Language, Learning and Teaching
Lesson 5 Language Teaching and Learning译文
我们经常说语言是一种工具，这种比喻可以启发我们在外语教学的许多方面，语言是我们甚至没有意识到的、正在使用的工具。
换言之，语言这个工具是将人们的信息传递到别的地方，而语言并不是这个“旅程”的目的。
在学生们为了他们的目的使用语言这个工具之前，它必须已经建造好，并且这个建造需要蓝图和各种生产的阶段。
当各部分联合在一起时，要不断进行试验直到它可以使用的那天。
如果它只可以暂时使用，为了最终的目的还要进行试验。
语言作为工具的最终目标是表达---- 人们到底是向别人展示自己，还是伪装、掩饰自己。
表达涉及到人际关系的所有问题，老师和学生们持续不断地在建造这个工具，而不是去使用这个工具，就是因为这样会减少很多痛苦。
现在我们对外语教学的过程模式很熟悉，我曾把知识获得（由知识和产出或假交流代表）和知识运用从交流中区分开来。
交流包括获取和表达，并依靠刺激交谈。
建造我们的语言工具意味着需要提前设计，有些特殊的、有天赋的人能在没有蓝图的帮助下就把设计实施开来。
他们是直接从原型（目的语言）跳到生产。
这指他们是从与目标语的接触来表达他们内心想表达的东西。
然而，这些人是少有的例外。
大多数人需要构造一系列越来越复杂的蓝图。
作为运用语言的基础，有些人愿意从起草蓝图中学习，而其他人可以从学习目标语言的方法经验上画出蓝图。
这些蓝图代表着潜藏在学习和表达下的系统。
我们的学生是依据蓝图将各部分组合在一起，这样他们的学习方法才会起作用。
有时，一小部分学生会试着复制别人的学习方法，可以能会在一时起作用。
但当别人的学习方法变得越来越难时，他们会很困惑。
在这个时期，只有那些有着综合蓝图或内心描述的学生，才能使自己的学习方法如期望一样起到改起的作用。
然而，建造不是学习方法的运用：建造是由像形成学习方法一样不断发生的试验所代表的。
仅仅通过这样的试验，学习方法的运用会顺利的整合，错误也会更正，使用者也会在运用它的过程中增加自信。
类似这样的事不能操之过急。
参考文献——精选推荐
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A History of the English Language Fourth Edition英语史Freeborn．D From old EnglishtoStandard Englishecond edition英语史：从古代英语到标准英语First Language Acquisition 第一语言习得Foster-Cohen，S．H． An Introduction to Child Language Development儿童语言发展引论Goodluck．H． Language Acquisition：A Linguistic Introduction从语言学的角度看语言习得Peccel，J．S． Child Language New edition 儿童语言Second Language Acquisition第二语言习得Cohen．A．D Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language学习和运用第二语言的策略Cook．V Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition语言学和第二语言习得Cook．V Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Second edition 第二语言学习与教学James，C Errors in Language Learning and Use：Exploring Error Analysis 语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨Larsen-Freeman．D．et a1 An Introduction Second Language Acquisition Research第二语言习得研究概况Nunan．D Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学Reid，J．M Learning Styles in the ESL／EFL Classroom ESL／EFL英语课堂上的学习风格Richards，J．C．et al Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms第二语言课堂教学反思Language Education语言教育Brown．H．D Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Third edition语言学习和语言教学的原则Brown．H．D Teaching by Principles： An Interactive Approach to LanguagePedagogy 根据原理教学：交互式语言教学Brown，J．D The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development语言教学大纲要素：课程设计系统法Harmer，J How to Teach English怎样教英语Hatch，E．et a1 Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育Johnson，K An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching外语学习与教学导论Richards，J．et a1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching语言教学的流派Trudgill，P．et al International English Third edition英语：国际通用语Ur．P A Course in Language Teaching：Practice and Theory语言教学教程：实践与理论Research Method研究方法McDonotlgh，J．et al Research Methods for English Language Teachers英语教学科研方法Slade．C Form and Style：Research Papers，Reports，Theses Tenth edition如何写研究论文与学术报告Thomas，J．et al. 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教学论 chapter 1 Language, Learning and Teaching
3. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4. Language is any means, vocal or other, of expressing or communicating feeling or thought… a system of conventionalized signs, especially words, or gestures having fixed meanings.
A second language, because it is used within the country, is usually learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away.
nguage is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventioanlized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings. 6. Language is the subject of linguistic study and language teaching as well.
Three different theories of language
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
1)The structural approach -Language is a system of structurally related
(完整word版)语言学习与语言教学的原则
Principles of Language Learning and TeachingAbout the author of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Principles of language learning and teaching, published in 1994, is a textbook inquiring into the theoretical foundation of language teaching. The author of the book is professor Brown who have studied second language acquisition and second language teaching for many years. He is one of the ac demic leaders in this field. About the aim of Principles of Language Learning and TeachingThe aim of this textbook is to make second language teaching more proper arranged and easy for the readers to understand. What’s more, based on the given theory the author expects the readers to formulate their own realization or theory of the question “ how to learn second language”.About the content of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Actually, when finished reading this book, you will see that this book have mostly fulfilled it’s aim .This book is well organized, it was divided into 11 chapters, among them eight are about language learning. From general to detail, from surface to deep inside, it have well shown us the theory that the main mission of teachers are to lead and help the students to learn second language, there would be no way to identify teaching without knowing about learning. The more teachers know about the rules of language learning process, the better they will do in leading language learners.About the arrangement of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching This book was arranged according to the study topics. As for the conceptions, it have expounded and discussed them in a auger-type. At first, they just lead in the concept without explain it in detail, but as the book goes, all the concepts will be described fully. For example, in the first chapter, the concept behaviorism has been lead in without detailed explain. This concept also be mentioned in chapter two. But the chapter that gives out academic evaluation of behaviorism was chapter four. The same was to many other concepts and topics in this book. The most part I appreciated is the “in the classroom”part. It’s just like a lifelike teacher who tells the teacher-to-be how to do in class as well as puts the theories into practice. This part has well shown the aim of this book, help the readers to practice. By the way, the best part to help fulfill the aim is the “topics and questions for study and discussion” part. This part puts up a few topics to lead the readers to think deeply. As long as the readers think over by themselves, they will formulate their own opinion about principles of language learning and teaching theories.ConclusionAll in all, used as a guider, this book has fulfilled it’s destiny. It has al mostly introduced the principles about language learning and teaching to it’s readers. For further study, one can just chose a topic from this book and search for detailed information as he/she interested in.。
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching研究生入学考试——语言学习与语言教学的原则908 名词解释
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching研究生入学考试编号908——语言学习与语言教学的原则Chapter Onenguage:(1)Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of the culture, to communicate or to interact.(2)A consolidation of the definitions of the language yields the following composite definition.①Language is systematic and generative.②Language is a set of arbitrary symbols.③The symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be visual.④The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer.⑤Language is used for communication.⑥Language operates in a speech community or culture.⑦Language is essentially human, although possibly not limited to humans.⑧Language is acquired by all people in much the same way---Language and language learning both have universal characteristics.2. LearningBreaking down the components of learning,we can extract, domains of research and inquiry:(1)Leaning is acquisition or”getting.”(2)Learning is retention of information or skill.(3)Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization.(4)Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism.(5)Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting.(6)Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice.(7)Learning is a change in behavior.3. Teaching(1)Teaching cannot be defined from learning.(2)Your understanding of how the learner learns will determine your philosophy of education, your teaching style, your approach, methods, and classroom techniques.(3)A theory of instruction should specify the following features:①The experiences which most effectively implant in the individual a predisposition toward learning.②The ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured so that it can bemost readily grasped by the learner.③The most effective sequences in which to present the materials to be learned.④The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments in the process of learning and teaching.4.ParoleParole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the set conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.ngueLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community; langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently.6.Grammar-Translation MethodIt is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledgeto the task of translating sentences and texts into or out of the target language. Thus it views language learning as consisting of memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology or syntax of the foreign language. Reading and writing are the major focus, little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening. Grammar is taught deductively and the student’s native language is the medium of instruction.Chapter Two1.Behaviorist TheoryIt thinks that by the process of conditioning, we build an array ofstimulus-response connections, and more complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of responses.2. Verbal Behavior / Operant Conditioning(1)Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning.(2)Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism (in this case,a human being) emits a response, or operant (a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained (learned) by reinforcement.(3)According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are punishing, or when there is lack of reinforcement entirely, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished.3. Mediation Theory (调节理论)(1)In an attempt to broaden the base of behavioristic theory, some psychologists proposed modified theoretical positions. One of these positions was mediation theory.(2)Its meaning was accounted for by the claim that the linguistic stimulus elicitsa “mediating” response that is self-stimulating. This self-stimulating process is a “representational mediation process”, a process that is really covert and invisible, acting within the learner.(3)Mediation theories still left many questions about language unanswered.①The abstract nature of language and the integral relationship between meaning and utterance were unresolved.②Deep structures were scarcely plumbed by mediation theory.4. Innateness Hypothesis (先天主义理论). Language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a built-in device of some kind that predisposes us to language acquisition---to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language.5. LAD（语言习得机制）（1）Chomsky claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the child’s mastery of his native language in such a short despite the highly abstract nature of the rules of language. This innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is embodied in a “little black box” of sorts, a language acquisition device(LAD).(2) McNeill described LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties:①the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment,②the ability to organize linguistic events into various classes which can later be refined,③knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not,④the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system out of the linguistic data that are encountered.6. Universal Grammar(1)Posting that all human beings are genetically equipped with language-specific abilities, researches are now expanding the LAD notion into a system of universal linguistic rules that go well beyond what was originally proposed for the LAD.(2)UG research is attempting to discover what it is that all children, regardless of their environmental stimuli bring to the language acquisition process.(3)Such studies have looked at question formation, negation, word order, discontinuity of embedded clauses, subject deletion, and a host of other grammatical phenomena.7. Pivot Grammars (中枢语法)(1)The early grammars of child were referred to as pivot grammars.(2)It was commonly observed that the child’s first-two utterances seemed to manifest two separated word classes. The first class of words was called pivot, since they could pivot around a number of words in the second, open class.(3)For example, my cap, that horsie.(4)Thus the first rule of the generative grammar of the child was described as follows: Sentence Pivot Word + Open Word.(5)As the child’s language matures and finally becomes adult-like, the number and complexity of generative rules accounting for language competence simply boggles the mind.8. Competence(1)Competence refers to one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact. It is the nonobservable ability to do something, to perform something.(2)In reference to language, competence is your underling knowledge of the system of a language---its rules of grammar, its vocabulary, all the pieces of a language and how those pieces fit together.9. Performance(1)Performance is the overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence. It is the actual doing of something: walking, singing, dancing, speaking.(2)In reference to language, performance is the actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events.10. NatureInnately, in some sort of predetermined biological timetable.11. NurtureEnvironmental exposure, learn and internalize by teaching.Chapter Three1.Critical Period (关键期)“Critical period” for language acquisition---a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire. The critical hypothesis claims that there is such a biological timetable.2.Critical Period Hypothesis (关键期假说)(1)Critical period的定义(2)The “classic” argument is that a critical point for second language acquisition occurs around puberty, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a nativelike accent of the second language.teralization (偏侧性)There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures certain functions are assigned---or “lateralized”---to the left hemisphere of the brain and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs. Language functions appear to be controlled mainly in the left hemisphere, though there is a good deal of conflicting evidence.4.Henry Kissinger effectPeople who have less than perfect pronunciation but who also have magnificent and fluent control of a second language, control that can even exceed that of many native speakers.5. Equilibrium (平衡状态)(1)That is, cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty (disequilibrium) to stages of revolution and certainty (equilibrium) and then back to further that is, in time, also resolved. And so the cycle continues.(2)It is conceivable that disequilibrium may provide the key motivation for language acquisition: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium.6.Coordinate bilingualsPeople who learn a second language in separate contexts are referred to as coordinate bilinguals. They have two meaning systems.pound bilingualsCompound bilinguals have one meaning system from which both languages operate.8.The Audiolingual Method (听说法)The audiolingual method is a method of foreign language teaching in the 1950s put forward by Charles Fries. It emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses dialogues as the main form of a language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.Chapter Four1.Rote Learning(1)It was put forward by Ausubel. It involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure.(2)Most of us, for example, can learn a few necessary phone numbers and zipcodes by rote without reference to cognitive hierarchical organization. (没时间可以不写)2.Meaningful LearningIt was put forward by Ausubel. It may be described as a process of relating and anchoring new materials to relevant established entities in cognitive structure. As new materials enters the cognitive field, it interacts with and is appropriately subsumed under, a more inclusive conceptual system. The very fact that material is subsumable, that is, relatable to stable elements in cognitive structure, accounts for its meaningfulness.3.Proactive Inhibition (顺向抑制)The tendency for earlier memories to interfere with the retrieval of materials learned later. Also called “proactive interference.”4.Retroactive Inhibition (逆向抑制)The tendency for the retention of learned material or skills to be impaired by subsequent learning, especially by learning a similar kind.5.Transfer / Positive Transfer / Negative Transfer / InterferenceTransfer is a general term describing the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning. Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task---that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter. Negative transfer occurs when the previous performance disrupts the performance on a second task. The latter can be referred to as interference, in that previously learned material interferes with subsequent material---a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned.6.Overgeneralization(1)Overgenerlizatin is a particular subset of generalization. Generalization is a crucially important and pervading strategy in human learning. To generalize means to infer or derive a law, rule, or conclusion, usually from the observation of particular instances.(2)Ausubel’s concept of meaningful learning is, in fact, generalization: items are subsumed (generalized) under high-order categories for meaningful retention.(3)In second language acquisition it has been common to refer to overgeneralization as a process that occurs as the second language learner acts within the target language, generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language---irrespective of the native language---beyond legitimate bounds.7.Inductive Reasoning (归纳推理)Inductive and deductive reasoning are two polar aspects of the generalization process. In the case of inductive reasoning, one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specificinstances.8.Deductive Reasoning (演绎推理)Inductive and deductive reasoning are two polar aspects of the generalization process. Deductive reasoning is a movement from a generalization to specific instances: specific subsumed facts are inferred or deduced from a general principle. municative Language Teaching (CLT)CLT was developed from the 1960s, referring to an approach to foreign and second language teaching which reflects a communicative view of language and learning. It aims to make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and develops procedures for the teaching of the four skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication.10.SuggestopediaIt is a method developed by Georgi Lozanov and it is a set of learning techniques derived from Suggestology. The most conspicuous characteristics are decoration, furniture, arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behavior of the teacher. It makes use of dialogues, situations, and translation to present and practice language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, and relaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective.11.The Silent WayIt is a name of language teaching method devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Teachers make use of gestures, mime, visual aids, wall chart and in particular Cuisenaire rods to help students to talk.12.Total Physical Response (TPR)TPR is a language teaching method developed by James Asher in the 1970s. It is built on around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts to teach language through physical activity and it sees successful adult second language learning as a process parallel to child first language acquisition.13.The Natural ApproachThe Natural Approach is defined by Krashen and Tracy Terrell. It is believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful second language acquisition. It places less emphasis on teacher emphasis, direct repetition, formal questions and answers, and accurate production of target language sentences. But emphasizes on exposure and input,; optimizing emotional preparedness for learning; a prolonged period of attention to what the language learners hear before they try to produce language; a willingness to use written and other materials as a resource of comprehensible input and it emphasizes on comprehension.Chapter Five1.ProcessAll humans of normal intelligence engage in certain levels or types of learning. Process is characteristic of every human being.2.StyleStyle is a term that refers to consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual. Styles are those general characteristics of intellectual functioning (and personality type, as well) that especially pertain to you as an individual, that differentiate you from someone else.3.StrategiesStrategies are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. They are the moment by moment techniques that we employ to solve problems posed by second language input and output. Strategies vary intraindividually.4.Cognitive StyleThe way we learn things in general and the particular attack we make on a problem seem to hinge on rather amorphous link between personality and cognition; this link is referred to as cognitive style.5.Learning style(1)Cognitive Style定义(2)When cognitive styles are specifically related to an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled, they are usually more generally referred to as learning style.(3)Learning style might be thought of as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to the learning environment.” Learning styles mediate between emotion and cognition.6. Field Independence(1)Your ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a “field” of distracting items.(2)In general psychological terms, that “field” may be perceptual or it may be more abstract in referring to a set of thoughts, ideas, or feelings from which your task is to perceive specific relevant subsets.7.Field Dependence。
【英语教学法课件】Unit1Languageandlanguagelearning
4. Howatt, A.P.R. A History of English Language Teaching第十.五页(，共《78页。 英语语言教学(jiāo
Audiolingualism
第二十五页，共78页。
听说法 (shuōf ǎ)
Audio-Lingual Method
❖ ‘Listen and repeat’ drilling activities are the most important classroom activities.
❖ Mistakes are immediately corrected and correct utterances are immediately praised.
❖ Functional view– communicative categories, communicative ability (to be able to communicate)
❖ Interactional view– to communicate appropriately (communicative strategies, cultural awareness, etc.)
❖ Language is a rule-based system and with a knowledge of the finite rules (language competence), infinite sentences can be produced
王蔷《英语教学法》复习
Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning1. What are the major views of language? What are theirimplications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items.To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed. The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns of verbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation.Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering, suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. Communicative approaches are based on this view of language.Interactional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.2. What are the major Views on language learning? What are their implications to language teaching?Behaviouralist theoryBased on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of language learning is referred to as behaviouralism, which was adopted for some time by the language teaching profession, particularly in America.One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “listen and repeat” drilling activities. The idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory: Learning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows.Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-constructivist theory: It emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities1. The goal of CLT is to deve lop students’ communicative competence.2. What is communicative compentence? Try to list some of its components and their implication to teaching.Communicative compentence refers to both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations. According to Hedge, it includes five components.Linguistic competence --- knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaningPragmatic competence --- the appropriate use of language in social contextDiscourse competence --- one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse/ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation)Strategic competence --- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or unduehesitationImplications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written textsin a variety of genres;----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’FluencyTeachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”.3. What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists.The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.4. Principles in communicative language teachingCommunication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.5. Strong version and week versionA weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication.It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.A strong version:Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘language is acquire through communication’. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate.It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication.5. List some of the communicative activities.1) Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequence or locationsDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDiscovering “secrets”Communicating patterns and pictures Communicative modelsDiscovering differencesFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequencesPooling information to solve a problem2) Social interaction activitiesRole-playing through cued dialoguesRole-playing through cues and information Role-playing through situation and goals Role-playing through debate and discussion Large-scale simulation activities improvisation6. Main features communicative activities7. The Task-based ApproachA task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing. It stresses the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers.In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it.So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use．As learners work to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interact．Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning．By so doing，they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and，at times， they have to seek clarification．By interacting with others，they get to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability，but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time．Task presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge7. What is a task?Any one of the following definitions is ok:A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between”. -------- Long(1985)[A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987)… a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan(1989)Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-linguistic purpose.8. A task is believed to have four components: a purpose, a context,a process, and a product.9. What is PPP model?In this model, a language classroom consists of three stages: Presentation of new language item in a context---controlled practice (drilling, repetition, dialogue reading, etc)---production of the language in a meaningful way (a role-play, a drama, an interview, etc.)10. A task-based language classroom consists of three stages. They are pre-task stage, the stage of task cycle, and the stage of language focus.Unit 31. The overall language ability required in the 2001 National English Curriculum includes the following aspects language knowledge, language skills, learning strategies, affects and cultural understanding.2. What is a syllabus?A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.3. What is curriculum?A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose, and (3) implementations of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.4. Designing principles for the National English Curriculum1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education.The English curriculum aims education for all students and stresses quality-oriented education. The new standards particularly show concerns over students’ affective needs as well as other learning needs in order to stimulate their interests in learning, help them experience the sense of success, and gain self-confidence in learning. Its overall objectiveis to develop students’ comprehensive abilities in using the language and to improve their cultural quality, to develop their practical skills, as well as to cultivate their creative spirit.2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences.Students’ overall development is the motivation and goal of the English curriculum. Therefore, its objective, the teaching process, the assessment procedures as well as the development of teaching resources should all reflect the principle of learner-centered approach. Classroomteaching should become a process during which students are guided by the teachers in constructing knowledge, developing skills, being active in thinking, demonstrating personal characters, developing intelligence and broadening their views and visions. Teaching should take full consideration of students’ individual differences in learning process and their learning styles and teaching should be flexible in using teaching methods, resources and ways of assessment so as to make teaching beneficial to all kinds of students.3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.The overall aim of the curriculum or nine-year compulsory education is to develop students’ c omprehensive abilities in language use. Such abilities are grounded in the development of language skills, language knowledge, affects, cultural awareness and learning strategies. The English curriculum for nine-year compulsory education together with the related senior high school English curriculum divide the English teaching objectives into nine levels. Each level is described in terms of what students can do with the language. It is thus designed toreflect the progressive nature of students’ language d evelopment during the process of school education so as to ensure the integrity,flexibility and openness of the curriculum.4) Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.Modern foreign language teaching emphasizes the learning process and advocates the use of different teaching approaches and methods for the purpose of facilitating students’ language development.During the process of learning English in nine-year compulsory education, students should be encouraged to discover rules of the language, master gradually language knowledge and skills, constantly monitor the affective demands, develop effective learning strategies and autonomous learning abilities by means of experiencing, practicing,pa rticipating, exploring and cooperating under the teacher’s guidance.5. Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.The assessment for the nine-year compulsory education should begea red to stimulating students’ interests and cultivating their autonomy in learning. The system should include both formative and summative assessment with formative assessment playing a primary role, paying special attention to students’ language performanc e and achievements during the learning process.Assessment should be made facilitative to developing students’ interests and self-confidence in learning. Summative assessment should focus on assessing students’ overall language ability and the ability to use the language. Assessment should function positively for students to develop language abilities and healthy personalities; for teachers to improve their teaching qualities and for the development and improvement of the English curriculum.6. Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.English curriculum requires that teachers should properly utilize and develop teaching resources so as to provide rich and healthy resources that are practical, lively, up dated for students’ learning.Teachers should make full use of various resources such as videos, television programs, books, magazines and the Internet so as to expand the opportunities for students to learn and use the language. Also teachers should encourage students to take part in exploring andutilizing resources for learning.Unit 4. Lesson Planning1. What is lesson planning?Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what aimsto be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques, resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.2. Principles for good lesson planning include: Aim, Variety, Flexibility, Learnability and Linkage3. Lesson planning at two levels:Macro planning: planning over a longer period of time (programme planning / whole course planning---one semester planning---half a semester planning)Micro planning: planning for a specific unit or a lesson (40 or 50 minutes)4. Components of a lesson planBackground information: number of students/ ages/ grade/ genders/ the time and the date of the lesson/ the time duration of the lessonTeaching objectives: What do you want students to know and be able to do?Language contents and skills: structures, vocabulary, functions, topics and so on; listening, speaking, reading and writing.Teaching stages and procedure: the major chunks of activities that teachers go through in a lesson. Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.1) Five-step teaching model(1) warm-up/ a tarter/revision;(2) presentation(3) drilling(4) consolidation(5) summary and homework2) The three P’s model: presentation, practice, and productionTeaching aids: real objects/ flashcards/ wordcards/ worksheets/ wallcharts/ cassette tapes/ magazine pictures/ video, Multi-media, etc.End of lesson summary: Purposes of making a summary is to take learning further and deeper by helping the students to refer back to the learning objectives; To create a sense of achievement and completion of tasks for the students. To develop with students a habit of reflectionon learning; stimulate interest, curiosity and anticipation about the next phase of learning; help students draw out applications of what has been learned and highlight the important conceptions which have developed.Homework assignmentOptional activitiesAfter class reflection:Teachers are encouraged to keep a brief account of what happened in the lesson: feelings about the lesson, students’ performances, unexpected incidents, surprises, things that went well, things that went wrong and things to be improved and things to be given more attention in the next lesson.Unit 5 Classroom Management1. What is classroom management?Classroom Management refers to the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom.2. Types of student grouping and their advantages and disadvantagesIn language classroom can be grouped in four different ways. They are whole-class work (lockstep), pair work, group work and individual study.1) whole-class work (lockstep)Lockstep refers to the time when all the students are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Lockstep is adopted when presenting new language, give explanations, check answers, do accuracy-based reproduction, or summarize learning.Advantages:It reinforces a sense of belonging among a group of members. When students are doing the same activity together, everyone feels being together with others.It is good for teachers to give instruction and explanation together and it is an ideal way to show materials and do presentations together.Disadvantages:Everyone is forced to do the same thing at the same time and at the same pace. Individuality is not favored in this sense.Not everyone has the opportunity to express what they want.Some students feel nervous and anxious when they are asked to present in front of the class.It favors the transmission of knowledge from teacher to students rather than students discovering things by themselves.It is not a good way to enhance real communication. Students cannot communicate with each other in this sense.2) pair work: the time when students work in pairs on an exercise or task. It could be a dialogue reading, a game or an information-gap task between two students.Advantages:It dramatically increases students’speaking time in each class.It allows students to work together rather than under theteacher’s guidance.It allows teacher’s time to wor k with the week pair while others are working on their own.It can promote cooperation between students.It can create a more relaxed and friendly context for students to learn.It is relatively quick and easy to organize.DisadvantagesIt is often very noisy and teachers are afraid of losing control of the class.Some students may talk in native language or something not related to the topic. It is not very easy for teachers to monitor every pair.Some students may not like to work with the peers, and they think they can only learn from the teacher. So they refuse to participate in the activities.The choice of a pair is also a problem. Some students don’t liketo work with particular partner while someone may dominate all the time.3) group work: Group work refers to the time when students work in small groups.Advantages:Like pair work, it dramatically increases the amount of talk of individual students.There is always a great chance of different opinions and contributions to the work.It also encourages cooperation and negotiation skills among students.It promotes learner autonomy by allowing students to make their own decision rather than follow the teachers.DisadvantagesLike pair work, it is likely to make the classroom very noisy and some teachers feel very uncomfortable with the noise.Not everyone enjoys the work since many of them prefer to work with teachers rather than peers.Some students may dominate the talk while others may be very passive or even quiet all the time.It is difficult for teacher to organize. It may take a longer time for teachers to group students and there may be not enough space for students to move around in classroom.Some groups may finish the task fast while some may be very slow. So teachers need to prepare the optional activities for the quick group and be ready to help the slower ones all the time.4) individual study: Individual study is the stage where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed.Advantages:It allows students free time, style and pace to study on their own.It is less stressful compared with whole class work.It can develop learner autonomy and form good learning habits.It can create some peaceful and quiet time in class.Disadvantages：It does not help a class to develop a sense of belonging. Students learn by themselves and it does not promote team spirit. It may not be very motivating for students. It does not benefit communication between students. Students cannot develop speaking abilityin this sense. Teachers need to prepare different tasks for differentstudents.3. The role of the teacher ---- contoller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant, resource provider4. The new curriculum requires the teacher to put on the following new roles: facilitator, guides, and researchers.5. What are the functions or purposes of questions?To focus students’ attentionsTo invite thinking or imaginationsTo check understandingTo stimulate recall of informationTo challenge studentsTo assess learning6. Classification of questionsQuestions have been classified using different criteria, mainly based on the level of thinking involved in answering thequestions.Closed v.s open--- Closed questions refer to those with only one single correct answer while open questions may invite many different answers.Display v.s genuine--- Display questions are those that the answers are already known to the teacher and they are used in checking if students know the answers, too. Genuine questions are those which are used to find out new information and more communicative.Lower-ordered v.s high-ordered--- Lower-ordered questions refer to those that simply require recalling of information or memorisation of facts while higher-ordered questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation.7. How to deal with errors?The distinction between mistakes and errors:。
Principles-of-Language-Learning-and-Teaching
Terminology: Discourse/Text
Distictions Between Discourse and Text
First, people often talk of spoken discourse versus written text. Discourse often is naturally occuring spoken language, as found in such discourses as conversations, interviews, commentaries, and speeches, which implies interactive discourse; whereas text is wriiten language, as found in such texts as essays, notices, newspaper articles and chapters, which implies noninteractive monologue, whether intended to be spoken aloud or not. For example people can speak of an academic paper, meaning what is delivered or read to an audience, or its printed version. For instance, a lecture may refer to a whole social event, or only to the main spoken text or its written version. One talk of a written text of a speech. So such ambiguities arise in the previous examples.
Language Learning_and_Teaching
Types of Learning
A) From the point of method, we have Deductive Learning and Inductive
Learning.
approach to language teaching in which learners are taught and given special information about a language. The learners then apply these rules when they use the language.
Interactional view of language
• Language is a communicative tool to build up and maintain social relations between people. Learners need to know the rules of a language and where, when and how it is appropriate to use them.
“Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” --Edward Sapir (1884-1939)
• Language is a system of structural items at different levels from phoneme to sentence. These, together with vocabulary, combine to express meaning. Each language has a finite number of such structural items to be learned, and any learner of a language needs to learn this same set of items.
innovation of language learning and teaching
innovation of language learning and teaching 摘要：1.语言学习和教学创新的重要性2.语言学习和教学创新的方法3.语言学习和教学创新的挑战与未来展望正文：随着全球化的发展和国际交流的加强，语言学习和教学的重要性日益凸显。
然而，传统的语言学习和教学方法已经无法满足现代社会的需求，因此，语言学习和教学的创新变得至关重要。
语言学习和教学创新的重要性表现在以下几个方面。
首先，随着科技的发展，新的语言学习工具和技术不断涌现，如在线学习平台、人工智能辅助学习等，这些新技术能够提高语言学习的效率和效果。
其次，语言学习和教学的创新能够满足学习者的个性化需求，提高学习者的学习兴趣和动力。
最后，语言学习和教学的创新有助于提高教学质量和效果，从而更好地满足社会对语言人才的需求。
语言学习和教学创新的方法主要包括以下几个方面。
首先，教师可以采用任务型教学法，即通过设计各种任务，让学生在完成任务的过程中学习和使用语言。
其次，教师可以利用信息技术，如在线学习平台、多媒体教学等，提高语言教学的效率和效果。
最后，教师可以采用合作学习法，即让学生在小组中互相学习和交流，提高学生的语言交际能力。
然而，语言学习和教学的创新也面临一些挑战。
首先，教师需要不断更新知识和技能，以适应新的教学方法和技术。
其次，教师需要处理好新技术与传统教学方法的关系，避免过度依赖新技术而忽视了语言学习的本质。
最后，教师需要应对学生学习需求的多样性，设计出适合不同学生的教学内容和方法。
未来，语言学习和教学的创新将继续发展。
教师需要不断学习和掌握新的教学方法和技术，提高语言教学的质量和效果。
同时，教师需要注重培养学生的跨文化交际能力，以适应全球化时代的需求。
此外，教师还需要关注学生的心理健康，创造良好的学习氛围，提高学生的学习兴趣和动力。
总之，语言学习和教学的创新对于提高语言教学质量和满足社会对语言人才的需求具有重要意义。
H.D.Brown语言学习与语言教学的原则第3版笔记和课后习题详解资料
H.D.Brown《语言学习与语言教学的原则》（第3版）笔记和课后习题详解关注薇行公总号-精研学习网-查找资料第1章语言，语言学习和语言教学1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition of language语言的定义2.The Grammar Translation Method语法翻译法本章考点：1.语言的定义；2.学习和教学的定义；3.课堂教学：语法翻译法。
本章内容索引：Ⅰ.LanguageⅡ.Learning and teaching1.Learning2.TeachingⅢ.The Grammar Translation MethodⅠ.Language（语言的定义）A consolidation of the definitions of language yields the following composite definitions.nguage is systematic and generative.nguage is a set of arbitrary symbols.3.Those symbols are primarily vocal,but may also be visual.4.The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer.nguage is used for communication.nguage operates in a speech community or culture.nguage is essentially human,although possibly not limited to humans.nguage is acquired by all people in much the same way-language and language learning both have universal characteristics.语言的定义可以从以下8个方面来理解：1.语言是系统的、生成的；2.语言是一套任意的符号；3.这些符号主要是声音的，但也可能是视觉的；4.符号有特定的含义；5.语言用于交际；6.语言在语言社区或文化中起作用；7.语言从根本上来说是人类语言，尽管语言可能不只限于人类世界；8.人们学习语言的方式大体相似，语言和语言学习具有普遍特征。
英语教学理论及方法教案
1.What are the different ways for student grouping?
3. How can we maintain discipline in the classroom?
课时分配
课堂讲授1/3，实践2/3
教学
方法
讲授，实践
教学手段
网络教学（）；多媒体（√）
教学
用具
粉笔录音机CD与教学相关的实物
教 学 内 容 提 要
备注
In this unit, we are going to look at one of the most important components of language teachers’work, leson planning. Focus on the following
章序
名称
Unit 3 Lesson Planning
周次
第6周至第8周
授课时间
2007年4月9日至2007年4月27日
教学
目的
要求
教学目的：学习教案的写作方法
教学要求：掌握教案的写作方法
教学
重点
写好教案的原则、教案的组成
教学
难点
宏观教案和微观教案
教学场所
环境
教室
授课
方式
课堂讲授（√）；实验（）；实践（√）；双语（）
课时分配
课堂讲授1/3，实践2/3
教学
方法
讲授，实践
教学手段
网络教学（）；多媒体（√）
教学
用具
粉笔录音机CD与教学相关的实物
principles_of_teaching_and_learning
Your company slogan
Part 1. Objects of Study—ask some Qs
Who
Language , Teaching and Learning
Your company slogan
H. D. Brown
Part 1. My understanding of this lesson
The definition of language Linguistics fields under the mask of the definition
Language
Understanding the SLA
Learning
Teaching
HOW learning and teaching interact?
Your company slogan
A consolidation of the Definitions of Language
1. Language is systematic and generative. Language is systematic and generative 2. Language is s set of arbitrary symbols.
3. Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be visual 4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer
5. Language is used for communication 6. Language operates in a speech community or culture 7. Language is essentially human, although possibly not limited to humans.
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching
Longman Dictionary of Lanuage Teaching and Applied Linguistics
What is discourse?
#Sometimes the study of both written and spoken discourse is known as
The Origins of Discourse Analysis
Zelling Harris He is sentence linguist, publised a paper with the title of “Discourse Analysis”. He is the first linguist who both coins the term “discourse analysis” and initiates a search for language rules which would explain how sentences are connected within a text by a kind of extended grammar.
Task-basedLanguageLearningandTeaching国外文献观点整理
Task-basedLanguageLearningandTeaching国外⽂献观点整理Task-based Language Learning and Teaching国外⽂献观点整理Task-based Language Learning and TeachingRod EllisLike almost all of Ellis's books, this book is a very good representation and summary of much of the pertinent research up to the time of the book's publication (2003) on the now-all-important concept of 'task-based learning'. The problem in the plan, though, is most likely that TBL will be old news and not really provide definitive solutions to real-world teaching and language learning. Second Language Acquisition is very good at breaking down learning into chunks for academic analysis, but it is very weak at putting the poor Humpty Dumpty of real language teaching back together. And why shouldn't it be weak? It isn't like most people who are professional SLAers actually have to teach a full course load or write syllabues and tests for those courses.Task-based Language TeachingDavid NunanThe field of task-based language teaching has developed considerably since the publication of Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom (Nunan, 1989), a book which helped to set the research agenda in teaching methodology for the following decade. While Designing Tasks underpins this new title, the material has been thoroughly updated and includes four completely new chapters. Task-Based Language Teaching offers a comprehensive and up-to-date appraisal of the field. There are better books - Willis, Skehan, Ellis, Edwards and Willis. I read the original of this book, and the new updated version is definitely better. Nunan a lot of the time when he thinks he's talking about TBL is in fact really talking about PPP. I have read almost everything on TBLT and Nunan in my view is a very minor figure rather than one of the important researchers/writers in this area of methodology. I bet in the future his next article or book won't be on this subject. So based on all the above I give it 3 and say there are better books out there.Second Language PedagogyN S PrabhuDr N S Prabhu's study presents a range of ideas on language teaching and learning which are marked equally by boldness in thought and a sense of the classroom.The basic assumption underlying the study is that language form is best learnt when students are concentrating on meaning rather than form.Dr Prabhu rejects the linguistic syllabus, opting instead for a task based 'procedural' syllabus where students have to solve problems through reasoning and self-reliance.The study is based on research carried out during a five-year classroom experiment (The Bangalore/ Madras Communicational Teaching Project) and provides an example of operational research in which theory and practice help to develop each other.A Cognitive Approach to Language LearningPeter SkehanThis book addresses issues such as the relation of form to meaning, the relevance of SLA research, and the validity of task-based learning. It also contrasts universalist accounts of language learning and individual differences between learners.As a student of second language acquisition and an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher myself, I have found this book a great resource. The first half of the book discusses psycholinguistics as it relates to instruction and testing. The second half of the book then discusses task-based learning (TBL) and how you can employ it in the classroom to support the psycholinguistic aspects of second language acquisition (SLA). Since TBL is a relatively new and promising area of research in the field of SLA, its investigation would not be complete if you overlooked Skehan's thoughts and contributions to TBL development.A Framework for Task-Based LearningJane WillisJane Willis gives them a thorough grounding in the principles and ideas that go into Task-Based Learning. In a book that is very practical and accessible, Willis gives quite a detailed introduction that is still very usable in the classroom.Willis breaks down the three major phases of a Task-Based lesson and addresses each in turn, effectivley taking the reader through a very detailed lesson overview. With excellent diagrams and pictures to help, there is little to get confused about. There are also sections with plenty of advice for getting the most out of TBL and what problems one may encounter. There are also some good sample lessons to back all this information up.Doing Task-Based TeachingDave Willis, Jane WillisDoing Task-based Teaching by Dave and Jane Willis is a great book for those who are new to TBT and even for those who are more experienced with TBT as ELT teachers. Doing Task-based Teaching is well written, well thought out, clear and easy to understand unlike some of the more famous books on the market, which are used nowadays in many of the master's level TESOL degree programs. The authors really know what they are talking about as esch chapter begins with a cogent goal and overview of hat will be covered. The authors do a fine job of putting each chapter's goals into perspective both theoretically and realistically. If you are still a bit confused, as was I before I read this book, what TBT is and how it can empower your students in the classroom, this is a good book for you, which will tell you more than you initially anticipated, and perhaps desired, about TBT than you expected. This book went far beyond my expectations. The chapters I liked the best were Chapter 1, "The Basis of a Task-based Approach;" Chapter 2, "Task-based Sequences in the Classroom;" Chapter 3, "Tasks Based on Written and Spoken Texts;" Chapter 7, "The Task-based Classroom and the Real World;" Chapter 8, "Adapting andRefining Tasks: Seven Parameters;" and Chapter 10, "How to Integrate TBT into Coursebooks and other Frequently Asked Questions." The Willis's are both wise and very experienced teacher trainers in TBT and their book, "Doing Task-based Teaching" is well worth the money, shipping and waiting for the book to arrive. The authors have a nice talent for clearly explaining without over simplifying or appearing to talk down to their reading audience, which I did not feel in other, more famous and well-known tomes. Finally, this book will always have a place on my ever growing ELT and TESOL bookshelves for the sheer number of TBT tips and teaching ideas, which alone, in my informed opinion, is worth a lot on it's own merits.I would also like to suggest that if you are relatively new to TBT, that you try reading Doing Task-based Teaching simultaneously with Teacher's Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching, a collection of papers, edited by Corony Edwards, a tutor at the University of Birmingham's (UK) MA TESOL program and Jane Willis, who used to teach in Aston University's (UK) MsC TESOL program. I also liked this book, too, except for four statistically based papers about four teacher's in-class action research, which were not exactly pertinent to my own teaching and interests. But that was a small price to pay for another fine book, which should be reviewed separately on this site.Designing Tasks for the Communicative ClassroomDavid NunanA major addition to the growing body of work on communicative language teaching, this book provides a balanced introduction to the theoretical and practical aspects of communicative task design. It is targeted toward all second and foreign language teachers, and is ideal for innovative teachers who wish to develop their own tasks, or adopt/adapt those of others. The purpose of the book is to integrate recent research and practice in language teaching into a framework for analyzing learning tasks. This framework should help foreign and second language teachers select, adapt or create their own communicative tasks. Intended for both practicing and trainee teachers of second or foreign language, the ideas presented can be employed in a variety of teaching situations with different levels of students. It should be useful for teachers of children and adults, and to teachers of English for Specific Purposes as well as those of general purpose English.Researching Pedagogic TasksEdited byMartin Bygate, Peter Skehan, Merrill SwainResearching Pedagogic Tasks brings together a series of empirical studies into the use of pedagogical tasks for second language learning, with a view to better understanding the structure of tasks, their impact on students, and their use by teachers.The volume starts with an introduction to the background and key issues in the topic area and is then organised into three sections:* the first section focuses on the language and learning of students on tasks* the second on the use of tasks in the language classroom* the third on the use of tasks for language testingEach section begins with a succinct section introduction, and the volume concludes with an afterword relating the theme of the volume to issues in curriculum development. The chapters include both experimental and qualitative approaches to the topic, some providing original accounts of specific studies, others offering overviews of linked series of studies. The book will be of interest to graduate students in Applied Linguistics, teacher educators, testers, materials writers, senior teachers, and researchers.Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language TeachingEdited byCorony Edwards, Jane WillisThis book was written for language teachers by language teachers, with a view to encouraging readers to use more tasks in their lessons, and to explore for themselves various aspects of task-based teaching and learning. It gives insights into ways in which tasks can be designed, adapted and implemented in a range of teaching contexts and illustrates ways in which tasks and task-based learning can be investigated as a research activity. Practicing language teachers andstudent professionals in graduate TESOL and Applied Linguistics programs will find this a rich resource of varied experience in the classroom and a stimulus to their own qualitative studies.A rich collection of tasks, used successfully by the chapter authors, that EFL teachers anywhere can use to increase their own repertoire--or to implement task-based learning for the first time in their own classrooms. ESL teachers in the United States and other English-speaking countries likewise can make effective use of every chapter in the book.Task-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: Practices and ProgramsEdited byBetty Lou Leaver, Jane WillisThis book is a handbook of concrete, adaptable models of task-based language teaching, which seeks to use real-world activities in the classroom to teach language skills. (For example, role-playing rather than reading dialog from a textbook.) The successful examples come from college, university, adult professional, and online programs. Case studies include programs in Arabic, Chinese, Czech, English, French, German, Korean, Spanish and Ukrainian, as well as web-based programs, and most can serve as generic models suitable for any foreign language. The introduction presents an extensive overview of the history and theory of task-based instruction and presents models and typologies of tasks. The book concludes with chapters on faculty development and task-based testing. This book is a companion to Content-Based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: Models and Methods, edited by Stephen B. Stryker and Betty Lou Leaver (Georgetown University Press, 1997).Task-Based Language Education:From Theory to PracticeEdited byKris van den BrandenTask-based language teaching (TBLT) has been attracting the attention of researchers, curriculum developers, teacher trainers and language teachers for many years. However, much of the available literature and research has been from a psycholinguistic perspective, driven by the desire to understand how people acquire a second language. Far less research has been carriedout as to whether TBLT works for real teachers and real learners in a classroom environment. This book aims to offer a unique contribution by uniting a discussion of task-based pedagogical principles with descriptions of their application to real life language education problems. It provides an account of the many challenges and obstacles that the implementation of TBLT raises and discusses the different options for overcoming them. The book contains a substantial body of research from Flanders, where the implementation of TBLT has been a nationwide project for fifteen years in primary, secondary and adult education.Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching with TechnologyMichael Thomas, Hayo ReindersThis title examines widespread interest in new technology-enhanced learning environments and how they are being used to promote task-based learning. This edited collection considers the relationship between task-based language teaching (TBLT) and technology-enhanced learning. TBLT is concerned with a number of macro-tasks such as information gathering and problem-solving as well as evaluative tasks, all of which are increasingly available via online and Web-based technologies. "Technology Enhanced Learning" refers to a broad conception of technology use in the language classroom and incorporates a range of interactive learning technologies such as Interactive Whiteboards and mobile learning devices. The popularity of Web 2.0 technologies (blogs, wikis, social networking sites, podcasting, and virtual worlds), as well as practical applications of mobile learning, place a fresh emphasis on creating project-orientated language learning tasks with a clear real-world significance for learners of foreign languages. This book examines the widespread interest in these new technology-enhanced learning environments and looks at how they are being used to promote task-based learning. This book will appeal to practitioners and researchers in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and education studies.A Task-based University EFL Program in Korea: Design, Implementation and Formative EvaluationAndrew Finch 2010.5This study presents a formative evaluation of a three-year task-based conversation program designed for tertiary students in the Republic of Korea. Every aspect of the program was the subject of continuous reflection and modification, in which program design, implementation, and evaluation were a single formative process. A humanistic view of language learning as education was found to be appropriate for the student-centered emphasis of the task-based approach, and program goals promoted acquisition of long-term learning skills through development of student confidence, motivation, independence, and communicative competence. Assessment reflected these goals via self-evaluative and reflective methods. The program evaluation used a mix of quantitative and qualitative research, focusing on affective aspects of language learning, and on the importance of student beliefs, perceptions and attitudes in the learning process. Research questions focused on positive attitude change in students and teachers as a marker of program success.A Study of Task-based Learning and Teaching in a Large EFL ClassJennifer Chun Tzu Chao, Angela Mei-Chen WuThis book uses detailed qualitative method to explore the implementation of task-based learning and teaching in an Elementary School English learning classroom in Taiwan. This paper examined the process of task implementation by analyzing the data from intensive classroom observations, on-going interviews with the teacher, in-depth interviews with the students and their reflective journals. This study identified the issues that were not addressed in previous studies. Previous studies have tried to show the effectiveness of task-based learning and teaching. The overall results of the present study have shown the implementations of task-based learning have shown to be challenging for both the teacher and students involved; however students enjoyed working on the tasks at different levels and the difficulties that were raised were able to be adjusted over a period of time with the exception of one. The results suggested that Taiwanese Elementary Schools are unique contexts in which careful considerations should be taken when using the task-based learning approach. Suggestions were also made for the implementation of task-based learning in an Elementary School context.。
Language teaching and learning
Language Teaching and LearningWe often speak of language as a vehicle of expression-----a metaphor that can illumine many aspects of our foreign language teaching situation. Language is a vehicle of meaning that we do not even realize we are using; in other words, a vehicle that is transporting a person’s message somewhere but is not itself the object of the trip. Before students can use such a vehicle for their purpose it must be constructed, and this construction requires a blueprint and various stages of production, with tryouts as the various sections and combinations are assembled---tryouts during which what has been assembled to date is used, if only momentarily, for its ultimate purpose. With our language vehicle this ultimate purpose is expression: people revealing themselves to, or disguising or hiding themselves from, other people. Expression involves all the problems of interpersonal relations. For this reason it is frequently less painful for teachers and students to continue working on the construction of the vehicle than to try it out for level of performance.In a model of foreign language teaching and learning processes that is now quite well known, I have distinguished skill-getting, represented by both cognition and production or (or pseudo-communication), from skill-using in interaction, which involves both reception and expression and is dependent on motivation to communicate.The construction of our vehicle presupposes a design. Some particularly talented individuals can put the design into effect without the help of the blueprint; they appear to move directly from the prototype to production, which means that they develop their own internal representation from acquaintance with the prototype. These are the exceptions, however. Most need help in developing a series of blueprints of increasing complexity as a basis for production. Some prefer lessons in drafting blueprints, whereas others can draw them up from experience with a prototype of the vehicle. These blueprints represent the system underlying both reception and expression. Our students depend on their blueprints as they put the parts together in production so thatthe vehicle will function. Sometimes students try merely to copy someone else’s assembly. This may work for a time but leaves the student bewildered as the assembly becomes more complicated. At this stage only those with comprehensive blueprints, or internal representations, are able to make the mechanism operate as they would like. Construction is not the use of the vehicle: This is represented by the trying out that continually takes place as the assembly takes form. It is only through such tryouts that the operation of the vehicle can be smoothly integrated, the faults corrected, and the user gain confidence in handling it.No analogy should be pushed too far. I have emphasized that mere production of itself is not sufficient. In every lesson it must be regarded as preliminary to actually trying out what is being learned so that from the earlier stages all learning activities lead to some form of real communication rather than remaining at the level of pseudo-communication through imposed utterances.Interaction has always been the most neglected part of the language activities in which we engage in the classroom. This situation will not improve unless definite steps are taken to include substantial interaction activities in each lesson. Because “real”communication for our students takes place in the native language, it is not surprising that they need some stimulus to use the foreign language for natural purposes. Interaction does not take place in a void. It is not enough to put several people together; their must also be some situational element that naturally elicits an interchange. Interaction is purposeful person-to person affair in speech and in most kinds of writing. This interpersonal character of interaction explains why so much of foreign-language teaching and learning remains at the production or pseudo-communication level.In most classrooms there is very little reason or opportunity for students or teachers to reveal themselves to each other: the relationship is a formal and formalized one for which conventionalities suffice. The teacher is there to teach; the students are there to learn what the teacher or the administration thinks they should learn. The usual greetings are exchanged, conventional questions are asked about material presented aurally or graphically, and conventional answers arising from the material areexpected. Common remarks that may be heard are “Come on the point”, “Don’t ask silly questions”. John Holt describes the mechanisms students employ to defend themselves in class and protect their real selves from the humiliation and embarrassment that could result if they ventured to express themselves in an uncertain, often hostile environment (and this in their native language). The emotional needs of the individual must be understood by the teacher if the students are to realize their full potential.Spontaneous communication and free interaction are possible in any language only when teachers and their students have built up a warm, uninhibited, confident, sympathetic relationship and when such a relationship also exists among the students themselves. In the first lessons no such state of affairs exists as yet. The teacher’s efforts from the beginning should be devoted to building up such relationships through enjoyable, successful experiences in using interesting and amusing segments of language in a multiplicity of ways so that students begin to feel that they can express real concerns through this new medium and that it is exhilarating to do so. This confident attitude, so essential to development of future speaking skill, is very fragile and can be stifled quite early by a situation where the teacher has the advantage of fluency and is inevitably right while the student is uncertain, groping, and for the most part wrong. Early interaction practice calls for self-restraint and tact on the part of the teacher. Once the students understand the rules of the game---that you do most you can with the little you have in some meaningful activity shared with others in the group, and that the teacher is there not to condemn but to give a helping hand , a gentle reminder, and much encouragement---confident self-expression is possible even at a very early stage.It is because of this fundamental interpersonal factor that methods and techniques imposed on the teacher, efficient as they might have seemed in the abstract in terms of language-learning theory, have always proved successful for some people working with some classes but not for all. The interaction of teacher personality, multiple student personalities, and what each brings into the classroom from the outside can be observed only in unique situations. Take one student away from the group or add onestudent and you immediately have a new mix. Change the teacher and the situation is no longer the same. All teachers are conscious of this fact, which has been the bane of large-scale investigation and experimentation in teaching methods.Is methodology then futile? Not at all. Methodology should be based on what we know about language(what it is and how it operates---still a matter of controversy); what we know about human beings (how they learn and how they learn language and whether these are different processes or merely different manifestations of the same process, another question still under investigation). And what we know about people in interaction (a prolific area of psychological study). It is inevitable, then, that methodological recommendations will change as our knowledge of these three factors evolves, with earlier postulates being rejected and new premises accepted. Teachers should keep in touch with findings in these areas and share the excitement of a developing and progressing discipline.At this point the teacher takes over as a professional and as an individual with his or her own gifts, insights, and preferences. First, teachers must know themselves and their strengths and weaknesses in interpersonal relations. Then they must know their students: who they are, what their aspirations are, how they learn as individuals. The teacher will find that the general attitudes of students fluctuate, not only from generation to generation or from decade to decade, but also, in a period of rapid change, almost from year to year. Senior high school and college students may still accept what their younger brothers and sisters are already rejected, In an earlier period, for instance, with a more docile student population, it seemed possible to subordinate individual students to the efficient system for their own good, as seen by their teachers; now the efficient system must be subordinated to individual learning preferences if there is to be a high quality of learning. This is a period of plurality of objectives and diversity of learning approaches.Teachers in this volatile period must understand how teaching and learning relate to each other and interact fruitfully, realizing that either can exist without the other. They must learn to teach in such a way that they do not interpose themselves between the learner and what is to be learned. They must accept and encourage a variety oflearning styles allowing for differences in individuals. Some people learn more by the ear than the eye, others learn from printed texts; some learn from abstract reflection, some from concrete manipulation; some learn more slowly than others. Some prefer to learn by themselves, whereas others prefer help, even direction, and need the stimulation of a group if they are to realize their potential. Foreign-language teachers for this generation must consider carefully how they can devise learning programs for types of students they did not ordinarily meet in their classes in an earlier period.By this time my teacher-readers may find their heads spinning. They have listened, they have studied, they have read. None of this is sufficient. Truly successful teachers are highly idiosyncratic. From this plethora of information and recommendations, they select. They take from the new what suits their own personality and their teaching styles of their own students, thus forming their own approach. They are not afraid to innovate, to rearrange, to redesign their courses, because continual reflection and appropriate adjustment and readjustment keep them professionally alive, making them more interesting to their students. Above all, they do not remain caught up in their own discipline but see it in relation to the total educational experience. They see themselves contributing, along with their colleagues in mathematics, in social studies, in guidance to the maturation process of young minds and personalities. They remain in step with changing approaches to the whole curriculum and view their subject in that perspective. In step? Why should they not be in the vanguard in meeting new challenges and seeking new opportunities, leading while remaining true to the essence of their own discipline? Such an approach requires flexibility of mind and sensitivity to professional winds of change.So we move, let us hope, as a profession into an era of tolerance and acceptance of difference---the era of the commune, where divisive and acrimonious competition to draw teachers in one direction and then in another will appear irrelevant, and the word “best” will be recognized for the subjective and relative term it is. Let us look forward to a period of “many flowers blooming, day lilies perhaps, but each in its day and hour bringing fragrance to the experience of some”. Invite me to visit your garden at that stage so that I can see what your skill and care have brought into being.。
语言学阅读书目
语言学阅读书目应用语言学方向1. Brown, H. D. (2001). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing: FLTRP.2. Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford, U.K.: OUP.3. Johnson, K. (2002). An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. Beijing: FLTRP.4. Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. (2000). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: FLTRP.5. O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. (1990). Learni ng Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.6. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP.7. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2005). Teaching and Researching Reading. Beijing: FLTRP.8. Hughes, R. (2005). Teaching and Researching Speaking. Beijing: FLTRP.9. Hyland, K. (2005). Teaching and Researching Writing. Beijing: FLRTP.10. James, C. (2001). Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis. Beijing: FLTRP.11. Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. 2007 (2003). Working with Discourse: Meaning beyond the Clause. Beijing: Peking University Press.12. Robinson. P. (Ed.). (2007). Cognition and Second Language Instruction. Beijing: WPC.13. Rost, M. (2005). Teaching and Researching Listening.Beijing: FLTRP.14. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: OUP.15. Thomas, J., & Short, M. (2001). Using Corpora for Language Research. Beijing: FLTRP.语用学方向1. A New Course in Pragmatics，Chen Xinren，Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2009.2. Notes on Pragmatics, He Ziran, Nanjing Normal University Press, 2002.3. Pragmatics, J. Peccei, Routledge, 1999.4. Pragmatics, G. Yule, Oxford: OUP, 1996.5. Pragmatics, Huang Yan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.6. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics, J. Thomas, London: Longman, 1995.7. Pragmatics: An Introduction, J. Mey, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993.8. Principles of Pragmatics, G. Leech, London: Longman, 1983.9. Understanding Pragmatics, J. Verschueren, London: Arnold, 1999.10. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, P. Brown and S. Levinson, Cambridge: CUP, 1987.11. Relevance: Cognition and Communication, D. Sperber and D. Wilson, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986/1995.12. Doing Pragmatics, P. Grundy, London: Edward Arnold, 1995.13. Pragmatics, S. Levinson, Cambridge: CUP, 1983.14. Cross-cultural Pragmatics, Blum-Kulka, House and Kasper (eds.), Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1989.15. Interlanguage Pragmatics, Kasper, G. & Blum-Kulka (eds.), Oxford University Press, 1993.16. Pragmatics in Language T eaching, Rose, K. & G. Kasper (eds.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.17. Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in Language and Discourse, K. M. Jaszczolt, Pearson Education Limited, 2002. /北京大学出版社,2004.18. Pragmatics: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, Louise Cummings, Edinburgh University Press, 2005.19. Pragmatics and Grammar, Mira Ariel, Cambridge: CUP, 2008.20. Experimental Pragmatics, Ira A. Noveck & Dan Sperber (Eds.), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.认知语言学方向1. Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.2. Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. University of Chicago Press.3. Goldberg, Adele 1995. Constructions: a construction grammarapproach to argument structure. University of Chicago Press.4. Jackendoff, Ray 1995. Patterns in the mind. Basic Books.5. Ungerer, Jans-Jorg and Friedrich Schmid. 1996. AnIntroduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Longman.6. Jackendoff, Ray 1997. The architecture of language faculty. The MIT Press.7. Radford, Andrew, et al. 1999. Linguistics: an introduction. Cambridge University Press.8. Talmy, Leonard 2000/2003. Toward a cognitive semantics. The MIT Press.9. Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner 2002. The Way We Think. Basic Books.10. Taylor, John 2002. Cognitive Grammar. OUP.11. Levin, Beth and Malka Rappaport Hovav 2005. Argumentrealization. Cambridge University Press.12. Goldberg, Adele 2006. Constructions at work: the nature of generalization in language. OUP.13. Geeraerts, Dirk 2006. Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. Mouton.14. Geeraerts, Dirk and Hubert Cuyckens 2007. Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. OUP.。
Task-basedLanguageLearningandTeaching(任务型语言教学).
Step 2 Group work. Talk about these two questions: 1. What can a robot do? 2. What will a robot do in the future?
•
Give whatever you can imagine and the secretary should note down the items like this: A robot can 1. 2. • A robot will • 1. n
• 1. Each group reports the total of the items you have written down.
2. Report the results. First, reporters from the groups with smaller number read aloud the items. Second, the reporter from the group with the largest number reports the results. Third, reporters from different group add new items that have not been reported.
Name breakfast lunch supper Favorit e fruit
Ms Lan noodles, meat, eggs
rice, rice, vegetables, vegetables, meat fish, fruit
• Step 4: Report the result of your interview to a third person like this:
外语学习与教学导论
Read An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning andTeachingpart one is the background of foreign language learning learning and and and teaching; teaching; teaching; part part part two two two is is is foreign foreign foreign language language language learning, learning, learning, foreign foreign foreign language language language learning learning process, process, language language language acquisition acquisition acquisition and and and language language language learning learning learning theories, theories, theories, individual individual individual differences differences differences and and the the learner learner learner’’s s characteristics; characteristics; characteristics; part part part three three three is is is language language language teaching teaching teaching which which which includes includes includes language language teaching methods, language teaching social culture environment, how to make a teaching plans, teaching skills and language tests. The author collects the advantages of other scholars ’ theories, objectively introduces the ideas, gives the quite different comments, and guide readers to make good use the book. Besides, Besides, it it it has has has lots lots lots of of of discussion discussion discussion and and and question, question, question, when when when we we we read read the the content, content, content, we we we are are supposing to consider these questions at the same time. The author Johnson is discussing the the questions questions questions and and and narrating narrating narrating the the the theories theories theories so so so as as as to to to explore explore explore the the the various various various fields fields fields of of of foreign foreign language language teaching teaching teaching with with with readers readers readers together. together. together. And And And he he he has has has accumulated accumulated accumulated a a a wealth wealth wealth of of of teaching teaching experience in foreign countries. According to my understanding of this book, I will do a simple simple summary, summary, summary, then then then link link link my my my own own own experience experience experience to to to the the the theories theories theories of of of this this this book, book, book, discuss discuss discuss the the practical teaching and the problem of our foreign language teaching. Part Part one: one: one: the the the development development development background background background of of of foreign foreign foreign language language language learning learning learning and and and teaching. teaching. Why do people learn foreign languages? Someone really likes it and wants to to know the know the culture of a foreign country or has interests in it, while a number of people who have great pain pain on on on learning learning learning a a a foreign foreign foreign language language language are are are for for for study study study purposes. purposes. purposes. It It It is is is not not not in in in fact fact fact difficult difficult difficult to to understand understand the the the importance importance importance of of of foreign foreign foreign language language language learning learning learning in in in today today today’’s s world. world. world. As As As the the the world world becomes becomes smaller, smaller, smaller, and and and the the the means means means for for for moving moving moving round round round it it it easier, easier, easier, so so so it it it has has has become become become more more multicultural and multilingual. In a multilingual world, it is natural to find large numbers of of people people people who who who speak speak speak more more more than than than one one one language. language. language. According According According to to to Crystal Crystal Crystal in in in many many many African African countries, as many as 90 percent of the population regularly use more than one language. What What is is is involved involved involved in in in learning learning learning a a a foreign foreign foreign language? language? language? Firstly, Firstly, Firstly, we we we will will will identify identify identify what what different types of knowledge and skill are involved in using a language. This will involve the areas like pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar as well as some less obvious ones. However, However, describing describing describing these these these different different different levels levels levels of of of knowledge knowledge knowledge and and and skill skill skill can can can not not not answer answer answer the the question, question, since since since not not not everything everything everything which which which involves involves involves in in in using using using a a a language language language needs needs needs to to to be be be learned learned afresh by the learner. Here we will see some views of language and language learning. At the end of the 19thand beginning of 20th century, a stimulus for the development of contemporary linguistics came from what a t at at first first first sight sight sight might might might appear as appear as an unlikely source. At this time, linguists developed a ser of analytic techniques which they believed would enable them to achieve this aim of working from instances of a language ’s use to an understanding of how that language language was was was structured. structured. structured. The The The representative representative representative people people people is is is Bloomfield. Bloomfield. Bloomfield. Behaviorism Behaviorism Behaviorism was was concerned how learning took place. The three basic ideas about learning are: conditioning which which is is is the the the process process process of of of developing developing developing connections; connections; connections; habit habit habit formation formation formation and and and the the the importance importance importance of of environment. environment. Mentalism Mentalism Mentalism is is is a a a belief belief belief that that that the the the mind mind mind are are are important important important for for for determining determining determining not not not just just behavior, but also the way we do science. With all these background information, we are supposed to do language learning a nd teaching. and teaching. In the following part, we will deal with them one by one. Firstly, we will see learners and their errors in language learning. Behaviorist believed that when a new habit is learned, old habits would have some effect on the learning process. Looking at the effects of one habit on learning another is known in psychology as the study of of transfer. transfer. transfer. Two Two Two sorts sorts sorts of of of transfer transfer transfer which which which are are are positive positive positive transfer transfer transfer and and and negative negative negative transfer transfer transfer are are important important to to to us. us. us. Lado Lado Lado believed believed believed that that that by by by comparing comparing comparing the the the native native native language language language and and and the the the target target language, we would be able to find out about ease and difficulty of learning. This is called the the ‘‘contrastive contrastive analysis analysis analysis hypothesis hypothesis hypothesis’’. . Richards Richards Richards is is is interested interested interested in in in errors errors errors whose whose whose ‘‘origins origins are are found within the structure of English itself ’, or the way it is taught; that is, non-contrastive causes. causes. He He He calls calls calls non-contrastive non-contrastive non-contrastive errors errors errors of of of this this this sort sort sort intralingual, intralingual, intralingual, meaning meaning meaning ‘‘coming coming from from within the language itself ’, as opposed to interlingual meaning ‘coming from differences between L1 and FL ’. Chomsky Chomsky’’s ideas are responsible for the interest in L1 acquisition that there has been over the past few decades. The American Krashen argues that there are two distinct ways of mastering a foreign language, and he calls these acquisition and learning. He describes acquisition as a natura one, where there is no conscious focusing on linguistic forms. It is what we have already informally called the process of picking up a language, just as you do if you go and live in the target language environment. Learning, on the other hand, is conscious process, and it usually takes place in the language classroom. The acquisition / learning distinction is not without its critics, and several writers have pointed out that it is not a very clear-cut one. Little or nothing is said by Krashen about the different processes involved involved in in in each, each, each, and and and the the the only only only real real real difference difference difference is is is in in in terms terms terms of of of the the the environments environments environments in in in which which these processes occur. So, to put it in crude terms, acquisition is what happens when you go and live in the target language country, while learning is what happens in classrooms. We all can think of occasions where we speak differently from the way we normally do. We may put on an accent, or be particularly careful about our grammar and choice of words when speaking to an important person, being interviewed for a job, or in any other situation where we feel on show. There are many people who will have a local dialect that they used as a child, and still use as adults in informal situation. But special situation they may may modify modify modify that that that dialect dialect dialect towards towards towards a a a more more more standard standard standard form. form. form. The The The modification modification modification of of of speech speech patterns, patterns, particularly particularly particularly in in in situations situations situations where where where there there there is is is form-focus, form-focus, form-focus, is is is known known known as as as monitoring. monitoring. Krashen Krashen links links links FL FL FL monitoring monitoring monitoring to to to the the the learning/acquisition learning/acquisition learning/acquisition distinction. distinction. distinction. He He He says says says that that that in in the the learner learner learner uses uses uses the the the language language language one one one has has has picked picked picked up. up. up. It It It is is is only only only in in in more more more formal formal situations situations that that that what what what has has has been been been learned learned learned comes comes comes into into into play play play and, and, and, even even even then, then, then, it it it is is is in in in a a a rather rather restricted role. Krashen ’s claim is that learning will occur when unknown items are only just beyond the learner ’s present level. Above all, the learner needs the help of a friendly language language provider, provider, provider, who who who will will will rough rough rough tone, tone, tone, and and and modify modify modify her her her language language language so so so that that that it it it does does does not not answer too far away from the learner ’s level of competence. We We will will will look look look at at at some some some of of of the the the concepts concepts concepts underlying underlying underlying these these these theories, theories, theories, these these these concepts concepts concepts are are declarative declarative /procedural /procedural /procedural knowledge knowledge knowledge distinction, distinction, distinction, together together together with with with the the the notions notions notions of of of automization automization and and restructuring. restructuring. restructuring. We We We shall shall shall then then then think think think about about about how how how these these these concepts concepts concepts might might might relate relate relate to to to the the acquisition acquisition we we we have have have just just just finished finished finished describing. describing. describing. The The The result result result of of of our our our deliberations deliberations deliberations will will will be be be an an attempt to outline one framework which can account for both FL learning and acquisition. Indeed Indeed a a a driving driving driving test test test which which which concentrated concentrated concentrated on on on declarative declarative declarative knowledge knowledge knowledge and and and not not not procedural procedural knowledge would be be a a a recipe recipe for for disaster. disaster. Teacher realizes that having declarative knowledge of a language is quite different from being able to speak it. Automization means making automatic which is a very important process. It is easy to apply the automization concept to language learning. When the learner first comes across a new tense, for example, he may need all his available effort to produce it. As a matter of fact, language learners who are struggling so hard with the language conversation, since all their attention seems to be on trying to produce the correct tense. Over time the learner will come to use that tense tense so so so automatically automatically automatically that that that it it it occupies occupies occupies no no no thought thought thought space space space for for for him him him to to to do do do so, so, so, at at at which which which free free point he is free to think about what he is saying, not how he is saying it. As people learn, the way they view what they are learning changes. Mclaughlin points out one important characteristic of restructuring which is that it often occurs suddenly, the new way of seeing things happens in a flesh. It is quite different from automization, which usually occurs over time as more and more practice is given. A learning theory needs to have some way of accounting for sudden flesh learning, because it does happen. Someone think intelligence is an important factor for a FL learning. It is believed that a certain degree of intelligence was useful, useful, if not essential, for success. if not essential, for success. This This is is is a reason a reason why why learning learning learning foreign foreign foreign languages languages languages is is is often often often left left left university university university level, level, level, so so so that that that only only only the the the most most intelligent would take it on. It is also a common belief that FL learning actually helps to develops develops the the the intelligence. intelligence. intelligence. However, However, However, it it it also also also depends depends depends on on on which which which language language language skills skills skills you you you are are talking about. In other words, intelligence is not the crucial factor in a FL learning, it only depends on which language skill you are learning. What is language aptitude? According to Caroll, it is the rate at which persons at the secondary school, university and adult level successfully master a foreign language. This definition accepts that everyone can acquire, it is just some people do it faster than others. In my understanding, one ’s language aptitude is so difficult to measure. Sometimes one can learn the pronunciation better than others, while sometimes one learns grammar better than other skills. In a words, language aptitude can not be measured, so we can not see one ’s aptitude in a proper way. In all areas of human activity, there are reasons why people do things, and foreign language learning is no exception. Among the wealth of motives for FL where one learns learns the the the foreign foreign foreign language language language not not not for for for love love love of of of the the the target target target country country country and and and its its its culture, culture, culture, but but but to to contribute to its destruction. Though some studies find that integrative motivation is more effective than instrumental, there is also no shortage of research showing the importance of instrumental motivation as well. What ’s more, there are various sorts of attitude which may be relevant to language learning. By far the most studied is attitude towards the target-language target-language speakers, speakers, speakers, sometimes sometimes sometimes called called called the the the reference reference reference or or or aspirational aspirational aspirational group. group. group. Some Some attitude attitude types types types have have have been been been discusses discusses discusses in in in relation relation relation to to to language language language learning, learning, learning, which which which are are are attitudes attitudes towards success, attitudes towards teacher, and attitude towards your own country. In my experience, the attitude towards teacher is much much more important than the others, since a more important than the others, since a teacher may have a strong influence on language learning. The author gives a sad story of one student which is about one of the students has full the right attitudes, and has plenty of integrative motivation. However, it is sad that she is the second lowest in the class. The reason why she is failure to be successful in language learning is her lack of personality variables. When talking about the personality variables, we may have extroversion and introversion in our mind. Common sense might suggest that there could be a connection between extroversion and oral performance. But you may also feel that introverts are really just as competent in all areas, the only difference being that the introverts do not speak so much. Another fascinating factor which has been studied in relation relation to to to FL FL FL learning learning learning is is is known known known as as as empathy empathy empathy or or or ego ego ego permeability. permeability. permeability. Ego Ego Ego permeability permeability permeability has has been defined as the act of constructing for oneself another person ’s mental state. When we are are given given given a a a problem problem problem to to to solve, solve, solve, we we we all all all have have have our our our own own own preferred preferred preferred ways ways ways of of of tackling tackling tackling it. it. it. These These ways of thinking are sometime referred to as cognitive styles. Interesting research has been done into different cognitive styles of individuals. In the language-learning field, some of the most interesting is related to what is called field independence. In other words, some individuals seem more able than others to extract things from the context in which they are met, and to see them as separate entities. People who can do this easily are said to be field independent, while those who do not are field dependent. - Naiman et al. It had three main aims. One was to identify the strategies that good learners used. Secondly, were there any correlations correlations between successful learning and the variables we have been looking at. between successful learning and the variables we have been looking at. The third and less central aim is to learn something about what teachers do in the classroom. The The Naiman Naiman Naiman et et et al. al. al. Study Study Study provides provides provides a a a veritable veritable veritable treasure treasure treasure trove trove trove of of of interesting interesting interesting pieces pieces pieces of of information. information. As As As regarding regarding regarding learning learning learning strategies strategies strategies , , , the the the researchers researchers researchers found found found that that that information information information on on strategies is more usefully collected through interviews, not observation. They had hoped that watching pupils in class would give them plenty of information on strategies. But this did not happen. This is not so surprising when you think how much of language behavior most of what happens goes on in the head. We We have have have looked looked looked at at at the the the language language language learning learning learning theory theory theory in in in a a a general general general way, way, way, according according according to to theories, theories, we we we may may may have have have a a a simple simple simple understanding understanding understanding of of of language language language learning learning learning in in in our our our mind. mind. mind. In In In the the following following part, part, part, we we we will will will mainly mainly mainly demonstrate demonstrate demonstrate the the the language language language teaching, teaching, teaching, which which which helps helps helps the the beginner teachers and the experienced teachers teach well in the future. Grammar translation has a great influence in our teaching history. Even today, some of of teachers teachers teachers still still still use use use the the the GT GT GT method, method, method, for for for it it it is is is very very very useful useful useful and and and students students students can can can understand understand understand it it easily. easily. In In In other other other words, words, words, students students students can can can use use use their their their first first first language language language to to to help help help them them them learn learn learn foreign foreign language. Chinese and English are so different from each other, we can say we can not find any relationship between them. In our daily life, we can find out that it is hard to speak a language, language, though though though you you you can can can read read read and and and write write write it. it. it. So So So audio-lingualism audio-lingualism audio-lingualism can can can help help help us us us get get get our our practical need. Its characteristics are 1). Primacy of speech. Speech comes first and writing follows on. Over time AL developed firm views about the order the four skills. It was the receptive skills (listening and reading) should be learned first, and then the productive ones (speaking and writing). 2). Stimulus - response - reinforcement model. 3). Habit formation through through repetition. repetition. repetition. 4). 4). 4). Incrementalism. Incrementalism. Incrementalism. 5). 5). 5). Contrastive Contrastive Contrastive linguistics. linguistics. linguistics. 6). 6). 6). Inductive Inductive Inductive learning. learning. AL AL was was was extremely extremely extremely widespread widespread widespread throughout throughout throughout the the the world world world up up up to to to the the the 1960s. 1960s. 1960s. It It It was was was often often supported with great enthusiasm. Humanistic approach approach is is is also also also a a a effective effective method method in in in language language language teaching. teaching. teaching. Roberts Roberts describes humanism in applied linguistics as language teaching respecting the integrity of learners, allowing for personal growth and responsibility, taking psychological and affective affective factors factors factors into into into account, account, account, and and and representing representing representing whole whole whole person person person learning. learning. learning. The The The roots roots roots of of humanism humanism in in in language language language teaching teaching teaching are are are various. various. various. One One One central central central one one one is is is the the the discovery-learning discovery-learning movement, movement, particularly particularly particularly associated associated associated with with with the the the work work work of of of the the the educational educational educational psychologist psychologist psychologist Jerome Jerome Bruner. Discovery learning emphasizes the student ’s own activity and enquiry, rather than the transmission of information by the teacher. Task-based teaching has become a a subject subject of of keen keen keen contemporary contemporary interest, and different task-based approaches exist today. Some differ substantially from Prabhu ’s, often not not being being being based based based so so so centrally centrally centrally on on on the the the parallel parallel parallel with with with L1 L1 L1 acquisition. acquisition. acquisition. But But But one one one underlying underlying principle holds for all the approaches to place the emphasis firmly on activities or tasks that learners do in class. This emphasis is reflected in much current research which studies the characteristics of different sorts of activities. There are a number of features that will make make tasks tasks tasks more more more or or or less less less difficult, difficult, difficult, and and and much much much recent recent recent research research research into into into task-based task-based task-based teaching teaching teaching is is looking at these. Task-based teaching is still used spread today, and it is turned out to be a practical teaching method. Those who are new to the language-teaching profession may believe that becoming a good good language language language teacher teacher teacher is is is only only only a a a question question question fo fo fo equipping equipping equipping your your your knowledge knowledge knowledge of of of the the the target target language, learning how to conduct the sorts of activity which go on in classrooms, as well as acquiring more general teaching skills to do with managing classrooms and the people in in them. These aspects them. These aspects o f language teaching of language teaching a re of are of course very important. H owever, we However, we still need to know the foreign language planning. Language planning is a large area which deals with the language problems of a society. Foreign language planners and the teachers who put their plans into action need to know a lot about the context in which the teaching takes place. Contexts i s is is all important, all important, and applied linguists who try to make lists of the factors factors that that that are are are relevant relevant relevant to to to language language language teaching teaching teaching always always always include include include a a a set set set called called called contextual. contextual. Context Context is is is important important important not not not just just just for for for the the the language language language planner. planner. planner. Teachers Teachers Teachers need need need to to to know know know about about context as well. A good number of people who are professionally involved in language teaching will at one or another time in their lives have the responsibility of producing a syllabus, or part the structural syllabus and notional/functional notional/functional syllabus. syllabus. syllabus. The The The main main main organizing organizing organizing principles principles principles of of of structural structural structural syllabus syllabus syllabus is is according to language structures. Syllabus designers and textbook writers today commonly follow similar procedures, producing their own syllabus interventories. Selection is a big issue issue for for for N/F N/F N/F syllabus syllabus syllabus type. type. type. In In In structural structural structural syllabus syllabus syllabus design design design selecting selecting selecting what what what to to to teach teach teach is is is a a question of deciding on ordering. There are some students who know their grammar, but lack communicative ability. They exist in droves around the world, a legacy of structural teaching. N/F teaching is able to add a communicative dimension to their knowledge, to activate this knowledge so that it could be used for doing things with language. 。
英语学习理论 1
Differences of the 3 views
• Structural view: Learners need to know structural rules and vocabulary. • Notional-functional view: Learners need to know how to do things with language. • Interactional view: Learners need to know where, when and how to do things with language to achieve appropriacy.
Skinner’s behaviorism
Audio-Lingual Method (in America)
Listen & repeat
Right ! Good!
Wrong! L& R!
Theories of language learning (2)
• Cognitive theory:
Noam Chomsky
2. Views on Language (What is lg.?)
3 different views of language:
• the structural iew • the functional view • the interactional view
i. Structural View
Language is a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: phonological, lexical systems and sentences. The number of items are limited.
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DUALITY
Displacement
• Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. • E.g., we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole bear, even though the first passed away 2550 years ago and the second is situated far away from us.
Language, Learning and Teaching
CHEN Ying jennych2008@
Outline
• • • • • Language Learning Teaching Learning & Teaching Human Learning
Nature
Philosophical bases
Arbitrariness
• Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning • The sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words
Language: definition
• Wardhaugh (1977):
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Language: design features
• • • • • Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement Cultural transmission
Creativity
• Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. • The human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences because of
Language: definition
• Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (1998):
Language is a system of human communiction which consists a structured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.
Arbitrariness
• The syntactic level • Is language arbitrary at the NO syntactic level? E.g. We study applied linguistics.
Duality
• Two levels of structures: a system of sound a system of meaning • The sound system is finite and meaningless. • The meaning system allows the units of meaning to be arranged in an infinite number of ways.
• The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998):
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, prat.
Language: definition
• The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998):
Language is a method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way, and the system of communiction used by a particular community or country.
Learning: definition
• Webster‟s Encyclopedia Unabridged Dictionary of English Language (1994):
Learning is: knowledge aquired by a systematic study in any field or fields of scholarly application. the act or process of aquiring knowledge or skill. the modification of behaviour through practice, training, or experience.
Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1916)
“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” --Noam Chomsky (1928-)
Course in General Linguistics (1916)
“Language is a purely human and noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” --Edward Sapir (1884-1939)
Syntactic Structures (1957)
Language: definition
• Webster‟s Third International Dictionary of the Language (1961):
Language is a systimatic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalizes signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meaning.
Learning: definition
• Learn to drive dance play piano speak English
LEARN??
Learning: definition
• There is no complete agreement among pschologists about the details of the learning process. • Learning occurs whenever one adopts new, or modifies existing, behavioral patterns in a way which has some influence on future actions or attitudes.
Learning: definition
• Behaviorism:
Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice.
Kimble & Germazy (1963)
Theories
Language: definition
• Traditional views structuralist sociolinguist behaviorist transformationalist
Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”. --Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
Cultural transmission