象名词beauty美丽honesty诚实love爱patience 耐心happiness 幸福music 音乐。
2. 名词的数单数/ 个数2 以上是复数名词字尾加s 大多数dog dogs book books girl girls名词字尾为s.sh.ch.x.o加es classes buses dishes benches boxes名词字尾为子音加o，加es 如tomatoes 例外photos pianos名词字尾为＋y 的复数名词要去y ＋iesbaby-babies story-stories city-cities lady-ladies名词字尾为 f 或fe 去f/fe ＋ves 如leaf-leaves knife-knives wife-wives例外handkerchiefs chiefs roofs不规则变化的复数名名词字尾加en , 或ren 如Ox-oxen , child-children改变母音如man-men woman-women goose-geese tooth-teeth mouse-mice单复数同形如fish deer sheep chineses japaneseOne fish two fish(个) a kind of fish two kinds of fishes（种）3. 名词的所有格单数名词：名词's 例如The boy's schoolbag/ Joan's dress复数名词：名词s' 例如 a girls' school/ these students' teacher字尾非s 的复数名词:名词's 例如children's playground操场特别注意的所有格用法共同所有格：名词＋名词＋名词's个别所有格：名词's＋名词's＋名词's1 Harry and Bill's father is a scientist2.Harry's and Bill's fathers are scientists（无）生物所有格：A的B B of Athe legs of the table the door of the carthe girl's name有生命的东西可以这样用the name of the girl 所有格之后的名词如在句中非常容易理解时可以省略1. she's going to the dentist's2．I met him at the barber's（shop）3. We like to eat lunch at McDonald's. 我们在麦当老吃午餐。
旋元佑文法(第二篇)(DOC)
第二篇中级句型——合句与复句第十三章合句自本章起本书告别单句与初级句型，进入比较复杂的合句(compound sentences)与复句(c omplex sentences)结构，开始探讨怎样把两个单句写在一起。
这可以说属于中级句型的层次。
限定从句与非限定从句如果有两个以上的单句写在同一个句子里面，那么里面的每一个单句都称为「从句」（c lause）。
从句可分成限定从句（finite clauses）与非限定从句（nonfinite clauses）两种。
所谓限定从句，指的是具有限定动词的从句，而限定动词就是具备了人称变化、时态变化等等，可以用来制造一个完整单句的动词。
至于非限定动词，指的是像现在分词、过去分词、动名词、不定词等等在传统语法中称为动状词的东西。
从句当中如果只有非限定动词，就称为非限定从句。
例如：He understands that he did the wrong thing then. 他了解他当时做错了事了。
这个句子当中有两个从句。
He understands … 是个限定从句，因为它具有限定动词und erstands（第三人称单数、现在简单式）。
He did the wrong thing then也是个限定从句，因为它具有限定动词did（过去简单式）。
比较一下底下这个例子：He hates his girlfriend’s spending so much time on makeup every day.他很讨厌他女朋友每天花那么多时间化妆。
这个句子只有一个限定从句，就是He hates …，因为它具有限定动词hates（第三人称单数、现在简单式）。
至于his girlfriend’s spending so much time on makeup every d ay，这个部分是个非限定从句，因为它只有非限定动词spending（动名词）。
句子的三种层次英文句子可以分成三个层次：初级的单句、中级的复合句、以及高级的减化从句。
【度盘】《文法俱乐部》word版实体书【附福♂利】
【度盘】《文法俱乐部》word版实体书【附福♂利】清晰版图片：/s/1mguO7De文档及福利在最后---------下方的长文，只因从我自身感受，学语法亦需“可理解性输入”。
反之虽各类语法教程，于当时似能理解，但实际过后，一无所得。
---------word里面的错误还是有少量的，但不影响阅读，也不想修改了。
因为既然不是正版，就该有个盗版的样子，什么错误都没有，还算什么盗版？！关于学英语，个人觉得应该一开始，就掌握英语大体的“框架”，而掌握其“框架”，最先就是弄懂这本书了！而弄懂这本书，可能需要一些基础以下只是个人的一些经验，有错误还请斧正！但没兴趣再过多讨论。
建议弄懂每一部分的情况下，再看下一部分。
英语，觉得是一种比较严谨的语言吧，或是老外比较“蠢”？因为居然每句话都要把时间表现出来，第三人称单数作主语，谓语还要加s来体现存在感……不这样智商就不够用？……0.框架基础“框架”有如旅游先得到一张很简单的地图，具体有哪些景点，在哪个方位清清楚楚。
而具体景色如何、历史如何，再说！只要掌握了框架~再学语法就不会迷糊了，因为无论语法讲到什么部分，你都不！会！迷！路！你都能清清楚楚知道在说哪个部分，就能看得爽。
目的是，比如翻开语法书目录，每一章、每一节，到底在讲什么内容（无非就是四种词类中的一种），讲的内容有什么作用，能够清楚、明白，那就迷惑不了。
1.词类名词、动词、形容词、副词。
语法，应该说，只要先搞清楚四种词也就够了。
所以明白其定义挺重要的。
名词：没什么好说……动词：有两种，一种是没意思的（连）系动词，另一种是有意思的其它动词。
PS：每个句子只能有一个动词。
助动词不是动词，只是（帮）助动词。
形容词：修饰名词副词：修饰动词、形容词、副词、乃至名词2.五大句型如图，英语只有五种句型，而且只由三种词类构成。
主语、宾语由名词担当。
同理，代词只是代替名词，自然也就是名词的性质。
动词想做名词，[+ing]就变成动名词。
梵语语法表解
另：词内：辅音在元音、半元音、鼻音前一般不变； 词内：n在“ṛ/ṝ/r/ṣ (+元/喉/唇/y/v/h/ṃ)”后、“元/n/m/y/v”前变为ṇ； 词内：s在“k/r/l/非a非ā元音 (+ṃ/ḥ)”后、“非ṛ非r”前变为 ṣ（s变r除外）。
梵语句法（Syntax）含义 常与之搭配的词语格基本含义 时间含义 空间含义 其他含义 动词 形容词 介词 其他A 直接对象 during（时间段） in（空间段）;目的地副词；（实现的）目的 及物；对……言说anu (after)prati (towards)（○tṛ）I with 所用时间；在……之后所用空间；所采取的路径伴随状况；被动态的逻辑主语；原因；比较点以……服侍；发誓；夸耀；装满；为……高兴；在……获胜同等；相似sama, samāna, sadṛśa, tulyasaha (with)vinā (without)副词saha, samam,sārdham, sākamD to / for 未来动作的时间限制（未来的）目的；（动作名词）同不定式 给予；展示；告知；祝愿；适合Ab from 在……之后 离开/来自某地；离开的距离原因；在某方面（-tas）；比较对象看；听；说；问；拿；得；落；断；夺；护；怕比较级；高/低于其他；不同ā (till; since)bahis (outside)ūrdhvam (after in time)G of / from 在……之后 部分；动作名词的对象或逻辑主语；独立属格（主语为人，述语具延续性）；同为格；同从格记住（smṛ）；怜悯（day）；模仿（anukṛ）；渴求；占有；给予；乞讨；吃喝知识；技艺；经验；依靠；满；敌友；适合；好坏adhas (below)upari (above)puras (before)paścāt (after in space)L at / in 在某时 在某处（或抽象点）;目的地独立依格；同为格 落；扔；放；打；靠；给予；承诺；买卖在……方面有能力 antah (within) 在……方面的能力副代词和形代词ka/ku what a this i this ta that amu that ya which anya other eka one sarva everyL. -tra kutrakvawhere atra here iha here tatra there amutra yonder yatra where anyatra elsewhere ekatra somewhere sarvatra everywhereAb. -tas kutas whence atas hence itas hence tatas thence amutasfromyonderyatas whence anyatasfromelsewhereekatasfromsomewheresarvatasfrom everyplacetime -dā kadā when idānīm nowtadātadānīmthen yadā when anyadāat someother timeekadāonce sarvadā alwaysmanner -thā katham-cid-canaapihow atha nowitthamitithus tathā so yathā as anyathāotherwise sarvathā in every mannerdegree -yant-vantkiyanthowgreatiyantsogreattāvantsogreatyāvant(as great)asquality -dṛśa kīdṛśawhatsort ofīdṛśa such tādṛśa such yādṛśa(such)asanyādṛśa anotheramount -ti kati -cid how many yati (as many) as顺接 ca; api; atha; api ca; cāpi; athāpiand; alsokiṃ ca; aparam; anyaccamoreovertatas; tataścathen (subsequently in time)ca … ca; api … api; ca … apinot only … but also选择 vā … vā; vā yadi vāorathavāor ratherkecit … kecit; kecit / eke … apare / anyesome … others转折 tu; param; punar; kiṃ tu; paraṃ tu; paraṃ kiṃ tubut; yetca; api; athaon the other hand; yettathāpinevertheless; however; yet并列句因果 hi because; tat; tasmāt; tatas; atas; tarhi therefore 定语从句 yas / yatra / yatas / yadā / yatha … sa / sā / tat yāvant … tāvant yādṛśas … tādṛśas 因果 yatas … tatas; yasmāt ... tasmāt because ... (so) tathā yathā as a result目的 yena in order that tathā yathā so that (1st person) yāvat in order that 方式 yathā … tathā / evam / ittham as yāvat in so much as时间 yadā … tadāwhenyāvat P tāvat Q; tāvat Q yāvat PQ as long as P; Q until Ptāvat Q yāvat na PQ before P状 语 从句条件让步 yadi / ced (encl.) / no ced … tatas / tadā / tat / tarhi / athaif (not) … thenyadi … yadi / atha ...if … but if …yadyapi … tathāpithough … nevertheless主 从 句名词性 从句 tat;thatyathā(know/say/declare) thatyadi(doubt/inquire/tell) whether… (direct speech) iti / evam / ittham / eṣa / ayam / īdṛśathat …强调或限制nūnam; nanu; khalu (encl.); kila (encl.); nāma (encl.) bāḍham;niyatam; satyam; yatsatyam; hi; vai; ha; sma; tu; u; uta; vā;eva (even); kevalam (only, at least, but); param (only, at least, but);kāmam (to be sure); tāvat (encl.)(at all events, at least, before others)否定一般:na （位于连接词之前; 和kaścid / kaścana / ko api / kvacid /kadācid等组合表达nobody / nothing / none / nowhere / never等义; na … api/eva: not even; na … jātu: not at all; nakhalu/nūnam/satyam: not indeed; na tāvat: not yet; na … ca/vā:neither … nor; na … api: not … not even）禁止: mā / maivam / mā tāvat；合成词: a(n)○疑问特殊疑问：ka / kva / kutas / kimiti (why) …一般疑问：动词开头或api / uta / kim (难道) / kaccid (难道不)开头感叹hā (alas); vata (ah); ahaha (oh); āḥ (surprise); aho (surprise)(+N.);dhik / dhigastu (fie)(+A.)kaṣṭam (it is a pity, alas); sādhu (well done); āścaryam (marvellous)aṅga / hanta (well, come)。
Hossfeld方法中文版：高效学习西班牙文中文字典与语法大全说明书
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谢孟媛_初级英文文法讲义【全】整理版——可直接打印
实用标准初级英文文法ⅠUnit 1 名词、冠词---------------------11.名词的种类2.名词的数3.名词的所有格4.冠词Unit 2 be 动词、一般动词的现在式--------------------31.be动词的现在式-am、are、is2.一般动词的现在式3.一般动词的否定句Unit 3 be动词、一般动词的过去式--------------------------51.be动词的过去式2.be动词(过去式)的否定句3.be动词(过去式)的疑问句4.一般动词的过去式5.一般动词(过去式)的否定句6.一般动词(过去式)的疑问句Unit 4 代名词------------------------71.人称代名词2.所有代名词3.反身代名词4.指示代名词5.不定代名词Unit 5 时态--------------------121.现代简单式2.过去简单式3.现在进行式4.过去进行式5.未来式Unit 6 WH问句、祈使句、感叹句-------------------151.WH问句2.祈使句3.感叹句Unit 1 名词、冠词名词，用来表示人或事物、动物，能做为主语、补语、受词。
其中可计数的，称为可数名词；不可计数的，称为不可数名词。
1. 名词的种类表示具有一定形状的个体，为可数名词，有单数/复数之分。
例：book(书)、pencil(铅笔)、dog(狗)、spaceship(太空船)等。
表示一个单位的群体，或者表示被视做整体的人、事、物的集合体。
例：class(班级；班上的同学)、family(家庭；家人)、audience(听众)等。
例 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers. 我的家人都起得早。
如人名、地名等，用来表示其一特定的名称。
无冠词，第一个字母须大写。
例：Bob(鲍伯)、Smith(史密斯)、April(四月)、London(伦敦)……等。
课件6：Grammar
It is high time that _w_e__h_a_d_o_u_r__lu_n__ch__. 该是我们吃午饭的时候了。 It is time that _h_e__m_a_d_e__u_p_h__is_m__i_n_d_. 该是他作出决定的时候了。
八、虚拟语气的其它用法 在英语中，一些表示建议、请求、劝告、愿望、祈祷、 祝福或诅咒的句子，也需要使用虚拟语气。如： Would you mind smoking here？ May you be lucky！ Long live the people of China！ God save me.
三、在It is /was suggested /ordered / demanded / proposed / etc. 结构中要使用虚拟语气。如： It’s suggested that the plan be carried out. It is ordered that all the troops (should) withdraw three miles away. 根据命令，所有部队撤至三英里以外。
二、It’s necessary/strange/natural/ important/pity/no wonder/impossible + that Clause 从句中的动词要用虚拟, 即(should)+动词原形 It is strange that _h_e__(_s_h_o_u_l_d_)_s_a_y__so__. 他居然会这样说，真是奇怪。
虚拟语气(二) the Subjunctive Mood
一、表语从句、同位语从句中的虚拟语气 在suggestion， proposal， order， plan， idea， advice， decision等需要有内涵的名词后面的表语 从句、同位语从句中，要使用虚拟语气。其谓语 动词应用should＋原形动词。另外连接从句的that 不能省略。例如：
grammar translation 语法翻译法
build a house put up a tent ⑶erect: build high buildings ,such as monument/skyscraper (强调建造比较高大的建筑物) 例如:erect monument erect clock tower 12.Rest V.(手 目光等)停留
Learner’s Role
• Do as the teacher says. • Learners interact with the teacher, not with each other. • What does the student do? - - study words and rules - - translate - - memorize
9. Remains n. 遗体（后跟复数动词） His remains lie in the tower. 他的遗体长眠在那座塔里 遗迹+单数动词 The remains of ancient Rome is splendid 古代罗马的遗址非常壮丽 剩饭 the remains of lunch
到现在为止一切顺利grammar一般过去时时态介绍时态介绍一般过去时结构一般过去时结构谓语变化谓语变化一般过去时用法一般过去时用法1
• • • • • •
Definition Origin Procedure Characteristics Practice Assessment
The Grammar-Translation Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.
课件7：Grammar
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3. “介词+关系代词”前还可有some, any, none, all, both, neither, many, most, each , few等代词或者数词。 He loves his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. In the basket there are quite many apples, some of which have gone bad. There are forty students in our class in all, most of whom are from big cities. Up to now, he has written ten stories, three of which are about country life.
9. This is the store ______ we visited the famous shop assistants. A. where B. there C. that D. which
10. I’m going to spend my holiday in Beijing, _____ live my old parents. A. which B. that C. where D. there
2. where 指地点，在定语从句中作地点状语。 Shanghai is the city where I was born. The house where I lived ten years ago has been pulled down. I visited the farm where a lot of cows were raised. Is this the place where they fought the enemy?
梵语语法表解
另：词内：辅音在元音、半元音、鼻音前一般不变； 词内：n在“ṛ/ṝ/r/ṣ (+元/喉/唇/y/v/h/ṃ)”后、“元/n/m/y/v”前变为ṇ； 词内：s在“k/r/l/非a非ā元音 (+ṃ/ḥ)”后、“非ṛ非r”前变为 ṣ（s变r除外）。
梵语句法（Syntax）含义 常与之搭配的词语格基本含义 时间含义 空间含义 其他含义 动词 形容词 介词 其他A 直接对象 during（时间段） in（空间段）;目的地副词；（实现的）目的 及物；对……言说anu (after)prati (towards)（○tṛ）I with 所用时间；在……之后所用空间；所采取的路径伴随状况；被动态的逻辑主语；原因；比较点以……服侍；发誓；夸耀；装满；为……高兴；在……获胜同等；相似sama, samāna, sadṛśa, tulyasaha (with)vinā (without)副词saha, samam,sārdham, sākamD to / for 未来动作的时间限制（未来的）目的；（动作名词）同不定式 给予；展示；告知；祝愿；适合Ab from 在……之后 离开/来自某地；离开的距离原因；在某方面（-tas）；比较对象看；听；说；问；拿；得；落；断；夺；护；怕比较级；高/低于其他；不同ā (till; since)bahis (outside)ūrdhvam (after in time)G of / from 在……之后 部分；动作名词的对象或逻辑主语；独立属格（主语为人，述语具延续性）；同为格；同从格记住（smṛ）；怜悯（day）；模仿（anukṛ）；渴求；占有；给予；乞讨；吃喝知识；技艺；经验；依靠；满；敌友；适合；好坏adhas (below)upari (above)puras (before)paścāt (after in space)L at / in 在某时 在某处（或抽象点）;目的地独立依格；同为格 落；扔；放；打；靠；给予；承诺；买卖在……方面有能力 antah (within) 在……方面的能力副代词和形代词ka/ku what a this i this ta that amu that ya which anya other eka one sarva everyL. -tra kutrakvawhere atra here iha here tatra there amutra yonder yatra where anyatra elsewhere ekatra somewhere sarvatra everywhereAb. -tas kutas whence atas hence itas hence tatas thence amutasfromyonderyatas whence anyatasfromelsewhereekatasfromsomewheresarvatasfrom everyplacetime -dā kadā when idānīm nowtadātadānīmthen yadā when anyadāat someother timeekadāonce sarvadā alwaysmanner -thā katham-cid-canaapihow atha nowitthamitithus tathā so yathā as anyathāotherwise sarvathā in every mannerdegree -yant-vantkiyanthowgreatiyantsogreattāvantsogreatyāvant(as great)asquality -dṛśa kīdṛśawhatsort ofīdṛśa such tādṛśa such yādṛśa(such)asanyādṛśa anotheramount -ti kati -cid how many yati (as many) as顺接 ca; api; atha; api ca; cāpi; athāpiand; alsokiṃ ca; aparam; anyaccamoreovertatas; tataścathen (subsequently in time)ca … ca; api … api; ca … apinot only … but also选择 vā … vā; vā yadi vāorathavāor ratherkecit … kecit; kecit / eke … apare / anyesome … others转折 tu; param; punar; kiṃ tu; paraṃ tu; paraṃ kiṃ tubut; yetca; api; athaon the other hand; yettathāpinevertheless; however; yet并列句因果 hi because; tat; tasmāt; tatas; atas; tarhi therefore 定语从句 yas / yatra / yatas / yadā / yatha … sa / sā / tat yāvant … tāvant yādṛśas … tādṛśas 因果 yatas … tatas; yasmāt ... tasmāt because ... (so) tathā yathā as a result目的 yena in order that tathā yathā so that (1st person) yāvat in order that 方式 yathā … tathā / evam / ittham as yāvat in so much as时间 yadā … tadāwhenyāvat P tāvat Q; tāvat Q yāvat PQ as long as P; Q until Ptāvat Q yāvat na PQ before P状 语 从句条件让步 yadi / ced (encl.) / no ced … tatas / tadā / tat / tarhi / athaif (not) … thenyadi … yadi / atha ...if … but if …yadyapi … tathāpithough … nevertheless主 从 句名词性 从句 tat;thatyathā(know/say/declare) thatyadi(doubt/inquire/tell) whether… (direct speech) iti / evam / ittham / eṣa / ayam / īdṛśathat …强调或限制nūnam; nanu; khalu (encl.); kila (encl.); nāma (encl.) bāḍham;niyatam; satyam; yatsatyam; hi; vai; ha; sma; tu; u; uta; vā;eva (even); kevalam (only, at least, but); param (only, at least, but);kāmam (to be sure); tāvat (encl.)(at all events, at least, before others)否定一般:na （位于连接词之前; 和kaścid / kaścana / ko api / kvacid /kadācid等组合表达nobody / nothing / none / nowhere / never等义; na … api/eva: not even; na … jātu: not at all; nakhalu/nūnam/satyam: not indeed; na tāvat: not yet; na … ca/vā:neither … nor; na … api: not … not even）禁止: mā / maivam / mā tāvat；合成词: a(n)○疑问特殊疑问：ka / kva / kutas / kimiti (why) …一般疑问：动词开头或api / uta / kim (难道) / kaccid (难道不)开头感叹hā (alas); vata (ah); ahaha (oh); āḥ (surprise); aho (surprise)(+N.);dhik / dhigastu (fie)(+A.)kaṣṭam (it is a pity, alas); sādhu (well done); āścaryam (marvellous)aṅga / hanta (well, come)。
谢孟媛英文初级文法全集笔记完美版
名词的功用。
当主语，补语，受词1. 名词的种类单数/复数普通名词book pencil. Dog. Spaceship宇宙飞船、集合名词class, family, audience 听众。
例如 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers 起早的人。
我家人都起的很早.专用名词Bob, Smith, April, London.-----专用名词前不能加冠词不加S下面的专用名词需要加上定冠词。
The united states . 美国The united Nations .联合国。
物质名词glass wood paper butter fruit数字＋容器（度量衡）＋of ＋物质名词a loaf of bread 一片面包。
Loaves of bread 很多面包A cup of coffee. 一杯咖啡。
A sheet of paper. 一张纸。
Two sheets of paper.两张纸 A spoonful of sugar 一勺糖。
抽象名词beauty美丽honesty诚实love爱patience 耐心happiness 幸福music 音乐。
2. 名词的数单数/ 个数2 以上是复数名词字尾加s 大多数dog dogs book books girl girls名词字尾为o加es classes buses dishes benches boxes名词字尾为子音加o，加es 如tomatoes 例外photos pianos名词字尾为＋y 的复数名词要去y ＋iesbaby-babies story-stories city-cities lady-ladies名词字尾为f 或fe 去f/fe ＋ves 如leaf-leaves knife-knives wife-wives 例外handkerchiefs chiefs roofs不规则变化的复数名名词字尾加en , 或ren 如Ox-oxen , child-children改变母音如man-men woman-women goose-geese tooth-teeth mouse-mice 单复数同形如fish deer sheep chineses japaneseOne fish two fish(个) a kind of fish two kinds of fishes（种）3. 名词的所有格单数名词：名词's 例如The boy's schoolbag/ Joan's dress复数名词：名词s' 例如 a girls' school/ these students' teacher字尾非s 的复数名词:名词's 例如children's playground操场特别注意的所有格用法共同所有格：名词＋名词＋名词's个别所有格：名词's＋名词's＋名词's1 Harry and Bill's father is a scientist2.Harry's and Bill's fathers are scientists（无）生物所有格：A的B B of Athe legs of the table the door of the carthe girl's name有生命的东西可以这样用the name of the girl所有格之后的名词如在句中非常容易理解时可以省略1. she's going to the dentist's2．I met him at the barber's（shop）3. We like to eat lunch at McDonald's. 我们在麦当老吃午餐。
谢孟媛英文初级文法全集笔记完美版
名词的功用。
当主语，补语，受词1. 名词的种类单数/复数普通名词book pencil. Dog. Spaceship宇宙飞船、集合名词class, family, audience 听众。
例如 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。
2. My family are all early risers 起早的人。
我家人都起的很早. 专用名词Bob, Smith, April, London.-----专用名词前不能加冠词不加S 下面的专用名词需要加上定冠词。
The united states . 美国The united Nations .联合国。
物质名词glass wood paper butter fruit2.3.共同所有格：名词＋名词＋名词's个别所有格：名词's＋名词's＋名词's1 Harry and Bill's father is a scientist2.Harry's and Bill's fathers are scientists（无）生物所有格：A的B B of Athe legs of the table the door of the carthe girl's name有生命的东西可以这样用the name of the girl 所有格之后的名词如在句中非常容易理解时可以省略1. she's going to the dentist's2．I met him at the barber's（shop）3. We like to eat lunch at McDonald's. 我们在麦当老吃午餐。
4．冠词分为不定冠词a/an 及定冠词the,它通常放在名词前用来修饰名词a/an 的用法子音开头的单数用a a book a girl a young a man母音开头的单数用an母音有5个(ＡＥIＯＵ) an apple an umbrella an old woman a/an 的发音I read a novel.I read a novel,not two.the的用法----母音前读（they）子音前的读（the）the apple the novelPlease shut the door.特指一定要加theThe rich aren't always happy.the+形容词泛指“~~~的人”。