Silicon-based 3rd generation solar cells by IFE Erik-Stensrud-Marstein

合集下载

砷化镓太阳能电池研究报告

砷化镓太阳能电池研究报告英文回答：Research Report on Gallium Arsenide Solar Cells.Introduction:Gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells have gained significant attention in recent years due to their high efficiency and potential for use in various applications. In this research report, I will discuss the advantages, challenges, and future prospects of GaAs solar cells.Advantages of GaAs Solar Cells:1. High Efficiency: GaAs solar cells have a higher conversion efficiency compared to traditional silicon-based solar cells. This is due to the direct bandgap of GaAs, which allows for efficient absorption of sunlight and higher energy conversion.2. Wide Spectral Range: GaAs solar cells can convert a broader range of the solar spectrum into electricity, including both visible and infrared light. This makes them suitable for use in space applications where sunlight is limited.3. Temperature Stability: GaAs solar cells exhibit better temperature stability compared to silicon-based solar cells. They can maintain their efficiency even at high temperatures, making them suitable for use in hot climates.4. Flexibility: GaAs solar cells can be fabricated on flexible substrates, allowing for the production of lightweight and flexible solar panels. This makes themideal for applications where weight and portability are important, such as portable chargers and wearable devices.Challenges of GaAs Solar Cells:1. Cost: GaAs solar cells are more expensive to producecompared to silicon-based solar cells. The high cost is mainly attributed to the complex manufacturing process and the use of expensive materials like gallium and arsenic.2. Limited Availability: Gallium and arsenic, the key materials used in GaAs solar cells, are relatively rare and expensive. This limits the availability and scalability of GaAs solar cell production.3. Toxicity: Arsenic, a component of GaAs solar cells, is highly toxic and poses environmental risks during the manufacturing and disposal processes. Proper handling and disposal measures are necessary to mitigate these risks.Future Prospects:Despite the challenges, GaAs solar cells hold great promise for the future of solar energy. Ongoing research and development efforts are focused on addressing the cost and availability issues associated with GaAs solar cells. For example, researchers are exploring alternative materials and manufacturing techniques to reduce productioncosts. Additionally, advancements in nanotechnology may enable the development of more efficient and cost-effective GaAs solar cells.In conclusion, GaAs solar cells offer several advantages over traditional silicon-based solar cells, including higher efficiency, wider spectral range, temperature stability, and flexibility. However, they also face challenges such as high production costs, limited availability of materials, and toxicity concerns. With continued research and technological advancements, GaAssolar cells have the potential to revolutionize the solar energy industry and contribute to a more sustainable future.中文回答：砷化镓太阳能电池研究报告。

简述太阳能电池的工作原理。

英文回答：Solar cells are semiconductor devices that convertlight energy into electrical energy. The basic principle behind the operation of a solar cell is the photovoltaic effect. When light strikes a semiconductor material, it can excite electrons in the material, causing them to move freely. This movement of electrons creates an electric current, which can be used to power electrical devices.The most common type of solar cell is the silicon-based solar cell. Silicon is a semiconductor material that is relatively inexpensive and easy to process. Silicon solar cells are typically made by depositing a thin layer of silicon on a substrate material, such as glass or metal. The silicon layer is then treated with chemicals to create a p-n junction, which is the region where the photovoltaic effect occurs.When light strikes the p-n junction, it can excite electrons in the n-type semiconductor and holes in the p-type semiconductor. The electrons and holes then move in opposite directions, creating an electric current. The current is collected by metal contacts that are attached to the p-n junction.The efficiency of a solar cell is determined by a number of factors, including the bandgap of the semiconductor material, the thickness of the semiconductor layer, and the optical properties of the cell. The bandgap of a semiconductor material is the energy difference between the valence band and the conduction band. The thicker the semiconductor layer, the more light that can be absorbed and converted into electricity. The optical properties of the cell, such as the reflectivity and the transmittance, also affect the efficiency of the cell.Solar cells are a clean and renewable source of energy. They are becoming increasingly popular as the cost of solar panels continues to decline. Solar cells are used in a variety of applications, including powering homes,businesses, and vehicles.中文回答：太阳能电池是一种将光能转换为电能的半导体器件。

紫外光辐照下CH3NH3PbI3_基钙钛矿太阳能电池失效机制

物理化学学报Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2022, 38 (5), 2007088 (1 of 11)Received: July 29, 2020; Revised: September 10, 2020; Accepted: September 11, 2020; Published online: September 16, 2020. *Correspondingauthor.Email:**************.cn;Tel.:+86-10-67396644.The project was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFB0700700), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (11704015, 51621003), the Scientific Research Key Program of Beijing Municipal Commission of Education, China (KZ201310005002), and the Beijing Innovation Team Building Program, China (IDHT20190503).国家重点研究发展计划(2016YFB0700700), 国家自然科学基金(11704015, 51621003), 北京市教育委员会科研重点项目(KZ201310005002), 北京市教师队伍建设创新团队项目(IDHT20190503)资助© Editorial office of Acta Physico-Chimica Sinica[Article] doi: 10.3866/PKU.WHXB202007088 Degradation Mechanism of CH 3NH 3PbI 3-based Perovskite Solar Cells under Ultraviolet IlluminationYue Lu 1,2, Yang Ge 1,2, Manling Sui 1,2,*1 Institute of Microstructure and Property of Advanced Materials, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University ofTechnology, Beijing 100124, China.2 Beijing Key Laboratory of Microstructure and Properties of Solids, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.Abstract: With the development of photovoltaic devices, organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have been promising devices that have attracted significant attention in the fields of industrial and scientific research. Currently, the photoelectric conversion efficiency (PCE) of PSCs has been improved to 25.2%, and they are considered to be the primary alternative to silicon-based solar cells. However, the environmental stability of PSCs is unsatisfactory; they are prone to degradation under exposure to moisture, oxygen, elevated temperature, or even light illumination, which restricts their wide application in industrial production. Previous studies have elucidated that understanding the ultraviolet (UV)-induced degradation mechanism of organic-inorganic PSCs is of great importance for the improvement of light stability in PSCs. However, until now, there has been almost no comprehensive investigation on the decay process of PSCs under UV light illumination nor on the corresponding evolution of their microstructure. In this study, focused ionbeam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) and aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to comprehensively study changes in the performance and the evolution of the microstructure of PSC devices. The experimental results show that a built-in electric field developed under UV light illumination, which drove the diffusion of iodide ions (I −) from the CH 3NH 3PbI 3 (MAPbI 3) layer to the hole transfer layer (HTL, Spiro-OMeTAD). Together with the photo-excited holes in the HTL, the I − ions reacted with the Au electrode, and the Au atoms were oxidized into Au + ions. Furthermore, Au + ions preferred to diffuse across the HTL and the perovskite layer into the interface between the SnO 2 and MAPbI 3 layers. SnO 2 is known to be a good electron transfer layer (ETL), which should collect the photo-excited electrons to reduce the Au + ions into metallic Au clusters; this is why the Au electrode was destroyed and Au clusters aggregated at the SnO 2-MAPbI 3 interface under the UV light illumination. Meanwhile, the Au clusters would accelerate the degradation of the perovskite. In addition, as the PSC performance declined (as determined by the PCE, open-circuit voltage (V oc ), and short-circuit current (J sc )), the decomposition of tetragonal MAPbI 3 into hexagonal PbI 2 was observed at the interface between Spiro-OMeTAD and MAPbI 3, along with a widening of the grain boundaries in the perovskite layer. All of these factors play critical roles in the UV-induced degradation of PSCs. This is the first study to elucidate the light-induced migration of Au from the metal electrode to the interface between SnO 2/MAPbI 3, which reveals that the UV-induced degradation of PSCs may be mitigated by finding new ways to restrain the interdiffusion of Au + and I − ions.Key Words: Perovskite solar cell; Ultraviolet; Degradation mechanism; Electron microscopy; Goldmigration紫外光辐照下CH3NH3PbI3基钙钛矿太阳能电池失效机制卢岳1,2，葛杨1,2，隋曼龄1,2,*1北京工业大学材料与制造学部，固体微结构与性能研究所，北京 1001242北京工业大学固体微结构与性能北京市重点实验室，北京 100124摘要：随着光伏产业的不断发展，有机无机杂化钙钛矿太阳能电池的研发成为科学与工业界广泛关注的焦点。

半导体太阳能电池材料

半导体太阳能电池材料英文回答：Semiconductor solar cell materials play a crucial role in converting sunlight into electricity. These materials possess unique properties that allow them to absorb photons and generate an electric current. There are several types of semiconductor materials commonly used in solar cells, including silicon, gallium arsenide, and cadmium telluride.Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material in solar cell technology. It is abundant, cost-effective, and has a high conversion efficiency. Silicon solar cells are typically made from crystalline silicon, which can be further categorized into monocrystalline andpolycrystalline silicon. Monocrystalline silicon has a uniform crystal structure, resulting in higher efficiency but higher production costs. Polycrystalline silicon, on the other hand, has a lower efficiency but is more cost-effective.Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is another semiconductor material used in solar cells, particularly in high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells. GaAs has a higher absorption coefficient than silicon, meaning it can absorb a broader range of wavelengths and convert more sunlight into electricity. However, GaAs solar cells are more expensive to produce and are often used in specialized applications such as space satellites.Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is a thin-film semiconductor material that has gained popularity in recent years. CdTe solar cells are less expensive to manufacture compared to silicon-based solar cells and have a high absorption coefficient. They are also flexible and lightweight, making them suitable for a variety of applications. However, CdTe solar cells have lower efficiency compared to silicon-based cells.In addition to these materials, there is ongoing research and development in the field of semiconductor solar cell materials. For example, perovskite materialshave shown great potential in achieving high conversion efficiency and low production costs. Perovskite solar cells are still in the early stages of development but hold promise for the future of solar cell technology.中文回答：半导体太阳能电池材料在将阳光转化为电能的过程中起着至关重要的作用。

太阳能电池英语单词

太阳能电池英语单词Solar Cells: The Heart of Photovoltaic Energy Generation.Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are devices that convert sunlight into electrical energy. They are the fundamental building blocks of solar panels and play a crucial role in harnessing the vast and renewable resource of solar energy. The concept of solar cells dates back to the early 19th century, but it was not until the20th century that significant progress was made in their development and commercialization.Working Principle of Solar Cells.Solar cells work on the photovoltaic effect, a physical process whereby photons from sunlight knock electrons out of their atoms, creating a flow of electricity. This flow of electricity, known as a photocurrent, can be harnessed and used to power electronic devices.The core of a solar cell is typically made up of silicon, a semiconductor material. When sunlight hits the silicon surface, it excites the electrons in the atoms, causing them to jump out of their original orbit and leave behind positively charged atoms, known as holes. These electrons and holes then migrate to different sides of the cell, creating a separation of charges and resulting in a voltage difference, or a potential difference, across the cell.Types of Solar Cells.Solar cells can be classified into several types based on their structure and materials used. Some of the common types include:1. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells: These are the most common type of solar cells and are made from silicon wafers. They are further classified into monocrystalline and polycrystalline varieties. Monocrystalline solar cells are made from a single crystal of silicon and have higherefficiency but are more expensive to produce. Polycrystalline solar cells are made from multiple silicon crystals and are less efficient but cheaper to produce.2. Thin-Film Solar Cells: These solar cells are made from very thin layers of semiconducting materials, such as silicon, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and amorphous silicon. They are less efficient than crystalline silicon solar cells but are cheaper to produce and can be applied to flexible substrates, making them suitable for use in curved surfaces and lightweight applications.3. Multi-junction Solar Cells: These solar cells are composed of multiple layers of semiconducting materials, each optimized to absorb a different part of the solar spectrum. They are typically used in spacecraft and high-efficiency solar power systems where weight and space are limited.4. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC): These solar cells use a photosensitive dye to absorb sunlight and convert itinto electricity. They are relatively new and still in the research and development stage but offer the potential for low-cost and efficient solar energy conversion.Applications of Solar Cells.Solar cells have a wide range of applications, from powering small electronic devices to large-scale solar power plants. Some of the common applications include:1. Residential Solar Power Systems: Solar cells can be installed on rooftops or in open spaces to generate electricity for household use. This reduces dependency on grid electricity and can help homeowners save money on their utility bills.2. Utility-Scale Solar Power Plants: Large-scale solar power plants use thousands of solar cells mounted on trackers or fixed mounts to generate electricity for commercial use. These plants can supply power to utilities and distribute it to customers through the electric grid.3. Mobile and Portable Devices: Solar cells are often used to power mobile phones, laptops, and other portable electronic devices. They can be integrated into the devices themselves or attached as external power packs.4. Spacecraft and Satellites: Solar cells are essential for powering spacecraft and satellites. They provide a reliable and efficient source of electricity in space, where there is no access to fossil fuels or othertraditional power sources.Advantages and Challenges of Solar Cells.Solar cells offer several advantages as a renewable energy source:Renewable and Sustainable: Solar energy is an infinite resource, and solar cells convert it into electricity without emitting greenhouse gases or other pollutants.Low Maintenance: Solar cells have no moving parts and require minimal maintenance once installed.Scalable: Solar cells can be scaled up or down to meet different power requirements, from small devices to large-scale power plants.However, there are also some challenges and limitations to solar cell technology:Cost: Although solar cell technology has become more affordable in recent years, the initial investment cost can still be high compared to traditional power sources.Efficiency: The efficiency of solar cells, measured as the percentage of sunlight converted into electricity, is still relatively low compared to fossil fuel-based power plants.Weather Dependence: Solar cells rely on sunlight to generate electricity, so their performance can be affected by cloudy or rainy weather.Conclusion.Solar cells are a crucial component of solar energy systems and play a vital role in harnessing the vast potential of solar energy. With continued research and development, solar cell technology is expected to become more efficient, affordable, and widely used, contributing to a cleaner, more sustainable energy future.。

钙钛矿太阳能电池概述

钙钛矿太阳能电池概述英文回答：Calcium titanium oxide, also known as perovskite, is a material that has gained significant attention in the field of solar energy. Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are a typeof solar cell that utilize this material as the light-absorbing layer. PSCs have attracted immense interest dueto their high efficiency, low cost, and ease of fabrication.One of the key advantages of perovskite solar cells is their high power conversion efficiency. PSCs have achieved impressive efficiency levels, with some laboratory-scale devices surpassing 25%. This is comparable to traditional silicon-based solar cells, which have been the dominant technology in the industry for decades. The high efficiency of PSCs is attributed to the unique properties of the perovskite material, such as its high absorptioncoefficient and long carrier diffusion length.Another advantage of perovskite solar cells is theirlow cost. The materials used in PSCs are abundant andreadily available, which makes them more cost-effective compared to silicon-based solar cells. Additionally, the manufacturing process of PSCs is relatively simple and can be carried out using low-temperature solution-based methods, which further reduces the production costs.Furthermore, perovskite solar cells offer versatilityin terms of their form factor. The perovskite material can be easily processed into thin films, which allows for the fabrication of flexible and lightweight solar panels. This opens up new possibilities for integrating solar cells into various applications, such as wearable devices, building-integrated photovoltaics, and even consumer electronics.Despite these advantages, there are still some challenges that need to be addressed before perovskitesolar cells can be widely adopted. One of the main challenges is the stability of the perovskite material. PSCs are prone to degradation when exposed to moisture, heat, and light. Researchers are actively working ondeveloping strategies to improve the stability and durability of the perovskite material, such as encapsulation techniques and the use of additives.In conclusion, perovskite solar cells have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional silicon-based solar cells. They offer high efficiency, low cost, andversatility in form factor. With further research and development, perovskite solar cells have the potential to revolutionize the solar energy industry and contribute to a more sustainable future.中文回答：钙钛矿，也被称为钙钛石，是一种在太阳能领域引起了极大关注的材料。

硅基薄膜太阳电池应用现状分析

硅基薄膜太阳电池应用现状分析【摘要】硅基薄膜太阳电池由于材料成本、转换效率等特点受到人们的关注，就非晶硅薄膜、多晶硅薄膜、微晶硅薄膜和非微叠层太阳电池的应用和发展趋势做了简要的分析。

【关键词】太阳电池；光伏建筑一体化；薄膜随着人类社会工业化的不断发展造成资源极大浪费，生态环境恶化和破坏。

为此人类迫切建立起可再生能源为主的能源体系，可持续发展成为一切活动准则。

可以看到硅基薄膜太阳电池具有省材料、低成本、弱光性好和具有柔性的诸多优点，这些优点决定了硅基薄膜太阳电池在很多领域是有着晶体硅太阳电池所不具备的优势的。

近年，人们已经将视线放到如何更好的在生活生产中利用太阳能电池来提供清洁能源。

而这其中光伏建筑一体化是一个重要的组成部分。

建筑物太阳能电池玻璃幕墙和太阳能生态屋顶就是光伏技术应用于生活的实例。

利用太阳能发电可以部分甚至完全解决家庭和单位办公用电。

另外太阳电池玻璃幕墙不仅可以发电，作为建筑的外墙装饰也是不错的选择。

但是光伏建筑一体化必须遵循一个原则就是太阳能光伏发电系统的安装不能破坏已有建筑造型，不能破坏装饰性屋面的艺术风格，不能造成结构的重新返工，具有透光性和柔性的薄膜太阳能电池成为玻璃幕墙的不二选择。

大规模商业化生产柔性光伏组件是1998年尤尼索拉公司开始的，柔性非晶硅薄膜太阳电池组件与建筑完美结合并投入市场，光伏建筑一体化的发展开始了一个新的时代。

最后，由于薄膜太阳电池具有柔性可以随形安装、轻薄从而减轻总质量、以及抗辐照等特性，硅基薄膜太阳电池在空间用太阳电池中的应用也是的另一个发展方向。

对于硅基薄膜太阳电池技术发展的关键在于如何提高光电转换效率，而由于其厚度优势可以考虑叠层从而利用不同材料实现光谱的扩宽，因为非晶硅的带隙为1.7ev左右而微晶硅的则为1.1ev附近，能够将光谱的长波限从0.9μm拓展的1.1μm，同时也降低了不稳定的非晶顶层的厚度有效抑制光致衰减。

因而，非晶硅/微晶硅的非微叠层电池成为了人们研究的重点。

钙钛矿太阳电池暗电流证明

钙钛矿太阳电池暗电流证明Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional silicon-based solar cells due to their high power conversion efficiency and low fabrication cost. However, one of the challenges associated with PSCs is the presence of dark or leakage currents, which can significantly affect their overall performance. In this discussion, we will explore the concept of dark currents in perovskite solar cells, their sources, and the methods used to measure and mitigate them.Dark currents, also known as dark leakage currents, refer to the flow of electric current in a solar cell in the absence of light or under low illumination conditions. These currents can arise from various sources within the PSC structure and can have a detrimental effect on device performance. The presence of dark currents reduces the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF) of the solar cell, leading to a decrease in overall power conversion efficiency.One of the primary sources of dark currents in PSCs is the recombination of charge carriers within the perovskite layer. Imperfections in the crystal structure, such as vacancies or defects, can act as trapping sites for charge carriers, leading to non-radiative recombination. This recombination process generates dark currents, as the trapped carriers are unable to contribute to the photocurrent under illumination.Another significant source of dark currents in PSCs is the presence of interface traps at the perovskite/electron transport layer (ETL) and perovskite/hole transport layer (HTL) interfaces. These traps can capture charge carriers and facilitate recombination, leading to the generation of dark currents. The density and energy distribution of these interface traps play a crucial role in determining the magnitude of the dark currents in PSCs.To measure the dark currents in PSCs, several techniques are commonly employed. One widely used method is the dark current-voltage (J-V) measurement, where thecurrent-voltage characteristics of the device are measured under dark conditions. By extrapolating the dark J-V curveto the y-axis intercept, the dark current can be determined. Additionally, transient techniques such as transient photocurrent and voltage decay measurements can provide valuable insights into the recombination dynamics and dark current behavior in PSCs.To mitigate the impact of dark currents in PSCs,various strategies have been explored. One approach is to optimize the perovskite composition and film morphology to minimize the density of defects and trap states. This canbe achieved through careful control of the fabrication parameters, such as precursor composition, annealing temperature, and deposition techniques. Additionally, the introduction of passivation layers or interfacial engineering can help reduce the density of interface traps, thereby suppressing dark currents.Another approach to mitigate dark currents is the incorporation of selective contacts or charge extraction layers (CELs) with suitable energy levels. These CELs canfacilitate efficient charge extraction from the perovskite layer, minimizing the chance of charge carrierrecombination and dark current generation. Furthermore, the use of advanced device architectures, such as tandem ormulti-junction structures, can also help reduce the impactof dark currents by optimizing charge transport and collection.In conclusion, dark currents in perovskite solar cells are a significant concern that can limit their overall performance. The recombination of charge carriers withinthe perovskite layer and the presence of interface trapsare the primary sources of dark currents. Various techniques, such as dark J-V measurements and transient measurements, can be used to quantify and understand the behavior of dark currents in PSCs. To mitigate their impact, optimization of perovskite composition, passivation layers, interfacial engineering, and the incorporation of selective contacts or CELs are some of the strategies employed. Continued research and development in these areas arecrucial for realizing the full potential of perovskitesolar cells and advancing their commercial viability.。

第三代半导体碳化硅材料

第三代半导体碳化硅材料英文回答：Silicon carbide (SiC) is a third-generation semiconductor material that has gained significantattention in recent years. It offers several advantagesover traditional silicon-based materials, such as higher thermal conductivity, wider bandgap, and better electrical properties at high temperatures. These uniquecharacteristics make SiC an ideal choice for a wide rangeof applications, including power electronics, automotive, aerospace, and renewable energy.One of the key advantages of SiC is its ability to handle high voltages and currents without significant power losses. This is particularly important in power electronics, where efficient energy conversion is crucial. SiC-based devices, such as Schottky diodes and MOSFETs, have demonstrated superior performance compared to their silicon counterparts. For example, SiC MOSFETs have lower on-resistance and faster switching speeds, enabling higher power density and better overall system efficiency. This translates into smaller and lighter devices, which is desirable in applications where space and weight are limited, such as electric vehicles.Another advantage of SiC is its ability to operate at high temperatures. Silicon-based devices typically suffer from increased leakage currents and reduced performance at elevated temperatures. In contrast, SiC devices can maintain their electrical properties even at temperatures exceeding 200 degrees Celsius. This makes SiC an attractive choice for high-temperature applications, such as aircraft engine control systems and downhole drilling equipment. By using SiC-based components, these systems can operate reliably in extreme environments, improving overall system performance and longevity.Furthermore, SiC offers better thermal conductivity compared to silicon. This means that SiC devices can dissipate heat more effectively, reducing the need for complex cooling systems. As a result, SiC-based powermodules can achieve higher power densities and operate in smaller form factors. For example, SiC-based inverters used in solar energy systems can achieve higher conversion efficiencies and require less space compared to traditional silicon-based inverters. This not only reduces the overall system cost but also improves the energy yield of the solar installation.中文回答：碳化硅（SiC）是一种第三代半导体材料，近年来引起了广泛关注。

12、amorphous+silicon–based+solar+cells

12
Amorphous Silicon–based Solar Cells
Xunming Deng1 and Eric A. Schiff2
1
University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA, 2 Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
1 The
term amorphous is commonly applied to noncrystalline materials prepared by deposition from gases.
OVERVIEW
507
After several years of uncertainty, it emerged that plasma-deposited amorphous silicon contained a signiﬁcant percentage of hydrogen atoms bonded into the amorphous silicon structure and that these hydrogen atoms were essential to the improvement of the electronic properties of the plasma-deposited material [9]. As a consequence, the improved form of amorphous silicon has generally been known as hydrogenated amorphous silicon (or, more brieﬂy, a-Si:H). In recent years, many authors have used the term amorphous silicon to refer to the hydrogenated form, which acknowledges that the unhydrogenated forms of amorphous silicon are only infrequently studied today. Why was there so much excitement about the amorphous silicon solar cells fabricated by Carlson and Wronski? First, the technology involved is relatively simple and inexpensive compared to the technologies for growing crystals. Additionally, the optical properties of amorphous silicon are very promising for collecting solar energy, as we now explain. In Figure 12.2, the upper panel shows the spectrum for the optical absorption coefﬁcients α(hν) for amorphous silicon and for crystalline silicon [10].2 In the lower panel of the ﬁgure, we show the spectrum of the “integrated solar irradiance;” this is the intensity (in W/m2 ) of the solar energy carried by photons above an energy threshold hν [11].

第一代第二代第三代多晶硅生产流程的异同点

第一代第二代第三代多晶硅生产流程的异同点The first, second, and third generation of polycrystalline silicon production processes have undergone significant advancements over the years. Each generation represents a different stage in the evolution of polysilicon manufacturing techniques. In this response, we will explore the similarities and differences between these three generations.第一代、第二代和第三代多晶硅生产流程在多年的发展中经历了重大改进。

每一代都代表了多晶硅制造技术演变的不同阶段。

在本回答中，我们将探讨这三个阶段之间的异同。

First Generation:The first-generation polycrystalline silicon production process primarily involved the Siemens method, also known as the Siemens-Purified method. This method utilized a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique to deposit highly pure silicon onto seed rods under high temperature and pressure conditions. The resulting polysilicon hadrelatively low purity levels.第一代：第一代多晶硅生产过程主要涉及西门子法（也称为西门子纯化法）。

钙钛矿太阳能电池全英文介绍

Small
Volume 11, Issue 1, pages 10-25, 30 OCT 2014 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201402767
11
/doi/10.1002/smll.201402767/full#smll201402767-fig-0005
2. Facile low temperature solution-based fabrication method; 3. High absorption coefficient. 4. Higher stability in air. 5. High diffusion length, high charge-carrier mobilities.
Small
Volume 11, Issue 1, pages 10-25, 30 OCT 2014 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201402767
10
/doi/10.1002/smll.201402767/full#smll201402767-fig-0004
• Changing in any of A, M and X in AMX3 changes the bandgap • The bandgap also can be tuned in between 1.55 eV and 1.17 eV
by varying the ratio of lead to tin
• Mesoporous TiO2 layer usually is used to collect the electrons • Organic Hole transporting material (HTM) collects the holes • Planar structure has simpler structure and higher efficiency

第一代,第二代,第三代多晶硅生产流程

第一代,第二代,第三代多晶硅生产流程第一代多晶硅生产流程是从石英砂中提取二氧化硅，然后采用化学气相沉积法制备多晶硅原料。

The first generation polycrystalline silicon production process involves extracting silica from quartz sand and then preparing polycrystalline silicon raw materials using chemical vapor deposition.然后将多晶硅原料放入石墨电炉中进行熔炼，形成多晶硅块。

The polycrystalline silicon raw material is then placed in a graphite electric furnace for smelting, forming polycrystalline silicon ingots.接着将多晶硅块进行切割、清洗、抛光等工艺处理，得到多晶硅片。

The polycrystalline silicon ingots are then processed through cutting, cleaning, polishing, and other processes to obtain polycrystalline silicon wafers.第二代多晶硅生产流程采用了改进的技术，如充气熔融法和改善的晶体生长工艺。

The second generation polycrystalline silicon production process uses improved technologies such as the gas-filled melting method and improved crystal growth processes.充气熔融法利用气体来降低多晶硅的熔点，从而降低能耗和成本。

美国科学家发现硅海绵可替代锂离子电池中的石墨组件

美国科学家发现硅海绵可替代锂离子电池中的石墨组件
佚名
【期刊名称】《电源技术》
【年(卷),期】2012(36)9
【摘要】据物理学家组织网近日报道，美国莱斯大学的科学家研究出一种方法，用硅海绵替代石墨作为锂离子蓄电池内的元件，研制出持续时间更长且性能更强的电池，用于商用电子设备和电动汽车上。

【总页数】1页(P1257-1257)
【关键词】美国科学家;锂离子电池;石墨;海绵;可替代;组件;锂离子蓄电池;硅
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TM912
【相关文献】
1.硅海绵可替代锂离子电池中的石墨组件 [J],
2.美国科学家利用石墨烯提高锂离子电池容量 [J],
3.硅海绵可替代锂离子电池中石墨组件 [J], 无;
4.科学家发现可替代石墨烯的2D新材料 [J], 李星悦;赵博
5.硅海绵替代锂离子电池中的石墨组件有望大大增加充放电循环次数 [J],
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。

物联网工程英语

物联网专业英语复习第一部分单词或词组英译中（10空，共10分）汉语中译英（10空，共10分）第一单元单词actuator 执行器Cyber-Physical System (CPS)信息物理融合系统Cyberspace 网络空间device processing power 设备处理能力fibre-based network 基于光纤的网络Global Positioning System (GPS) 全球定位系统Internet of Things (IoT) 物联网Machine to Machine (M2M) 机器对机器nano-technology 纳米技术quick response (QR)-code reader QR 码阅读器radio frequency identification (RFID)无线射频识别技术RFID scanner RFID扫描仪Sensor 传感器shrinking thing 微小的物体storage capacity 存储空间tag 标签middleware中间件中间设备paradigm 范例、概念ubiquitous 普遍存在的gateway device 网关设备logistics 物流in the scenario of … 在…背景下from the point view of … 从…角度convergence 收敛、集合pervasive 普遍存在的domotics 家庭自动化e-health 电子医疗in the context 在…方面with reference to 关于，根据第二单元单词3rd-Generation (3G)第三代移动通信技术bluetooth蓝牙cloud computing云计算database数据库embedded software嵌入式软件enterprise local area network企业局域网EPC Global一个组织（产品电子代码）Fibre to the x (FTTx)光纤入户=Identity authentication身份认证implant microchip植入芯片infrared sensor红外传感器infrared technology红外技术intelligent processing智能处理IPv6一种互联网协议Japanese Ubiquitous ID日本泛在标识Location Based Service (LBS)基于位置的服务logistics management物流管理serviced-oriented面向服务的Telecommunications Management Network (TMN)电信管理网络application layer应用层business layer商业服务层perception layer感知层processing layer处理层transport layer传输层ubiquitous computing普适计算Wireless Fidelity (WiFi)一种无线局域网络技术ZigBee一种低功耗个域网协议deployment调度、部署intervention介入unprecedented空前的refinement精炼、提炼concrete具体的attribute特征、属性conform to符合、遵照e-commerce电子商务assign分配、指定、赋值diverse多种多样的connotation内涵enterprise企业、事业、进取心appropriateness适当、合适immense巨大的、无穷的magnitude大小、量级representative典型的、代表module模块literacy读写能力、文化素养ultra mobile broadband (UMB)超移动宽带mass大规模的，集中的chip芯片integrated综合的、集成的precision精度、精确、精确度reliability可靠性sensitive敏感的、易受伤害的semiconductor半导体silicon硅、硅元素thermocouple热电偶hall门厅、走廊、会堂、食堂programmable可编程的biological sensor生物传感器chemical sensor化学传感器electric current电流electrode potential电极电位integrated circuit集成电路sensor/transducer technology传感器技术sensing element敏感元件transforming circuit转换电路overload capacity过载能力physical sensor物理传感器intelligent sensor智能传感器displacement sensor位移传感器angular displacement sensor角位移传感器pressure sensor压力传感器torque sensor扭矩传感器temperature sensor温度传感器quantity量、数量voltage电压pulse脉冲acquisition获取eliminate消灭、消除volume体积breakthrough突破superconductivity超导电性magnetic磁的inferior in在…方面低劣craft工艺、手艺、太空船quantum量子interference干涉antibody抗体antigen抗原immunity免疫inspect检查、视察organism有机体、生物体hepatitis肝炎high polymer高分子聚合物thin film薄膜ceramic陶瓷adsorption吸附hydrone水分子dielectric medium电解质humidity湿度plasma等离子体polystyrene聚苯乙烯intermediary媒介物polarization极化、偏振corrosion腐蚀tele-measure遥测oxidation氧化lithography光刻diffusion扩散deposition沉淀planar process平面工艺anisotropic各项异性evaporation蒸镀sputter film溅射薄膜resonant pressure sensor谐振压力传感器sophisticated富有经验的etch蚀刻diaphragm膜片beam横梁、照射Wheatstone Bridge惠斯通电桥piezo-resistance压阻gauge计量器ion离子petroleum石油lag落后barcode条码encode编码graphic图形one-dimensional barcode一维码two-dimensional barcode二维码capacity容量disposal处理、安排algorithm算法barcode reader条码阅读器facsimile传真、复写transcript成绩单authenticate认证、鉴定photocopy复印件asymmetric非对称的cryptographic加密的tamper篡改merchandise商品track跟踪personalized个人化的reflectivity反射率recognition识别agency代理commodity商品portable便携式的execute执行impair损害pantry食品柜distinguish区分individual个人的，个别的encrypt把…加密issuing authority发行机关biometric生物识别iris minutiae虹膜特征trigger switch触发开关establish建立dynamic动态的grasp抓住exchange交换retrieve重新获取capture拍摄duplicate复制forge伪造signature签名第六单元synchronous同步的asynchronous异步的barrier障碍物proliferation扩散router路由器restriction限制seismic地震的scenario方案；情节scalability可扩展的spatially空间地topology拓扑latency延迟facilitate促进release发布thermal热的intrusion入侵coordinator协调器node节点surveillance监督base station基站access point接入点，访问点ad hoc无线自组织网络data-link layer数据链路层network topology网络拓扑peer-to-peer点对点power consumption能耗resource constraints资源受限solar panels太阳能电池版plant equipment工厂设备energy efficient高效能end device终端设备Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, IEEE美国电气与电子工程师学会Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems, MEMS微机电系统Personal Area Network, PAN个域网Wireless Sensor Network, WSN 无线传感网络缩写词展开完整形式（10空，共10分）；IoT（Internet of Things）物联网RFID（Radio Frequency Identification）无线射频识别QR-code（Quick Response Code）快速响应码GPS（Global Positioning System）全球定位系统CPS（Cyber Physical System）信息物理融合系统M2M（Machine to Machine）机器对机器HTTP（Hypertext Transfer Protocol）超文本传输协议SOAP（Simple Object Access Protocol）简单对象访问协议EPC（Electronic Product Code）电子产品码WLAN（Wireless Local Area Network）无线局域网LBS（Local Based Service）基于位置的服务GSM（Global System for Mobile Communications）全球移动通信系统DNS（Domain Name Server）域名服务器HTML（Hypertext Makeup Protocol）超文本标记语言CPU（Central Processing Unit）中央处理器单元EPROM（Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory）可擦除可编程只读存储器UHF（Ultra High Frequency）超高频第二部分完型填空（4大题，每题5空，共20分）第三部分阅读理解（2大题，每题5空，共20分）第四部分：句子翻译（5题，每题6分，共30分）（2、5、7、11可能不考，不是作业本上的）1、The main strength of the IoT idea is the high impact it will have on several aspects of everyday-life and behavior of potential users. From the point of view of a private user, the most obvious effects of the IoT introduction will be visible in both working and domestic fields. In this context, domotics, assisted living, e-health, enhanced learning are only a few examples of possibleapplication scenarios in which the new paradigm will play a leading role in the near future.物联网理念的主要强大之处在于，它对潜在用户的日常生活和行为的方方面面产生很大影响。

反式钙钛矿太阳电池

反式钙钛矿太阳电池英文回答：Perovskite solar cells, also known as inverted perovskite solar cells, are a type of solar cell that uses a perovskite-structured compound as the light-harvesting layer. This type of solar cell has gained significant attention in recent years due to its high efficiency and low production cost.One of the key advantages of perovskite solar cells is their high power conversion efficiency. The efficiency of perovskite solar cells has increased rapidly in recent years, with the current record exceeding 25%. This high efficiency is comparable to that of traditional silicon-based solar cells, making perovskite solar cells a promising alternative for solar energy generation.In addition to high efficiency, perovskite solar cells also offer the advantage of low production cost. Thematerials used in perovskite solar cells are abundant and inexpensive, which contributes to the overall cost-effectiveness of this technology. Furthermore, perovskite solar cells can be manufactured using low-temperature processes, reducing energy consumption and production costs.Despite these advantages, perovskite solar cells also face challenges. One of the main challenges is thestability of the perovskite material. Perovskite solarcells are prone to degradation when exposed to moisture and heat, which can limit their long-term performance. Researchers are actively working to improve the stabilityof perovskite solar cells to ensure their reliability and durability.In conclusion, perovskite solar cells offer high efficiency and low production cost, making them a promising technology for solar energy generation. However, challenges related to stability and durability need to be addressedfor their widespread commercialization.中文回答：反式钙钛矿太阳电池，也称为倒置钙钛矿太阳电池，是一种利用钙钛矿结构化合物作为光吸收层的太阳能电池。

钙钛矿太阳能电池成本

钙钛矿太阳能电池成本English Answers:1. Cost-Effective Materials.Perovskite solar cells utilize abundant and low-cost materials. Perovskite, the main light-absorbing semiconductor, is composed of inexpensive elements such as lead, iodine, and methylammonium. Unlike traditionalsilicon-based solar cells, perovskite materials can be synthesized through solution processes, which significantly reduces fabrication costs.2. Solution-Based Processing.Solution-based processing, such as spin coating or blade coating, enables large-scale and roll-to-roll production of perovskite solar cells. These techniques involve depositing perovskite precursor solutions onto substrates, which self-assemble into highly efficientphotovoltaic layers. Compared to the energy-intensive and time-consuming processes used in silicon solar cell manufacturing, solution-based processing offers substantial cost savings.3. High Power Conversion Efficiency.Perovskite solar cells have achieved remarkable power conversion efficiencies, surpassing 25%. This means that they can convert a greater proportion of sunlight into electrical energy, leading to higher power output per unit area. Higher efficiency translates into a lower cost per unit of electricity generated, making perovskite solarcells a more cost-effective option.4. Tandem Structures.Perovskite solar cells can be integrated into tandem structures with other photovoltaic materials, such as silicon or cadmium telluride. Tandem structures allow for broader light absorption and higher overall efficiency, further reducing the cost of electricity generation.5. Emerging Research and Development.Ongoing research and development efforts are continuously improving the stability and durability of perovskite solar cells, addressing one of the main challenges hindering their commercialization. Advancements in encapsulation techniques and materials optimization promise to enhance the lifespan of perovskite solar cells, making them a more viable and cost-effective renewable energy solution.Chinese Answers:1、成本低廉的材料。

无富勒烯聚合物太阳能电池刷新世界记录

无富勒烯聚合物太阳能电池刷新世界记录
佚名
【期刊名称】《石油化工》
【年(卷),期】2016(45)9
【摘要】近年来，聚合物太阳能电池已作为对晶硅太阳能电池的低成本替代物出现。

为了达到更高的效率，常需要富勒烯来分离聚合物太阳能电池中的载流子。

但富勒烯在光照下不稳定，容易在高温下形成大片结晶。

目前，由中科院教授Hou Jianhui领导的化学家团队通过开发PBDB—T聚合物和ITIC小分子组成的独特结构，
【总页数】1页(P1074-1074)
【关键词】硅太阳能电池;聚合物;富勒烯;世界;刷新;分子组成;替代物;低成本
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】O631.1
【相关文献】
1.中科院化学所在非富勒烯型聚合物太阳能电池研究中取得系列进展 [J],
2.聚合物/富勒烯太阳能电池形貌优化研究 [J], 黄奎超;郑国敬;宋玉欣;张业容;刘策;高博文
3.基于一种新型聚噻吩衍生物为给体的非富勒烯聚合物太阳能电池 [J], 许青青;常春梅;李万宾;郭冰;国霞;张茂杰
4.通过调节共轭聚合物侧链实现可绿色溶剂加工的非富勒烯太阳能电池 [J], 吴仪; 孔静宜; 秦云朋; 姚惠峰; 张少青; 侯剑辉
5.瑞典无富勒烯聚合物太阳能电池效率刷新纪录 [J],
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

Status report:Silicon-based 3rd generation solar cellsErik Stensrud MarsteinJ.E. Fonneløp, S.E Foss, A. Holt, S. Karazhanov, J.P. Mæhlen, J.H. Selj, A.G.Ulyashin and D.N. Wright, IFE2nd Nordic Workshop on Crystalline Silicon Solar CellsMarch 5.-6., Narvik, NorwayOverview•The trouble with conventional silicon-based solar cells •3rd generation solar cell concepts•Status report: 3rd generation solar cells made from silicon •Photon energy conversion•Multi-junction solar cells•Ongoing research at IFEToo keep things straight…•”Normal” crystalline Si homojunction solar cells are NOT bad solar cells!•Best crystalline Si solar cell efficiency:24.7% (1 Sun)•Best large area Si-based solar cell:~ 22%•Best large area Si-based solar module:~ 20%•Current market share:> 90%•Energy payback times (solar energy system):~ 3 years•Non-toxic and abundant raw materials•…However…•Sunlight consists of a large numberof photons distributed across alarge wavelength range.•The photon energy depends on thephoton wavelength in the followingmanner:E phot = hc/λ•The variation in photon energy makes efficient utilization of the entire solar spectrum in one solar cell difficult.20040060080010001200140016001800012345Wavelength [um]IrradianceHomo-junction solar cells •Conventional solar cells are madefrom one material and utilize oneelectronic band gap.•Band gap energy EgE g •Homo-junction solar cell:solarcell with the p-n junction built intoone material.•Prime example: crystalline Si solarcellsHomo-junction solar cells • A photon with sufficient energy canexcite an electron across the band gapcreating a mobile electron and a mobilehole.•If the photogenerated electron and hole are collected at the external solar cell terminals, they will contribute to the current from the solar cell.•The voltage related to this process is determined by the energy difference at which the electron and hole can be extracted at the external terminals.E phot-+E gHomo-junction solar cells • A photon with sufficient energy canexcite an electron across the band gapcreating a mobile electron and a mobilehole.•If the photogenerated electron and hole are collected at the external solar cell terminals, they will contribute to the current from the solar cell.•The voltage related to this process is determined by the energy difference at which the electron and hole can be extracted at the external terminals.E phot-+E gqV = EphotThe trouble with homo-junction solar cells •Only photons with sufficientenergy can excite e-across theband gap E g.•Insufficiently energetic photons with E phot< E g will not contribute to the photocurrent generation (1).•Photons with E phot > E g will initially generate energetic excited charge carriers (2).•Any energy in excess of E g will be wasted heating up the solar cell through thermalization (3).E phot1-+2E g3-+qV < EgThermalization•Thermalization within solar cellmaterials normally occurs on anextremely rapid time scale•Thermalization in Si:1:Initial concentration of chargecarriers2:Initial exitation of charge carriersafter exposure to laser pulse3-4:Carrier-carrier collisions lead toan energetic redistribution aroundcarrier temperature5-6:Carrier-phonon interactions cooldown carriers7-8:Recombination across band gapM.A. Green, UNSWConsequencesLOST PHOTONS NON-OPTIMAL UTILIZATIONOF PHOTON ENERGIESConsequences•Large current densities can be obtained by selecting a material with a low band gap energy•However, due to thermalization, the band gap puts an efficient upper limit to the extractable voltage.•If we should be even so lucky!•Si bandgap: 1.12 eV•Good open circuit voltage:700 mVThe Shockley-Queisser limit•The Shockley-Queisser limit is a measure of the upper obtainable efficiency ofa perfect solar cell based on only one solar cell material with only oneelectronic band gap.•Main assumptions:•All photons incident on cell captured•Complete absorption of all photons with E > E g•Complete thermalization occurs•Lossless transport and collection of charge carriers•Ideal materials: Only Auger or radiative recombination•The very best homo-junctions can in principle reach ~33%•The efficiency limit of a perfect Si homo-junction solar cell is ~ 30%The Shockley-Queisser limit•Upper limit for homo-junction efficiency:33%•Where do the remaining 67% go?M.C. Beard et al., Nano Letters 7 (2007) p 2506100%Total33%Remaining efficiency 1.5%Recombination 18.5%Transmission (E < E g )47%Thermalization (E > E g )3rd generation photovoltaics •Useful definition: ”Solar cell concepts that allow for a more efficient utilization of the sunlight than homo-junction solar cells.”•Main approaches:•Modification of the photonic energy distribution prior to absorption in a solar cell•Utilization of materials or cell structures incorporating several band gaps •Reducing losses due to thermalization•Hot carrier solar cells•Impact ionization solar cells3rd generation Si solar cells •Modification of the photonic energy distribution prior toabsorption in a solar cell•Photon energy down-conversion•Photon energy up-conversion•Utilization of materials or cell structures incorporating several band gaps•Si-based multi-junction solar cells3rd generation Si solar cells•Impact ionization of little use in Si solar cells•Treshold energy: 3.5 E g(3.9 eV ~ 315 nm)•Quantum yield (QY):1.4 at 4.5 E g(5.0 eV ~ 250 nm)e -e -e -e -e -Modifying the photon energy distribution•Photon energy down-conversion: one energetic photon creates more than one sufficiently energetic photon.•Photon energy up-conversion: two or more low energetic photons create one sufficiently energetic photon.Down-conversionUp-conversionE gE g2 E gE g ½ E g½ E gPhoton energy down-conversion on Si •The “pixie dust” approach: simplyadd photon energy down-conversion materials in front of thesolar cellDown-conversion solution for Si solar cell •Anti-reflection coating Array•Transparent conductive layer•Laminates•Cover glass•Separate layer (plan B)•Theoretical efficiency on Si: 38.6%B.S. Richards et al., Sol. En. Mat. and Sol. Cells 90 (2006) p. 1189Real world challenges •Suitable materials must efficiently2 E g E gabsorb high energy photons and reemitmore than one photon with sufficientenergies for use in Si solar cell• 2 E g = 2.2 eV (~ 550 nm)•Suitable materials must also betransparent for photons of lowerenergies in order to not disturbutilization of this large part of the solarspectrum•~15% of the emitted photons willescape from a material with n = 1.5•Light trapping?Photon energy conversion materials •Commonly suggested materials•Nanocrystals•Rare earth-based phosphors •Several reports of modest efficiency increases in the scientific literature using both material types•~ 1% absolute•Positive features•Simple implementation possible (?)•Can be a linear process (I em ~ I abs)•Drawbacks•Possibly disturbing•Emission in all directions Marstein IFE/UiOTEM image and SAD pattern of nanocrystalline Ge in SiO2Multiple exciton generation•Substantial efficiency gains require multiple exciton generation (MEG)•MEG has been reported from a range of nanocrystalline semiconductors •Recent work on 9.5 nm diameter colloidal Si nanocrystals at NREL:= 1.2 eV•Eg•QY: 2.6 ± 0.2 at 3.4 Eg•Obtainable efficiency at this energy: 41%•However, hitherto, photocurrent measurements give QY < 1!•Dissociation of excitons into photons or mobile charge carriers for subsequent collection is presently a big challengeM.C. Beard et al., Nano Letters 7 (2007) p 2506Photoluminescence•Photoluminescence (PL) is no route beyond the Shockley-Queisser limit•QY < 1•However, PL might give efficiency increases on Si solar cells with limited blue reponseMarstein IFE/UiOEQE of commercial solar cell and PLspectrum from porous SiPhotoluminescence from porous Si0,000,100,200,300,400,500,600,700,800,901,000200400600800100012001400Wavelength [nm]P L [a .u .] a n d E Q E [%]EQEPL intensityPhoton energy up conversion on Si •Photon energy up-conversion onthe rear of the solar cell•Surface passivating dielectric•Rear side dielectric mirror•Separate layer (plan B)•Theoretical efficiency on Si: 40.2%Up-conversion solution for Si solarcellA Shalav et al, APL 86 (2005) p.013505Photon energy up-conversion materials •Different material systems tested•Nanocrystals•Rare earth containing phosphors•Several authors report non-zero EQE values in sub-band gap light•Example:EQE ~ 2,5% (IQE ~ 4%) at 1523 nm (~0.8 eV )(NaYF4:Er3+)•Positive features•Synthesis of phosphor materials with wide selection of properties possible•Readily integratable in a Si solar cell in a non-disturbing manner•Rear reflectors can be added•Negative features•Re-emission of sub-band gap light a possibility•Typically a non-linear process: I em ~ I abs2(2-step)A Shalav et al, APL 86 (2005) p.013505Multiple band gap solar cells•Multiple band gap solar cells can berealized in a number of ways•Physical splitting of the solarspectrum onto different solar cells•Recent effort: DARPA (a)•Tandem/multi-junction solar cells•Current world record holder!•> 40% efficient!•Two or more terminals (b)•Industry standard in Si thin film solarcell production•Record efficiency: 12.1%(a-Si/a-Si/a-SiGe, stabilized)Multi-junction Si solar cells•Several materials have been grown onto Si substrates by heteroepitaxy•III-V semiconductors•CIGS•…•Efficient Si-based multijunction solar cells have been made •AlGaAs/Si tandem:21.4%•Efficiency potential: (1.12 + 1.75 eV):32%M. Umeno et al. Solar En. Mat and S.C. 41/42 (1996) p.395Monolithic multi-junction Si solar cells•General 3-junction cell:63%•0.61 + 1.15 + 1.82 eV •Direct sunlight •”Unconstrained”•Individual connectors to each subcell•General 4-junction cell: 53%•0.72 + 1.10 + 1.53 + 2.14 eV •Diffuse sunlight •”Series constrained”•Current matched subcellsM.A. Green, “Third generation photovoltaicsUnconstrained multi-junction solar cellSeries constrained multi-junction solar cellA new substrate for multi-junction solar cells •Concentrators are experiencing areneissance•Example: GaInP:GaInAs:Ge•Ge substrates a possible limitingfactor for large scale deployment•Solution: Si as a substitutionalsubstrate?A Feltrin and A Freundlich, Renewable Energy 33 (2008) p. 180Solar cell research at IFE •Still growing…•Involved research staff•Solar energy department (’08)•Personnel: 20(Q2 2008)•Other departments•Personnel: 5 +(Q2 2008)•New solar cell laboratory buildingunder constructionSolar cell research at IFE • A complete R&D process line for Siwafer-based solar cells•Well-equipped solar cell and materialcharacterization laboratories•Recent additions:•Large-area sputtering (Q2 2008)•Leybold•New PECVD reactor (Q2 2008)•Oxford Plasmalab 133•Variable angle spectral ellipsometer•Woollam3rd generation solar cell research at IFE •Use of Si substrates as a basis for3rd generation solar cells•Use of techniques with potential formass-production of large areastructures•Every single percent is valuable!3rd generation research topics at IFE •Synthesis and modeling of newmaterials•Semiconductor nanocrystals•New, compound semiconductors•Phosphor materials•Solar cell design and modeling•Concept evaluation•New processes for thin and highlyefficient Si-based solar cells•”Soft” processing•Light trappingProject exampleThin and highly efficient Si-based solar cells incorporating nanostructures•Project type: ISP-project in the NANOMAT-programme•Funding: 31 MNOK•Project period: 2007-2013•Goals:1:To develop a technology platform for production offuture 3rd generation solar cells from Si substrates2:To develop new, nanostructured materials allowingfor a better utilization of sunlightFinal remarks•Si solar cells will remain the industry standard for years to come •Several 3rd generation concepts are of great interest for use in Si solar cells•No crystalline Si solar cell utilizing such consepts has been able to beat the records for high efficiency Si solar cells•No appreciable efficiency increase has been demonstrated•The best is yet to come!•IFE has started several research projects within this very interesting and fun fieldMore information? www.ife.no -> Solenergi Thank you for your attention!。