Collective Bar讲义gaining - citehr：
加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH11_LectureNotes
Chapter 11Lecture NotesChapter theme: Managers in large organizations have to Array delegate some decisions to those who are at lower levels inthe organization. This chapter explains how responsibilityaccounting systems, return on investment (ROI),residual income, operating performance measures, andthe balanced scorecard are used to help controldecentralized organizations.I.Decentralization in organizationsA. A decentralized organization does not confinedecision-making authority to a few top executives;rather, decision-making authority is spreadthroughout the organization. The advantages anddisadvantages of decentralization are as follows:i.Advantages of decentralization1.It enables top management to concentrate onstrategy, higher-level decision making, andcoordinating activities.2.It acknowledges that lower-level managershave more detailed information about localconditions that enable them to make betteroperational decisions.3.It enables lower-level managers to quicklyrespond to customers.4.It provides lower-level managers with thedecision-making experience they will needwhen promoted to higher level positions.5. It often increases motivation , resulting in increased job satisfaction and retention, as well as improved performance.ii. Disadvantages of decentralization1. Lower-level managers may make decisionswithout fully understanding the “big picture.”2. There may be a lack of coordination amongautonomous managers.a. The balanced scorecard can help reducethis problem by communicating acompany’s strategy throughout theorganization.3. Lower-level managers may have objectivesthat differ from those of the entireorganization.a. This problem can be reduced by designingperformance evaluation systems thatmotivate managers to make decisions thatare in the best interests of the company.4. It may be difficult to effectively spreadinnovative ideas in a strongly decentralizedorganization.II. Responsibility accountingA. Responsibility accounting systems link lower-levelmanagers’ decision -making authority withaccountability for the outcomes of those decisions.The term responsibility center is used for any part of an organization whose manager has control over, and is accountable for cost, profit, or investments. Thethree primary types of responsibility centers are cost centers, profit centers, and investment centers.i.Cost center1.The manager of a cost center hascontrol overcosts, but not over revenue or investment funds.a.Service departments such as accounting,general administration, legal, and personnelare usually classified as cost centers, as aremanufacturing facilities.b.Standard cost variances and flexiblebudget variances, such as those discussedin Chapters 10 and 11, are often used toevaluate cost center performance.ii.Profit center1.The manager of a profit center has control overboth costs and revenue.a.Profit center managers are often evaluatedby comparing actual profit to targeted orbudgeted profit.iii.I nvestment center1.The manager of an investment center hascontrol over cost, revenue, and investmentsin operating assets.b.Investment center managers are usuallyevaluated using return on investment (ROI)or residual income, as discussed later in thischapter.III. Evaluating investment center performance – return on investmentLearning Objective 1: Compute return on investment Array (ROI) and show how changes in sales, expenses, andassets affect ROI.A. Key concepts/definitionsi. Investment center performance is often evaluatedusing a measure called return on investment(ROI), which is defined as follows:Net operating incomeROIAverage operating assetsii. Net operating income is income before taxes and is sometimes referred to as EBIT (earnings beforeinterest and taxes). Operating assets include cash,accounts receivable, inventory, plant andequipment, and all other assets held for operatingpurposes.1. Net operating income is used in the numeratorbecause the denominator consists only ofoperating assets.2. The operating asset base used in the formula istypically computed as the average of the assetsbetween the beginning and the end of the year.iii. N et book value versus gross cost1. Most companies use thenet book value (i.e.,acquisition cost less accumulated depreciation)of depreciable assets to calculate averageoperating assets.a. With this approach, ROI mechanicallyincreases over time as the accumulateddepreciation increases. Replacing a fully-depreciated asset with a new asset willdecrease ROI.2. An alternative to net book value is the grosscost of the asset, which ignores accumulateddepreciation.a. With this approach, ROI does not growautomatically over time, rather it staysconstant. Replacing a fully-depreciatedasset does not adversely affect ROI.B. Understanding ROIi. Du Pont pioneered the use of ROI and recognizedthe importance of looking at the components ofROI, namely margin and turnover.1. Margin is computed as shown and is improvedby increasing unit sales, increasing sellingprices, or reducing operating expenses. Thelower the operating expenses per dollar of sales,the higher the margin earned.2. Turnover is computed as shown. It incorporates a crucial area of a manager’s responsibility – the investment in operating assets. Excessive funds tied up in operating assets depress turnover and lower ROI.Helpful Hint: Emphasize that both margin and turnover affect profitability. As an example, ask students tocompare the margins and turnovers of grocery stores to jewelry stores. In equilibrium, every industry should have roughly the same ROI. Groceries, because of their short shelf life, have high turnovers relative to fine jewelry. If the ROIs are to be comparable in grocery stores and in jewelry stores, the margins would have to be higher in jewelry stores.ii. To illustrate how to increase ROI, assume that Regal Company reports the results shown:1. Given this information, its current ROI is 15%.2. Suppose that Regal’s manager invests in a $30,000 piece of equipment that increases sales by $35,000 while increasing operating expenses by $15,000. a. In this case, the ROI increases from 15% to 21.8%.C. Criticisms of ROIi. Just telling managers to increase ROI may not beenough. Managers may not know how toincrease ROI in a manner that is consistent with the company’s strategy.1. This is why ROI is best used as part of abalanced scorecard.ii. A manager who takes over a business segment typically inherits many committed costs over which the manager has no control. This may make it difficult to assess this manager relative to other managers.iii. A manager who is evaluated based on ROI may reject investment opportunities that areprofitable for the whole company but that would have a negative impact on the manager’sperformance evaluation.Helpful Hint: When discussing the criticisms of ROI and other measures of profitability, ask students to play the role of a manager who anticipates a short tenure. This manager will want to increase ROI as quickly as possible. Ask students to list the activities that could be undertaken to increase ROI that, in reality, would hurt the company as a whole.IV. Residual incomeLearning Objective 2: Compute residual income and understand its strengths and weaknesses.A. Defining residual incomei. Residual income is the net operating income that an investment center earns above the minimum required return on its assets .B. Calculating residual incomei. The equation for computing residual income is asshown. Notice: 1. This computationdiffers from ROI. ROI measures net operating income earned relativeto the investment in average operating assets. Residual income measures net operating income earned less the minimum required return on average operating assets. ii. Zepher, Inc. - an example1. Assume the information as given for a division of Zepher, Inc.2. The residual income ($10,000) is computed by subtracting the minimum required return ($20,000) from the actual income ($30,000).C.Motivation and residual income i. The residual income approach encourages managers to make investments that are profitable for the entire company but that would be rejected by managers who are evaluated using the ROI formula. More specifically:1. It motivates managers to pursue investmentswhere the ROI associated with thoseinvestments exceeds the company’s minimumrequired return but is less than the ROI beingearned by the managers.Quick Check – ROI versus residual incomeD.Divisional comparison and residual income i.The residual income approach has one majordisadvantage. It cannot be used to compare the performance of divisions of different sizes.ii. Zepher, Inc. – continued1. Recall that the Retail Division of Zepher hadaverage operating assets of $100,000, aminimum required rate of return of 20%, netoperating income of $30,000, and residualincome of $10,000.2. Assume that the Wholesale Division of Zepherhad average operating assets of $1,000,000, aminimum required rate of return of 20%, netoperating income of $220,000, and residualincome of $20,000.3. The residual income numbers suggest that the Wholesale Division outperformed the Retail Division because its residual income is $10,000 higher. However: a. The Retail Division earned an ROI of30% compared to an ROI of 22% forthe Wholesale Division. TheWholesale Division’s residual incomeis larger than the Retail Divisionsimply because it is a bigger division .V.Operating performance measuresLearning Objective 3: Compute throughput time,delivery cycle time, and manufacturing cycle efficiency (MCE).A. Key definitions/conceptsi. Throughput (manufacturing cycle) time is theelapsed time from when production is started until finished goods are shipped to customers.1. This includes process time, inspection time, move time, and queue time . Process time is the only value-added activity of the fourmentioned.ii. Delivery cycle time is the elapsed time from whena customer order is received until the finished goods are shipped.iii. Manufacturing cycle efficiency (MCE) iscomputed by dividing value-added time by throughput time.1. The goal is to increase this measure.2. Any non-value-added time results in an MCE of less than 1.0.Quick Check – internal business process measures VI. Balanced scorecardLearning Objective 4: Understand how to construct and use a balanced scorecard.A. Key conceptsi. A balanced scorecard consists of an integratedset of performance measures that are derived from and support a company’s strategy. Importantly, the measures included in a company’s balanced scorecard are unique to its specific strategy . ii. The balanced scorecard enables top managementto translate its strategy into four groups of performance measures – financial, customer, internal business process, and learning and growth − that employees can understand and influence.1.The premise of these four groups of measuresis that learning is necessary to improveinternal business processes, which in turnimproves the level of customer satisfaction, which in turn improves financial results.a.Note the emphasis on improvement, notjust attaining some specific objective.iii.The balanced scorecard relies onnon-financial measures in addition to financial measures fortwo reasons:1.Financial measures are lag indicators thatsummarize the results of past actions. Non-financial measures are leading indicators offuture financial performance.2.Top managers are ordinarily responsible forfinancial performance measures – not lowerlevel managers. Non-financial measures aremore likely to be understood and controlledby lower level managers.iv.While the entire organization has an overall balanced scorecard, each responsible individualshould have his or her own personal scorecard as well.1.A personal scorecard should contain measuresthat can be influenced by the individual beingevaluated and that support the measures in theoverall balanced scorecard.v. A balanced scorecard, whether for an individualor the company as a whole, should have measures that are linked together on a cause-and-effect basis .1. Each link can be read as a hypothesis in the form “If we improve this performance measure, then this other performance measure shouldalso improve.”2. In essence, the balanced scorecard lays out a theory of how a company can take concrete actions to attain desired outcomes. If the theory proves false or the company alters its strategy, the measures within the scorecard are subject to change .vi. Incentive compensation for employeesprobably should be linked to balanced scorecard performance measures .1. However, this should only be done after the organization has been successfully managed with the scorecard for some time – perhaps a year or more . Managers must be confident that the measures are reliable, not easilymanipulated, and understandable by those being evaluated with them.B. The balanced scorecard – an example i. Assume that Jaguar pursues a strategy as shown on this slide. Examples of measures that Jaguar might select with their corresponding cause-and-effect linkages include:1. If “employee skills in installing options ” increases, then the “number of options available ” should increase and the “time to install an option ” should decrease.2. If the “number of options available ” increases and the “time to install an option” decreases, then “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available” should increase.3. If the “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available ” increases, then the “number of cars sold ” should increase.4. If the “time to install an option ” decreases and the “customer surveys: satisfaction with options available ” increases, then the “contribution margin per car ” should increase.5. If the “number of cars sold ” and the “contribution margin per car ” increase, then the “profit ” should incr ease.。
索罗干-班东甘辛学习模型教程说明书
Application Sorogan -Bandongan Model in LecturesReaction MechanismRinaningsih*, Suyatno Sutoyo Department of Chemistry Universitas Negeri SurabayaSurabaya, Indonesia ********************.idAsep Kadarohman, Harry FirmanDepartment of Chemistry Indonesia University of EducationBandung, IndonesiaAbstract — Sorogan-Bandongan is an integrated lecturemodel coming from the traditional learning that are implemented at Islamic boarding school in Indonesia. It starts with Sorogan and ends with Bandogan. The implementation of integrated lecture model of Sorogan-Bandongan with stages of students reading and doing handout assignment; diagnostic test, material explanation by lecturer; students work on worksheets (Sorrogan); class discussion on reinforcing the material (Bandongan); final test. Sorogan-Bandongan becomes a lecture model in learning reaction mechanism with the average of handout assignments 51.8; diagnostic test 47.9; final test 60.4. The correlation between those three results is 0,511. It is found that to learn reaction mechanism needed precondition configuration concept of electron, hybridization, molecular form, Lewis acid and base, and steric hindrance.Keywords— model Sorogan-Bandongan, test diagnostic, learning reaction mechanismI. I NTRODUCTIONReaction mechanism is a step-by-step description of chemical reaction event. This event of chemical reaction is an event on the molecular level that involves the outer shell of electron [1]. Tastan reveals that the difficulties in learning reaction mechanism include determinant of reaction speed and transition state [2]. These difficulties cause the lack of professionalism of the teacher in teaching reaction mechanism. Dicks has done a research by implementing several methods in lectures, so it can increase the attention [3]. Giving online assignment to the students has been done by Franz as it produced more effective lecturing method [4]. The same method is also done by Parker, working on online assignment with credit points which can improve the eagerness in learning [5]. Besides the method implementation in reaction mechanism lecture, spatial planning of classrooms can also improve performance capabilities [6]. The use of laboratories studio in S N 1 and S N 2 reaction mechanism lectures can also improve the confidence of the students [7]. The implementation of methods in reaction mechanism lectures can be done by giving assignment, classroom spatial planning, syllabus improvement and quizzes [8]. Giinersel did an integrated research to improve the involvements of the students, in this case positively correlated with their learning achievements [9, 10].The difficulties in understanding reaction mechanism, besides caused by the lack of professionalism of the teacherin teaching reaction mechanism, it is also caused by the lack of implementation of several methods in reaction mechanism lecture. In understanding reaction mechanism concept, it needs to be understood by the way of sharing between the students in a discussion activity so they can improve their skill in thinking logically. Reaction mechanism lecture should be designed to facilitate the students with opportunity to discuss and thinking logically [11]. This discovery is fulfilled in the integrated lectures models of Sorogan – Bandongan . The development of integrated lecture of Sorogan – Bandongan is a fusion of Sorogan method and Bandongan method. Sorogan is an individual learning method while Bandongan is a discussion method for material sifting by student who understands the material better to the students that have not understood. This paper will discuss the result of research about the implementation of integrated lecture of Sorogan –Bandongan model to determine the understanding of the students in learning reaction mechanism.II. M ETHODOLOGYResearch method used is Mixed Method with Embedded Experimental Design model [12]. Data were described qualitatively and then the correlation between handout performance value, diagnostic test result and final test result quantitatively were analysed. Sample used in this research are 31 students from Chemistry Department of UNESA that takes Organic Chemistry I course on even semester, academic year of 2013/2014. Data of this research are diagnostic test, handout, learning result test and questionnaire. The outline of the Sorogan –Bandongan model is as follows: students read and do assignment on the handout; diagnostic test; material explanation by the lecturer; students work on worksheets; class discussion on reinforcing the material; final test. Data analysis was done using mixed method approach [12], which was firstly done qualitatively to describe the result of diagnostic test, handout assignment, final test result and students questionnaire. Secondly, to ensure there is a correlation between diagnostic test, handout assignment and final test result, quantitative approach is applied by using Statistics [13].III. R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSIONBased on the questionnaire filled by the respondents, obtained 25 among 31 students reading the handout before attending the lecture. Out of 25 students that read the handout, 21 students stated that they understand the lectureProceedings of the Seminar Nasional Kimia - National Seminar on Chemistry (SNK 2018)easier after reading the handout. The percentage of students in understanding the material on the handout before the explanation by the lecturer is 64.0% (16 students) experienced difficulties in learning S N 1, 40.0% (10 students) S N 2, 40.0% (10 students) reaction mechanism, 12.0% (3 students) experienced difficulties in understanding how to fill the orbital, 20.0% (5 students) is unable to determine nucleophicility, and 16.0% (4 students) experienced difficulties in determining hybridization. From the result of the questionnaire it is also obtained the student's appraisal of the lecturer’s way of teaching, stated that the explanation of the lecturer was difficult to understand, because of the less precise use of language, also the material taught was too short. This is in accordance with the research done by Tastan [2]. From the result, it is emphasized that in the implementation of integrated lecture using Sorogan -Bandongan model, there must be a work of the lecturer in the form of handout and students worksheets, so only professional educators can implement this model.Chart below shows the result of diagnostic test on the difficulties in learning reaction mechanism substitutionnucleophilic.The result of diagnostic test used as consideration to step on the third syntax which is material explanation. The high percentage shows that material are increasingly difficult for the students, so that the emphasize on the material explanation is sorted according to the percentage of diagnostic test. The order of the material from the most difficult are Lewis acid and base, S N 1, electronegativity, Lewis structure, S N 2, electron configuration, hybridization and orbital filling. After the material explanation, students were asked to work on questions on the students worksheets. The lecturer tour around and give guide to the students that are having difficulties in learning individually. After finishing the worksheets individually (1) as material reinforcement, a class discussion was conducted (2). As for the final stage of the lecture, a learning result test was carried out (final test). The material difficulties on the final test can be exposed as follows: 3.0% students having difficulties in defining reaction substitution; 46.0% of the students having difficulties in understanding the concept of prerequisites; 4.5% students having difficulties on S N 1; and 56.0% of the students having difficulties to differentiate between S N 1 and S N 2.Determining the effectivity of the Sorogan – Bandongan model on the research can be done by comparing thediagnostic result of learning difficulties with material difficulties on the final test. It shows that there was drastic difficulties decline from 32.0% during the diagnostic test to 3.0% on the final test on definition of reaction substitution. Likewise, on the difficulties in learning S N 1, the diagnostic test changes from 83.0% to only 4.5% and S N 2 during diagnostic test from 48.0% to 20.0% on the final test. Prerequisite concept during the diagnostic test for Lewis acid and base is 90.0%, electron configuration 23.0%, orbital filling 13.0%, hybridization 23.0%, Lewis structure 55.0% and electronegativity 65%. If averaged, concept of prerequisite on the diagnostic test is 44.0%. That result is almost equivalent to the final test of 46.0%. The equivalent shows that the concept of prerequisite needs its own time in lecture because of the limitation of time during the lecture’s face to face interaction.Difficulties in learning S N 1 during diagnostic test and final test showed on the diagnostic test which amounted to 83.0% and final test 4.5%. The difference of 78.5% between diagnostic test and final test illustrates that this model is effective if used in learning S N 1. This illustration shows that the implementation of Sorogan – Bandongan integrated model can solve the difficulties in learning for the students. Students’ difficulties in determining the structure formula become the obstacle for the students in determining the chemical equation; when they are unable to differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halide, students cannot determine whether the compound undergo S N 1 or S N 2 reaction, Structure formula greatly influences the existence of steric hindrance of a compound in determining whether the compound has S N 1 or S N 2 reaction. In this research the improvised final test is very appropriate to measure the ability of the students in understanding the material of nucleophilic substitution with the integrated model of Sorogan – Bandongan . This is in accordance with the studies done by the previous researcher which methods are implemented in integrated lecture [9, 10] with the syllabus development and quizzes/test [8] could improve the learning interest [5].The decline of the average percentage from the result of diagnostic test compared with the result of the final test shows that integrated model of Sorogan – Bandongan can increase the effectivity of lectures. This discovery is in line with the previous studies, showing that the implementation of several methods in reaction mechanism lectures can improve the attention [3], involving students, centered on students [4], increasing learning interest [5], improving performance capabilities [6], and confidence [7].The discovery resulted in this research is that students find difficulties in differentiating the S N 1 and S N 2 reaction mechanism, which is caused by that students not mastering the concept of prerequisite electron configuration, hybridization, molecular form, Lewis acid and base, and steric hindrance. The percentage of difficulties in prerequisite concept, and S N 1 and S N 2 reaction mechanism are equal, amounted to 46.0% and 56.0%. The prerequisite concept still has high percentage (46.0%), even almost equals to the diagnostic test (44.0%). This is caused by the lack of time in the third step which is material explanation. Lecture duration in structured manner is only 2 credit hours (100 minutes) meanwhile to finish the prerequisite concept it can take up to 2 meetings.Prerequisite concept that has the highest percentage is Lewis acid and base with 90.0%. Lewis acid and base actually have been studied on the basic chemistry course and studied again in details in chapter I of Organic Chemistry I, which is about the Structure of Atom and Molecules. This concept is closely related with the electronegativity and chemical bond as the determiner in understanding the reaction mechanism; because the reaction mechanism is a movement of electron on the outermost shell for the occurrence of reaction with other compound. So if students do not understand the Lewis acid and base, then they will not be able to determine the reaction mechanism. Therefore the difficulties percentage of Lewis acid and base, and reaction mechanism is equal. In this research, it is found that out of 31 students as sample, only 4 students were able to work perfectly on the reaction mechanism during the final test.Based on statistical correlation between three variables (diagnostic test, handout and final test), it is obtained the correlation coefficient R of 0,511 which means there is moderate or enough relationship between diagnostic test result, reading and working on the handout, and final test result [13].IV.C ONCLUSIONS1.The learning of reaction mechanism of nucleophilicsubstitution requires the understanding of prerequisite concept of electron configuration, hybridization, molecular form, Lewis acid and base, and steric hindrance.2.The implementation of integrated model of Sorogan–Bandongan can improve lecture effectivity of nucleophilic substitution material and it is discovered that students experience difficulties in differentiating S N1 and S N2 reaction mechanism.R EFERENCES[1] Ahiakwo, Macson, J. Organic Reaction Mechanism Controversy:Pedagogical Implication for Chemical Education. AJCE , 2(2), February 2012, Pp.51-65[2] Tastan,O., Yalcinkaya, E., Boz, Y. Pre-Service Chemistry Teachers’Ideas about Reaction Mechanisme. Journal of Turkish Science Education, March 2010, Volume 7, Issue 1.[3] Dicks, P.A., Lauten, M., Koroluk, J.K., Skonieczny, T., (2012)Undergraduate Oral Examinations in a University OrganicChemistry Curriculum. Journal of Chemical Education. Published:October 18, Pp. 1506-1510[4] Franz, K., A. Organic Chemistry You Tube Writing Assignment forLarge Lecture Classes. Journal of Chemical Education. Published:2011, November 29. Pp. 497-501[5] Parker, L.L., Loudon, M.,G. Case Study Using Online Homework inUndergraduate Organic Chemistry: Result and Student Attitudes.Journal of Chemical Education. Published: 2012, November 12, Pp.37-44[6] Muthyala, S.R., Wei, W. Does Space Matter? Impact of ClassroomSpace on Student Learning in an Organic-First Curriculum. Journalof Chemical Education. Published: 2016, November 26, Pp. 45-50 [7] Collison, G..C., Cody, J., Stanford, C. An S N1-S N2 Lesson in anOrganic Chemistry Lab Using a Studio-Based Approach. Journal ofChemical Education. Published: March 21, 2012 Vol.89, Pp. 750-754[8] Aldahmash, H.A., Abraham, R.M. Kinetic Versus Static Visual forFacilitating College Students Understanding of Organic ReactionMechanisme in Chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education.Published: 2009, December, Vol.86 No. 12: Pp. 1442-1446[9] Giinersel, B.A., Fleming, A.,S. Qualitative Assessment of a 3DSimulation Program: Faculty, Students, and Bio-Organic Reaction.Journal of Chemical Education. Published: 2013, June 25, Pp. 988-994[10] Kenzie, Mc.N., Nulty, Mc.J., Leod, Mc.D., Fadden, Mc.M.,Balachandran, N. Synthesizing Novel Anthraquinone NaturalProduct-Like Compounds to Investigate Protein-Ligand Interactionin Both an in Vitro and in Vivo Assay: an Integrated Research-Based Third- Year Chemical Biology Laboratory Course. Journal ofChemical Education. Published: 2012, April 6, Pp. 743-749[11] Mercer, M.,S., Andraos, J., Jessop, G..P. Choosing the GreenestSynthesis: A Multivariate Metric Green Chemistry Exercise. Journalof Chemical Education. Published: 2011, December 5, Pp. 215-220 [12] Creswell, W. J. Educational Research (planning, Conducting, andEvaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research) (Third edition).Canada: Pearson Education, Inc, 2008.[13] Sharma, S. Applied Multivariate Techniques. Canada: John Wiley &Sons, Inc, 1996.。
2025人教版高考英语一轮复习讲义选择性必修第二册 Unit 2 Bridging Cultures
Ⅰ.阅读单词——会意1．tutor n．(英国大学中的)助教；导师；家庭教师vt.辅导2．cite vt.引用；引述3．messenger n．送信人；信使4．edition n．(报纸、杂志)一份；(广播、电视节目)一期、一辑；版次5．culture shock文化冲击6．zone n．(有别于周围的)地区；地带；区域7．comfort zone舒适区；舒适范围8．overwhelming adj.无法抗拒的；巨大的；压倒性的9．homesickness n．思乡病；乡愁10．setting n．环境；背景；(小说等的)情节背景11．tremendous adj.巨大的；极大的12．mature adj.成熟的13．boom vi.&n．迅速发展；繁荣14．perspective n．(思考问题的)角度；观点15．envoy n．使者；使节；代表16．outlook n．前景；可能性；观点17．belt n．腰带；地带18．initiative n．倡议；新方案Ⅱ.重点单词——记形1．complex adj.复杂的；难懂的；(语法)复合的2．recall vt.&vi.记起；回想起3．presentation n．报告；陈述；出示；拿出4．firm n．公司；商行；事务所adj.结实的；牢固的；坚定的5．insight n．洞察力；眼光6．grasp vt.理解；领会；抓紧7．expense n．费用；花费；开销8．deny vt.否认；否定；拒绝9．gain vt.获得；赢得；取得；增加n．好处；增加10．angle n．角；角度；立场11．sincerely ad v.真诚地；诚实地12．budget n．预算13．outcome n．结果；效果Ⅲ.拓展单词——悉变1．qualification n．(通过考试或学习课程取得的)资格；学历→qualify vt.&vi.(使)具备资格；(使)合格→qualified adj.有资格的；称职的2．ambition n．追求的目标；夙愿；野心；抱负→ambitious adj.有野心的；有雄心的3．adaptation n．适应；改编本→adapt vt.使适应；改编vi.适应4．comfort n．安慰；令人感到安慰的人或事物；舒服；安逸vt.安慰；抚慰→comfortable adj.令人舒适的；舒服的→uncomfortable adj.不舒服的5．participate vi.参加；参与→participation n．参加；参与→participant n．参与者6．engage vi.参加；参与(活动)vt.吸引(注意力、兴趣)；雇用→engaged adj.忙于；从事于；已订婚的→engagement n．订婚；约定7．involve vt.包含；需要；涉及；影响；(使)参加→involved adj.参与的；投入的→involvement n．参与8．motivated adj.积极的；主动的→motivation n．动力；积极性；动机→motivate vt.成为……的动机；激发；激励9．advisor n．(also-ser)顾问→advise vt.&vi.建议；劝告→advice n．建议；忠告10．reasonable adj.有道理的；合情理的→reasonably ad v.明智地；合理地→reason n．原因；道理vt.&vi.推理，推断vi.理解→unreasonable adj.不合理的；不公正的11．expectation n．期望；预期；期待→expect vt.预料；期望12．applicant n．申请人→apply vi.申请vt.应用；使用；涂；敷→application n．申请(书)；应用(程序)13．exposure n．接触；体验；暴露；揭露→expose vt.使接触；使体验；显露；使暴露于(险境)14．departure n．离开；启程；出发→depart vi.&vt.离开；启程；出发15．dramatic adj.巨大的；突然的；急剧的；戏剧(般)的→dramatically ad v.突然地；戏剧地；引人注目地→drama n．戏剧；戏剧性事件16．behave vt.表现vi.&vt.表现得体；有礼貌→behaviour/behavior n．行为；举止17．surroundings n．[pl.]环境；周围的事物→surrounding adj.周围的；附近的→surround vt.包围；围绕18．depressed adj.沮丧的；意志消沉的→depress vt.使沮丧；使忧愁→depression n．沮丧；抑郁19．strengthen vi.&vt.加强；增强；巩固→strong adj.强壮的→strength n．体力；优点20．optimistic adj.乐观的→optimism n．乐观主义21．competence n．能力；胜任；本领→competent adj.有能力的；称职的22．cooperate vi.合作；协作；配合→cooperation n．合作；协作23．logical adj.合乎逻辑的；合情合理的→logically ad v.合乎逻辑地→logic n．逻辑(学)；道理1．bully/'bʊli/n．恃强凌弱者；横行霸道者vt.恐吓；胁迫2．attentive/ə'tent I v/adj.专心的；留意的；体贴的3．exert/Iɡ'zɜːt/vt.施加；运用4．rebellious/r I'beljəs/adj.叛逆的；反抗的；难对付的5．impose/I m'pəʊz/vt.&vi.把……强加于；强制推行6．immense/I'mens/adj.巨大的；无穷的7．unity/'juːnəti/n．团结；联合；统一8．universal/ˌjuːn I'vɜːsl/adj.全体的；通用的；普遍的9．personnel/ˌpɜːsə'nel/n．全体人员；职员；人事部门10．expertise/ˌekspɜː'tiːz/n．专门知识(或技能)；专长Ⅳ.背核心短语1．participate in参加；参与2．speak up大声点说；明确表态3．feel at home舒服自在；不拘束4．engage in(使)从事；参与5．get involved in参与；卷入；与……有关联6．cost an arm and a leg(使)花一大笔钱7．side with支持；站在……的一边8．as far as I know据我所知9．as far as I am concerned就我而言；依我看来10．in summary总的来说；总之11．generally speaking一般来说Ⅴ.悟经典句式1．It was the first time that she had left China.(It was the first time that＋过去完成时)这是她第一次离开中国。
加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH06_LectureNotes
Chapter 6Lecture NotesChapter theme: Two general approaches are used for valuing inventories and cost of goods sold. One approach, called absorption costing , is generally used for external reporting purposes. The other approach, called variable costing , is preferred by some managers for internal decision making and must be used when an income statement is prepared in the contribution format . This chapter shows how these two methods differ from each other. It also explains how to create segmented contribution format income statements.I. Overview of variable and absorption costingLearning Objective 1: Explain how variable costing differs from absorption costing and compute unit product costsunder each method.Three simplifying assumptions are made in this chapter:i. Normal costing (rather than actual costing) is used (i.e., predetermined overhead rates are used to applyoverhead costs to product.ii. The actual number of units produced is used as theallocation base for assigning actual fixed manufacturingoverhead costs to products.iii. V ariable manufacturing costs per unit and the totalfixed manufacturing overhead cost per period remainconstant.2 3B. Variable costing treats only those costs of production that vary with output as product costs. This approach dovetails with the contribution approach income statement andsupports CVP analysis because of its emphasis onseparating variable and fixed costs.i. The cost of a unit of product consists of directmaterials, direct labor, and variable overhead .Helpful Hint: For simplicity, nearly all examples, exhibits, problems, and exercises in this chapter treat direct labor as a variable cost. However, students should be reminded that labor is essentially a fixed cost in some companies. This is a growing phenomenon as pointed out in earlier chapters.Under variable costing, direct labor would not be included in product costs when it is a fixed cost. This point is reinforced in the discussion on theory of constraints at the end of the chapter.ii. Fixed manufacturing overhead and both variable andfixed selling and administrative expenses are treated asperiod costs and deducted from revenue as incurred.Helpful Hint: Emphasize that the only difference between variable and absorption costing is in how the two methods treat fixed manufacturing overhead costs. Also, emphasize that under both methods, selling and administrative costs are period costs and are not product costs.C. Absorption costing treats all costs of production as product costs, regardless of whether they are variable or fixed. Since no distinction is made between variable and fixed costs,absorption costing is not well suited for CVP computations.i. The cost of a unit of product consists of directmaterials, direct labor, and both variable and fixedoverhead .ii. Variable and fixed selling and administrative expensesare treated as period costs and are deducted fromrevenue as incurred.Quick Check – absorption vs. variable costingII. Harvey Company —an exampleA. Unit cost computationsi. Assume Harvey Company produces a single product with available information as shown.ii. The unit product costs under absorption and variablecosting would be $16 and $10, respectively.1. Under absorption costing, all production costs ,variable and fixed, are included when determiningunit product cost.2. Under variable costing, only the variableproduction costs are included in product costs.Helpful Hint: Before beginning the forthcoming incomecomparisons, remind students of the relationship between ending inventory and net operating income. Higher ending inventory results in higher net operating income since costs of goods available for sale less ending inventory equals cost of goods sold. Therefore, a higher ending inventory results in a lower expense (cost of goods sold) deducted to arrive at net operating income.Learning Objective 2: Prepare income statements using both variable and absorption costing.B. Income comparison of variable and absorption costingi. Harvey Company —additional assumptions.1.20,000 units were sold during the year. 2.The selling price per unit is$30. 3. There isno beginning inventory. ii. Variable costing1. The unit product cost is $10.2. All $150,000 of fixed manufacturing cost is expensed in the current period.3. The net operating income is $90,000. iii. Absorption costing1. The unit product cost is $16.2. The fixed manufacturing overhead cost deferred in inventory is $30,000 (= 5,000 units × $6 per unit).3. The net operating income is $120,000.Helpful Hint: Explain that under absorption costing, therecognition of fixed costs as an expense is really a timing issue. When the items are sold, the fixed costs will bereflected on the income statement as part of cost of goods sold.Learning objective 3: Reconcile variable costing and absorption costing net operating incomes and explain whythe two amounts differ.iv. Comparing the two methods1. Under absorption costing, $120,000 of fixedmanufacturing overhead is included in cost of goodssold and $30,000 is deferred in ending inventory asan asset on the balance sheet.2. Under variable costing, the entire $150,000 of fixedmanufacturing overhead is treated as a periodexpense.a. The variable costing ending inventory is $30,000less than absorption costing , thus explaining thedifference in net operating income between thetwo methods.3. The difference in net operating income between thetwo methods ($30,000) can also be reconciled bymultiplying the number of units in ending inventory(5,000 units ) by the fixed manufacturing overheadper unit ($6) that is deferred in ending inventoryunder absorption costing.C. Extended comparisons of income datai. Harvey Company —additional assumptions/facts1. 30,000 units were sold in year2. 2. The selling price per unit, variable costs per unit,total fixed costs, and number of units producedremain unchanged .3. 5,000 units are in beginning inventory.ii. Unit cost computations1.Since the variable costs per unit, total fixed costs, and the number of units produced remained unchanged, the unit cost computations also remain unchanged. iii. Variable costing 1. The unit product cost is $10. 2. All $150,000 of fixed manufacturing overhead cost is expensed in the current period. 3. The net operating income is $260,000. iv. Absorption costing 1. The unit product cost is $16. 2. The fixed manufacturing overhead cost released from inventory is $30,000 (= 5,000 units × $6 per unit). 3. The net operating income is $230,000.v. Comparing the two methods 1. The difference in net operating income between the two methods ($30,000) can be reconciled by multiplying the number of units in beginning inventory (5,000 units ) by the fixed manufacturing overhead per unit ($6) that is released from beginning inventory under absorption costing.2. Across the two-year time frame, both methods reported the same total net operating income ($350,000). This is because over an extended period of time sales cannot exceed production, nor canproduction much exceed sales. The shorter the timeperiod, the more the net operating income figureswill tend to differ.D. Summary of key insightsi.Whenunits produced equals units sold, the twomethods report the same net operating income .ii. When units produced are greater than units sold , asin year 1 for Harvey, absorption net operating incomeis greater than variable costing net operating income . iii. When units produced are less than units sold , as inyear 2 for Harvey, absorption costing net operatingincome is less than variable costing net operatingincome .III. Advantages of variable costing and the contribution approachA. Enabling CVP analysisi. Variable costing categorizes costs as fixed and variable so it is much easier to use this income statement format for CVP analysis.ii.Absorption costing assigns per unit fixed manufacturing overhead costs to production. This can potentiallyproduce positive net operating income even whenthe number of units sold is less than the breakevenpoint.B. Explaining changes in net operating incomei.Variable costingnet operating income is only affectedby changes in unit sales. It is not affected by thenumber of units produced. As a general rule, when salesgo up net operating income goes up and vice versa.ii.Absorption costing net operating income is influenced by changes in unit sales and units of production. Netoperating income can be increased simply by producingmore units even if those units are not sold.D.Supporting decision makingi.Variable costing correctly identifies the additionalvariable costs incurred to make one more unit. Italso emphasizes the impact of fixed costs on profits.ii.Absorption costing gives the impression that fixed manufacturing overhead is variable with respect tothe number of units produced, but it is not. This canlead to inappropriate pricing decisions and productdiscontinuation decisions.IV. Segmented income statements and the contribution approach Learning Objective 4: Prepare a segmented incomestatement that differentiates traceable fixed costs fromcommon fixed costs and use it to make decisions.A.Key concepts/definitionsi. A segment is a part or activity of an organizationabout which managers would like cost, revenue, orprofit data.ii.Examples of segments include divisions of acompany, sales territories, individual stores, servicecenters, manufacturing plants, marketingdepartments, individual customers, and product lines.iii.There are two keys to building segmented income statements.1.First, a contribution format should be usedbecause it separates fixed from variable costsand it enables the calculation of a contributionmargin.a.The contribution margin is especially useful indecisions involving temporary uses ofcapacity such as special orders.2.Second, traceable fixed costs should be separatedfrom common fixed costs to enable thecalculation of a segment margin. Furtherclarification of these terms is as follows:a. A traceable fixed cost of a segment is a fixed cost that is incurred because of the existence of the segment. If the segment were eliminated, the fixed cost would disappear. Examples of traceable fixed costs include: (1). The salary of the Fritos product manager at PepsiCo is a traceable fixed cost of the Fritos business segment of PepsiCo. (2). The maintenance cost for the building in which Boeing 747s are assembled is a traceable fixed cost of the 747 business segment of Boeing.b. A common fixed cost is a fixed cost that supports the operations of more than one segment, but is not traceable in whole or in part to any one segment . Examples of common fixed costs include: (1). The salary of the CEO of General Motors is a common fixed cost of the various divisions of General Motors. (2). The cost of heating a Safeway or Kroger grocery store is a common fixed cost of the various departments – groceries, produce, bakery, etc. c. It is important to realize that the traceable fixed costs of one segment may be a common fixed cost of another segment . For example: (1). The landing fee paid to land an airplane atan airport is traceable to a particular flight, but it is not traceable to first-class, business-class, and economy-class passengers.Helpful Hint: In practice, a great deal of disagreement exists about what costs are traceable and what costs are common. Some people claim that except for direct materials, virtually all costs are common fixed costs that cannot be traced to products. Others assert that all costs are traceable toproducts; there are no common costs. The truth probably lies somewhere in the middle – many costs can be traced to products but not all costs.d. A segment margin is computed by subtracting the traceable fixed costs of a segment from itscontribution margin.(1). The segment margin is a valuable tool forassessing the long-run profitability of asegment.(2). Allocating common costs to segmentsreduces the value of the segment marginas a guide to long-run segmentprofitability.Helpful Hint: Explain that a segment should notautomatically be eliminated if its segment margin is negative. If a company that produces hair-styling productsdiscontinues its styling gel, sales on its shampoo and conditioner might fall due to the unavailability of the eliminated product.B. Segmented income statements – an examplei.Assume that Webber, Inc. has two divisions –the Computer Division and the Television Division.1. The contribution format income statement for the Television Division is as shown. Notice:a. Cost of goods sold consists of variable manufacturing costs.b. Fixed and variable costs are listed in separate sections .c. Contribution margin is computed by taking sales minus variable costs.d. The divisional segment margin represents the Television Division’s contribution to overall company profits. 2. The Television Division’s results can be rolled into Webber, Inc.’s overall results as shown. Notice: a. The results of the Television and Computer Divisions sum to the results shown for the whole company. b. The common costs for the company as a whole ($25,000) are not allocated to the divisions . 3. The Television Division’s results can also be broken down into smaller segments. This enables us to see how traceable fixed costs of the Television Division can become common costs of smaller segments . a. Assume that the Television Division can be broken down into two major product lines – Regular and Big Screen . b. Assume that the segment margins for these two product lines are as shown. c. Of the $90,000 of fixed costs that were previously traceable to the Television Division, $80,000 (= $45,000 + $35,000) is traceable to the two product lines and $10,000 is a common cost.C. Segmented income statements —decision making and break-even analysisi.To illustrate how the Television Division’s results can be used fordecision making, assume Webber believes that if the Television Division spends $5,000 additionaldollars on advertising it will increase sales of Regular and Big Screen televisions by 5%. Webber can compute the profit impact of this course of action as follows:1. The Regular product line contribution margin would increase by $5,250.2. The Big Screen product line contribution margin would increase by $2,250.3. The Television Division’s segment margin would increase by $2,500. Learning Objective 5: Compute companywide and segment break-even points for a company with traceable fixed costs. ii. To demonstrate how to calculate companywide and segmented break-even points , let’s refer back to the companywide income statement segmented into the Television and Computer Divisions. 1. The companywide break-even point is computed by dividing the sum of the company’s traceable fixed costs and common fixed costs by the company’s overall contribution margin ratio . a. This equation can be used to compute Webber’s companywide break-even point of $361,111.2. A business segment’s break-even point is computedby dividing its traceable fixed costs by itscontribution margin ratio.a. Using this equation, the break-even point for theTelevision Division is $180,000.b. The break-even point for the Computer Divisionis $133,333.3. Notice that the companywide common fixed costsare excluded from the segment break-evencalculations. This occurs because the common fixed costs are not traceable to segments and they are not influenced by segment-level decisions.Segmented income statements—common mistakesA.Omission of costsi.The costs assigned to a segment should include all thecosts attributable to that segment from the company’sentire value chain as discussed in Chapter 12.1.Since only manufacturing costs are included inproduct costs under absorption costing, thosecompanies that choose to use absorption costing forsegment reporting purposes will omit from theirprofitability analysis all “upstream” and“downstream” costs.a.“Upstream” costs include research anddevelopment and product design costs.b.“Downstream” costs include marketing,distribution, and customer service costs.c. Although these “upstream” and “downstream” costs are nonmanufacturing costs, they are just as essential to determining product profitability asare manufacturing costs. Omitting them fromprofitability analysis will result in theundercosting of products.Helpful Hint: An example of a company with a very high amount of upstream and downstream costs is apharmaceutical company such as Merck. A great deal of its costs are comprised of research and development and marketing.B. Inappropriate methods for assigning traceable costs to segmentsi.Failure to trace costs directly1. Costs that can be traced directly to specific segments of a company should not be allocated to othersegments . Rather, such costs should be chargeddirectly to the responsible segment. For example: a. The rent for a branch office of an insurancecompany should be charged directly against thebranch office rather than included in acompanywide overhead pool and then spreadthroughout the company.ii. Inappropriate allocation base1. Some companies allocate costs to segments using arbitrary bases . Costs should be allocated tosegments for internal decision making purposes only when the allocation base actually drives the cost being allocated. For example:a. Sales are frequently used to allocate selling and administrative expenses to segments. This should only be done if sales drive these expenses.C. Arbitrarily dividing common costs among segments i. Common costs should not be arbitrarily allocated to segments based on the rational e that “someone has to cover the common costs” for two reasons:1. First, this practice may make a profitable business segment appear to be unprofitable. If the segment is eliminated the revenue lost may exceed the real traceable costs that are avoided.2. Second, allocating common fixed costs forcesmanagers to be held accountable for costs that they cannot control.Quick Check – common costsV. Income statements—an external reporting perspectiveA. Companywide income statementsi.Practically speaking,absorption costing is requiredfor external reports in the United States. IFRS alsorequire absorption costing for external reports.ii.Probably because of the cost of maintaining twoseparate costing systems, most companies useabsorption costing for their external and internal reports.iii.W ith all of the advantages of the contribution approach, one may wonder why the absorption approach is used atall. Perhaps the biggest reason is because:1.Advocates of absorption costing argue that it bettermatches costs with revenues. They contend thatfixed manufacturing costs are just as essential tomanufacturing products as are the variable costs.2.Advocates of variable costing view fixedmanufacturing costs as capacity costs. They arguethat fixed manufacturing costs would be incurredeven if no units were produced.B. Segmented financial informationi. U.S. GAAP and IFRS require publicly-tradedcompanies to include segmented financial data intheir annual reports. These rulings have implications forinternal segment reporting because:.1. They mandate that companies must prepare external Array segmented reports using the same methods that theyuse for internal segmented reports. This requirement motivates managers to avoid using the contribution approach for internal reporting purposes because if they did they would be required to:a. Share this sensitive data with the public.b. Reconcile these reports with applicable rules forconsolidated reporting purposes.。
Unit2BridgingCultures单词讲义-2023-2024学年高中英语人教版选择性
Unit2单词讲义plex词性：形容词、名词中文意思：复杂的，合成的英文释义：posed of many interconnected parts; not simple or easy to understand 词源：来自拉丁语plexus，意为“结合在一起”例句：The instructions were so plex that I couldn't follow them.固定搭配：plex system, plex network, plex structure近义词：plicated, intricate, involvedrecall词性：动词中文意思：召回，回忆起英文释义：to bring back to a place or state; remember词源：来自拉丁语recallere，意为“召唤回来”例句：The pany recalled all the faulty products from the market.固定搭配：recall an event, recall a memory, recall a product近义词：remember, recollect, retrievequalification词性：名词中文意思：资格，条件英文释义：the fact or condition of being qualified or suitable for something词源：来自拉丁语qualificare，意为“使有资格”例句：He has the necessary qualifications for the job.固定搭配：educational qualification, professional qualification, qualification test 近义词：certification, proficiency, petencequalify词性：动词中文意思：使合格，使有资格英文释义：to make someone or something suitable or worthy of something词源：来自拉丁语qualificare，意为“使有资格”例句：She qualified for the final after winning her heat.固定搭配：qualify for a job, qualify for a loan, qualify as a doctor近义词：certify, authorize, entitleambition词性：名词中文意思：雄心，抱负英文释义：a strong desire to do or achieve something important词源：来自法语ambition，意为“野心”例句：His ambition is to bee a successful businessman.固定搭配：personal ambition, career ambition, political ambition近义词：aspiration, goal, objectiveambitious：词性：形容词中文意思：有雄心壮志的，野心勃勃的英文释义：having a strong desire to achieve success or fame词源：来自拉丁语ambitiosus，意为渴望的，贪心的例句：He is an ambitious young man who wants to bee a millionaire before he turns 30.固定搭配：ambitious goal, ambitious plan, ambitious project近义词：aspiring, enterprising, drivenadaptation：词性：名词中文意思：适应，改编英文释义：the process of adjusting to new conditions or surroundings词源：来自拉丁语adaptatio，意为适应，适合例句：The movie is a faithful adaptation of the novel.固定搭配：cultural adaptation, social adaptation, technological adaptation近义词：adjustment, modification, alterationfort：词性：名词、动词中文意思：安慰，舒适英文释义：n. feeling happy, safe, and free from pain or disfort；v. make someone feel better after a difficult experience词源：来自古英语cōmfort，意为舒适，安逸例句：She tried to fort her friend after her breakup.固定搭配：fortable bed, fortable shoes, fortable temperature近义词：solace, ease, reliefcite：词性：动词中文意思：引用，提及英文释义：to mention or refer to something as evidence or support for an argument or statement词源：来自拉丁语citare，意为引用，召唤例句：The author cited several studies to support his claims.固定搭配：cite sources, cite examples, cite statistics近义词：quote, reference, mentionparticipation：词性：名词中文意思：参与，参加英文释义：the act of taking part in an activity or event词源：来自拉丁语participare，意为分享，分担例句：The pany encourages employee participation in decisionmaking processes.固定搭配：participation rate, active participation, passive participation近义词：involvement, engagement, involvementparticipate：词性：动词中文意思：参加，参与英文释义：to take part in an activity or event词源：来自拉丁语participare，意为分享，分担例句：I will participate in the charity walk next month.presentation词性：名词中文意思：展示，陈述，报告英文释义：the act of giving or showing something to an audience词源：来自拉丁语的presentatio，意为“呈现”例句：The presentation of the new product was very successful.固定搭配：give a presentation, make a presentation, presentation skills近义词：demonstration, show, exhibitionengage词性：动词中文意思：使参与，使忙于，雇用，订婚英文释义：to involve someone in an activity or discussion词源：来自古法语的engager，意为“约束，保证”例句：I'm sorry, I can't engage in that conversation right now.固定搭配：engage in, engage with, engage someone's attention, get engaged近义词：occupy, involve, hire, betrothinvolve词性：动词中文意思：涉及，包含，使参与，牵涉英文释义：to include or affect someone or something as a participant or constituent part 词源：来自中古英语的involven，意为“缠绕，卷入”例句：The project involves a lot of work.固定搭配：be involved in, get involved, involve someone in, involve with近义词：include, prise, enpass, entailmessenger词性：名词中文意思：信使，邮递员，传令兵英文释义：a person who carries messages or letters for others词源：来自拉丁语的missimarius，意为“被派遣的人”例句：The messenger delivered the letter to her door.固定搭配：pigeon messenger, courier service, delivery messenger, mail carrier近义词：messenger boy, postman, courier, dispatcheredition词性：名词中文意思：版本，版次，一版印刷物英文释义：a particular form of a book or magazine that is published at a particular time 词源：来自拉丁语的editio，意为“编辑，修订”例句：This is the first edition of the book.固定搭配：hardcover edition, paperback edition, special edition, limited edition近义词：version, issue, printing, runoverwhelming词性：形容词中文意思：压倒性的，势不可挡的英文释义：too great to resist or overe; extremely impressive or powerful词源：overwhelm（淹没）+ ing（表示状态或特性）例句：The team's overwhelming victory left their opponents speechless.固定搭配：overwhelming majority, overwhelming evidence, overwhelming support近义词：sweeping, dominant, crushing, immensehomesickness词性：名词中文意思：思乡病，乡愁英文释义：a feeling of sadness or longing for one's home or family词源：home（家）+ sickness（疾病）例句：Being away from home for so long made him feel homesickness.固定搭配：cure homesickness, homesickness attack, homesickness remedy近义词：nostalgia, yearning, longing, sentimentalitymotivated词性：形容词中文意思：有动力的，有积极性的英文释义：having a strong reason or desire to do something词源：motivate（激励）+ ed（表示被动或完成）例句：She is highly motivated to achieve her goals.固定搭配：motivated worker, motivated student, motivated individual近义词：inspired, driven, enthusiastic, determinedmotivation词性：名词中文意思：动机，动力，诱因英文释义：the reason or reasons for doing something词源：motivate（激励）+ ion（表示抽象概念）例句：His motivation for studying hard is to get into a good university.固定搭配：lack of motivation, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation近义词：drive, incentive, purpose, causemotivate词性：动词中文意思：激励，激发，推动英文释义：to give someone the enthusiasm and selfconfidence needed to do something successfully词源：motive（动机）+ ate（表示使动）例句：The coach's words motivated the team to play better.advisor词性：名词中文意思：顾问，劝告者英文释义：a person who gives professional advice or guidance词源：来自拉丁语advisus，意为“预先考虑的”例句：He is a financial advisor.（他是一名财务顾问。
加里森管理会计讲义笔记英文版最新精品GNB_16e_CH05_LectureNotes
Chapter 5 Lecture NotesChapter theme: Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis helps managers understand the interrelationships among cost,volume, and profit by focusing their attention on theinteractions among the prices of products, volume ofactivity, per unit variable costs, total fixed costs, andmix of products sold. It is a vital tool used in manybusiness decisions such as deciding what products andservices to offer, what prices to charge, what marketingstrategy to use, and what cost structure to maintain.I.Assumptions of CVP analysisA.Three key assumptions underlie CVP analysis:i.Selling price is constant.ii.Costs are linear and can be accurately divided into variable and fixed components. The variable costsare constant per unit, and the fixed costs areconstant in total over the entire relevant range.iii.In multiproduct companies, the mix of products sold remains constant.Helpful Hint: Point out that nothing is sacred aboutthese assumptions. When violations of theseassumptions are significant, managers can and domodify the basic CVP model. Spreadsheets allowpractical models that incorporate more realisticassumptions. For example, nonlinear cost functionswith step fixed costs can be modeled using “If…Then”functions.II. The basics of cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysi sLearning Objective 1: Explain how changes in activity affect contribution margin and net operating income.A. The contribution format income statement is helpful to managers in judging the impact on profits of changes in selling price, cost, or volume. For example, let's look at a hypothetical contribution format income statement for Racing Bicycle Company (RBC). Notice:i. The emphasis is on cost behavior . Variable expenses are separate from fixed expenses. ii. The contribution margin is defined as the amount remaining from sales revenue after variableexpenses have been deducted.iii. Contribution margin is used first to cover fixed expenses . Any remaining contribution margincontributes to net operating income .iv. Sales, variable expenses, and contribution margincan also be expressed on a per unit basis . Thus:1. For each additional unit RBC sells, $200 more in contribution margin will help to cover fixedexpenses and provide a profit.2. Notice, each month RBC must generate at least $80,000 in total contribution margin to break-even (which is the level of sales at whichprofit is zero).3. Therefore, if RBC sells 400 units a month, itwill be operating at the break-even point .4.If RBC sells one more bike (401 bikes), netoperating income will increase by $200.v.You do not need to prepare an income statement to estimate profits at a particular sales volume. Simply multiply the number of units sold above break-evenby the contribution margin per unit.1.For example, if RBC sells 430 bikes, its netoperating income will be $6,000.B.CVP relationships in equation form (for those whoprefer an algebraic approach to solving problems in the chapter)i.The contribution format income statement can beexpressed in equation form as shown on this slide.1.This equation can be used to show the profitRBC earns if it sells 401 bikes. Notice, theanswer of $200 mirrors our earlier solution.ii.When a company has only one product we can further refine this equation as shown on this slide.1.This equation can also be used to show the$200 profit RBC earns if it sells 401 bikes.iii.The profit equation can also be expressed in terms of unit contribution margin as shown on this slide.1.This equation can also be used to computeRBC’s $200 profit if it sells 401 bikes.Learning Objective 2: Prepare and interpret a cost-volume-profit (CVP) graph and a profit graph.C. CVP relationships in graphic formi. The relationships among revenue, cost, profit, and volume can be expressed graphically by preparing a cost-volume-profit (CVP) graph. To illustrate, we will use contribution format income statements for RBC at 0, 200, 400, and 600 units sold. Helpful Hint: Mention to students that the graphic form of CVP analysis may be preferable to them if they are uncomfortable with algebraic equations.ii. In a CVP graph, unit volume is represented on the horizontal (X) axis and dollars on the vertical (Y) axis . A CVP graph can be prepared in three steps . 1. Draw a line parallel to the volume axis to represent total fixed expenses. 2. Choose some sales volume (e.g., 400 units ) and plot the point representing total expenses (e.g., fixed and variable) at that sales volume. Draw a line through the data point back to where the fixed expenses line intersects the dollar axis. 3. Choose some sales volume (e.g., 400 units ) and plot the point representing total sales dollars at the chosen activity level. Draw a line through the data point back to the origin.iii. Interpreting the CVP graph .1. The break-even point is where the total revenue and total expense lines intersect.2. The profit or loss at any given sales level is measured by the vertical distance between thetotal revenue and the total expense lines.Helpful Hint: Ask students what the CVP graph would look like for a public agency like a county hospital receiving a fixed budget each year and collecting fees less than its variable costs. It would look like this:This is the reverse of the usual situation. If such an organization has volume above the break-even point, it will experience financial difficulties.iv. An even simpler form of the CVP graph is calledthe profit graph . The profit graph is based on the equation shown on this slide.1. To plot the graph, compute the profit at two different sales volumes, plot the points, andthen connect them with a straight line. This slide contains the profit graph for RBC. Notice: a. The sales volumes plotted on this graph are 300 and 500 bikes.b. The breakeven point is 400 bikes.D. Contribution margin ratio (CM ratio) and the variable expense ratioLearning Objective 3: Use the contribution margin ratio (CM ratio) to compute changes in contribution margin and net operating income resulting from changes in sales volume. i. The CM ratio is calculated by dividing the total contribution margin by total sales.1. For RBC, the CM ratio is 40%. Thus, each $1.00 increase in sales results in a total contribution margin increase of 40¢. ii. The CM ratio can also be calculated by dividing the contribution margin per unit by the selling price per unit .1. For RBC, the CM ratio is 40%.iii. Similarly, variable expenses as a percentage of sales is referred to as the variable expense ratio.1. For RBC, the variable expense ratio is 60%.iv.The contribution margin ratio and the variableexpense ratio can be mathematically related to one another: CM ratio = 1 – Variable expense ratio.v. If RBC increases sales from 400 to 500 bikes, the increase in contribution margin ($20,000) can be calculated by multiplying the increase in sales ($50,000) by the CM ratio (40%).Quick Check – contribution margin ratiovi. The relation between profit and the CM ratio canalso be expressed in terms of the equation shown on this slide. 1. For example, we can use this equation tocalculate RBC’s profit of $20,000 at a volume of 500 bikes .E. Applications of CVP concepts Learning Objective 4: Show the effects on net operating income of changes in variable costs, fixed costs, selling price, and volume.Helpful Hint: The five examples that are forthcoming should indicate to students the range of uses of CVP analysis. In addition to assisting management in determining the level of sales that is needed to break-even or generate a certain dollar amount of profit, the examples illustrate how the results of alternative decisions can be quickly determined.i. Change in fixed cost and sales volume.1. What is the profit impact if RBC can increase unit sales from 500 to 540 by increasing the monthly advertising budget by $10,000? a. Preparing a contribution format income statement reveals a $2,000 decrease in profits. b. A shortcut solution using incremental analysis also reveals a $2,000 decrease in profits.ii. Change in variable costs and salesvolume .1. What is the profit impact if RBC can usehigher quality raw materials, thus increasing variable costs per unit by $10, to generate an increase in unit sales from 500 to 580? a. The contribution format income statement reveals a $10,200 increase in profits.iii. Change in fixed cost, sales price, and sales volume .1. What is the profit impact if RBC: (1) cuts itsselling price $20 per unit, (2) increases its advertising budget by $15,000 per month, and (3) increases unit sales from 500 to 650 units per month? a. The contribution format income statementreveals a $2,000 increase in profits.iv.Change in variable cost, fixed cost, and salesvolume. 1. What is the profit impact if RBC: (1) pays a $15 sales commission per bike sold instead of paying salespersons flat salaries that currently total $6,000 per month, and (2) increases unit sales from 500 to 575 bikes? a. The contribution format income statement reveals a $12,375 increase in profits. v. Change in regular sales price. 1. If RBC has an opportunity to sell 150 bikes to a wholesaler without disturbing sales to other customers or fixed expenses, what price should it quote to the wholesaler if it wants to increase monthly profits by $3,000? a. The price quote should be $320 per bike .III. Break-even analysisLearning Objective 5: Determine the break-even point.A.The equation and formula methods can be used to determine the unit sales and dollar sales needed toachieve a target profit of zero. For example, let’s revisit the information from RBC:i.Suppose RBC wants to know how many bikes must be sold to break-even (i.e. earn a target profit of $0). The equation shown on this slide can be used toanswer this question.1. The equation method reveals that 400 bikes must be sold to breakeven.2. The formula method can also be used to determine that 400 bikes must be sold to breakeven. ii. Suppose RBC wants to compute the sales dollars required to break-even (i.e. earn a target profit of $0). The equation shown here can be used to answer this question. 1. The equation method reveals that sales of $200,000 will enable the company to break-even. 2. The formula method can also be used to determine that sales of $200,000 will enable the company to break-even. Quick Check – break-even calculationsB.Target profit analysisLearning Objective 6: Determine the level of sales needed to achieve a desired target profit.i.Intarget profit analysis, we estimate what salesvolume is needed to achieve a specific target profit.We can compute the number of unitsthat must besold to attain a target profit using either theequation method or theformula method.1.The equation method is summarized on thisslide. Our goal is to solve for the unknown “Q”which represents the quantity of units that must be sold to attain the target profit.2.For example: Suppose RBC wants to knowhow many bikes must be sold to earn a targetprofit of $100,000.a.The equation method can be used todetermine that 900 bikes must be sold toearn the desired target profit.b.The formula method is summarized on thisslide. It can also be used to compute thequantity of units that must be sold to attain atarget profit.3.For example:Suppose RBC wants to knowhow many bikes must be sold to earn a targetprofit of $100,000.a.The formula method can be used todetermine that 900 bikes must be sold toearn the desired target profit.ii. We can also compute the target profit in terms of sales dollars using either the equation method or the formula method .1. The equation method is summarized on this slide . Our goal is to solve for the unknown“Sales,” which represents the dollar amount of sales that must be sold to attain the target profit.2. For example: Suppose RBC wants to compute the sales dollars required to earn a targetprofit of $100,000.a. The equation method can be used todetermine that sales must be $450,000 toearn the desired target profit.b. The formula method is summarized on this slide. It can also be used to compute thedollar sales needed to attain a target profit.Quick Check – target profit calculationsC. The margin of safetyLearning Objective 7: Compute the margin of safety and explain its significance. i. The margin of safety in dollars is the excess of budgeted (or actual) sales over the break-even volume of sales .1. For example: If we assume that RBC has actual sales of $250,000, given that we have already determined the break-even sales to be $200,000, the margin of safety is $50,000.2. The margin of safety can be expressed as a percent of sales. a. For example: RBC’s margin of safety is 20% of sales .3. The margin of safety can be expressed in terms of the number of units sold.a. For example: RBC’s margin of safety is100 bikes .Quick Check – margin of safety calculationsIV.CVP considerations in choosing a cost structur eA. Cost structure and profit stabilityi. Cost structure refers to the relative proportion of fixed and variable costs in an organization. Managers often have some latitude in determining their organization's cost structure.ii. There are advantages and disadvantages to high fixed cost (or low variable cost) and low fixed cost (or high variable cost) structures.1. An advantage of a high fixed cost structure is that income will be higher in good yearscompared to companies with a lowerproportion of fixed costs.2. A disadvantage of a high fixed cost structure is that income will be lower in bad years compared to companies with a lower proportion of fixed costs.3. Companies with low fixed cost structures enjoy greater stability in income across good and bad years.Learning Objective 8: Compute the degree of operating leverage at a particular level of sales and explain how it can be used to predict changes in net operating income.B. Operating leveragei. Operating leverage is a measure of how sensitive net operating income is to percentage changes in sales . i. The degree of operating leverage is a measure, atany given level of sales, of how a percentagechange in sales volume will affect profits. It is computed as shown on this slide.ii. To illustra te, let’s revisit the contribution format income statement for RBC: 1. RBC’s degree of operating leverage is 5 ($100,000/$20,000). 2. With an operating leverage of 5, if RBC increases its sales by 10%, net operatingincome would increase by 50%.a.The 50% increase can be verified bypreparing a contribution approach income statement.Quick Check –operating leverage calculationsHelpful Hint: Emphasize that the degree of operating leverage is not a constant like unit variable cost or unit contribution margin that a manager can apply withconfidence in a variety of situations. The degree ofoperating leverage depends on the level of sales andmust be recomputed each time the sales level changes.Also, note that operating leverage is greatest at saleslevels near the break-even point and it decreases assales and profits rise.V.Structuring sales commission spanies generally compensate salespeople bypaying them either a commission based on sales or asalary plus a sales commission. Commissions based onsales dollars can lead to lower profits in a company.Consider the following illustration:i.Pipeline Unlimited produces two types ofsurfboards, the XR7 and the Turbo. The XR7 sellsfor $100 and generates a contribution margin perunit of $25. The Turbo sells for $150 and earns acontribution margin per unit of $18.ii. Salespeople compensated based on sales commission will push hard to sell the Turbo even-though the XR7 earns a higher contribution margin per unit.iii. To eliminate this type of conflict,commissions canbe based on contribution margin rather than on selling price alone.VI. The concept of sales mi xLearning Objective 9: Compute the break-even point for a multiproduct company and explain the effects ofshifts in the sales mix on contribution margin and the break-even point.A. The term sales mix refers to the relative proportions in which a company’s products are sold. Since different products have different selling prices, variable costs, and contribution margins, when a company sells more than one product, break-even analysis becomes more complex as the following example illustrates:Helpful Hint: Mention that these calculations typically assume a constant sales mix. The rationale for this assumption can be explained as follows. To use simple break-even and target profit formulas, we must assume the firm has a single product. So we do just that – even for multi-product companies. The trick is to assume the company is really selling baskets of products and each basket always contains the various products in the same proportions.i. Assume the RBC sells bikes and carts. The bikes comprise 45% of the company’s total sales revenue and the carts comprise the remaining 55%. The contribution margin ratio for both products combined is 48.2%.ii. The break-even point in sales would be $352,697. The bikes would account for 45% of this amount, or $158,714. The carts would account for 55% of the break-even sales, or $193,983.1. Notice a slight rounding error of $176.。
人力资源管理Chap014
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Union Structure, Administration, and Membership
National
Craft
and International Unions
The Labor Relations Framework
Competitive Challenges - Legal - Stakeholder needs - High-performance work systems Goals - Employees and unions - Management - Society
Management
Must
decide whether to encourage or discourage the unionization of its employees.
Labor
Unions
Seek
to give workers formal representation in setting the terms and conditions of employment.
ULP
charges are filed at and investigated by the regional offices.
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reasons
for the consistent decline of union membership in the U.S. include:
collective bargaining 以及集体谈判
and actions to achieve that vision 因此，需要工会愿景，对于企业和工人， 接着制定战略和行动实现愿景
Pre-requisites for CB
பைடு நூலகம்
前提条件
A SUITABLE FRAMEWORK FOR EFFECTIVE FUNCTIONING OF IR
劳资关系有效运作的合适框架
RIGHT TO ORGANISE AND RIGHT TO COLLECTIVE BARGAINING
组织权和集体谈判权
STRONG & STABLE TRADE UNIONS 强大而稳定的工会组织 RECOGNITION OF TRADE UNIONS 工会认可 ATITUDE OF EMPLOYERS & UNIONS - Enlightened Self Interest
章” – it is not (or should not be) a mere document for just getting some wage rise BUT a document of rights & obligations of parties to the agreement – a means of joint regulation of workplace issues – a means to ensure that union has right to company information 它不仅是（或不应该仅 是）提高工资的文件，而且是规范协议双方权利和义务的文件-共同规范 工作场所的手段，确保工会有权获得企业信息的手段
GCT英语串讲班讲义（3）
第⼀部分词汇复习重点词汇和固定⽤法⼀、近义（形）词注：n—noun v—verb a—adjective av—adverb conj--conjunction1. acquire获得 inquire询问 require要求、命令request请求、需要 get获得（⼀般意义的获得） gain获得收益、利润seize抓住 grasp把握、抓紧 earn赚得2. acute敏锐的、激烈的 alert警觉的、机警的 brittle易碎的、锋利的ingenious灵敏的、精巧的 keen锋利的、敏锐的（跟on） feasible可⾏的、适宜的flexible可变通的3. assemble装配、集合 accumulate积累、堆积 pile拥挤进4. adapt改编、使适应 adopt采纳、收养5. adhere to坚持 adjacent to邻近a adjoin邻接6. stick to坚持、依附 hold on坚持、撑住 persist in坚持 insist on坚持（北京安通学校提供）7. affect v.影响、效果、意义 effect n.结果; v.招致 influence影响(on)8. alter改变 alternate轮流、交换 alternative⼆者择⼀n convert兑换、转换 convey传达、转移 vary变化 change变化9. ample充⾜的 abundant丰富的（跟in） sufficient充分的 supplementary补充的 adequate⾜够的 accurate准确的10. arise出现、发⽣vi rise升⾼、上升vi raise提⾼、抬⾼vt arouse唤起vt heighten增⾼、加强 promote促进、升迁 increase增加 reinforce加强 strengthen加强11. attack攻击、抨击 consult商讨、请教 insult侮辱 strike打击 beat打、敲打 hit打（⼀般意义）12. bare⾚*的，稀少的 bold⽆耻的 rare稀罕的 bolt栓住v. bald秃头的、光秃的 blank空⽩的、空的 hollow虚伪的、中间空的 vacant空缺的、茫然的 gap缝隙、缺⼝ interval间隔、距离13. big⼤的（可指体积、尺⼨、数量） large⼤的（可指体积、数量） enormous巨⼤的、庞⼤的 numerous数⽬众多的（指数量） considerable可观的（可指数量） considerate体谅的14. bend弯曲 bind束缚 blend混合 bond使粘合 bunch使成串 incline使倾斜，易于 lean倚靠、倾斜 leap跳跃（北京安 通学校提供）15. blast⼀阵强烈⽓流 blow（风）吹 boast吹⽜ brow眉⽑ gasp喘⽓16. blaze燃烧（强烈） flare闪光 flame燃烧 flash闪光（⼀闪⼀灭） glitter闪烁、灿烂17. bill帐单、钞票 check⽀票 note注释、钞票 card卡、信⽤卡18. choke窒息 shock震惊 startle惊愕、惊恐 astonish使惊讶 puzzle使困惑 bewilder使不知所措、使迷惑 amaze使吃惊19. compel强迫 compile编纂 comply顺从（跟with） conceal隐藏20. compress压缩、压榨 shrink收缩、萎缩 decrease减少（逐渐的） reduce减少（突然的、⼀次性的）。
基泰尔 固体物理导论 英文版 第八版 introduction
基泰尔固体物理导论英文版第八版introductionIntroductionSolid-state physics is a critical field of study that delves into the fundamental properties and behaviors of materials in their solid form. The understanding of solid-state phenomena has been instrumental in the development of numerous technological advancements, from semiconductor devices to superconducting materials. The eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" provides a comprehensive and up-to-date exploration of this dynamic and ever-evolving discipline.At the heart of solid-state physics lies the study of the crystalline structure of materials and the ways in which atoms and molecules are arranged within these structures. This knowledge is essential for understanding the physical, chemical, and electrical properties of solids, as well as their response to various external stimuli, such as temperature, pressure, and electromagnetic fields.One of the key topics covered in this textbook is the concept oflattice structures. Lattices are the underlying frameworks that define the spatial arrangement of atoms or molecules in a solid material. By understanding the symmetry and periodicity of these lattice structures, researchers can gain valuable insights into the behavior of electrons, phonons (vibrations of the crystal lattice), and other fundamental particles within the material.The book also delves into the electronic properties of solids, exploring the behavior of electrons in the presence of a crystalline structure. This includes the study of energy bands, which describe the allowed energy levels for electrons in a solid, as well as the concept of semiconductors and their applications in modern electronics.Another crucial aspect of solid-state physics is the study of magnetic materials. The textbook examines the various types of magnetic ordering, such as diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferromagnetism, and how these properties are influenced by the atomic structure and composition of the material.In addition to these core topics, the eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" also covers more advanced concepts, such as superconductivity, the quantum Hall effect, and the behavior of materials under extreme conditions, such as high pressure or intense magnetic fields.One of the strengths of this textbook is its clear and concise explanations of complex theoretical concepts, accompanied by numerous illustrations and examples to aid in the reader's understanding. The authors have also included a wealth of problem sets and exercises at the end of each chapter, allowing students to apply the knowledge they have gained and deepen their understanding of the subject matter.Furthermore, the textbook is regularly updated to reflect the latest advancements in the field of solid-state physics, ensuring that readers are exposed to cutting-edge research and emerging technologies. This commitment to staying current with the rapidly evolving field of solid-state physics is a testament to the dedication and expertise of the authors and the publishers.In conclusion, the eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" is an invaluable resource for students, researchers, and professionals working in the field of materials science, condensed matter physics, and related disciplines. Its comprehensive coverage, clear explanations, and practical applications make it an essential tool for anyone seeking to deepen their understanding of the fascinating world of solid-state physics.。
巴拿赫空间理论
巴拿赫空间理论（Banach space）是192O年由波兰数学家巴拿赫（S.Banach)一手创立的，数学分析中常巴拿赫空间用的许多空间都是巴拿赫空间及其推广，它们有许多重要的应用。
大多数巴拿赫空间是无穷维空间，可看成通常向量空间的无穷维推广。
编辑本段线性空间巴拿赫空间（Banach space）是一种赋有“长度”的线性空间﹐泛函分析研究的基本对象之一。
数学分析各个分支的发展为巴拿赫空间理论的诞生提供了许多丰富而生动的素材。
从外尔斯特拉斯﹐K.(T.W.)以来﹐人们久已十分关心闭区间[a﹐b ]上的连续函数以及它们的一致收敛性。
甚至在19世纪末﹐G.阿斯科利就得到[a﹐b ]上一族连续函数之列紧性的判断准则﹐后来十分成功地用于常微分方程和复变函数论中。
巴拿赫空间1909年里斯﹐F.(F.)给出[0﹐1]上连续线性泛函的表达式﹐这是分析学历史上的重大事件。
还有一个极重要的空间﹐那就是由所有在[0﹐1]上次可勒贝格求和的函数构成的空间(1<p <∞)。
在1910～1917年﹐人们研究它的种种初等性质﹔其上连续线性泛函的表示﹐则照亮了通往对偶理论的道路。
人们还把弗雷德霍姆积分方程理论推广到这种空间﹐并且引进全连巴拿赫空间续算子的概念。
当然还该想到希尔伯特空间。
正是基于这些具体的﹑生动的素材﹐巴拿赫﹐S.与维纳﹐N.相互独立地在1922年提出当今所谓巴拿赫空间的概念﹐并且在不到10年的时间内便发展成一部本身相当完美而又有着多方面应用的理论。
编辑本段Banach空间完备的线性赋范空间称为巴拿赫空间。
是用波兰数学家巴拿赫(Stefan Banach ）的名字命名的。
巴拿赫空间巴拿赫的主要贡献是引进了线性赋范空间概念，建立了其上的线性算子理论，证明了作为泛函分析基础的三个定理，哈恩--巴拿赫延拓定理，巴拿赫--斯坦豪斯定理即共鸣之定理、闭图像定理。
这些定理概括了许多经典的分析结果，在理论上和应用上都有重要价值。
中英文论文参考文献标准格式_论文格式_
中英文论文参考文献标准格式参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：[M]--专著,著作[C]--论文集(一般指会议发表的论文续集，及一些专题论文集，如《*大学研究生学术论文集》[N]-- 报纸文章[J]--期刊文章：发表在期刊上的论文，尽管有时我们看到的是从网上下载的(如知网)，但它也是发表在期刊上的，你看到的电子期刊仅是其电子版[D]--学位论文：不区分硕士还是博士论文[R]--报告：一般在标题中会有"关于报告"字样[S]-- 标准[P]--专利[A]--文章：很少用，主要是不属于以上类型的文章[Z]--对于不属于上述的文献类型，可用字母"Z"标识，但这种情况非常少见常用的电子文献及载体类型标识：[DB/OL] --联机网上数据(database online)[DB/MT] --磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape)[M/CD] --光盘图书(monograph on CDROM)[CP/DK] --磁盘软件(computer program on disk)[J/OL] --网上期刊(serial online)[EB/OL] --网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online)很显然，标识的就是该资源的英文缩写，/前面表示类型，/后面表示资源的载体，如OL表示在线资源二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号)起止页码.【举例】[1] 周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星.对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2019(6):107-109.[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况[J].高等理科教育,2019(1):46-52.[3] Heider, E.R.& D.C.Oliver. The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 67.2.专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.【举例】[4] 刘国钧,王连成.图书馆史研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1979:15-18,31.[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.3.报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次).【举例】[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名 [C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.[9] Spivak,G. "Can the Subaltern Speak?"[A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp.271-313.[10] Almarza, G.G. Student foreign language teacher's knowledge growth [A]. In D.Freeman and J.C.Richards (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language T eaching [C]. New York:Cambridge University Press. 1996. pp.50-78.5.学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.6.研究报告【格式】[序号]作者. 篇名[R].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997:9-10.7.专利【格式】[序号]专利所有者.题名[P].国别:专利号,发布日期.【举例】[13] 姜锡洲.一种温热外敷药制备方案[P].中国专利:881056073, 1989 07 26.8.标准【格式】[序号]标准编号,标准名称[S].【举例】[14] GB/T 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S].9.条例【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期【举例】[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991-06-0510.电子文献【格式】[序号]主要责任者.电子文献题名.电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识].或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期.【举例】[17] 万锦.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983 1993).英文版 [DB/CD]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1996.11.各种未定义类型的文献【格式】[序号] 主要责任者.文献题名[Z].出版地:出版者, 出版年.特别说明：凡出现在"参考文献"项中的标点符号都失去了其原有意义，且其中所有标点必须是半角,如果你的输入法中有半角/全解转换,则换到半角状态就可以了,如果你的输入法中没有这一转换功能,直接关闭中文输入法,在英文输入状态下输入即可.其实，很多输入法(如目前比较流行的搜狐输入法)都提供了四种组合：(1)中文标点+ 全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(而这时，我没有找到哪个键可以输入/ 符号)也就是说，这些符号是一定不能出现在"参考文献"中的;(2)中文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(这时，我还是没有找到哪个键可以输入/ 符号)也就是说，这些符号也不能出现在"参考文献"中的;上面列出的符号，中间没有任何的空格，你能看出它们有什么区别吗?我看只是-的宽度有一点点不同，其它都一样(3)英文标点+全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，.：[1]-/(4)英文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的,.:[1]-/从这两项可以明显的看出，半角和全角其实最大的差别是所占的宽度不一样，这一点对于数字来说最为明显，而英文标点明显要比中文标点细小很多(也许因为英文中，标点的功能没有中文那么复杂，就是说英文中标点符号的能力没有中文那么强大)所以，很多人在写"参考文献" 时，总是觉得用英文标点+半角很不清楚，间距也太小，其实这点完全不用担心如果你觉得真的太小不好看，就用英文标点+全角吧而在[1] 之后，一般也都有一个空格更为详细的内容，大家可以从附件中下载国家标准《文后参考文献著录规则GB/T 7714-2019》查看，不过，很长很烦，拿出点耐心看吧对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：①作者姓名采用"姓在前名在后"原则，具体格式是：姓,名字的首字母. 如： Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, M.R.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norris, F. & I.Gordon.②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.三、注释注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明注释应置于本页页脚，前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。
读写译(仓兰菊)Unit 9 Corporate Culture
_______ 10. option k
_______ 11. mission d _______ 12. hang out f
Pre-reading Activities
III. Vocabulary Preview
B. Fill in the blanks with the italicized words from the previous exercise. Change the word form if necessary.
The Most Prestigious Job If you want a job that carries prestige, look down the block to the nearest firehouse. 1._________ ranked as the most prestigious occupation according to the latest Harris Interactive Poll. Almost 2._______ of those polled said these everyday heroes deserved very great prestige for what they do. 3._______ took the number 2 and 3 slots on the poll. 4._________ ranked number five. 6._______ are also the recipients of another distinct honor in this poll. They’re getting 7.________ all the time. Teachers havlmost 8.________ since 1977. At the bottom of the prestigious professions list, 9._________ got top rankings by just 6% of respondents. 10._______ and 11.________ are also on the low-end of the prestige poll despite their rather hefty pay.
英语MBA联考资料——中策词Unit10—Unit16(PPT版本讲义)
21天搞定800+核心词Unit10vt.维护，维持e.g. The two countries have always maintained close relations.两国一直保持着密切关系。
maintenance [ˈmeɪntənəns]n. 维持e.g. the maintenance of international peace维护国际和平maintain [meɪn'teɪn] 频次8vt.处理，解决频次8e.g. The next meeting will address the problem of truancy.下次会议将着手解决学生的逃课问题。
n. 地址频次9Do not write your address.不要写出你的地址。
address [ə'dres] 频次17n. 论据，理由e.g.His strong arguments persuaded me to accept his conclusions.他的强有力的论据说服了我，使我接受了他的结论。
argument ['ɑːgjʊm(ə)nt] 频次7adv. 容易地e.g. Learning languages doesn’t come easily to him.学习语言对他来说不容易。
easily ['iːzɪlɪ] 频次6n.日常饮食频次6e.g. to have a healthy, balanced diet有健康和均衡的饮食e.g. My diet is made up of rice and vegetables.我日常的饮食包括米饭和蔬菜。
diet ['daɪət] 频次6n. 节食（没考过）e.g. He is on a diet to reduce some weight.他正在节食以减轻体重。
dietary [ˈdaɪətəri] 频次1adj. 饮食的n. 必需品e.g. A good book is a necessity when travelling.出门旅行时，一本好书是必不可少的。
costly bargaining
Ž.Econometrica,Vol.69,No.2March,2001,377᎐411COSTLY BARGAINING AND RENEGOTIATIONB Y L UCA A NDERLINI AND L EONARDO F ELLI1We identify the inefficiencies that arise when negotiation between two parties takes place in the presence of transaction costs.First,for some values of these costs it isefficient to reach an agreement but the unique equilibrium outcome is one in whichagreement is never reached.Secondly,even when there are equilibria in which anagreement is reached,wefind that the model always has an equilibrium in whichagreement is never reached,as well as equilibria in which agreement is delayed for anarbitrary length of time.Finally,the only way in which the parties can reach an agreement in equilibrium is byŽ.using inefficient punishments for some of the opponent’s deviations.We argue that thisimplies that,when the parties are given the opportunity to renegotiate out of theseinefficiencies,the only equilibrium outcome that survives is the one in which agreement isnever reached,regardless of the value of the transaction costs.K EYWORDS:Optional bargaining costs,inefficient bargaining outcomes,renegotiation, imperfect recall.1.INTRODUCTION1.1.Moti¨ationŽŽ..T HE C OASE T HEOREM Coase1960is one of the cornerstones of modern economic analysis.It shapes the way economists think about the efficiency or inefficiency of outcomes in most economic situations.It guarantees that,if property rights are fully allocated,economic agents will exhaust any mutual gains from trade.Fully informed rational agents,unless they are exogenously restricted in their bargaining opportunities,will ensure that there are no unexploited gains from trade.Ž.This view of the necessary exploitation of all possible gains from trade is at the center of modern economic analysis.Economists faced with an inefficient outcome of the negotiation between two rational agents will automatically look for reasons that impede full and frictionless bargaining between the agents.In this paper we focus on the impact of transaction costs on the Coase theorem.We show that,in a complete information world,transaction costs 1We are grateful to Vincent Crawford,Joseph Harrington,Roger Lagunoff,Eric Maskin, Matthew Jackson,Steven Matthews,Larry Samuelson,Ilya Segal,a co-editor and two anonymous referees for insightful comments.We would also like to thank seminar participants at Brown,Ž.Ž.Ž.Cambridge,CentER Tilburg,Ente Einaudi Rome,Erasmus Rotterdam,Essex,E.S.S.E.T.1999Ž.Gerzensee,Georgetown,John’s Hopkins,The London School of Economics,Northwestern,S.E.D.Ž.Ž.1999Alghero,S.I.T.E.1998Stanford,The Stockholm School of Economics,Tel-Aviv University, and the University of Venice for helpful discussions and feedback.The research work for this paper was carried out while we were visiting the Department of Economics at the University of Pennsylva-nia.We are grateful for their stimulating hospitality.Of course,we are solely responsible for anyŽ. remaining errors.We acknowledgefinancial support from the E.S.R.C.Grant R000237825.377378L.ANDERLINI AND L.FELLIimply that the Coase theorem no longer holds in the sense that an efficient outcome is no longer guaranteed.In the model that we analyze,for certain values of the transaction costs only inefficient equilibria are possible,while for other values of these costs both efficient and inefficient equilibria obtain.In the latter case wefind that it is not possible to select the efficient outcomes in a consistent way:there are no equilibria of the model that guarantee an efficient outcome in every subgame.Given the impossibility of selecting efficient outcomes byfiat,we proceed as follows.Keeping as given the friction introduced by the transaction costs,we expand the negotiation possibilities for the two agentsᎏwe build into the extensive form opportunities for the parties to break out of inefficient outcomes. Wefind that in this case the only equilibrium outcome that survives is the most inefficient possible one:agreement is never reached and the entire surplus fails to materialize.1.2.Costly BargainingOur point of departure is the leading extensive form model of negotiation between two parties,namely an alternating offers bargaining game with com-plete information with potentially infinitely many rounds of negotiation in whichŽŽ..2 the players discount the future at a strictly positive rate Rubinstein1982. We introduce transaction costs in the following way.Both parties,at each round of negotiation,must pay a positive cost to participate in that round of the bargaining game.At each round,both parties have a choice of whether or not to pay their respective participation costs.Each round of negotiation takes place only if both parties pay their participation costs.If either player decides not to pay,the negotiation is postponed until the next period.The interpretation of the participation costs that we favor is the following.AtŽthe beginning of each period,both parties must decide irrevocably for that .period whether to spend that period of time at the negotiation table,or to engage in some other activity that yields a positive payoff.The participation costs in our model can simply be thought of as these alternative payoffs that the agents forego in order to engage in the negotiation activity for that period. Obviously,the bargaining situations that our modelfits best are those in which the participation costs we have described are a prominent feature of the bargaining process.First of all,the alternative payoff that the parties can earn, although smaller,must be of the same order of magnitude as the potential payoff from a bargaining agreement.Secondly,the time necessary to carry out each round of bargaining cannot be negligible.Offers and counteroffers might involve intricate details of the transaction at hand that take time to describe, check,and verify.2Ž.Many of our arguments are based on modifications of the proof that the Rubinstein1982Ž.model has a unique subgame perfect equilibrium presented by Shaked and Sutton1984.COSTLY BARGAINING379 Thefirst sense in which the Coase theorem fails in our model is the following. There exist values of the participation costs such that it is efficient for theŽparties to reach an agreement the sum of the costs is strictly smaller than the .size of the surplus and yet the unique equilibrium of the game is for the partiesŽnever to pay the costs so that an agreement is never reached Theorems1and2 .below.Having established Theorems1and2below,we focus on the case in which the values of the participation costs are low enough so that the parties will be able to reach an agreement in equilibrium.In this case the model displays aŽ.Žwide variety of equilibria:efficient equilibria with immediate agreement The-.Ž.orem3below,inefficient equilibria with an agreement with an arbitrarily long Ž.Ž.delay Theorem4below,and inefficient equilibria in which an agreement is Ž.never reached Theorem1below.Therefore,the Coase theorem fails in this case too in the sense that it is no longer necessarily the case that the outcome of the bargaining between the parties is Pareto efficient.In the case in which the participation costs are such that there are both efficient and inefficient equilibria,a natural reaction is that it is just a matter of choosing the right selection criterion to be able to isolate the efficient equilibria. If this were possible one would conclude that,in a sense,the Coase theorem does not fail in this setting for low enough transaction costs.In Section5below, we show that this way of proceeding does not work in our model.The reason is that all equilibrium agreements are sustained by off-the-equilibrium-path inef-ficient continuation equilibria needed to punish the players for not paying their participation costs.Since all efficient equilibria must clearly prescribe that an agreement takes place,it follows that a selection criterion that implies efficiency in a consistent way across every subgame does not work in our set-up.In fact, the set of equilibria that survives any such selection criterion is empty in our Ž.model Theorem6below.The fact that inefficient equilibrium outcomes are possible in our model leads naturally to the question of whether the source of the inefficiency and the failure of the Coase theorem lies in the limited negotiation opportunities given to the parties.To address this question we proceed in the following way.We modify the extensive form of the game so as to allow the parties a chance to start a fresh negotiation whenever they are playing strategies that put them strictly within the Pareto frontier of their payoffs.We do this by modifying the extensive form of the game and transforming it into a game of imperfect recall. We assume that,at the beginning of each period,with strictly positive probabil-ity,the parties do not recall the past history of play.This affords them a chance to renegotiate out of inefficient punishments.The result is devastating for the equilibria in which agreement is reached.When the probability of forgetting theŽ.history of play is above a minimum threshold smaller than one,the unique equilibrium outcome of the modified game is for the parties never to pay the costs and therefore never to reach an agreement.This is true regardless of the size of the participation costs,provided of course that they are positive.380L.ANDERLINI AND L.FELLIWe view this as the most serious failure of the Coase theorem in our model.If one expands the parties’opportunities to bargain,the inefficiency becomes extreme.Agreement is never reached,whatever the size of the transaction costs.1.3.Related LiteratureAs we mentioned above,the inefficiency results that we obtain in this paper can be viewed as a failure of the Coase theorem in the presence of transaction costs.3ŽŽ.. It is clear that the original version of the Coase theorem Coase1960 explicitly assumes the absence of any transaction costs or other frictions in theŽ.bargaining process.Indeed,Coase1992describes the theorem as a provocative result that was meant to show how unrealistic is the world without transaction costs.4It should,however,be noticed that,sometimes,subsequent interpreta-tions of the original claim have strengthened it way beyond the realm of frictionless negotiation.5It does not seem uncommon for standard microeco-nomics undergraduate texts to suggest that the Coase theorem should hold in the presence of transaction costs.6Ž.The analysis in Anderlini and Felli1997is also concerned with the hold-up problem generated by ex-ante contractual costs in a stylized contracting model and with the inefficiencies it generates.However,the main concern in Anderlini Ž.and Felli1997is with the robustness of the inefficiencies to changes in a number of assumptions.In particular,that paper focuses on the nature of the costs payable by the parties to make the contracting stage feasible,and on the possibility that the parties may rely on an expanded contract that includes contracting on the ex-ante costs themselves.By converse,in this paper we take it as given that the parties bargain according to a given protocol,and that they have to pay their participation costs in order to negotiate at each round.3We are certainly not thefirst to point out that the Coase theorem no longer holds when there are frictions in the bargaining process.There is a vast literature on bargaining models where the frictions take the form of incomplete and asymmetric information.With incomplete information,Žefficient agreements often cannot be reached and delays in bargaining may obtain.See Muthoo Ž.1999for an up-to-date coverage as well as extensive references on this strand of literature and.other issues in bargaining theory.By contrast,the main bargaining game that we analyze here is one of complete information.The source of inefficiencies in this paper can therefore be traced directly to the presence of participation costs.4Ž.de Meza1988provides an extensive survey of the literature on the Coase theorem,including an outline of its history and possible interpretations.5Ž.By contrast,Dixit and Olson1997have recently been concerned with a classical Coasian publicŽ.good problem in which they explicitly model the agents’ex-ante possibly costly decisions of whether to participate or not in the bargaining process.In this context,theyfind both efficient andŽ.inefficient equilibria.They also highlight the inefficiency of the symmetric mixed-strategy equilibria of their model.6For instance,an excellent textbook widely in use in the U.S.and elsewhere claims that,in its strongest formulation,the Coase theorem is interpreted as guaranteeing an efficient outcomew xŽŽwhenever the potential mutual gains‘‘exceed the necessary bargaining costs’’Nicholson1989, ..p.726.COSTLY BARGAINING381 Because they are sunk by the time offers are made and accepted or rejected, the participation costs that we introduce in the bargaining problem generate a version of the hold-up problem.This is the main source of inefficiency in the models that we analyze in this paper.The need for relationship-specific investment may allow one party to hold-upŽthe other when fully contingent contracts are not available Klein,Crawford,Ž.Ž.Ž.and Alchian1978,Grout1984,Williamson1985,Grossman and Hart Ž..1986.This key observation has generated a large and varied literature that has shed light on many central issues ranging from vertical and lateral integration ŽŽ..ŽŽ.. Grossman and Hart1986,ownership rights Hart and Moore1990,theŽŽ..Ždelegation of authority Aghion and Tirole1997and power Rajan and Ž..Zingales1998withinfirms.In all these models,a hold-up problem arises because the only possible contracts are incomplete.In a sense this causality is reversed in this paper.Here,the hold-up problem generated by the participation costs may induce inefficient bargaining outcomes;in some cases it may prevent the parties from reaching an agreement at all.The lack of agreement in a bargaining problem,in turn,can be viewed as an extreme form of contractual incompleteness.In a way,it is the hold-up problem generated by the participa-tion costs that is the cause of contractual incompleteness rather than vice-versa: the parties do not sign a contract when in fact it would be efficient to do so.A small number of recent papers has been concerned with inefficiencies that might arise in bargaining models with complete information.The extensive form games,and hence the sources of inefficiencies,that they analyze are substan-Ž.tially different from ours.In Fernandez and Glazer1991and Busch and Wen Ž.1995the nature of the bargaining costs is the exact opposite to the one tackled here.The parties may choose to pay a cost to delay the negotiation for a period. They bothfind efficient and inefficient equilibria in their models.Fershtman and Ž.Seidmann1993analyze a bargaining model in which inefficient equilibria arise because of the nonstationarity of the game.The nonstationarity of their game is given by the presence of a deadline and by the fact that each party cannotŽ.accept an offer that he has rejected in the past.Riedl1997analyzes a model in which only one player incurs a cost to participate in the bargaining process.He concentrates on the comparison of the case in which the cost is payable once with the case in which a cost is payable in each period.1.4.O¨er¨iewThe paper is organized as follows.In Section2we describe in detail our model of alternating offers bargaining with transaction costs.Section3contains ourfirst inefficiency result and a characterization of the equilibria of the model described in Section 2.In Section4we investigate the robustness of the inefficient and of the efficient equilibria of our model to some basic changes in the description of the game.In Section5we show that it is impossible to select the Pareto efficient equilibria of our game in a way that is consistent across subgames.Section6contains our model of renegotiation opportunities in the382L.ANDERLINI AND L.FELLIextensive form.Here,we present our second main resultᎏnamely the fact that the only equilibrium outcome of our game of imperfect recall is that agreement is never reached.Section7briefly concludes the paper.For ease of exposition all proofs are relegated to the Appendix.2.THE MODELÄ4 We consider a bargaining game between two players indexed by i g A,B. The game consists of potentially infinitely many rounds of alternating offers n s1,2,...and the size of the surplus to be split between the players is normalized to one.Each player i has to pay a participation cost at round n Ž.denoted c constant through time.We interpret this cost as the opportunity icost to player i of the time the player has to spend in the next round ofbargaining.7Throughout the paper,we focus on the case in which c q c F1.A BIn all odd periods,n s1,3,5,...,player A has the chance to make offers,and player B the chance to respond.In all even periods n s2,4,6,...,the players’roles are reversed,B is the proposer,while A is the responder.We refer to the odd periods as A periods and to even periods as B periods.The size of the surplus to be split between the players is normalized to one.w xAny offer made in period n is denoted by x g0,1.This denotes A’s share of the pie,if agreement is reached in period n.The discount factor of player Ä4w.i g A,B is denoted by␦g0,1.iTo clarify the structure of each round of bargaining,it is convenient to divide each time period in three stages.In stage I of period n,both players decidesimultaneously and independently,whether to pay the costs c.If both playersipay their participation costs,then the game moves to stage II of period n.At the end of stage I,both players observe whether or not the other player has paid his participation cost.If one,or both,players do not pay their cost,then the game moves directly to stage I of period n q1.w xIn stage II of period n,if n is odd,A makes an offer x g0,1to B,that B observes immediately after it is made.At the end of stage II of period n,the game moves automatically to stage III of period n.If n is even,the players’roles in stage II are reversed.In stage III of period n,if n is odd,B decides whether to accept or reject A’s offer.If B accepts,the game terminates,and the players receive the payoffs Ž.described in1below.If B rejects A’s offer,then the game moves to stage I of period n q1.If n is even,the players’roles in stage III are reversed.7Of course,it is possible that as the parties progress into further rounds of bargaining,they may become more efficient in their use of time.Depending on the particular bargaining situation at hand,offers and counteroffers may become routine,and the time needed for each round of bargaining may shrink.Clearly in this case,the participation costs would be decreasing rather thanŽ. constant through time.Ourfirst inefficiency result below the only if part of Theorem2appliesŽ.unchanged if we consider the lower bounds over time of any time-dependent participation costs.COSTLY BARGAINING383ŽThe players’payoffs consist of their shares of the pie zero if agreement is .never reached,minus any costs paid,appropriately discounted.To describe the payoffs formally,it is convenient to introduce some further notation at this Ž.point.Let,be a pair of strategies for the two players in the game weA BŽ.have just described,and consider the outcome path O,that these strate-A B8Ž.gies induce.Let also C,be the total of participation costs that player ii A BŽ.pays along the entire outcome path O,,discounted at the appropriateA Brate.Ž.If the outcome path O,prescribes that the players agree on an offer xA Bin period n,then the payoffs to A and B are respectively given byŽ.nŽ.⌸,s␦x y C,andA AB A A A BŽ.1Ž.nŽ.Ž.⌸,s␦1y x y C,B A B B B A BŽ.while if the outcome path O,prescribes that the players never agree onA BÄ4an offer,then the payoff to player i g A,B is given byŽ.Ž.⌸,sy C,.i A B i A B3.SUBGAME PERFECT EQUILIBRIAIn this section we provide a full characterization of the set of subgame perfect equilibria of the alternating offer bargaining game described in Section2above. Wefirst show that the bargaining game always has a subgame perfect Ž.equilibrium henceforth SPE in which the players do not ever pay the costs and hence agreement is never reached.By construction,this can be proved consider-ing the following pair of strategies that constitute an SPE of the game.Both players do not pay their participation costs in stage I of any period,regardless ofŽ. the previous history of play.In stage II of any period off the equilibrium path the proposing player demands the entire pie for himself.In stage III of any Ž.period again off the equilibrium path the responding player accepts any offer w xx g0,1.Thus,we have proved ourfirst result.T HEOREM1:Consider the alternating offers bargaining game with participationÄ4 costs described in Section2.Whate¨er the¨alues of␦and c for i g A,B,therei iexists an SPE of the game in which neither player pays his participation cost in any period,and therefore an agreement is ne¨er reached.We now proceed to characterize the necessary and sufficient conditions on Ž.Ž.the pair of costs c,c and the parties’discount factors␦,␦under whichA B A Bthe parties are able to achieve an agreement.8Throughout the paper,we focus on pure strategies only.This greatly simplifies the analysis and dramatically reduces the amount of notation we need.The nature of our results would be unaffectedŽby considering equilibria in which players are allowed independent randomizations behavioral .Žstrategies.In particular,the analogues of Theorems2and5below hold when mixing behavioral .strategies is allowed.L .ANDERLINI AND L .FELLI 384F IGURE 1.ᎏSPE with agreement in finite time.T HEOREM 2:Consider the alternating offers bargaining game with participation costs described in Section 2.The game has an SPE in which an agreement is Ä4reached in finite time if and only if ␦and c for i g A ,B satisfyi i Ž.Ž.Ž.2␦1y c y c G c and ␦1y c y c G c .A AB A B A B B Ž.For given ␦and ␦,the set of costs c ,c for which an agreement is A B A B reached is represented by the shaded region in Figure 1.A complete proof of Theorem 2appears in the Appendix.It is useful to Ž.outline here the steps of the argument that proves that the inequalities in 2are necessary for the existence of an SPE with agreement in finite time.Assume that an SPE with an agreement in finite time exists.Clearly,in any w x SPE the equilibrium agreement must satisfy x g c ,1y c .This is because the A B parties’payoffs cannot be negative in any SPE.9From the stationarity of the game it follows that if an SPE with agreement in finite time exists,then there must be some SPE with immediate agreement in every subgame starting in stage I of every period.Consider now stage III of a period in which the costs have been paid and B has made an offer to A .Clearly A will accept all offers x that are aboveŽH .H ␦x y c ,where x is the highest possible equilibrium agreement in a period A A A A in which A is the ing subgame perfection we can now conclude that the highest possible equilibrium agreement in a period in which B is theproposer,x H ,satisfiesB Ž.H ŽH .3x F ␦x y c .B A A A A completely symmetric argument proves thatŽ.L ŽL .41y x F ␦1y x y c A B B B 9This is immediate from the fact that each player can guarantee a payoff of zero by never paying his participation cost.COSTLY BARGAINING385 LŽL.where x respectively x is the lowest possible equilibrium agreement in aA BŽ.period in which A respectively B is the proposer.w x Recall now that all equilibrium agreements must be in the range c,1y c.A B Therefore,we can now substitute x H G c,x H F1y c,x L F1y c,and x L GB A A B A B BŽ.Ž.Ž.c into3and4to obtain the inequalities in2,and hence conclude the Aargument.Clearly,Theorem2supports ourfirst inefficiency claim.The sum of the participation costs is less than the total available surplus anywhere below the dashed line in Figure1.Given any pair of discount factors,there exists a region of possible participation costs such that the model has a unique,inefficient,SPEŽ.outcome.In Figure1,for any pair c,c below the dashed line but outside theA Bshaded area,the participation costs add up to less than one,but no agreement is ever reached.We are now ready to give a more detailed characterization of the SPE with agreements of this game.We start by identifying the range of possible equilib-rium shares of the pie in every possible subgame when agreement is immediate. T HEOREM3:Consider the alternating offers bargaining game with participationÄ4costs described in Section2,and assume that␦and c for i g A,B are such thati iŽ.2holds so that the game has some SPE in which an agreement is reached infiniteŽtime.Consider any subgame starting in stage I of any A period the A subgames .10from now on.Then there exists an SPE of the A subgames in which x is agreedA immediately,if and only ifŽ.wŽ.x5x g1y␦1y c y c,1y c.A B A B BŽSymmetrically,consider any subgame starting in stage I of any B period the B.subgames from now on.Then there exists an SPE of the B subgames in which x isB agreed immediately,if and only ifŽ.wŽ.x6x g c,␦1y c y c.B A A A BOur next result both completes our characterization of the set of SPE payoffs, and supports our second inefficiency claim.Every sharing of the pie that can be supported as an immediate agreement can also take place with a delay of an arbitrary number of periods.T HEOREM4:Consider the alternating offers bargaining game with participationÄ4costs described in Section2,and assume that␦and c for i g A,B are such thati iŽ.2holds so that the game has some SPE in which an agreement is reached infinite time.Ž.Let any x as in5and any odd number n be gi¨en.Then there exists an SPE of AŽ.the A subgames in which the continuation payoffs to the players are respecti¨ely gi¨en byŽ.nŽ.nŽ.7⌸s␦x y c,⌸s␦1y x y c.A A A AB B A B10Recall that we refer to all odd periods as A periods,and to all even periods as B periods.386L.ANDERLINI AND L.FELLIŽ.Moreo¨er,let any x as in6and any e¨en number n be gi¨en.Then there exists an BŽ.SPE of the A subgames in which the continuation payoffs to the players are respecti¨ely gi¨en byŽ.nŽ.nŽ.8⌸s␦x y c,⌸s␦1y x y c.A AB A B B B BŽ.Symmetrically,let any x as in6and any odd number n be gi¨en.Then thereBŽ.exists an SPE of the B subgames in which the continuation payoffs to the players Ž.Ž.are as in8.Moreo¨er,let any x as in5and any e¨en number n be gi¨en.ThenAŽ.there exists an SPE of the B subgames in which the continuation payoffs to the Ž.players are as in7.4.ROBUSTNESS OF EQUILIBRIAIn this section,we carry out four robustness exercises about the SPE of the game described in Section2that we have identified in Section3.Ourfirst concern is the relationship between the set of SPE of our game withŽŽ..˚the set of SPE of afinite version of the same game Stahl1972.The uniqueŽ.SPE identified by Rubinstein1982of the same bargaining game when there are no participation costs has many reassuring properties.Among these is the fact that if a version of the same game with a truncated time horizon is considered,the limit of the SPE of thefinite games coincides with the unique SPE of the infinite horizon game.This is not the case in our bargaining model with participation costs.In fact when we truncate the time horizon to befinite in our model,the only possible SPE outcome is the one in which neither player ever pays his participation cost and hence no agreement is reached provided only that participation costs are positive.The intuition behind Remark1below is a familiar backward induction argument.No agreement is possible in the last period since the responder would have to get a share of zero if agreement is reached,and therefore he will not pay his participation cost in that period.This easily implies that no agreement is possible in the last period but one,and so on.Let⌫ϱrepresent the infinite horizon alternating offers bargaining game with participation costs described in Section2.For anyfinite N)1,let⌫N repre-sent the same game with time horizon truncated at N.In other words,in⌫N,if period N is ever reached,the game terminates,regardless of whether an agreement has been reached or not.If no agreement has been reached by period N,the players’payoffs are zero,minus any costs paid of course.We can then state the following.R EMARK1:Let anyfinite N G1be gi¨en.Then the unique SPE outcome of⌫N is that neither player pays his participation cost in any period and hence agreement is ne¨er reached.。
英文6月精读团讲义【下】更新版
【6】The Climate of JapanAt the most general level, two major climatic forces determine Japan’s weather. Prevailing westerly winds move across Eurasia, sweep over the Japanese islands, and continue eastward across the Pacific Ocean. In addition, great cyclonic airflows (masses of rapidly circulating air) that arise over the western equatorial Pacific move in a wheel-like fashion northeastward across Japan and nearby regions. During winter months heavy masses of cold air from Siberia dominate the weather around Japan. Persistent cold winds skim across the Sea of Japan from the northwest, picking up moisture that they deposit as several feet of snow on the western side of the mountain ranges on Honshu Island. As the cold air drops its moisture, it flows over high ridges and down eastern slopes to bring cold, relatively dry weather to valleys and coastal plains and cities.In spring the Siberian air mass warms and loses density, enabling atmosphere currents over the Pacific to steer warmer air into northeast Asia. This warm, moisture-laden air covers most of southern Japan during June and July. The resulting late spring rains then give way to a drier summer that is sufficiently hot and muggy, despite the island chain’s northerly latitude, to allow widespread rice cultivation.Summer heat is followed by the highly unpredictable autumn rains that accompany the violent tropical windstorm known as typhoons. These cyclonic storms originate over the western Pacific and travel in great clockwise arcs, initially heading west toward the Philippines and southern China, curving northward later in the season. Cold weather drives these storms eastward across Japan through early autumn revitalizing Siberian air mass and ushering in a new annual weather cycle.This yearly cycle has played a key role in shaping Japanese civilization. It has assured the islands ample precipitation, ranging irregularly from more than 200 centimeters annually in parts of the southwest to about 100 in the northeast and averaging 180 for the country as a whole.The moisture enables the islands to support uncommonly lush forest cover, but the combination of precipitous slopes and heavy rainfall also gives the islands one of the world’s highest rates of natural erosion, intensified by both human activity and the natural shocks of earthquakes and volcanism.These factors have given Japan its wealth of sedimentary basins, but they have also made mountainsides extremely susceptible to erosion and landslides and hence generally unsuitable for agricultural manipulation.The island chain’s m ountainous backbone and great length from north to south produce climatic diversity that has contributed to regional differences. Generally sunny winters along the Pacific seaboard have made habitation there relatively pleasant. Along the Sea or Japan, on the other hand, cold, snowy winters have discouraged settlement. Furthermore, although annual precipitation is high in that region, much of it comes as snow and rushes to the sea as spring runoff, leaving little moisture for farming.Summer weather patterns in northern Honshu, and especially along the Sea of Japan, have also discouraged agriculture. The area is subject to the yamase effect, when cool air from the north sometimes lowers temperatures sharply and damages farm production. The impact of this effect has been especially great on rice cultivation because,if it is to grow well, the rice grown in Japan requires a mean summer temperature of 20°centigrade or higher.A drop of 2°—3°can lead to a 30—50 percent drop in rice yield, and the yamase effect is capable of exceeding that level. This yamase effect does not, however, extend very far south, where most precipitation comes in the form of rain and the bulk of it in spring, summer, and fall,when most useful for cultivation. Even the autumn typhoons, which deposit most of their moisture along the southern seaboard, are beneficial because they promote the start of the winter crops that for centuries have been grown in southern Japan.In short, for the past two millennia, the climate in general and patterns of precipitation in particular have encouraged the Japanese to cluster their settlements along the southern coast, most densely along the sheltered Inland Sea, moving into the northeast. There the limits that topography imposed on production have been tightened by climate, with the result that agricultural output has been more modest and less reliable, making the risk of crop failure and hardship commensurately greater.1.According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of the cold air from Siberia EXCEPTA.It gathers moisture as it moves across the sea of JapanB.It is responsible for the snow that falls on the western side of Honshu islandC.It is warmed by the cyclonic airflow from the south that mix-with it.D.It is responsible for the cold, dry weather of the eastern valleys and coastal plains and cities2.The word “enabling ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA.preparingB.requiringC.allowingD.distributing3.Why does the author include the phrase “despite the island chain’s northerly latitude” in the paragraph?A.To indicate that one would not expect such hot, muggy weather at Japan’s latitudeB.To compare Japan’s climate to the climate of more northerly latitudesC.To give a reason for the hot,muggy weather experienced in Japan during the summerD.To explain why J apan’s climate is only suitable for rice cultivation4.According to paragraph 3, all of the following are true of autumn storms EXCEPTA.They involve rain combined with tropical windstormsB.Cyclonic storms have a predictable pattern of travelC.Their movement creates a weather cycle that repeats itselfD.They begin as northern Siberian air masses with consistent rains following the summer heat5.The word “cluster” in the passage is closet in meaning toA.buildB.groupC.moveD.expand6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information A.Agricultural production has been more successful in northeastern Japan than along the island Sea, where topography and climate make life difficult for peopleB.Topography and climate have combined to limit agricultural production in northeastern Japan,resulting in an increased risk of crop failure and hardshipC.Along the inland Sea, where topography makes the climate more severedeceased agriculture output has resulted from crop failure and hardship.D.The risk of crop failure in northeastern Japan has caused greater hardship than have climate and topography7.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as contribute in paragraph 4 as contribute to thehigh rate of erosion in the Japanese EXCEPTA.very steep slopes and heavy rainfallB.intense agricultural manipulationC.earthquakes and volcanic activitiesD.human activity8.The phrase “susceptible to” is closest in meaning toA.slow to replace losses fromB.likely to be affected byC.unable to benefit fromD.well-known for9.According to paragraph 5, which of the following is a major factor in the limited habitation in thearea along the Sea of Japan?A.It has too many mountainsB.It is vulnerable to floods during spring runoffC.Its climate is highly irregular and unpredictableD.It is cold and snowy during winter10.According to paragraph 6, how can the yamase effect lead lower rice production in northernHonshu?A.It can cause temperatures to drop below the level required for rice to grow wellB.It can limit the amount of summer rainfall, resulting in less water for cultivationC.It can damage a large portion of the land on which rice is grownD.It can prevent rice cultivation during seasons other than summer11.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about farming in southern Japan?A.Farming is limited to rice cultivationB.Farming is difficult because of the Yamase effectC.Farming takes place throughout the yearD.Farming suffers from the effects of autumn typhoons12.The word “exceeding” is closet in meaning toA.almost reachingB.going beyondC.maintainingD.reducingParagraph 4This yearly cycle has played a key role in shaping Japanese civilization.⏹ It has assured the islands ample precipitation, ranging irregularly from more than 200 centimeters annually in parts of the southwest to about 100 in the northeast and averaging 180 for the country as a whole.⏹The moisture enables the islands to support uncommonly lush forest cover, but the combination of precipitous slopesand heavy rainfall also gives the islands one of the world’s highest rates of natural erosion, intensified by both human activity and the natural shocks of earthquakes and volcanism.⏹These factors have given Japan its wealth of sedimentary basins, but they have also made mountainsides extremely susceptible to erosion and landslides and hence generally unsuitable for agricultural manipulation.⏹13.Look at the four squares [⏹] that indicates where the following sentence could be added to thepassage.Such a large amount of rainfall has both positive and negative effects on the environment of Japanese islands.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below.Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Japan’s yearly weather cycled influences settlement patterns andagriculture across the islands.Answer choicesA.The yamase effects has a great impact on rice growth in northern Japan but does not affectcultivation in southern Japan, where precipitation comes in the forms of rain rather thanB.Agriculture practices that stabilize sediments have reduced erosion and landscape allowed thegrowth of lush forests in JapanC.Climate changes during the last two millennia have caused the Japanese to move their settlementstowards the northeast, where the climate is more favorable to agricultureD.Japan’s yearly weather cycle makes farming possible only in the summer, as the effects of theSiberia air mass result in winters that are too cold and snowy for agriculture.E.Cold westerly winds from Siberia and cyclonic airflows from the Pacific Ocean provide amplerainfall for farming but contribute to high rates of erosionF.Settlements are most concentrated along the Pacific seaboard to the south where climate andtopography are more suitable for crop cultivation than along the Sea of Japan.P7：Removing DamsFor nearly a century, two United States governmental agencies, the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation, have constructed dams to store water and to generate electricity. Building these dams provided cheap electricity, created jobs for workers, stimulated regional economic development, and allowed farming on lands that would otherwise be too dry. But not everyone agrees that big dam projects are entirely beneficial. Their storage reservoirs stop the flow of rivers and often submerge towns, farms, and historic sites. They prevent fish migrations and change aquatic habitats essential for native species.The tide may have turned, in fact, against dam building. In 1998 the Army Corps announced that it would no longer be building large dams. In the few remaining sites where dams might be built, public opposition is so great that getting approval for projects is unlikely. Instead, the new focus may be on removing existing damsand restoring natural habitats. In 1999 Bruce Babbitt, then the United States interior secretary, said, “Of the 75,000 large dams in the United States, most were built a long time ago and are now obsolete, expensive, and unsafe. They were built with no consideration of the environmental costs. As operating licenses come up for renewal, dam removal and habitat restoration to original stream flows will be among the options considered.”The first active hydroelectric dam in the United States to be removed against the wishes of its owners was the 162-year-old Edwards Dam, on the Kennebec River in Augusta, Maine. For many years, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service had advocated the removal of this dam, which prevented migration of salmon, shad, sturgeon, and other fish species up the river. In a precedent-setting decision, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ordered the dam removed after concluding that the environmental and economic benefits of a free-flowing river outweighed the electricity generated by the dam. In July 1999 the dam was removed and restoration work began on wetlands and stream banks long underwater.The next dams likely to be taken down are the Elwha and Glines Dams on the Elwha River in Olympic National Park in the state of Washington. Built nearly a century ago to provide power to lumber and paper mills in the town of Port Angeles, these dams blocked access to upstream spawning beds for six species of salmon on what once was one of the most productive salmon rivers in the world. Simply removing the dams will not restore the salmon, however. Where 50-kilogram king salmon once fought their way up waterfalls to lay their eggs in gravel beds, there now are only concrete walls holding back still water and deep beds of muddy deposits. Removing the mud, uncovering gravel beds where fish spawn, and finding suitable salmon types to rebuild the population is a daunting task. Congress will have to appropriate somewhere around $300 to $400 million to remove these two relatively small dams and rehabilitate the area.Environmental groups, encouraged by these examples, have begun to talk about much more ambitious projects. Four giant dams on the Snake River in Washington State, for example, might be removed to restore salmon and steelhead fish runs to the headwaters of the Columbia River. The Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite National Park might be taken down to reveal what John Muir, the founder of the prestigious environmental organization Sierra Club, called a valley “just as beautiful and worthy of preservation as the majestic Yosemite.” Some groups have even suggested removing the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River. In each of these cases, powerful interests stand in opposition. These dams generate low-cost electricity and store water that is needed for agriculture and industry. Local economies, domestic water supplies, and certain types of recreation all would be severely impacted by destruction of these dams.How does one weigh the many different economic, cultural, and aesthetic considerations for removing or not removing these dams? Do certain interests, such as the rights of native people or the continued existence of native species of fish or wildlife, take precedence over economic factors, or should this be a utilitarian calculation of the greatest good for the greatest number? And does that number include only humans or do other species count as well?Paragraph 11. According to paragraph 1, building dams was beneficial in each of the following ways EXCEPTA. increasing the amount of land that could be used for farmingB. strengthening local economiesC. increasing the availability of low-cost electricityD. expanding the aquatic habitats of native speciesParagraph 22. According to paragraph 2, the likelihood that new dams will be built has decreased becauseA. construction costs have increased enormouslyB. safety standards have become much higherC. public opposition to dam construction has increasedD. at most suitable sites an existing dam would have to be removed first3. The word "obsolete " in the passage is closest in meaning toA. unpopularB. inefficientC. out of dateD. unnecessary4. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following ideas about operating licenses for large dams?A. Since 1999 licenses have been renewed only for small dams.B. Before 1999, owners applying for a license renewal were more likely to have their applications than they were after that date.C. Strong public opposition to their renewal was common even before 1999, but it was based on safety considerations, not on environmental ones.D. The environmental cost of dams has been a minor consideration in license renewal applications since 1999.Paragraph 35. According to paragraph 3, why did the United States Fish and Wildlife Service want the Edwards Dam removed?A. Because the age of the dam made it unsafeB. Because the dam was negatively affecting various species of fishC. Because the dam had caused wetlands to formD. Because the dam no longer provided economic benefits6. Paragraph 3 suggests that one main consideration for keeping the Edwards Dam wasA. the electricity it generatedB. the length of time it had been in operationC. the high cost of removing itD. the fact that removing it would set a bad exampleParagraph 47. According to paragraph 4, why would removing the Elwha and Glines dams not be enough to restore salmon to the Elwha River?A. They are not the only dams on the Elwha River.B. The lumber and paper mills in Port Angeles also block access to upstream spawning beds.C. Too many species of salmon are competing for survival in one river.D. The dams have left the river’s spawning beds in an unusable condition.8. The word "suitable " in the passage is closest in meaning toA. newB. healthyC. appropriateD. similarParagraph 59. The word "ambitious " in the passage is closest in meaning toA. impressive but difficult to achieveB. dangerous and require considerable planningC. complex and unlikely to be completeD. greatly needed10. According to paragraph 5, why do environmental groups want the Hetch Hetchy Dam removed?A. To restore salmon and steelhead runs to the Snake RiverB. To allow access to the headwaters of the Columbia RiverC. To increase the size of Yosemite National ParkD. To restore a valley to its original beautyParagraph 611. The phrase "take precedence over " in the passage is closest in meaning toA. affectB. have greater importance thanC. get included amongD. minimize12. What is the role of paragraph 6 in the passage?A. To propose a method for deciding whether a given dam should be removedB. To emphasize the complexity of the issues involved in deciding what should be done about damsC. To suggest that the recent tendency not to build new dams may be wrongD. To sum up the points made earlier in the passage about the advantages and disadvantages of removing damsParagraph 4The next dams likely to be taken down are the Elwha and Glines Dams on the Elwha River in Olympic National Park in the state of Washington. Built nearly a century ago to provide power to lumber and paper mills in the town of Port Angeles, these dams blocked access to upstream spawning beds for six species of salmon on what once was one of the most productive salmon rivers in the world. Simply removing the dams will not restore the salmon, however. ■Where 50-kilogram king salmon once fought their way up waterfalls to lay their eggs in gravel beds, there now are only concrete walls holding back still water and deep beds of muddy deposits. ■Removing the mud, uncovering gravel beds where fish spawn, and finding suitable salmon types to rebuild the population is a daunting task. ■Congress will have to appropriate somewhere around $300 to $400 million to remove these two relatively small dams and rehabilitate the area. ■13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. But aside from the technical challenges, the project will also pose a serious financial challenge.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Many dams were built in the United States during the last century, and they provided a broad range of economic benefits.A. Until recently, the emphasis in dam building was on the economic benefits of low-cost energy and water that dams provided, but more attention is now being paid to the damage they cause.B. Environmental groups now have a very good chance of forcing the removal of two major dams, the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado and the Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite.C. The removal of dams remains controversial because of high restoration costs, loss of low-cost electricity, and the loss of water storage facilities.D. Since the late 1990s, the government has stopped building large dams, instead focusing on removing existing dams and restoring natural habitats.E. Until recently, the main reason for removing dams was to restore salmon runs, but it is now recognized that a more important reason to remove dams is that they are no longer safe.F. A lthough the U. S. government originally planned to remove the Elwha and Glines Dams in Washington, the enormous expense of removal has resulted in a postponement of this effort.【P8】CometsComets are among the most interesting and unpredictable bodies in the solar system. They are made of frozen gases (water vapor, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide) that hold together small pieces of rocky and metallic materials. Many comets travel in very elongated orbits that carry them far beyond Pluto. These long-period comets take hundreds of thousands of years to complete a single orbit around the Sun. However, a few short-period comets (those having an orbital period of less than 200 years), such as Halley’s Comet, make a regular encounter with the inner solar system.When a comet first becomes visible from Earth, it appears very small, but as it approaches the Sun, solar energy begins to vaporize the frozen gases, producing a glowing head called the coma. The size of the coma varies greatly from one comet to another. Extremely rare ones exceed the size of the Sun, but mostapproximate the size of Jupiter. Within the coma, a small glowing nucleus with a diameter of only a few kilometers can sometimes be detected. As comets approach the Sun, some develop a tail that extends for millions of kilometers. Despite the enormous size of their tails and comas, comets are relatively small members of the solar system.The observation that the tail of a comet points away from the Sun in a slightly curved manner led early astronomers to propose that the Sun has a repulsive force that pushes the particles of the coma away, thereby forming the tail. Today, two solar forces are known to contribute to this formation. One, radiation pressure, pushes dust particles away from the coma. The second, known as solar wind, is responsible for moving the ionized gases, particularly carbon monoxide. Sometimes a single tail composed of both dust and ionized gases is produced, but often two tails—one of dust, the other, a blue streak of ionized gases—are observed.As a comet moves away from the Sun, the gases forming the coma recondense, the tail disappears, and the comet returns to distant space. Material that was blown from the coma to form the tail is lost from the comet forever. Consequently, it is believed that most comets cannot survive more than a few hundred close orbits of the Sun. Once all the gases are expelled, the remaining material—a swarm of tiny metallic and stony particles—continues the orbit without a coma or a tail.Comets apparently originate in two regions of the outer solar system. Most short-period comets are thought to orbit beyond Neptune in a region called the Kuiper belt, in honor of the astronomer Gerald Kuiper. During the past decade over a hundred of these icy bodies have been discovered. Most Kuiper belt comets move in nearly circular orbits that lie roughly in the same plane as the planets. A chance collision between two comets, or thegravitational influence of one of the Jovian planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—may occasionally alter the orbit of a comet in these regions enough to send it to the inner solar system and into our view.Unlike short-period comets, long-period comets have elliptical orbits that are not confined to the plane of the solar system. These comets appear to be distributed in all directions from the Sun, forming a spherical shell around the solar system, called the Oort cloud, after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort. Millions of comets are believed to orbit the Sun at distances greater than 10,000 times the Earth-Sun distance. The gravitational effect of a distant passing star is thought to send an occasional Oort cloud comet into a highly eccentric orbit that carries it toward the Sun. However, only a tiny portion of the Oort cloud comets have orbits that bring them into the inner solar system.The most famous short-period comet is Halley’s C omet, named after English astronomer Edmond Halley. Its orbital period averages 76 years, and every one of its 30 appearances since 240 B.C. has been recorded by Chinese astronomers. When seen in 1910, Halley’s Comet had developed a tail nearly 1.6 million kilometers (1 million miles) long and was visible during daylight hours. Its most recent approach occurred in 1986.Paragraph 11. All of the following questions can be answered based on the facts presented in paragraph 1 EXCEPT:A.Do any comets travel to regions of space beyond our solar system?B.Do most short-period comets enter the inner solar system?C.What are comets composed of?D.Why are comets regarded as among the most unpredictable bodies in the solar system?Paragraph 22.The word “exceed” in the pas sage is closet in meaning toA.becomeB.grow toC.approachD.go beyond3.The word “detected” in the passage is closet in meaning toA.noticedB.createdC.expandedD.displayed4.Paragraph 2 supports the idea that comets appear very small when they first become visible from Earth becauseA.the glow from the nucleus hides the rest of the comet from viewB.they are still too far away from the Sun to have developed a coma or a tailC.their various gases have mostly become vaporizedD.they are relatively small when compared to the visible planets5.Paragraph 2 supports which of the following statements about comet size?A.The size of a comet is affected by the addition of gases absorbed as the comet passes the Sun.B.The size of a comet’s tail is less variable than the size of its coma.C.The coma of most comets is smaller than the Sun.D.The size of a comet cannot be accurately determined until it nears Earth.Paragraph 36.The word “propose” in the passage is closet in meaning toA.offer the theoryB.proveC.agreeD.discover7.According to paragraph 3, w hat is true about comets’ tails?A.Their shape led early astronomers to draw false conclusions about the Sun.B.They consist mostly of ionized gases that had been blown out of the Sun.C.Radiation pressure and solar wind both play a role in their formation.D.Their dust content decreases as a comet nears the Sun.Paragraph 48.Select TWO answer choices that according to paragraph 4 describe how a comet changes as it travels away from the Sun. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.A.It loses its metallic and stony particles.B.It loses all the material that was in its tail.C.Its orbital period becomes shorter.D.The gases that were in its coma recondense.Paragraph 5。
职测综合讲义
职测综合讲义(中英文版)英文文档：Professional Comprehensive GuideThis comprehensive guide is designed to provide a thorough understanding of the professional assessment.It covers various aspects of the assessment, including its purpose, structure, and content.The guide also offers strategies and tips for effective preparation.The purpose of the professional assessment is to evaluate the knowledge, skills, and abilities of individuals in a specific field.It is often used for recruitment, promotion, or certification purposes.The assessment aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of candidates and provide a fair and objective evaluation of their competency.The structure of the professional assessment typically includes multiple-choice questions, essay questions, and practical exercises.The content covers a wide range of topics relevant to the field, including theoretical knowledge, practical skills, and industry-specific trends.To effectively prepare for the professional assessment, it is important to have a clear understanding of the assessment content and format.Candidates should study the relevant literature, attend training workshops, and practice with past examination papers.Developing effective study habits, managing time efficiently, and seeking guidancefrom experts can also contribute to successful preparation.In conclusion, this comprehensive guide provides a valuable resource for individuals preparing for a professional assessment.It offers a detailed overview of the assessment, including its purpose, structure, and content.By following the strategies and tips provided, candidates can enhance their preparation and increase their chances of success.中文文档：职业综合讲义这本综合讲义旨在为职业评估提供一个全面的理解。
barra十因子
barra十因子【原创版】目录1.Barra 十因子的定义和背景2.Barra 十因子的十个组成部分3.Barra 十因子的应用和影响正文Barra 十因子是一种投资风险管理工具，最初由法国巴拉特银行（Barra）开发，用于评估股票投资的风险调整收益。
后来，这一工具被广泛应用于全球股票市场，并成为一种重要的投资参考指标。
Barra 十因子包括以下十个组成部分：1.市场风险（Market Risk）：衡量股票与市场的相关性，即股票价格变动与市场整体变动的关联度。
2.利率风险（Interest Rate Risk）：衡量股票价格对利率变动的敏感性，通常使用债券收益率作为代理指标。
3.账面价值风险（Book Value Risk）：衡量股票的账面价值变动对股票价格的影响。
4.盈利风险（Earnings Risk）：衡量公司的盈利能力对股票价格的影响。
5.流动资产风险（Liquidity Risk）：衡量股票的流动性，即股票的交易活跃程度。
6.市值风险（Market Capitalization Risk）：衡量股票市值的变动对股票价格的影响。
7.波动性风险（Volatility Risk）：衡量股票价格的波动程度。
8.集中度风险（Concentration Risk）：衡量投资组合中个股的权重分布，以评估风险分散程度。
9.杠杆风险（Leverage Risk）：衡量公司负债水平对股票价格的影响。
10.规模风险（Size Risk）：衡量股票市值规模对股票价格的影响。
Barra 十因子在投资领域的应用十分广泛，许多机构投资者和资产管理公司将其作为风险管理和投资决策的重要依据。
通过分析这些因子，投资者可以更好地了解股票的风险特征，从而制定更为有效的投资策略。