Knowledge acquisition method for case-knowledge-based product family design
教学法期末复习
The structural view（概念）结构主义考点：掌握三者的概念及区别The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems.The system of language = the system of sounds + the system of words + the system of grammarThe functional view功能主义语言学习理论The functional view sees language as a linguistic system and as a means for doing things.The interactional view 交互语言理论The interactional view sees language as a communicative tool (to build up and maintain relations between people).The interactional view sees language primarily as means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing transactions between individuals.The target of language learning is learning to initiate and maintain conversation with other peopleTwo things are needed for communicationof language form (grammar & vocabulary)of language use in a context (Is it appropriate to use this language item in this context)补充考点：掌握Krashen五个假设Acquisition-learning Hypothesis 习得—学习假说Acquisition: an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication.Learning: a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge.The monitor Hypothesis 监察假说On some occasions learners make a particular effort with their language. when they are writingsth. formal, talking to someone important, etc.). They monitor their own speech---checkingit carefully before they produce it. Natural Order Hypothesis自然顺序假说: The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds ina predictable order.The Input Hypothesis输入假说: We acquire (not learn) language by understanding input that isa little beyond our current level of competence.The affective filter hypothesis情感过滤假说Affect is regarded as a “filter”.The learner’s emotional state or attitudes are seen as an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition.filter(motivation, self-confidence, anxiety)Input ….. . Language acquired competenceAcquisitionDeviceCommunicative Language Teaching 掌握目标The goal of CLT is to develop students’ communicative competence , which includes both the knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language appropriately in communicative situations(knowledge of what to say, when, how, where,and to whom).Five main components of communicative competenceLinguistic competence:knowledge of the language itself, its form and meaning (spelling, pronunciation,vocabulary,word formation,grammatical structure, sentence structure, semantics)语言能力Pragmatic competence: the appropriate use of the language in social context(the choice of the vocabulary and structure depends on the setting , the relative status of the speakers and their relationships.)语用能力Discourse competence: one’s ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand them.(to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse)语篇能力Strategic competence: one’s ability to compensate for the communication breakdown due to lack of resources by searching for other means of expression, such as using a similar phrase, using gestures, or using a longer explanation. 策略能力Fluency: one’s ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitationPrinciples of CLT 流利度考点：三者的概念Pragmatic competence；Discourse competence；Strategic competence;记住五个名词Principles of CLTCommunication principle: activities that involve real communication promote learningTask principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learningMeaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning processSix criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities P24purposedesire, not formof languageteacher interventionmaterials control考点：简答题，这个活动是不是communicative 首先列出标准，评价符合哪些标准，最后判断是与否Unit 3New National English Curriculum in 2001 了解新版教学大纲从1978到2001年的大纲规定（）可以看到有如下几点进步：1.教学目标：单纯传授知识提高学生全面素质2. 教学要求：单一、封闭灵活、开放（分级：初一、初二必修，初三选修；高一高二必修，高三选修；不同学校：普通、重点、外国语学校等，有不同要求，可以超越大纲）3. 教学观念和方法:明确英语教学的目的是培养学生运用语言进行交际的能力提出了四项技能综合训练，不同阶段各有侧重（听说入手读写，高中侧重阅读）强调处理好语言教学与文化的关系注意发挥教师的指导作用，充分调动学生的学习主动性和积极性重视利用直观教具和现代化教学手段，不利创设英语环境（挂图、录音带、幻灯片、录像带、VCD 、CD-ROM 、DVD 、软件4. 教材：教材的内容逐渐贴近学生的生活和现代社会生活，渗透思想情感的教育，渗透大量自然和社会科学知识采用结构、功能、话题相结合的方法，有些教材加上任务型教学活动，教材语言真实、自然、地道，教法灵活教材编写注意学生生理和心理发展的特征，重视从教学内容、编排体系到呈现形式等方面提高趣味性，激发兴趣力求符合学生学习英语的认知规律，调节难易运用现代教学技术编制多媒体教材多样化：一纲多本、引进国外教材、编写不同起点的教材。
20140219_Analytical_Procedures_and_Methods_Validation_for_Drugs_and_Biologics
Analytical Procedures and Methods Validation for Drugsand BiologicsDRAFT GUIDANCEThis guidance document is being distributed for comment purposes only. Comments and suggestions regarding this draft document should be submitted within 90 days of publication in the Federal Register of the notice announcing the availability of the draft guidance. Submit electronic comments to . Submit written comments to the Division of Dockets Management (HFA-305), Food and Drug Administration, 5630 Fishers Lane, rm. 1061, Rockville, MD 20852. All comments should be identified with the docket number listed in the notice of availability that publishes in the Federal Registe r.For questions regarding this draft document contact (CDER) Lucinda Buhse 314-539-2134, or (CBER) Office of Communication, Outreach and Development at 800-835-4709 or 301-827-1800.U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesFood and Drug AdministrationCenter for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)February 2014CMCAnalytical Procedures and Methods Validation for Drugsand BiologicsAdditional copies are available from:Office of CommunicationsDivision of Drug Information, WO51, Room 2201Center for Drug Evaluation and ResearchFood and Drug Administration10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20993Phone: 301-796-3400; Fax: 301-847-8714druginfo@/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/default.htmand/orOffice of Communication, Outreach andDevelopment, HFM-40Center for Biologics Evaluation and ResearchFood and Drug Administration1401 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852-1448ocod@/BiologicsBloodVaccines/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/default.htm(Tel) 800-835-4709 or 301-827-1800U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesFood and Drug AdministrationCenter for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER)Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)Febr uary 2014CMCTABLE OF CONTENTSI.INTRODUCTION (1)II.BACKGROUND (2)III.ANALYTICAL METHODS DEVELOPMENT (3)IV.CONTENT OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES (3)A.Principle/Scope (4)B.Apparatus/Equipment (4)C.Operating Parameters (4)D.Reagents/Standards (4)E.Sample Preparation (4)F.Standards Control Solution Preparation (5)G.Procedure (5)H.System Suitability (5)I.Calculations (5)J.Data Reporting (5)V.REFERENCE STANDARDS AND MATERIALS (6)VI.ANALYTICAL METHOD VALIDATION FOR NDA, ANDAs, BLAs, AND DMFs (6)A.Noncompendial Analytical Procedures (6)B.Validation Characteristics (7)pendial Analytical Procedures (8)VII.STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND MODELS (8)A.Statistics (8)B.Models (8)VIII.LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES (9)A.Revalidation (9)B.Analytical Method Comparability Studies (10)1.Alternative Analytical Procedures (10)2.Analytical Methods Transfer Studies (11)C.Reporting Postmarketing Changes to an Approved NDA, ANDA, or BLA (11)IX.FDA METHODS VERIFICATION (12)X.REFERENCES (12)Guidance for Industry11Analytical Procedures and Methods Validation for Drugs and2Biologics345This draft guidance, when finalized, will represent the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) current 6thinking on this topic. It does not create or confer any rights for or on any person and does not operate to 7bind FDA or the public. You can use an alternative approach if the approach satisfies the requirements of 8the applicable statutes and regulations. If you want to discuss an alternative approach, contact the FDA9staff responsible for implementing this guidance. If you cannot identify the appropriate FDA staff, call 10the appropriate number listed on the title page of this guidance.11121314I. INTRODUCTION1516This revised draft guidance supersedes the 2000 draft guidance for industry on Analytical17Procedures and Methods Validation2,3 and, when finalized, will also replace the 1987 FDA18guidance for industry on Submitting Samples and Analytical Data for Methods Validation. It19provides recommendations on how you, the applicant, can submit analytical procedures4 and20methods validation data to support the documentation of the identity, strength, quality, purity,21and potency of drug substances and drug products.5It will help you assemble information and 22present data to support your analytical methodologies. The recommendations apply to drug23substances and drug products covered in new drug applications (NDAs), abbreviated new drug 24applications (ANDAs), biologics license applications (BLAs), and supplements to these25applications. The principles in this revised draft guidance also apply to drug substances and drug 26products covered in Type II drug master files (DMFs).2728This revised draft guidance complements the International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) 29guidance Q2(R1)Validation of Analytical Procedures: Text and Methodology(Q2(R1)) for30developing and validating analytical methods.3132This revised draft guidance does not address investigational new drug application (IND) methods 33validation, but sponsors preparing INDs should consider the recommendations in this guidance.34For INDs, sufficient information is required at each phase of an investigation to ensure proper35identity, quality, purity, strength, and/or potency. The amount of information on analytical36procedures and methods validation will vary with the phase of the investigation.6 For general371 This guidance has been prepared by the Office of Pharmaceutical Science, in the Center for Drug Evaluation andResearch (CDER) and the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) at the Food and DrugAdministration.2 Sample submission is described in section IX, FDA Methods Verification.3 We update guidances periodically. To make sure you have the most recent version of a guidance, check the FDADrugs guidance Web page at/Drugs/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/default.htm.4Analytical procedure is interchangeable with a method or test procedure.5The terms drug substance and drug product, as used in this guidance, refer to human drugs and biologics.6 See 21 CFR 312.23(a)(7).guidance on analytical procedures and methods validation information to be submitted for phase 38one studies, sponsors should refer to the FDA guidance for industry on Content and Format of39Investigational New Drug Applications (INDs) for Phase 1 Studies of Drugs, Including40Well-Characterized, Therapeutic, Biotechnology-Derived Products. General considerations for 41analytical procedures and method validation (e.g., bioassay) before conduct of phase three42studies are discussed in the FDA guidance for industry on IND Meetings for Human Drugs and 43Biologics, Chemistry, Manufacturing, and Controls Information.4445This revised draft guidance does not address specific method validation recommendations for46biological and immunochemical assays for characterization and quality control of many drug47substances and drug products. For example, some bioassays are based on animal challenge48models, and immunogenicity assessments or other immunoassays have unique features that49should be considered during development and validation.5051In addition, the need for revalidation of existing analytical methods may need to be considered 52when the manufacturing process changes during the product’s life cycle. For questions on53appropriate validation approaches for analytical procedures or submission of information not54addressed in this guidance, you should consult with the appropriate FDA product quality review 55staff.5657If you choose a different approach than those recommended in this revised draft guidance, we58encourage you to discuss the matter with the appropriate FDA product quality review staff before 59you submit your application.6061FDA’s guidance documents, including this guidance, do not establish legally enforceable62responsibilities. Instead, guidances describe the Agency’s current thinking on a topic and should 63be viewed only as recommendations, unless specific regulatory or statutory requirements are64cited. The use of the word should in Agency guidances means that something is suggested or65recommended, but not required.666768II.BACKGROUND6970Each NDA and ANDA must include the analytical procedures necessary to ensure the identity, 71strength, quality, purity, and potency of the drug substance and drug product.7 Each BLA must 72include a full description of the manufacturing methods, including analytical procedures that73demonstrate the manufactured product meets prescribed standards of identity, quality, safety,74purity, and potency.8 Data must be available to establish that the analytical procedures used in 75testing meet proper standards of accuracy and reliability and are suitable for their intended76purpose.9 For BLAs and their supplements, the analytical procedures and their validation are77submitted as part of license applications or supplements and are evaluated by FDA quality78review groups.79807 See 21 CFR 314.50(d)(1) and 314.94(a)(9)(i).8 See 21 CFR 601.2(a) and 601.2(c).9 See 21 CFR 211.165(e) and 211.194(a)(2).Analytical procedures and validation data should be submitted in the corresponding sections of 81the application in the ICH M2 eCTD: Electronic Common Technical Document Specification.108283When an analytical procedure is approved/licensed as part of the NDA, ANDA, or BLA, it84becomes the FDA approved analytical procedure for the approved product. This analytical85procedure may originate from FDA recognized sources (e.g., a compendial procedure from the 86United States Pharmacopeia/National Formulary (USP/NF)) or a validated procedure you87submitted that was determined to be acceptable by FDA. To apply an analytical method to a88different product, appropriate validation studies with the matrix of the new product should be89considered.909192III.ANALYTICAL METHODS DEVELOPMENT9394An analytical procedure is developed to test a defined characteristic of the drug substance or95drug product against established acceptance criteria for that characteristic. Early in the96development of a new analytical procedure, the choice of analytical instrumentation and97methodology should be selected based on the intended purpose and scope of the analytical98method. Parameters that may be evaluated during method development are specificity, linearity, 99limits of detection (LOD) and quantitation limits (LOQ), range, accuracy, and precision.100101During early stages of method development, the robustness of methods should be evaluated102because this characteristic can help you decide which method you will submit for approval.103Analytical procedures in the early stages of development are initially developed based on a104combination of mechanistic understanding of the basic methodology and prior experience.105Experimental data from early procedures can be used to guide further development. You should 106submit development data within the method validation section if they support the validation of 107the method.108109To fully understand the effect of changes in method parameters on an analytical procedure, you 110should adopt a systematic approach for method robustness study (e.g., a design of experiments 111with method parameters). You should begin with an initial risk assessment and follow with112multivariate experiments. Such approaches allow you to understand factorial parameter effects 113on method performance. Evaluation of a method’s performance may include analyses of114samples obtained from in-process manufacturing stages to the finished product. Knowledge115gained during these studies on the sources of method variation can help you assess the method 116performance.117118119IV.CONTENT OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES120121You should describe analytical procedures in sufficient detail to allow a competent analyst to 122reproduce the necessary conditions and obtain results within the proposed acceptance criteria. 123You should also describe aspects of the analytical procedures that require special attention. An 124analytical procedure may be referenced from FDA recognized sources (e.g., USP/NF,12510 See sections 3.2.S.4 Control of Drug Substance, 3.2.P.4 Control of Excipients, and 3.2.P.5 Control of DrugProduct.Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) International)11 if the referenced analytical126procedure is not modified beyond what is allowed in the published method. You should provide 127in detail the procedures from other published sources. The following is a list of essential128information you should include for an analytical procedure:129130A.Principle/Scope131132A description of the basic principles of the analytical test/technology (separation, detection, etc.); 133target analyte(s) and sample(s) type (e.g., drug substance, drug product, impurities or compounds 134in biological fluids, etc.).135136B.Apparatus/Equipment137138All required qualified equipment and components (e.g., instrument type, detector, column type, 139dimensions, and alternative column, filter type, etc.).140141C.Operating Parameters142143Qualified optimal settings and ranges (allowed adjustments) critical to the analysis (e.g., flow144rate, components temperatures, run time, detector settings, gradient, head space sampler). A145drawing with experimental configuration and integration parameters may be used, as applicable. 146147D.Reagents/Standards148149The following should be listed:150151•Grade of chemical (e.g., USP/NF, American Chemical Society, High152Performance or Pressure Liquid Chromatography, or Gas153Chromatography and preservative free).154•Source (e.g., USP reference standard or qualified in-house reference material). 155•State (e.g., dried, undried, etc.) and concentration.156•Standard potencies (purity correction factors).157•Storage controls.158•Directions for safe use (as per current Safety Data Sheet).159•Validated or useable shelf life.160161New batches of biological reagents, such as monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antisera, or cells, 162may need extensive qualification procedures included as part of the analytical procedure.163164E.Sample Preparation165166Procedures (e.g., extraction method, dilution or concentration, desalting procedures and mixing 167by sonication, shaking or sonication time, etc.) for the preparations for individual sample tests. 168A single preparation for qualitative and replicate preparations for quantitative tests with16911 See 21 CFR 211.194(a)(2).appropriate units of concentrations for working solutions (e.g., µg/ml or mg/ml) and information 170on stability of solutions and storage conditions.171172F.Standards Control Solution Preparation173174Procedures for the preparation and use of all standard and control solutions with appropriate175units of concentration and information on stability of standards and storage conditions,176including calibration standards, internal standards, system suitability standards, etc.177178G.Procedure179180A step-by-step description of the method (e.g., equilibration times, and scan/injection sequence 181with blanks, placeboes, samples, controls, sensitivity solution (for impurity method) and182standards to maintain validity of the system suitability during the span of analysis) and allowable 183operating ranges and adjustments if applicable.184185H.System Suitability186187Confirmatory test(s) procedures and parameters to ensure that the system (equipment,188electronics, and analytical operations and controls to be analyzed) will function correctly as an 189integrated system at the time of use. The system suitability acceptance criteria applied to190standards and controls, such as peak tailing, precision and resolution acceptance criteria, may be 191required as applicable. For system suitability of chromatographic systems, refer to CDER192reviewer guidance on Validation of Chromatographic Methods and USP General Chapter <621> 193Chromatography.194195I.Calculations196197The integration method and representative calculation formulas for data analysis (standards,198controls, samples) for tests based on label claim and specification (e.g., assay, specified and199unspecified impurities and relative response factors). This includes a description of any200mathematical transformations or formulas used in data analysis, along with a scientific201justification for any correction factors used.202203J.Data Reporting204205A presentation of numeric data that is consistent with instrumental capabilities and acceptance 206criteria. The method should indicate what format to use to report results (e.g., percentage label 207claim, weight/weight, and weight/volume etc.) with the specific number of significant figures 208needed. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E29 describes a standard209practice for using significant digits in test data to determine conformance with specifications. For 210chromatographic methods, you should include retention times (RTs) for identification with211reference standard comparison basis, relative retention times (RRTs) (known and unknown212impurities) acceptable ranges and sample results reporting criteria.213214215V.REFERENCE STANDARDS AND MATERIALS216217Primary and secondary reference standards and materials are defined and discussed in the218following ICH guidances: Q6A Specifications: Test Procedures and Acceptance Criteria for 219New Drug Substances and New Drug Products: Chemical Substances (ICH Q6A), Q6B220Specifications: Test Procedures and Acceptance Criteria for Biotechnological/Biological221Products, and Q7 Good Manufacturing Practice Guidance for Active Pharmaceutical222Ingredients. For all standards, you should ensure the suitability for use. Reference standards for 223drug substances are particularly critical in validating specificity for an identity test. You should 224strictly follow storage, usage conditions, and handling instructions for reference standards to225avoid added impurities and inaccurate analysis. For biological products, you should include226information supporting any reference standards and materials that you intend to use in the BLA 227and in subsequent annual reports for subsequent reference standard qualifications. Information 228supporting reference standards and materials include qualification test protocols, reports, and 229certificates of analysis (including stability protocols and relevant known impurity profile230information, as applicable).231232Reference standards can often be obtained from USP and may also be available through the233European Pharmacopoeia, Japanese Pharmacopoeia, World Health Organization, or National 234Institute of Standards and Technology. Reference standards for a number of biological products 235are also available from CBER. For certain biological products marketed in the U.S., reference 236standards authorized by CBER must be used before the product can be released to the market.12 237Reference materials from other sources should be characterized by procedures including routine 238and beyond routine release testing as described in ICH Q6A. You should consider orthogonal 239methods. Additional testing could include attributes to determine the suitability of the reference 240material not necessarily captured by the drug substance or product release tests (e.g., more241extensive structural identity and orthogonal techniques for purity and impurities, biological242activity).243244For biological reference standards and materials, we recommend that you follow a two-tiered 245approach when qualifying new reference standards to help prevent drift in the quality attributes 246and provide a long-term link to clinical trial material. A two-tiered approach involves a247comparison of each new working reference standard with a primary reference standard so that it 248is linked to clinical trial material and the current manufacturing process.249250251VI.ANALYTICAL METHOD VALIDATION FOR NDA, ANDAs, BLAs, AND 252DMFs253254A.Noncompendial Analytical Procedures255256Analytical method validation is the process of demonstrating that an analytical procedure is257suitable for its intended purpose. The methodology and objective of the analytical procedures 258should be clearly defined and understood before initiating validation studies. This understanding 25912 See 21 CFR 610.20.is obtained from scientifically-based method development and optimization studies. Validation 260data must be generated under an protocol approved by the sponsor following current good261manufacturing practices with the description of methodology of each characteristic test and262predetermined and justified acceptance criteria, using qualified instrumentation operated under 263current good manufacturing practices conditions.13 Protocols for both drug substance and264product analytes or mixture of analytes in respective matrices should be developed and executed. 265266ICH Q2(R1) is considered the primary reference for recommendations and definitions on267validation characteristics for analytical procedures. The FDA Reviewer Guidance: Validation of 268Chromatographic Methods is available as well.269270B.Validation Characteristics271272Although not all of the validation characteristics are applicable for all types of tests, typical273validation characteristics are:274275•Specificity276•Linearity277•Accuracy278•Precision (repeatability, intermediate precision, and reproducibility)279•Range280•Quantitation limit281•Detection limit282283If a procedure is a validated quantitative analytical procedure that can detect changes in a quality 284attribute(s) of the drug substance and drug product during storage, it is considered a stability285indicating assay. To demonstrate specificity of a stability-indicating assay, a combination of286challenges should be performed. Some challenges include the use of samples spiked with target 287analytes and all known interferences; samples that have undergone various laboratory stress288conditions; and actual product samples (produced by the final manufacturing process) that are289either aged or have been stored under accelerated temperature and humidity conditions.290291As the holder of the NDA, ANDA, or BLA, you must:14 (1) submit the data used to establish292that the analytical procedures used in testing meet proper standards of accuracy and reliability, 293and (2) notify the FDA about each change in each condition established in an approved294application beyond the variations already provided for in the application, including changes to 295analytical procedures and other established controls.296297The submitted data should include the results from the robustness evaluation of the method,298which is typically conducted during method development or as part of a planned validation299study.1530013 See 21 CFR 211.165(e); 21 CFR 314.50 (d), and for biologics see 21 CFR 601.2(a), 601.2(c), and 601.12(a).14 For drugs see 21 CFR 314.50 (d), 314.70(d), and for biologics see 21 CFR 601.2(a), 601.2(c), and 601.12(a). For aBLA, as discussed below, you must obtain prior approval from FDA before implementing a change in analyticalmethods if those methods are specified in FDA regulations15 See section III and ICH Q2(R1).pendial Analytical Procedures302303The suitability of an analytical procedure (e.g., USP/NF, the AOAC International Book of304Methods, or other recognized standard references) should be verified under actual conditions of 305use.16 Compendial general chapters, which are complex and mention multiple steps and/or306address multiple techniques, should be rationalized for the intended use and verified. Information 307to demonstrate that USP/NF analytical procedures are suitable for the drug product or drug308substance should be included in the submission and generated under a verification protocol.309310The verification protocol should include, but is not limited to: (1) compendial methodology to 311be verified with predetermined acceptance criteria, and (2) details of the methodology (e.g.,312suitability of reagent(s), equipment, component(s), chromatographic conditions, column, detector 313type(s), sensitivity of detector signal response, system suitability, sample preparation and314stability). The procedure and extent of verification should dictate which validation characteristic 315tests should be included in the protocol (e.g., specificity, LOD, LOQ, precision, accuracy, etc.). 316Considerations that may influence what characteristic tests should be in the protocol may depend 317on situations such as whether specification limits are set tighter than compendial acceptance318criteria, or RT or RRT profiles are changing in chromatographic methods because of the319synthetic route of drug substance or differences in manufacturing process or matrix of drug320product. Robustness studies of compendial assays do not need to be included, if methods are 321followed without deviations.322323324VII.STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND MODELS325326A.Statistics327328Statistical analysis of validation data can be used to evaluate validation characteristics against 329predetermined acceptance criteria. All statistical procedures and parameters used in the analysis 330of the data should be based on sound principles and appropriate for the intended evaluation.331Reportable statistics of linear regression analysis R (correlation coefficient), R square332(coefficient of determination), slope, least square, analysis of variance (ANOVA), confidence 333intervals, etc., should be provided with justification.For information on statistical techniques 334used in making comparisons, as well as other general information on the interpretation and335treatment of analytical data, appropriate literature or texts should be consulted.17336337B.Models338339Some analytical methods might use chemometric and/or multivariate models. When developing 340these models, you should include a statistically adequate number and range of samples for model 341development and comparable samples for model validation. Suitable software should be used for 342data analysis. Model parameters should be deliberately varied to test model robustness.34334416 See 21 CFR 211.194(a)(2) and USP General Chapter <1226> Verification of Compendial Procedures.17 See References section for examples including USP <1010> Analytical Data – Interpretation and Treatment.。
外语教学法自考题-8
外语教学法自考题-8(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、Ⅰ.Multipe Choice(总题数：20，分数：20.00)1.It was ______ who had accomplished the functional linguistics and made the London School of Linguistics one of the most competitive linguistic theories in the world.A. Ｍ.Ａ.Ｋ.HallidayB. Bronislaw MalinowskiC. J.R.FirthD. Sigmund Freud（分数：1.00）A. √B.C.D.解析：[解析] 马利诺夫斯基是功能语言学派的先驱，他提出“语境(context of situation)”这一概念，弗尔斯使它成了伦敦学派的一个关键概念。
尽管弗尔斯试图将语言成分与马利诺夫斯基的社会语言学见解结合起来并据此建立一个语言描写的理论模式，但他没能将其理论详解。
语言学家韩礼德完成了弗尔斯的未竞事业，使伦敦语言学派成了世界上最具竞争力的语言理论之一。
2.Leonard Bloomfield, a linguist in America, is regarded as the father of ______.A. American structuralismB. naturalismC. functionalismD. audiolingualism（分数：1.00）A. √B.C.D.解析：[解析] 美国语言学家布鲁姆菲尔德(Bloomfield)被认为是美国结构主义语言学之父。
3.The years between 1940 and 1970 is known as ______ period.A. the Reform MovementB. Modem Language Teaching and ResearchC. Communicative Language TeachingD. Structural Language Teaching（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D. √解析：[解析] 外语教学简史可以大致划分为四个阶段：第一阶段为1882—1906年的外语教学改革运动阶段(The Reform Movement)；第二阶段为1906—1940年的现代语言教学与研究阶段(Modern language teaching and research)；第三阶段为1940—1970年的结构主义语言教学阶段(Structural language teaching)；第四阶段为自1970开始的交际语言教学阶段((Communicative language teaching)。
（完整版）自动控制专业英语词汇
（完整版）自动控制专业英语词汇自动控制专业英语词汇（一）acceleration transducer 加速度传感器acceptance testing 验收测试accessibility 可及性accumulated error 累积误差AC-DC-AC frequency converter 交-直-交变频器AC (alternating current) electric drive 交流电子传动active attitude stabilization 主动姿态稳定actuator 驱动器，执行机构adaline 线性适应元adaptation layer 适应层adaptive telemeter system 适应遥测系统adjoint operator 伴随算子admissible error 容许误差aggregation matrix 集结矩阵AHP (analytic hierarchy process) 层次分析法amplifying element 放大环节analog-digital conversion 模数转换annunciator 信号器antenna pointing control 天线指向控制anti-integral windup 抗积分饱卷aperiodic decomposition 非周期分解a posteriori estimate 后验估计approximate reasoning 近似推理a priori estimate 先验估计articulated robot 关节型机器人assignment problem 配置问题，分配问题associative memory model 联想记忆模型associatron 联想机asymptotic stability 渐进稳定性attained pose drift 实际位姿漂移attitude acquisition 姿态捕获AOCS (attritude and orbit control system) 姿态轨道控制系统attitude angular velocity 姿态角速度attitude disturbance 姿态扰动attitude maneuver 姿态机动attractor 吸引子augment ability 可扩充性augmented system 增广系统automatic manual station 自动-手动操作器automaton 自动机autonomous system 自治系统backlash characteristics 间隙特性base coordinate system 基座坐标系Bayes classifier 贝叶斯分类器bearing alignment 方位对准bellows pressure gauge 波纹管压力表benefit-cost analysis 收益成本分析bilinear system 双线性系统biocybernetics 生物控制论biological feedback system 生物反馈系统black box testing approach 黑箱测试法blind search 盲目搜索block diagonalization 块对角化Boltzman machine 玻耳兹曼机bottom-up development 自下而上开发boundary value analysis 边界值分析brainstorming method 头脑风暴法breadth-first search 广度优先搜索butterfly valve 蝶阀CAE (computer aided engineering) 计算机辅助工程CAM (computer aided manufacturing) 计算机辅助制造Camflex valve 偏心旋转阀canonical state variable 规范化状态变量capacitive displacement transducer 电容式位移传感器capsule pressure gauge 膜盒压力表CARD 计算机辅助研究开发Cartesian robot 直角坐标型机器人cascade compensation 串联补偿catastrophe theory 突变论centrality 集中性chained aggregation 链式集结chaos 混沌characteristic locus 特征轨迹chemical propulsion 化学推进calrity 清晰性classical information pattern 经典信息模式classifier 分类器clinical control system 临床控制系统closed loop pole 闭环极点closed loop transfer function 闭环传递函数cluster analysis 聚类分析coarse-fine control 粗-精控制cobweb model 蛛网模型coefficient matrix 系数矩阵cognitive science 认知科学cognitron 认知机coherent system 单调关联系统combination decision 组合决策combinatorial explosion 组合爆炸combined pressure and vacuum gauge 压力真空表command pose 指令位姿companion matrix 相伴矩阵compartmental model 房室模型compatibility 相容性，兼容性compensating network 补偿网络compensation 补偿，矫正compliance 柔顺，顺应composite control 组合控制computable general equilibrium model 可计算一般均衡模型conditionally instability 条件不稳定性configuration 组态connectionism 连接机制connectivity 连接性conservative system 守恒系统consistency 一致性constraint condition 约束条件consumption function 消费函数context-free grammar 上下文无关语法continuous discrete event hybrid system simulation 连续离散事件混合系统仿真continuous duty 连续工作制control accuracy 控制精度control cabinet 控制柜controllability index 可控指数controllable canonical form 可控规范型[control] plant 控制对象,被控对象controlling instrument 控制仪表control moment gyro 控制力矩陀螺control panel 控制屏，控制盘control synchro 控制[式]自整角机control system synthesis 控制系统综合control time horizon 控制时程cooperative game 合作对策coordinability condition 可协调条件coordination strategy 协调策略coordinator 协调器corner frequency 转折频率costate variable 共态变量cost-effectiveness analysis 费用效益分析coupling of orbit and attitude 轨道和姿态耦合critical damping 临界阻尼critical stability 临界稳定性cross-over frequency 穿越频率，交越频率current source inverter 电流[源]型逆变器cut-off frequency 截止频率cybernetics 控制论cyclic remote control 循环遥控cylindrical robot 圆柱坐标型机器人damped oscillation 阻尼振荡damper 阻尼器damping ratio 阻尼比data acquisition 数据采集data encryption 数据加密data preprocessing 数据预处理data processor 数据处理器DC generator-motor set drive 直流发电机-电动机组传动D controller 微分控制器decentrality 分散性decentralized stochastic control 分散随机控制decision space 决策空间decision support system 决策支持系统decomposition-aggregation approach 分解集结法decoupling parameter 解耦参数deductive-inductive hybrid modeling method 演绎与归纳混合建模法delayed telemetry 延时遥测derivation tree 导出树derivative feedback 微分反馈describing function 描述函数desired value 希望值despinner 消旋体destination 目的站detector 检出器deterministic automaton 确定性自动机deviation 偏差deviation alarm 偏差报警器DFD 数据流图diagnostic model 诊断模型diagonally dominant matrix 对角主导矩阵diaphragm pressure gauge 膜片压力表difference equation model 差分方程模型differential dynamical system 微分动力学系统differential game 微分对策differential pressure level meter 差压液位计differential pressure transmitter 差压变送器differential transformer displacement transducer 差动变压器式位移传感器differentiation element 微分环节digital filer 数字滤波器digital signal processing 数字信号处理digitization 数字化digitizer 数字化仪dimension transducer 尺度传感器direct coordination 直接协调disaggregation 解裂discoordination 失协调discrete event dynamic system 离散事件动态系统discrete system simulation language 离散系统仿真语言discriminant function 判别函数displacement vibration amplitude transducer 位移振幅传感器dissipative structure 耗散结构distributed parameter control system 分布参数控制系统distrubance 扰动disturbance compensation 扰动补偿diversity 多样性divisibility 可分性domain knowledge 领域知识dominant pole 主导极点dose-response model 剂量反应模型dual modulation telemetering system 双重调制遥测系统dual principle 对偶原理dual spin stabilization 双自旋稳定duty ratio 负载比dynamic braking 能耗制动dynamic characteristics 动态特性dynamic deviation 动态偏差dynamic error coefficient 动态误差系数dynamic exactness 动它吻合性dynamic input-output model 动态投入产出模型econometric model 计量经济模型economic cybernetics 经济控制论economic effectiveness 经济效益economic evaluation 经济评价economic index 经济指数economic indicator 经济指标eddy current thickness meter 电涡流厚度计effectiveness 有效性effectiveness theory 效益理论elasticity of demand 需求弹性electric actuator 电动执行机构electric conductance levelmeter 电导液位计electric drive control gear 电动传动控制设备electric hydraulic converter 电-液转换器electric pneumatic converter 电-气转换器electrohydraulic servo vale 电液伺服阀electromagnetic flow transducer 电磁流量传感器electronic batching scale 电子配料秤electronic belt conveyor scale 电子皮带秤electronic hopper scale 电子料斗秤elevation 仰角emergency stop 异常停止empirical distribution 经验分布endogenous variable 内生变量equilibrium growth 均衡增长equilibrium point 平衡点equivalence partitioning 等价类划分ergonomics 工效学error 误差error-correction parsing 纠错剖析estimate 估计量estimation theory 估计理论evaluation technique 评价技术event chain 事件链evolutionary system 进化系统exogenous variable 外生变量expected characteristics 希望特性external disturbance 外扰fact base 事实failure diagnosis 故障诊断fast mode 快变模态feasibility study 可行性研究feasible coordination 可行协调feasible region 可行域feature detection 特征检测feature extraction 特征抽取feedback compensation 反馈补偿feedforward path 前馈通路field bus 现场总线finite automaton 有限自动机FIP (factory information protocol) 工厂信息协议first order predicate logic 一阶谓词逻辑fixed sequence manipulator 固定顺序机械手fixed set point control 定值控制FMS (flexible manufacturing system) 柔性制造系统flow sensor/transducer 流量传感器flow transmitter 流量变送器fluctuation 涨落forced oscillation 强迫振荡formal language theory 形式语言理论formal neuron 形式神经元forward path 正向通路forward reasoning 正向推理fractal 分形体，分维体frequency converter 变频器frequency domain model reduction method 频域模型降阶法frequency response 频域响应full order observer 全阶观测器functional decomposition 功能分解FES (functional electrical stimulation) 功能电刺激functional simularity 功能相似fuzzy logic 模糊逻辑game tree 对策树gate valve 闸阀general equilibrium theory 一般均衡理论generalized least squares estimation 广义最小二乘估计generation function 生成函数geomagnetic torque 地磁力矩geometric similarity 几何相似gimbaled wheel 框架轮global asymptotic stability 全局渐进稳定性global optimum 全局最优globe valve 球形阀goal coordination method 目标协调法grammatical inference 文法推断graphic search 图搜索gravity gradient torque 重力梯度力矩group technology 成组技术guidance system 制导系统gyro drift rate 陀螺漂移率gyrostat 陀螺体Hall displacement transducer 霍尔式位移传感器hardware-in-the-loop simulation 半实物仿真harmonious deviation 和谐偏差harmonious strategy 和谐策略heuristic inference 启发式推理hidden oscillation 隐蔽振荡hierarchical chart 层次结构图hierarchical planning 递阶规划hierarchical control 递阶控制homeostasis 内稳态homomorphic model 同态系统horizontal decomposition 横向分解hormonal control 内分泌控制hydraulic step motor 液压步进马达hypercycle theory 超循环理论I controller 积分控制器identifiability 可辨识性IDSS (intelligent decision support system) 智能决策支持系统image recognition 图像识别impulse 冲量impulse function 冲击函数，脉冲函数inching 点动incompatibility principle 不相容原理incremental motion control 增量运动控制index of merit 品质因数inductive force transducer 电感式位移传感器inductive modeling method 归纳建模法industrial automation 工业自动化inertial attitude sensor 惯性姿态敏感器inertial coordinate system 惯性坐标系inertial wheel 惯性轮inference engine 推理机infinite dimensional system 无穷维系统information acquisition 信息采集infrared gas analyzer 红外线气体分析器inherent nonlinearity 固有非线性inherent regulation 固有调节initial deviation 初始偏差initiator 发起站injection attitude 入轨姿势input-output model 投入产出模型instability 不稳定性instruction level language 指令级语言integral of absolute value of error criterion 绝对误差积分准则integral of squared error criterion 平方误差积分准则integral performance criterion 积分性能准则integration instrument 积算仪器integrity 整体性intelligent terminal 智能终端interacted system 互联系统，关联系统interactive prediction approach 互联预估法，关联预估法interconnection 互联intermittent duty 断续工作制internal disturbance 内扰ISM (interpretive structure modeling) 解释结构建模法invariant embedding principle 不变嵌入原理inventory theory 库伦论inverse Nyquist diagram 逆奈奎斯特图inverter 逆变器investment decision 投资决策isomorphic model 同构模型iterative coordination 迭代协调jet propulsion 喷气推进job-lot control 分批控制joint 关节Kalman-Bucy filer 卡尔曼-布西滤波器knowledge accomodation 知识顺应knowledge acquisition 知识获取knowledge assimilation 知识同化KBMS (knowledge base management system) 知识库管理系统knowledge representation 知识表达ladder diagram 梯形图lag-lead compensation 滞后超前补偿Lagrange duality 拉格朗日对偶性Laplace transform 拉普拉斯变换large scale system 大系统lateral inhibition network 侧抑制网络least cost input 最小成本投入least squares criterion 最小二乘准则level switch 物位开关libration damping 天平动阻尼limit cycle 极限环linearization technique 线性化方法linear motion electric drive 直线运动电气传动linear motion valve 直行程阀linear programming 线性规划LQR (linear quadratic regulator problem) 线性二次调节器问题load cell 称重传感器local asymptotic stability 局部渐近稳定性local optimum 局部最优log magnitude-phase diagram 对数幅相图long term memory 长期记忆lumped parameter model 集总参数模型Lyapunov theorem of asymptotic stability 李雅普诺夫渐近稳定性定理自动控制专业英语词汇（二）macro-economic system 宏观经济系统magnetic dumping 磁卸载magnetoelastic weighing cell 磁致弹性称重传感器magnitude-frequency characteristic 幅频特性magnitude margin 幅值裕度magnitude scale factor 幅值比例尺manipulator 机械手man-machine coordination 人机协调manual station 手动操作器MAP (manufacturing automation protocol) 制造自动化协议marginal effectiveness 边际效益Mason's gain formula 梅森增益公式master station 主站matching criterion 匹配准则maximum likelihood estimation 最大似然估计maximum overshoot 最大超调量maximum principle 极大值原理mean-square error criterion 均方误差准则mechanism model 机理模型meta-knowledge 元知识metallurgical automation 冶金自动化minimal realization 最小实现minimum phase system 最小相位系统minimum variance estimation 最小方差估计minor loop 副回路missile-target relative movement simulator 弹体-目标相对运动仿真器modal aggregation 模态集结modal transformation 模态变换MB (model base) 模型库model confidence 模型置信度model fidelity 模型逼真度model reference adaptive control system 模型参考适应控制系统model verification 模型验证modularization 模块化MEC (most economic control) 最经济控制motion space 可动空间MTBF (mean time between failures) 平均故障间隔时间MTTF (mean time to failures) 平均无故障时间multi-attributive utility function 多属性效用函数multicriteria 多重判据multilevel hierarchical structure 多级递阶结构multiloop control 多回路控制multi-objective decision 多目标决策multistate logic 多态逻辑multistratum hierarchical control 多段递阶控制multivariable control system 多变量控制系统myoelectric control 肌电控制Nash optimality 纳什最优性natural language generation 自然语言生成nearest-neighbor 最近邻necessity measure 必然性侧度negative feedback 负反馈neural assembly 神经集合neural network computer 神经网络计算机Nichols chart 尼科尔斯图noetic science 思维科学noncoherent system 非单调关联系统noncooperative game 非合作博弈nonequilibrium state 非平衡态nonlinear element 非线性环节nonmonotonic logic 非单调逻辑nonparametric training 非参数训练nonreversible electric drive 不可逆电气传动nonsingular perturbation 非奇异摄动non-stationary random process 非平稳随机过程nuclear radiation levelmeter 核辐射物位计nutation sensor 章动敏感器Nyquist stability criterion 奈奎斯特稳定判据objective function 目标函数observability index 可观测指数observable canonical form 可观测规范型on-line assistance 在线帮助on-off control 通断控制open loop pole 开环极点operational research model 运筹学模型optic fiber tachometer 光纤式转速表optimal trajectory 最优轨迹optimization technique 最优化技术orbital rendezvous 轨道交会orbit gyrocompass 轨道陀螺罗盘orbit perturbation 轨道摄动order parameter 序参数orientation control 定向控制originator 始发站oscillating period 振荡周期output prediction method 输出预估法oval wheel flowmeter 椭圆齿轮流量计overall design 总体设计overdamping 过阻尼overlapping decomposition 交叠分解Pade approximation 帕德近似Pareto optimality 帕雷托最优性passive attitude stabilization 被动姿态稳定path repeatability 路径可重复性pattern primitive 模式基元PR (pattern recognition) 模式识别P control 比例控制器peak time 峰值时间penalty function method 罚函数法perceptron 感知器periodic duty 周期工作制perturbation theory 摄动理论pessimistic value 悲观值phase locus 相轨迹phase trajectory 相轨迹phase lead 相位超前photoelectric tachometric transducer 光电式转速传感器phrase-structure grammar 短句结构文法physical symbol system 物理符号系统piezoelectric force transducer 压电式力传感器playback robot 示教再现式机器人PLC (programmable logic controller) 可编程序逻辑控制器plug braking 反接制动plug valve 旋塞阀pneumatic actuator 气动执行机构point-to-point control 点位控制polar robot 极坐标型机器人pole assignment 极点配置pole-zero cancellation 零极点相消polynomial input 多项式输入portfolio theory 投资搭配理论pose overshoot 位姿过调量position measuring instrument 位置测量仪posentiometric displacement transducer 电位器式位移传感器positive feedback 正反馈power system automation 电力系统自动化predicate logic 谓词逻辑pressure gauge with electric contact 电接点压力表pressure transmitter 压力变送器price coordination 价格协调primal coordination 主协调primary frequency zone 主频区PCA (principal component analysis) 主成分分析法principle of turnpike 大道原理priority 优先级process-oriented simulation 面向过程的仿真production budget 生产预算production rule 产生式规则profit forecast 利润预测PERT (program evaluation and review technique) 计划评审技术program set station 程序设定操作器proportional control 比例控制proportional plus derivative controller 比例微分控制器protocol engineering 协议工程prototype 原型pseudo random sequence 伪随机序列pseudo-rate-increment control 伪速率增量控制pulse duration 脉冲持续时间pulse frequency modulation control system 脉冲调频控制系统pulse width modulation control system 脉冲调宽控制系统PWM inverter 脉宽调制逆变器pushdown automaton 下推自动机QC (quality control) 质量管理quadratic performance index 二次型性能指标qualitative physical model 定性物理模型quantized noise 量化噪声quasilinear characteristics 准线性特性queuing theory 排队论radio frequency sensor 射频敏感器ramp function 斜坡函数random disturbance 随机扰动random process 随机过程rate integrating gyro 速率积分陀螺ratio station 比值操作器reachability 可达性reaction wheel control 反作用轮控制realizability 可实现性,能实现性real time telemetry 实时遥测receptive field 感受野rectangular robot 直角坐标型机器人rectifier 整流器recursive estimation 递推估计reduced order observer 降阶观测器redundant information 冗余信息reentry control 再入控制regenerative braking 回馈制动，再生制动regional planning model 区域规划模型regulating device 调节装载regulation 调节relational algebra 关系代数relay characteristic 继电器特性remote manipulator 遥控操作器remote regulating 遥调remote set point adjuster 远程设定点调整器rendezvous and docking 交会和对接reproducibility 再现性resistance thermometer sensor 热电阻resolution principle 归结原理resource allocation 资源分配response curve 响应曲线return difference matrix 回差矩阵return ratio matrix 回比矩阵reverberation 回响reversible electric drive 可逆电气传动revolute robot 关节型机器人revolution speed transducer 转速传感器rewriting rule 重写规则rigid spacecraft dynamics 刚性航天动力学risk decision 风险分析robotics 机器人学robot programming language 机器人编程语言robust control 鲁棒控制robustness 鲁棒性roll gap measuring instrument 辊缝测量仪root locus 根轨迹roots flowmeter 腰轮流量计rotameter 浮子流量计，转子流量计rotary eccentric plug valve 偏心旋转阀rotary motion valve 角行程阀rotating transformer 旋转变压器Routh approximation method 劳思近似判据routing problem 路径问题sampled-data control system 采样控制系统sampling control system 采样控制系统saturation characteristics 饱和特性scalar Lyapunov function 标量李雅普诺夫函数SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm) 平面关节型机器人scenario analysis method 情景分析法scene analysis 物景分析s-domain s域self-operated controller 自力式控制器self-organizing system 自组织系统self-reproducing system 自繁殖系统self-tuning control 自校正控制semantic network 语义网络semi-physical simulation 半实物仿真sensing element 敏感元件sensitivity analysis 灵敏度分析sensory control 感觉控制sequential decomposition 顺序分解sequential least squares estimation 序贯最小二乘估计servo control 伺服控制，随动控制servomotor 伺服马达settling time 过渡时间sextant 六分仪short term planning 短期计划short time horizon coordination 短时程协调signal detection and estimation 信号检测和估计signal reconstruction 信号重构similarity 相似性simulated interrupt 仿真中断simulation block diagram 仿真框图simulation experiment 仿真实验simulation velocity 仿真速度simulator 仿真器single axle table 单轴转台single degree of freedom gyro 单自由度陀螺single level process 单级过程single value nonlinearity 单值非线性singular attractor 奇异吸引子singular perturbation 奇异摄动sink 汇点slaved system 受役系统slower-than-real-time simulation 欠实时仿真slow subsystem 慢变子系统socio-cybernetics 社会控制论socioeconomic system 社会经济系统software psychology 软件心理学solar array pointing control 太阳帆板指向控制solenoid valve 电磁阀source 源点specific impulse 比冲speed control system 调速系统spin axis 自旋轴spinner 自旋体stability criterion 稳定性判据stability limit 稳定极限stabilization 镇定，稳定Stackelberg decision theory 施塔克尔贝格决策理论state equation model 状态方程模型state space description 状态空间描述static characteristics curve 静态特性曲线station accuracy 定点精度stationary random process 平稳随机过程statistical analysis 统计分析statistic pattern recognition 统计模式识别steady state deviation 稳态偏差steady state error coefficient 稳态误差系数step-by-step control 步进控制step function 阶跃函数stepwise refinement 逐步精化stochastic finite automaton 随机有限自动机strain gauge load cell 应变式称重传感器strategic function 策略函数strongly coupled system 强耦合系统subjective probability 主观频率suboptimality 次优性supervised training 监督学习supervisory computer control system 计算机监控系统sustained oscillation 自持振荡swirlmeter 旋进流量计switching point 切换点symbolic processing 符号处理synaptic plasticity 突触可塑性synergetics 协同学syntactic analysis 句法分析system assessment 系统评价systematology 系统学system homomorphism 系统同态system isomorphism 系统同构system engineering 系统工程tachometer 转速表target flow transmitter 靶式流量变送器task cycle 作业周期teaching programming 示教编程telemechanics 远动学。
《培根英文简介》课件
Attention rewards science
Summary
Francis Bacon was a strong advocate of the scientific method, which he saw as the most effective way of gaining knowledge about the natural world
He criticized the church for its position to scientific thought and its treatment of genetics, and advocated for a more open and tolerant approach to wards different beliefs
01
Francis Bacon's Life
Birth and family background
Birth and Family Background
Francis Bacon was born in 1561 to Sir Nicholas Bacon, a rented lawyer and statesman, and his wife, Anne Cook He was the youngest of eight children and had five sisters and two brothers
2
Detail
Bacon proposed new methods and tools for scientific experience, observation, and analysis He emphasized the importance of basic scientific knowledge on observable and reproducible evidence, rather than theoretical calculation
knowledgeacquisition
3Knowledge AcquisitionIntroductionIn this chapter we will be looking at knowledge acquisition,i.e.,the process of obtaining the knowledge to be stored in a knowledge-based system. ObjectivesBy the end of the chapter you will be able to:r define knowledge acquisitionr explain how knowledge is acquired from a human expertr explain the purpose and types of interviews in obtaining knowledger explain why it is necessary to record the results of interviews using techniques such as repertory grids.What Is Knowledge Acquisition?Knowledge acquisition(sometimes referred to as knowledge elicitation)is the process of acquiring knowledge from a human expert,or a group of experts,and using the knowledge to build knowledge-based systems.An expert system must contain the knowledge of human experts;therefore the knowledge acquisition process primarily involves a discussion between the knowl-edge engineer and the human expert.Clearly,a knowledge acquisition session should not be like a visit to the dentist.The knowledge engineer should aim to be as friendly as possible.In general,experts will be delighted to talk to anyone about their subject of interest, and will exhaust any knowledge engineer.This however,does not mean that the knowledge acquisition process is easy.8992An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering Feedback2PlanningEnsure that the time and place of the interview are known.Decide the purpose of the interview and based upon this what type of interview technique would be most appropriate.Book the appropriate room for the interview to take place in;ensure appropriate refreshments are available.Where appropriate plan the questions that need to be asked or collect appropriate materials to trigger the expert’s memory.Explain the nature and purpose of the interview with the expert.This will help the expert prepare for the interview.Ensure that the expert understands what factors will hinder progress of the interview.In other words,check that the expert understands the outcome of the interview.Ensure that appropriate recording devices are available,e.g.tape recorders, video and an assistant to take notes where necessary.Stage management techniquesConsideration needs to be given to the location and the time of day of the inter-view.Experts may work unusual hours so what may normally be considered anti-social times may be appropriate for the interview.Consider the room layout to minimise disturbance and maximise comfort. Unlike a conversation the interview should not be assumed to be a natural form of interaction.They are a crucial process to knowledge acquisition,and the time should be used as effectively as possible.As noted above,the interview should be approached in an organised and professional manner–even when the interview itself is unstructured.Interviews have a particular advantage over other forms of knowledge acquisition procedures.The knowledge engineer can satisfy both themselves,and the expert,that they have grasped the points that the expert has been making.There are various tips that can help during the interview process:Firstly,avoid parative words like bigger;better and lighter are not always helpful,and certainly not precise.Bigger/better/lighter than what? Secondly,bear in mind that the expert may miss out key parts of the reasoning process.Where parts of the process are potentially complex the expert may ignore some of these complexities in order to simplify the explanation so that the knowledge engineer will understand them.Similarly,when solving problems the expert may make what appear to be intuitive leaps.In reality these are probably cause and effect relationships that the expert has noticed from years of experience in the domain.However,because these steps are‘intuitive’ratherKnowledge Acquisition91 It is particularly important that the knowledge engineer uses these sources.As well as detailed technical information,they can be used to familiarise the knowledge engineer with the subject matter.Thus when the knowledge engineer conducts the preliminary interviews with the expert,they are already familiar with the some of the terminology and have a basic grasp of the subject area.This prevents wasting of the expert’s time by asking them to explain trivial information.While various types of documentation provide useful background to a specific knowledge domain,there is no guarantee that the documentation is either complete or up-to-date.Therefore one of the main methods of obtaining knowledge is still to use human experts,as they are more likely to be aware of the current state of knowledge in their particular domain.The skills required of a knowledge engineer have already been discussed in Chapter1.Some specific skills will also be expected from the human experts from whom knowledge will be elicited.Characteristics expected from an expert include being:r articulater motivatedr logicalr systematic.Conducting InterviewsTo conduct a successful interview the knowledge engineer will need to:r planr use appropriate stage management techniquesr consider and use appropriate social skillsr maintain appropriate self-control during the interview.Activity2Think about the planning required for an interview to obtain knowledge from an expert.The activities that must take place are similar to organising any meeting.So,consider what you must do to plan a meeting in an office about any subject—or plan a meeting of a student society,for example,to discuss an important issue.Keeping this idea in mind,can you list the planning and stage management activities that need to take place before an interview?90An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering InterviewsDuring your study you may have developed some familiarity with the use of interviews in a systems development context.These include:r unstructuredr structuredr event recallr thinking aloud.A knowledge engineer can also use interviews as method of obtaining knowledge from human experts however they must also consider other sources of knowledge.Activity1You are a knowledge engineer about to start on obtaining information for a new expert system.As part of this process,you are investigating the knowledge domain and have meetings arranged with a human expert.Besides talking to an expert,where else might a knowledge engineer look tofind useful information?Feedback1Sources of available knowledge include:r procedure manualsr records of past case studiesr standards documentationr knowledge from other humans,less knowledgeable but more available then experts.Clearly,we need a range of knowledge acquisition methods,including computer tools.We will also need to use a range of sources such as printed documentation and manuals.Other Sources of KnowledgeQuestionnaires are also valuable in many situations.There is clearly a considerable similarity between acquiring knowledge from experts in order to compile knowl-edge bases,and acquiring information from system users in order to develop a new or replacement information system.Printed sources of knowledge can be very useful.In the specific context of knowl-edge engineering and acquiring knowledge of a particular domain,manuals,case studies and perhaps textbooks can also prove valuable.。
初一社会问题与跨文化理解英语阅读理解25题
初一社会问题与跨文化理解英语阅读理解25题1<背景文章>In different countries around the world, family concepts can be very different. In the United States, for example, family members usually have a relatively independent relationship. Children are encouraged to be independent from a young age. They often move out of their parents' home when they become adults, usually around 18 years old. Parents also respect their children's choices and privacy. In American families, family responsibilities are often shared among family members according to their abilities. For instance, children may help with some simple housework like taking out the trash or mowing the lawn.In contrast, in many Asian countries such as China and Japan, family relationships are often more collective and hierarchical. In Chinese families, the concept of "filial piety" is highly emphasized. Children are expected to respect and take care of their parents when they grow up. Grandparents often play an important role in taking care of grandchildren as well. Family responsibilities are also divided in a traditional way. For example, the father may be mainly responsible for the family's economic income, while the mother takes care of the family's daily life and children's education.In some European countries like Italy, family is also very important. Italian families are often very warm - hearted. Extended families often live close to each other and get together frequently. Family members support each other both emotionally and materially.1. <问题1>A. In the United States, children usually move out of their parents' home at the age of _.A. 16B. 18C. 20D. 22答案：B。
Knowledge-acquisition
Knowledge acquisition is a method of learning, first proposed by Aristotle in his seminal work"Organon". Aristotle proposed that the mind at birth is a blank slate, or tabula rasa. As a blank slate it contains no knowledge of the objective, empirical universe, nor of itself.知识获取是一种学习的方法，是由亚里士多德在他"推论法"的半监督工作中首次提出的。
亚里士多德认为生下来时大脑就像是一块白板或者一张白纸。
作为一块白板，不包括任何的客观知识，先验领域，及本身。
知识获取是一种学习方法，第一次由亚里士多德在他的开创性的著作《推理法》中提出。
亚里士多德提出，大脑在出生时是一个白板。
就像白板那样，它没有容纳任何关于客观的、经验主义的宇宙的知识，抑或是关于它自己的知识。
"Knowing subject" is often the description of a mind with acquired knowledge. A human mind cannot be a "knowing subject" until it has "acquired knowledge". "Acquired" in this sense can be either an adjective, as in "that which has been acquired"; or a verb, as in the act of acquisition.)“认知主体”是经常用于描述已经获取知识的大脑。
心理学英文术语
感觉记忆（SM）—sensory memory短期记忆（STM）—short-term M.长期记忆（LTM）—long-term memory复诵——rehearsal预示（激发）——priming童年失忆症——childhood amnesia视觉编码（表征）——visual code（representation）听觉编码—acoustic code运作记忆——working memory语意性知识—semantic knowledge记忆扫瞄程序—memory scanning procedure竭尽式扫瞄程序-exhaustive S.P.自我终止式扫瞄—self-terminated S.程序性知识—procedural knowledge命题（陈述）性知识——propositional（declarative）knowledge 情节（轶事）性知识—episodic K.讯息处理深度—depth of processing精致化处理—elaboration登录特殊性—coding specificity记忆术—mnemonic位置记忆法—method of loci字钩法—peg word（线）探索（测）（激发）字—prime关键词——key word命题思考——propositional thought心像思考——imaginal thought行动思考——motoric thought概念——concept原型——prototype属性——property特征——feature范例策略——exemplar strategy语言相对性（假说）—linguistic relativity th.音素——phoneme词素——morpheme（字词的）外延与内涵意义—denotative & connotative meaning （句子的）表层与深层结构—surface & deep structure语意分析法——semantic differential全句语言—holophrastic speech过度延伸——over-extension电报式语言—telegraphic speech关键期——critical period差异减缩法——difference reduction方法目的分析——means-ends analysis倒推——working backward动机——motive自由意志——free will决定论——determinism本能——instinct种属特有行为——species specific驱力——drive诱因——incentive驱力减低说——drive reduction th.恒定状态（作用）—homeostasis原级与次级动机—primary & secondary M. 功能独立—functional autonomy下视丘侧部（LH）—lateral hypothalamus 脂肪细胞说——fat-cell theory.下视丘腹中部（VMH）—ventromedial H 定点论——set point th.CCK———胆囊调节激素第一性征——primary sex characteristic第二性征——secondary sex characteristic自我效能期望—self-efficiency expectancy内在（发）动机—intrinsic motive外在（衍）动机—extrinsic motive成就需求——N. achievement需求层级—hierarchy of needs自我实现——self actualization冲突——conflict多项仪——polygraph肤电反应——GSR（认知）评估——（cognitive appraisal）脸部回馈假说——facial feedback hypothesis（生理）激发——arousal挫折-攻击假说——frustration-aggression hy.替代学习——vicarious learning短期记忆（STM）—short-term M.长期记忆（LTM）—long-term memory复诵——rehearsal预示（激发）——priming童年失忆症——childhood amnesia视觉编码（表征）——visual code（representation）听觉编码—acoustic code运作记忆——working memory语意性知识—semantic knowledge记忆扫瞄程序—memory scanning procedure竭尽式扫瞄程序-exhaustive S.P.自我终止式扫瞄—self-terminated S.程序性知识—procedural knowledge命题（陈述）性知识——propositional（declarative）knowledge 情节（轶事）性知识—episodic K.讯息处理深度—depth of processing精致化处理—elaboration登录特殊性—coding specificity记忆术—mnemonic位置记忆法—method of loci字钩法—peg word（线）探索（测）（激发）字—prime关键词——key word命题思考——propositional thought心像思考——imaginal thought行动思考——motoric thought概念——concept原型——prototype属性——property特征——feature范例策略——exemplar strategy语言相对性（假说）—linguistic relativity th.音素——phoneme词素——morpheme（字词的）外延与内涵意义—denotative & connotative meaning （句子的）表层与深层结构—surface & deep structure语意分析法——semantic differential全句语言—holophrastic speech过度延伸——over-extension电报式语言—telegraphic speech关键期——critical period差异减缩法——difference reduction方法目的分析——means-ends analysis倒推——working backward动机——motive自由意志——free will决定论——determinism本能——instinct种属特有行为——species specific驱力——drive诱因——incentive驱力减低说——drive reduction th.恒定状态（作用）—homeostasis原级与次级动机—primary & secondary M. 功能独立—functional autonomy下视丘侧部（LH）—lateral hypothalamus 脂肪细胞说——fat-cell theory.下视丘腹中部（VMH）—ventromedial H 定点论——set point th.CCK———胆囊调节激素第一性征——primary sex characteristic第二性征——secondary sex characteristic 自我效能期望—self-efficiency expectancy 内在（发）动机—intrinsic motive外在（衍）动机—extrinsic motive成就需求——N. achievement需求层级—hierarchy of needs自我实现——self actualization冲突——conflict多项仪——polygraph肤电反应——GSR（认知）评估——（cognitive appraisal）脸部回馈假说——facial feedback hypothesis（生理）激发——arousal挫折-攻击假说——frustration-aggression hy.替代学习——vicarious learning 发展——development先天——nature后天——nurture成熟——maturation（视觉）偏好法——preferential method习惯法——habituation视觉悬崖——visual cliff剥夺或丰富（环境）——deprivation or enrichment of env. 基模——schema同化——assimilation调适——accommodation平衡——equilibrium感觉动作期——sensorimotor stage物体永久性——objective permanence运思前期——preoperational st.保留概念——conservation道德现实主义——moral realism具体运思期——concrete operational形式运思期——formal operational st.前俗例道德——pre-conventional moral俗例道德——conventional moral超俗例道德——post-conventional moral气质——temperament依附——attachment性别认定——gender identity性别配合——sex typing性蕾期——phallic stage恋亲冲突—Oedipal conflict认同——identification社会学习——social learning情结——complex性别恒定——gender constancy青年期——adolescence青春期—— -puberty第二性征——secondary sex characteristics 认同危机——identity crisis定向统合——identity achievement早闭型统合——foreclosure未定型统合——moratorium迷失型统合——identity diffusion传承——generativity心理动力——psycho-dynamics心理分析——psychoanalysis行为论——behaviorism心理生物观——psycho-biological perspective 认知——cognition临床心理学家-clinical psychologist谘商——counseling人因工程——human factor engineering组织——organization潜意识——unconsciousness完形心理学——Gestalt psychology感觉——sensation知觉——perception实验法——experimental method独变项——independent variable依变项——dependent V.控制变项——control V.生理——physiology条件化——conditioning学习——learning比较心理学——comparative psy.发展——development社会心理学——social psy.人格——personality心理计量学—psychometrics受试（者）——subject 实验者预期效应—experimenter expectancy effect 双盲法——double—blind实地实验——field experiment相关——correlation调查——survey访谈——interview个案研究——case study观察——observation心理测验——psychological test纹理递变度——texture gradient注意——attention物体的组群——grouping of object型态辨识—pattern recognition形象-背景——figure-ground接近律——proximity相似律——similarity闭合律——closure连续律——continuity对称律——symmetry错觉——illusion幻觉——delusion恒常性——constancy大小——size形状——shape位置—— location单眼线索——monocular cue线性透视——linear- perspective 双眼线索——binocular cue深度——depth调节作用——accommodation 重迭——superposition双眼融合——binocular fusion 辐辏作用——convergence双眼像差——binocular disparity向度—— dimension自动效应——autokinetic effect运动视差—— motion parallax诱发运动—— induced motion闪光运动—— stroboscopic motion上下文、脉络-context人工智能——artificial intelligence A.I. 脉络关系作用-context effect模板匹配——template matching整合分析法——analysis-by-synthesis 丰富性——redundancy选择性——selective无意识的推论-unconscious inferences 运动后效——motion aftereffect特征侦测器—feature detector激发性——excitatory抑制性——inhibitory几何子——geons由上而下处理—up-down process由下而上处理——bottom-up process连结者模式——connectionist model联结失识症——associative agnosia脸孔辨识困难症——prosopagnosia意识——conscious（ness）意识改变状态——altered states of consciousness无意识——unconsciousness前意识——preconsciousness内省法——introspection边缘注意——peripheral attention多重人格——multiple personality午餐排队（鸡尾酒会）效应—lunch line（cocktail party）effect 自动化历程——automatic process解离——dissociate解离认同失常——dissociative identity disorder快速眼动睡眠——REM dream非快速眼动睡眠—NREM dream失眠——insomnia显性与隐性梦——manifest & latern content心理活动性psychoactive冥想——meditation抗药性——tolerance戒断——withdrawal感觉剥夺——sensory deprivation物质滥用——substance abuse成瘾——physical addiction物质依赖——sub. dependence戒断症状——withdrawal symptom兴奋剂——stimulant幻觉（迷幻）剂——hallucinogen镇定剂——sedative抑制剂——depressant酒精中毒引起谵妄—delirium tremens麻醉剂——narcotic催眠——hypnosis催眠后暗示——posthypnotic suggestion 催眠后失忆posthypnotic amnesia超心理学——parapsychology超感知觉extrasensory perception ESP 心电感应——telepathy超感视——clairvoyance预知——precognition心理动力—psycokinesis PK受纳器——receptor绝对阈——absolute threshold 差异阈——difference threshold 恰辨差——-JND韦伯律——Weber''s law心理物理——psychophysical 费雪纳定律——Fechner''s law 频率——frequency振幅——amplitude音频——pitch基音——fundamental tone倍音——overtone和谐音——harmonic音色——timbre白色噪音——white noise鼓膜——eardrum耳蜗——cochlea卵形窗—oval window圆形窗——round window前庭——vestibular sacs半规管——semicircular canals角膜——cornea水晶体——lens虹膜——iris瞳孔——pupil网膜——retina睫状肌——ciliary muscle调节作用——accommodation脊髓——spinal cord反射弧——reflex arc脑干——brain stem计算机轴性线断层扫描——CAT或CT PET——正子放射断层摄影MRI——磁共振显影延脑——medulla桥脑——pons小脑——cerebellum网状结构——reticular formation RAS——网状活化系统视丘——thalamus下视丘——hypothalamus大脑——cerebrum脑（下）垂体（腺）—pituitary gland脑半球——cerebral hemisphere皮质——cortex胼胝体——corpus callosum边缘系统——limbic system海马体——hippocampus杏仁核——amygdala中央沟——central fissure侧沟——lateral fissure脑叶——lobe同卵双生子——identical twins异卵双生子—fraternal twins古典制约——classical conditioning操作制约——operant conditioning非制约刺激—（US unconditioned stimulus 非制约反应—（UR）unconditioned R.制约刺激——（CS）conditioned S.制约反应——（CR）conditioned R.习（获）得——acquisition增强作用——reinforcement消除（弱）——extinction自（发性）然恢复——spontaneous recovery前行制约—forward conditioning同时制约——simultaneous conditioning回溯制约——backward cond.痕迹制约——trace conditioning延宕制约—delay conditioning类化（梯度）——generalization（gradient）区辨——discrimination（次级）增强物——（secondary）reinforcer嫌恶刺激——aversive stimulus试误学习——trial and error learning效果率——law of effect正（负）性增强物—positive（negative）rei.行为塑造—behavior shaping循序渐进——successive approximation自行塑造—autoshaping部分（连续）增强—partial（continuous）R定比（时）时制—fixed ratio（interval）schedule FR或FI变化比率（时距）时制—variable ratio（interval）schedule VR或VI 逃离反应——escape R.回避反应—avoidance response习得无助——learned helplessness顿悟——insight学习心向—learning set隐内（潜在）学习——latent learning 认知地图——cognitive map生理回馈——biofeedback敏感递减法-systematic desensitization 普里迈克原则—Premack''s principle 洪水法——flooding观察学习——observational learning 动物行为学——ethology敏感化—sensitization习惯化——habituation联结——association认知学习——cognitional L.观察学习——observational L.登录、编码——encoding保留、储存——retention提取——retrieval回忆——（free recall全现心像、照相式记忆——eidetic imagery、photographic memory . 舌尖现象（TOT）—tip of tongue再认——recognition再学习——relearning节省分数——savings外显与内隐记忆——explicit & implicit memory记忆广度——memory span组集——chunk序列位置效应——serial position effect起始效应——primacy effect新近效应——recency effect心（情）境依赖学习——state-dependent L.无意义音节—nonsense syllable顺向干扰——proactive interference逆向干扰——retroactive interference闪光灯记忆——flashbulb memory动机性遗忘——motivated forgetting器质性失忆症—organic amnesia阿兹海默症——Alzheimer''s disease近事（顺向）失忆症—anterograde amnesia旧事（逆向）失忆—retrograde A.高沙可夫症候群—korsakoff''s syndrome 凝固理论—consolidation。
AStudyontheApplicationofSituationalTeaching
A Study on the Application of Situational TeachingApproach to English Teaching in Middle SchoolY ang Y anpingA thesis submitted in conformity with the requirementsFor the degree of Master of EducationIn English TeachingSupervised by Associate Professor Lii MinhongSchool of Foreign LanguageShaanxi Normal UniversityXi'anMay, 2011AcknowledgementsThis thesis would not have been completed without the assistance of the following people who have made contributions directly or indirectly.First and foremost, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Mrs. L! Minhong. It is her constant encouragement and deep insights that have helped me overcome the frustrations and difficulties I have met in the course of writing the thesis. Besides, she took great pain to review the entire draft and helped to polish the language. Otherwise, this thesis would never have come out.Secondly, I am also grateful to all the professors and instructors who taught me during the two years for their industrial instruction and assistance, from which I've benefited a lot in the past two years. They are Prof Zhang Sirui, Prof Xue Jinqiang, Prof, Hou Y uhai, Prof Liao Daosheng, Prof. Sun Liheng and Prof Du Naijian.I would also like to take this opportunity to extend my thanks to my collogues who have ever helped me one way or another.I am also grateful to my parents, my brother, for their love, understanding and support.AbstractThe traditional spoon-feeding teach method lacks teaching situation where the classroom teaching atmosphere is depressing, teaching efficiency is low, and the students' ability is hampered. Situational teaching approach, by combining visual and auditory ways and giving students lively images and figures, stimulates students' thinking and learning interest. Providing situations at classes may arouse the students' desire for exploring, mobilize their initiative and full participation. Students will accept knowledge actively in efficient classroom learning in which language acquisition is carried out completely in full language environment. At English classes, teachers should try to create English atmosphere to stimulate students' desire of expressing ideas, which is advocated in the new syllabus of English curriculum for middle schools. But a phenomenon worth mentioning is that the traditional spoon-feeding teaching pedagogyis still quite popular in English teaching in middle schools. Traditional spoon-feeding teaching pedagogy is lack of language environment and hinders the development of the students' comprehensive abilities. The new curriculum requires teachers to adopt effective teaching methods to let students receive knowledge positively.The thesis mainly focuses on the research of applying situational teaching method to the English teaching for middle school students. There are three theories in this thesis, second language acquisition theory, constructivist learning theory and mood psychology theory. By way of doing questionnaires and class observation, this thesis analyzed the existing problems of the students in learning English in current English teaching in middle schools, finding such popular problems as students having no interest and confidence whereas teachers tending to use traditional teacher-centered class room teaching. Based on the empirical research, the present author advocates that situational approach combining merits of many popular teaching methods is an effective way to improve the quality of teaching and students' language performance, which encourages the students to have actual communications, experience success and accomplishment, and finally improve the comprehensive language abilities. With such propositions, the present author tries to work out of both the principles and measures of designing effective situations in the classroom.Key words: Situational teaching, Middle school English teaching, Situations creation摘要传统的填鸭式教学法缺乏教学情境，课堂气氛沉闷，教学效率低下，阻碍了学生的能力发展，而新课程标准要求教师采用有效的教学方法，让学生主动地学习知识。
英语语法术语
英语语法术语语法grammar句法syntax词法morphology 结构structure层次rank句子sentence从句clause词组phrase词类part of speech 单词word实词notional word 虚词structural word 单纯词simple word 派生词derivative复合词compound 词性part of speech名词noun专有名词proper noun普通名词common noun可数名词countable noun不可数名词uncountable noun 抽象名词abstract noun具体名词concret noun物质名词material noun集体名词collective noun个体名词individual noun介词preposition连词conjunction动词verb主动词main verb及物动词transitive verb不及物动词intransitive verb 系动词link verb助动词auxiliary verb情态动词modal verb规则动词regular verb不规则动词irregular verb 短语动词phrasal verb限定动词finite verb非限定动词infinite verb使役动词causative verb感官动词verb of senses动态动词event verb静态动词state verb感叹词exclamation形容词adjective副词adverb 方式副词adverb of manner程度副词adverb of degree时间副词adverb of time地点副词adverb of place修饰性副词adjunct连接性副词conjunct疑问副词interrogative adverb关系副词relative adverb代词pronoun人称代词personal pronoun物主代词possessive pronoun反身代词reflexive pronoun相互代词reciprocal pronoun指示代词demonstrative pronoun 疑问代词interrogative pronoun 关系代词relative pronoun不定代词indefinite pronoun 物主代词possessive pronoun 名词性物主代词nominal possessive pronoun形容词性物主代词adjectival possessive pronoun冠词article定冠词definite article不定冠词indefinite article数词numeral基数词cardinal numeral序数词ordinal numeral分数词fractional numeral形式form单数形式singular form复数形式plural form 限定动词finite verb form非限定动词non-finite verb form 原形base form从句clause从属句subordinate clause并列句coordinate clause名词从句nominal clause定语从句attributive clause状语从句adverbial clause宾语从句object clause主语从句subject clause同位语从句appositive clause时间状语从句adverbial clause of time地点状语从句adverbial clause of place方式状语从句adverbial clause of manner让步状语从句adverbial clause of concession原因状语从句adverbial clause of cause结果状语从句adverbial clause of result目的状语从句adverbial clause of purpose条件状语从句adverbial clause of condition真实条件状语从句adverbial clause of real condition非真实条件状语从句adverbial clause of unreal condition含蓄条件句adverbial clause of implied condition 错综条件句adverbial clause of mixed condition句子sentence简单句simple sentence并列句compound sentence复合句complex sentence并列复合句compound complex sentence陈述句declarative sentence疑问句interrogative sentence一般疑问句general question特殊疑问句special question选择疑问句alternative question 附加疑问句tag question反义疑问句disjunctive question修辞疑问句rhetorical question 感叹疑问句exclamatory question存在句existential sentence肯定句positive sentence基本句型basic sentence pattern 否定句negative sentence祈使句imperative sentence省略句elliptical sentence感叹句exclamatory sentence句子成分members of sentences 主语subject谓语predicate宾语object双宾语dual object 直接宾语direct object间接宾语indirect object复合宾语complex object同源宾语cognate object补语complement主补subject complement宾补object complement表语predicative定语attribute同位语appositive状语adverbial句法关系syntactic relationship 并列coordinate从属subordination修饰modification前置修饰pre-modification后置修饰post-modification 限制restriction双重限制double-restriction 非限制non-restriction数number单数形式singular form复数形式plural form规则形式regular form不规则形式irregular form 格case普通格common case所有格possessive case主格nominative case宾格objective case性gender阳性masculine 阴性feminine通性common中性neuter人称person第一人称first person第二人称second person第三人称third person时态tense过去将来时past future tense过去将来进行时past future continuous tense过去将来完成时past future perfect tense一般现在时present simple tense 一般过去时past simple tense一般将来时future simple tense现在完成时past perfect tense过去完成时present perfect tense 将来完成时future perfect tense 现在进行时present continuous tense过去进行时past continuous tense将来进行时future continuous tense过去将来进行时past future continuous tense现在完成进行时present perfect continuous tense过去完成进行时past perfect continuous tense语态voice主动语态active voice 被动语态passive voice语气mood陈述语气indicative mood 祈使语气imperative mood 虚拟语气subjunctive mood 否定negation否定范围scope of negation 全部否定full negation局部否定partial negation 转移否定shift of negation 语序order自然语序natural order倒装语序inversion全部倒装full inversion部分倒装partial inversion 直接引语direct speech间接引语indirect speech自由直接引语free direct speech 自由间接引语free indirect speech一致agreement主谓一致subject-predicate agreement语法一致grammatical agreement概念一致notional agreement就近原则principle of proximity 强调emphasis重复repetition语音pronunciation语调tone升调rising tone降调falling tone 降升调falling-rising tone文体style正式文体formal非正式文体informal口语spoken/oral English套语formulistic expression英国英语British English美国英语American English 用法usageTerms of English Language Teaching Methodology感情色彩emotional coloring 褒义commendatory贬义derogatory幽默humorous讽刺sarcastic挖苦ironic英语教学法术语Aachievement test 成绩测试acquisition 习得，语言习得acquisition 语言习得顺序active mastery 积极掌握active vocabulary 积极词汇，主动词汇affective filtering 情感筛选aim,objective 目的，目标analysis of errors 错误分析analytic approach 分析教学法，分析法analytical reading 分析性阅读application to practice 运用于实践applied linguistics 应用语言学approach 教学路子aptitude test 能力倾向测验Army method 陆军法associative learning 联想性学习auditory discrimination 辨音能力auditory feedback 听觉反馈auditory memory 听觉记忆auditory perception 听觉audio-lingual method 听说法audio-visual method 视听法aural-oral approach 听说教学法，听说法aural-oral method 听说法Bbasic knowledge 基本知识basic principle 基本原则basic theory 基本理论basic training 基本训练basic vocabulary 基本词汇behaviourism 行为主义bilingual 双语的bilingual education 双语教育blank filling 填空Cchain drill 链式操练，连锁操练choral repetition 齐声照读，齐声仿读class management 课常管理classroom interaction 课常应对cloze 完形填空coach 辅导cognitive approach 认知法common core 语言的共同核心，语言共核communicative drill 交际性操练communicative exercise 交际练习communicative langunge teaching 交际派语言教学法，交际教学法community language learning 集体语言学习法comparative method 比较法communicative approach 交际法comprehensible input 不难理解的输入comprehensive method 综合法computer-managed instruction 计算机管理教学concord and coordination 默契与配合console 控制台consonant cluster 辅音连缀context 上下文controlled composition 控制性作文course density 课堂密度course design 课程设计cramming method 灌输式cue word 提示词curriculum 课程，教学大纲curriculum development 课程编制，课程设计cultrual objective,aim 教养目的cclical approach 循环教学法，循环法Ddeductive learning 演绎性学习deductive method 演绎法delayed auditory feedback 延缓听觉反馈demonstration 演示demonstration lesson 示范教学describe a picture in writing 看图说话describe a picture orally 描写语言学diagram 图解diagnostic test 诊断性测验dicto-comp 听写作文direct application 直接应用direct comprehension 直接理解direct learning 直接学习direct method 直接教学法Eeducational objective, aim 教育目的EFL 英语作为外语EGP 通用英语ELT 英语教学English as a Foreign Language 英语作为外语English as an InternationalLanguage 英语作为国际语言English environment 英语环境English for Academic Purposes 学术英语English for general prupose 普通英语English for General Purposes 通用英语English for specific purposes 专用英语ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages 供非英语民族使用的英语English medium school 英语授课学校English teaching;teaching English 英语教学WSD（English as a Second Dialect）英语作为第二方言WSL（English as a Second Language）英语作为第二语言ESL Programme（English as a Second Language Programme）英语（第二语言）教程ESP（English for Special Purposes）专用英语EST（English for Science andTechnology）科技英语evaluation 评语，评价examination 考试examination question 考题experimental method 实验法extensive reading 泛读external speech 外语言语extra-curiculum activity 课外活动extra-curriculum club,group 课外小组Ffacial expression 面部表情feedbace 反馈film projector 电影放映机filmstrip 电影胶片final stage 高级阶段first language 第一语言，母语formative evaluation 自由作文free practice 自由练习frequency of word 词的频率al approach 功能法al syllabus 功能派教学大纲word 功能词Ggeneral linguistics 普通语言学gestalt style 格式塔式（学习），整体式（学习）gesture 手势getting students ready for class 组织教学global learning 整体式学习，囫囵吞枣式学习global question 综合性问题gradation 级进法，分级递升法graded direct method 循序直接法grading 级进法，分级递升法；评分grammar lesson 语法课grammar method 语法法grammar translation method 语法翻译法grammatical analysis 语法分析group reading 集体朗读group training 集体练习guided composition 引导性作文Hheuristic method of teaching 启发式教学法heurstics 启发法；探索法humanistic approach 人本主义教学法Iidealism 唯心主义imitatiom 模仿immersion programme 沉浸式教学imparting knowledge 传授知识incomplete plosive 不完全爆破independent composition 独立作文individualized instruction 个别教学individual training 个别练习inductive learning 归纳性学习inductive method 归纳法inflection,inflexion 词形变化information,processing 信息处理initial beginning stage 初级阶段inner speech 内语言语in-service training 在职培训instructional objective 语言教学目标integrative teaching 综合教学integrated approach 综合教学法，综合法intelligent memory 理解性记忆language training 强化教学intensive training 精读intermediate stage 中级阶段interpretation 头口翻译International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标Jjuncture 连读，音渡junior high school 初级中学junior school 初级学校junior sceondary school 初级中等学校junior-senior high school 初高中junior technical college(orschool) 初级职业学院（或学校）junior year 大学三年级Kkey words 基本词，关键字kinesics 身势语，身势学kinesthetic memory 动觉记忆knowledge 知识knowledge structure 知识结构Llanguage acquisition 语言习得language acquisition device 语言习得机制language arts 语言技能language competence,or knowledge 语言知识language learning capability 语言学习能力language laboratory;lab 语言实验室language leaning capacity 语言学习能力language pedagogy 语言教育language performance 语言行为language program design 语言课程设计language test 语言测试learning by deduction 演绎性学习learning by induction 归纳性学习learning process 学习过程learning style 学习方式lesson conducting 教课lesson plan 课时计划，教案lesson preparation 备课lesson type 课型linguistics 语言学linguistic competence 语言能力linguistic method 口语领先教学法living language 活的语言long-term memory 长期记忆look-and-say method 看图说话法Mmeaningful drill 有意义的操练neabubgful exercise 有意义的练习meaningful learning 理解性学习means of teaching 教学手段mechanical drill 机械操练mechanical exercise 机械练习mechanical memory 机械记忆mechanical translation 机器翻译medium of instruction 教学媒介语，教学语言memory 记忆，记忆力memory span 记忆幅度memorizing 用记记住method 方法methodology of teaching 教学法methodology of teaching English 英语教学法microteaching 微型教学mim-mem method 模仿—记忆法minimal pair 最小对立体（一种辨音练习）model 模型modeling 示范教学modern equipment 现代化设备modern language 现代语言monitor hypothesis 语言监控说mother tongue 母语motivation 引起动机Nnative language 本族语natural appoach 自然教学法，自然法natural method 自然法needs analysis 需要分析new lesson 新课nine-pile grading 九堆法notional approach 意念法notional-al syllabus 意念-功能派教学大纲notional syllabus 意念大纲、意念派教学大纲Oobservation lesson 观摩教学objective 教学目标optimum age hypothesis 学习最佳年龄说operating principle 操作原则oral approach 口语教学法，口语法oral exercise 口语练习oral method 口授法oral reading 朗读order of acquisition 语言习得顺序organization of teaching materials 教材组织organs of speech 发音器官outside reading 课外阅读overlearing 过量学习Ppaired-associate learning 配对联想学习法pair work 双人作业，双人练习passive vocabulary 消极词汇pattern drill 句型操练pattern practice 句型练习pdeagogical grammar 教学语法pedagogy 教育法peer teaching 同学互教penmanship handwriting 书法perception 知觉performance objective 语言实践目标personality 个性philosophy 哲学phoneme 音素phonetics 语音法phonetic method 按字母音值拼读法phonology 音位学picture 图画phasement test 分班测验plateau of learning 学习高原practical objective 实用目的practice effect 练习效应practice of teaching 教学实践presentation of new materials 提出新材料pre-teaching 预教primary of speech 口语领先principle of communication 交际性原则principle of teaching 教学原则problem solving 习题解答production stage 活用阶段，产出阶段productive exercise 活用练习productive mastery 活用掌握productive vocabulary 活用词汇proficiency 熟练program desing 课程设计psycho-linguistics 心理语言学psychological method 心理法Qqualified teacher 合格教师question band 试题库questionnaire 调查问卷questions 提问Rrapid reading 快速阅读，快读rate of reading 阅读速度readability 易读性read by turns 轮读reading 阅读reading lesson 阅读课reading method 阅读法reading speed 阅读速度reading vocabulary 阅读词汇，阅读词汇量receptive language knowledge 接受性语言知识receptive vocabulary 领会词汇reformed method 改良法regression 回看，重读reinforcement 巩固reinforcement lesson 巩固课repetition drill 复述操练repetition-stage 仿照阶段response 反应retelling 复述retention 记忆teview;tevision 复习review（revise）and check up 复习检查review（revision）lesson 复习课rewriting 改写rhythm 节奏role-play 扮演角色rote learning 强记学习法，死记硬背Sscanning 查阅，扫瞄school practice 教学实习scientific way of thinking 科学的思想方法second language 第二语言segment 音段，切分成分semantics 语义学seminar 课堂讨论sentence completion 完成句子short-term memory 短期记忆sight vocabulary 一见即懂的词汇silent reading 默读silent way 沉默法，静授法simplification 简写simplified reader 简写读本simulation 模拟，模拟性课堂活动simultaneous interpretation 同声翻译situational method 情景法situational language teaching 情景派语言教学法，情景教学法situational method 情景教学法situational syllabus 情景派教学大纲situation reinforcement 情景强化法skimming 略读，济览slide 幻灯片slide projector 幻灯片socialized speech 社会化言语socio-linguistics 社会语言学soft ware 软件speech disorder 言语缺陷speech pathology 言语病理学speech perception 言语知觉speech reading 唇读法speed reading 快速阅读，快读speelling 正字法spiral approach 螺旋式教学法，螺旋法spoken lauguang 口语stage of teaching 教学阶段stick drawing;mathch drawing 简笔画stimulus and response 刺激与反应stress accent 重音，重读structuralism 结构主义（语言学）structural method 结构法student-centered 学生中心student-centered learning 学生为主学习法student teacher 实习教师student teaching 教育实习submersion programme 沉浸式教程substitution 替换substitution table 替换表subvocal reading 默读suggestopaedia 暗示教学法syllabus 教学大纲syllabus design 教学大纲设计syllabus for middle school English 中学英语教学大纲synthetic approach 综合性教学法，综合法synthetical reading 综合性阅读Ttarget language 目的语，译文语言teacher’s book 教师用书teacher’s manual 教师手册teaching experience 教学经验teaching objective,aim 教学目的teaching procedure 教学过程teaching tools;property 教具teaching words in isolation 孤立教单词theory of teaching 教学理论TEFL 英语（外语）教学TESL 英语（第二语言）教学TESOL 对非英语民族教英语time allotment 时间分配total physical response method 整体动作反应法transformation drill 转换操练translation method 翻译法transformational generativegrammar 转化生成语法Uunconscious 潜意识underclassman 低年级学生undergraduate 大学本科生undergraduate course 大学本科课程undergraduate school 大学本科学院undergraduate special 大学特殊课程unified studied 统一课程university high school 大学附属中学university of the air 广播电视大学updating courses/training 现代化课程/训练upgrading courses/training 进修课程/训练upperclassman 高年级学生use and usage 使用和用法utterance 语段Vverbal association 词语联想verbal learning 语言学习，单词学习video 电视，影象videotape 录象磁带visual perception 视觉visual aid 直观手段visit a class 听课visual memory 视觉记忆vocabulary control 词汇控制Wword association 词际联想word list 词表word study 词的研究word frequency 词汇重复率written language 书面语感情色彩emotional coloring褒义commendatory贬义derogatory幽默humorous讽刺sarcastic挖苦ironic英语教学术语Approach教学路子Communicative approach交际法Communicative language teaching 交际语言教学Method教学方法Syllabus design教学大纲设计Frist language母语Second language第二语言Foreign language外语Target language目的语言Techniques技巧Brainstorm指就某一问题随便发表观点或建议的过程Group-work小组活动Pair-work两人一组的活动View of work语言理论或对语言的认识Structural view结构主义语言理论Functional view功能主义语言理论Interactional view交互语言理论Behaviourist theory行为主义学习理论Cognitive theory认知学习理论Process-oriented theory强调过程的语言学习理论Condition-oriented theory强调条件的语言学习理论Audiolingual theory外语教学听说法TPR:total physical respone 全身反应法Silent way沉默法Natural approach自然法Reflective teaching反思教学Communicative approach交际法或交际路子Communicative competence交际能力Linguistic competence语言能力Teaching procedures教学步骤Teaching aids教学辅助材料和设备Variety多样性Flexibility灵活性Learnability可学性百度文库 - 让每个人平等地提升自我21Linkage 连接Micro planning 微观备课 Macro planning 宏观备课 RP:received pronunciation 英国伦敦附近的一种方言。
企业商务英语口语培训
Through exposure to different cultures and business practices, employees gain a better understanding of how to navigate international business environments
02
Basic knowledge and skills of spoon business English
Basic Characteristics of Business English Speaation
Business English speaking emphasizes brevity and clarity to receive information effectively
• Business scenario simulation and practical exercises
目录
CONTENTS
• Cross cultural communication and etiquette preparations
• Improvement of internal communication and team collaboration capabilities within enterprises
Complexity of Business English
Business English involves a wide range of vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills specific to the corporate world, making it a challenging language to master
英文问答系统的自动回答与知识获取研究
英文问答系统的自动回答与知识获取研究In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the research and development of English question-answering systems. These systems aim to automatically answer questions and acquire knowledge from various sources. This article will explore the advancements and challenges in the field of English question-answering systems as well as discuss the research on automatic answer generation and knowledge acquisition.English question-answering systems are designed to help users find specific information by providing concise and accurate answers to their questions. These systems have the potential to revolutionize the way we search for and retrieve information, as they eliminate the need to sift through vast amounts of data and documents. Instead, users can simply ask a question, and the system will retrieve the most relevant information and present it in a concise manner.One of the key challenges in developing English question-answering systems is the ability to generate accurate and informative answers automatically. Traditional keyword-based search engines often return a list of documents that may contain the answer, requiring users to manually locate the relevant information. In contrast, question-answering systems aim to provide direct answers to questions without requiring users to search for the answer themselves.To achieve this, researchers have explored various techniques for automatic answer generation. One approach is based on information retrieval, where the system retrieves relevant information from a large corpus of documents and extracts the most relevant fragments as answers. Another approach is based on natural language processing and machine learning techniques, where the system uses patterns and models to understand the question and generate appropriate answers.Knowledge acquisition is another important aspect of English question-answering systems. These systems require a vast amount of knowledge to accurately answer questions across different domains. Manual knowledge acquisition is a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. Therefore, researchers have focused on automatic knowledge acquisition methods that can efficiently gather information from diverse sources.One common method for knowledge acquisition is through text mining and information extraction. This involves analyzing large amounts of text to extract structured information, such as facts, relationships, and entities. Other methods include using structured knowledge bases like Wikipedia or utilizing pre-existing knowledge graphs to enhance the knowledge base of the question-answering system.Despite the advancements in English question-answering systems, there are still several challenges that need to be addressed. One challenge is handling ambiguous queries or questions with multiple valid interpretations. English language can be inherently ambiguous, and resolving such ambiguities accurately is vital for providing precise answers. Anotherchallenge is the ability to deal with incomplete or contradictory information present in different sources.Moreover, the development of English question-answering systems requires access to large annotated datasets for training and evaluating the system. Creating such datasets can be a time-consuming and costly process, as it requires human experts to create question-answer pairs. Therefore, researchers are exploring methods to automatically generate training data to facilitate the development and evaluation of these systems.In conclusion, the research on English question-answering systems has made significant progress in recent years. The ability to automatically answer questions and acquire knowledge has the potential to greatly enhance information retrieval and user experience. By leveraging techniques such as automatic answer generation and knowledge acquisition, researchers are continually advancing the capabilities and accuracy of these systems. However, challenges such as ambiguity handling and incomplete information still need to be addressed to further improve the performance of English question-answering systems.。
关于学习动机和方法的重要性英语作文
关于学习动机和方法的重要性英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Significance of Learning Motivation and Effective MethodsAs a student, the journey of learning is a constant companion, filled with challenges, triumphs, and thenever-ending pursuit of knowledge. It is a path that demands not only intellectual curiosity but also a deep understanding of what fuels our drive to learn and the strategies that enable us to navigate this complex terrain effectively.Learning motivation is the driving force that propels us forward, the catalyst that ignites our desire to explore, understand, and grow. It is the invisible flame that burns within us, compelling us to seek out new information, grapple with complex concepts, and push beyond our comfort zones. Without this intrinsic motivation, the process of learning becomes a mere obligation, devoid of the passion and enthusiasm that truly propel us towards mastery.Yet, motivation alone is not enough; it must be coupled with effective learning methods, the tools and strategies that allow us to efficiently acquire, retain, and apply knowledge. These methods are the roadmap that guides us through the labyrinth of information, helping us navigate the multitude of concepts, theories, and skills we encounter along the way.One of the most powerful learning methods is active engagement. Rather than passively absorbing information, we must actively participate in the learning process, asking questions, engaging in discussions, and applying what we've learned to real-world scenarios. This hands-on approach not only deepens our understanding but also strengthens our ability to retain and apply the knowledge we've acquired.Another crucial method is the cultivation of critical thinking skills. In an age where information is abundant, it is essential to develop the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information from multiple sources. By questioning assumptions, considering alternative perspectives, and drawing logical conclusions, we can navigate the vast expanse of knowledge with discernment and wisdom.Effective time management and organization are also indispensable tools in the learning arsenal. As students, we areoften juggling multiple responsibilities, making it essential to prioritize tasks, manage our schedules effectively, and develop systems to stay organized. By doing so, we can maximize our productivity and ensure that our efforts are focused and efficient.Furthermore, seeking out diverse learning experiences is crucial for well-rounded growth. Engaging with a variety of subjects, exploring different learning modalities (such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic), and collaborating with peers from diverse backgrounds can broaden our perspectives and deepen our understanding of the world around us.While individual learning styles may vary, it is essential to experiment with different techniques and find the approaches that resonate most strongly with our unique strengths and preferences. Some may thrive through visual aids like diagrams and illustrations, while others may excel through auditory methods like lectures or podcasts. Embracing this diversity and tailoring our learning strategies accordingly can unlock new levels of comprehension and retention.Ultimately, the path of learning is a lifelong journey, one that demands both unwavering motivation and a willingness to adapt and refine our methods continually. By cultivating a deep-rooted passion for knowledge and equipping ourselves with effectivestrategies, we can navigate the complexities of learning with confidence and resilience.In a world that is constantly evolving, the ability to learn efficiently and effectively is not merely a luxury but a necessity. It is the key that unlocks the doors to personal growth, professional success, and the ability to contribute meaningfully to society. By embracing the importance of learning motivation and methods, we can transform ourselves from passive recipients of knowledge into active architects of our own understanding, shaping the course of our personal and intellectual development.篇2The Vital Role of Motivation and Effective Methods in LearningAs a student, I've come to realize that motivation and employing the right methods are absolutely crucial for effective learning and academic success. Without the driving force of motivation, even the most brilliant minds can struggle to unlock their full potential. And without well-structured and tailored learning methods, the acquisition of knowledge can become an uphill battle fraught with inefficiencies and frustrations.Motivation: The Fuel that Propels LearningMotivation is the spark that ignites the desire to learn, grow, and achieve. It's the engine that powers our academic pursuits, pushing us to overcome obstacles, persevere through challenges, and strive for excellence. When we are genuinely motivated, the act of learning becomes not just a duty, but a passionate endeavor fueled by intrinsic curiosity and ambition.For me, motivation stems from a variety of sources. Sometimes it's the thrill of exploring a subject that captivates my intellectual curiosity, unveiling new realms of knowledge and understanding. Other times, it's the desire to excel, to prove my capabilities to myself and others. And in certain instances, it's the allure of future opportunities and goals that motivate me to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge.However, motivation is not a constant state; it ebbs and flows, influenced by internal and external factors. During particularly challenging periods, when the workload seems overwhelming or the material feels insurmountable, it's easy for motivation to wane. It's in these moments that self-discipline, support from loved ones, and a clear vision of our goals become invaluable in reigniting our drive.Effective Learning Methods: The Keys to Unlocking KnowledgeWhile motivation provides the impetus for learning, effective methods serve as the keys that unlock the doors to knowledge acquisition. Over the years, I've experimented with various techniques, constantly refining and adapting my approach to suit different subjects and learning styles.One method that has proven invaluable is active learning, which involves engaging with the material through activities like note-taking, discussion, and practical application. Rather than passively absorbing information, active learning encourages critical thinking, reinforces understanding, and creates lasting connections in the brain.Another powerful technique is spaced repetition, which involves reviewing and revisiting information at strategic intervals. This approach leverages the principles of memory consolidation, helping to solidify knowledge and prevent the dreaded "cramming and forgetting" cycle that plagues so many students.Additionally, I've found that incorporating diverse learning modalities, such as visual aids, auditory resources, and kinesthetic activities, can cater to different learning styles andenhance comprehension and retention. By engaging multiple senses and processing channels, the material becomes more accessible and deeply ingrained.Collaboration and peer learning have also been instrumental in my academic journey. Engaging in group discussions, study sessions, and collaborative projects not only fosters a supportive learning environment but also exposes me to diverse perspectives and approaches, broadening my understanding and problem-solving skills.Reflecting on my academic experiences, I can confidently say that embracing a growth mindset has been a game-changer. Rather than viewing challenges as insurmountable obstacles, I've learned to perceive them as opportunities for growth andself-improvement. This mindset has empowered me to tackle complex concepts with resilience and a willingness to learn from mistakes, ultimately leading to deeper comprehension and mastery.The Synergy of Motivation and Effective MethodsWhile motivation and effective learning methods are both essential components of academic success, their true power lies in their synergistic relationship. Motivation fuels our desire to learn, providing the impetus to seek out and employ effectivemethods. In turn, these well-structured and tailored approaches facilitate the acquisition and retention of knowledge, fostering a sense of accomplishment that further reinforces our motivation.It's a virtuous cycle that propels us forward, enabling us to overcome obstacles, achieve academic milestones, and continuously expand our intellectual horizons. As students, we must nurture both our motivation and our commitment to employing effective learning methods, for they are the twin pillars upon which our academic success rests.In conclusion, the importance of motivation and effective learning methods cannot be overstated. Motivation ignites our passion for learning, driving us to push beyond our perceived limits and embrace challenges with enthusiasm. Effective methods, on the other hand, equip us with the tools and strategies to efficiently acquire, process, and retain knowledge, unlocking our true potential as learners.By cultivating a deep well of motivation and continuously refining our learning approaches, we can not only excel academically but also develop the resilience, adaptability, and intellectual curiosity that will serve us well beyond the confines of the classroom. Embracing this synergy is not just a pathway toacademic success; it's a lifelong endeavor that empowers us to become active architects of our own knowledge and growth.篇3The Vital Role of Motivation and Effective Study MethodsAs a student, I can't overstate how crucial motivation and the right study approaches are to academic success. I've learned through experience that having drive and using optimal strategies make an enormous difference. In contrast, a lack of motivation and poor study habits act like anchors, dragging you down no matter how intelligent you are.I vividly remember times when I've lacked true motivation for a particular subject. Those were brutal periods of just going through the motions, barely retaining anything. My mind would wander constantly as I tried to slog through readings and assignments out of obligation rather than genuine interest. The material just wouldn't "stick" at all. Predictably, I struggled on exams and performed poorly overall in those courses despite studying for hours. It was an exhausting and demoralizing cycle.Things changed dramatically, however, when I became truly engaged with and excited about what I was learning. That fire of enthusiasm made studying feel more like following a passionthan chasing requirements. When I cared deeply and could directly see how the knowledge would benefit me, the motivation sprang eternal. I actively wanted to understand instead of begrudgingly trying to memorize. That mindset shift alone worked wonders for my ability to absorb, retain, and apply the concepts.With that said, motivation alone isn't enough to maximize one's potential. You also need to employ effective study methods tailored to the material and your personal learning style. I've picked up countless techniques over the years for making the most of my study time.For courses heavy on vocabulary and definitions, spaced repetition via flashcards (physical or digital) is invaluable. Creating the cards forces you to actively engage with the content instead of passively reading. Then the very act of reviewing them reinforces the connections in your brain. I've greatly benefited from this method in disciplines like anatomy, foreign languages, psychology terminology, and more.When studying complex processes or chains ofcause-and-effect, drawing diagrams is immensely helpful. Mapping out the components and interactions visually makes them far easier to conceptualize and commit to memory. Thistechnique has served me well in subjects ranging from biology to economics to political science. The process of diagramming also helps reveal areas where my understanding is shaky so I know what to revisit.For analytical writing, nothing compares to talking through the prompt or question out loud. I'll record myself working through the key points, addressing counterarguments, and mapping out a potential structure. Hearing myself explain aloud a first pass at the thesis helps solidify it in my mind. Then the recording serves as a launchpad for revising and fleshing out the ideas into a polished work.Hands-on application through practice problems is crucial for math, science, and any discipline involving step-by-step procedures or calculations. You can watch videos and read examples until you're blue in the face, but the concepts don't fully stick until you've successfully worked through many practice scenarios on your own. I've found this laborious approach is the only reliable way to develop true mastery.While no single technique works for every subject, often the most powerful methods blend several approaches. When preparing for major tests in content-heavy courses, I'll combine diagrams, flashcards, practice problems, recorded explanations,and various other memorization tricks. I've achieved my best results through multimodal reinforcement hitting me from multiple sensory angles.Of course, none of these study hacks matter if you don't put in the effort and allot enough time. There's no way around putting in the hard work and dedicating sufficient hours to adequately prepare. That said, optimized workflows certainly help maximize productivity so you get more bang for your effort-buck.Ultimately, what matters most is figuring out what motivates you and then relentlessly pursuing growth in alignment with those drives. For some, it's a burning intellectual curiosity to understand how the world works. For others, it's a pragmatic desire to develop valuable skills for a future career. Some are driven by a competitive fire to rank at the top. Others are inspired by aspirations to enact positive change. And many are propelled by the simple satisfaction of personal growth.Personally, all of those factors motivate me to some degree. But the driving force that keeps me going is recognizing how interrelated all knowledge is and how everything builds on itself in an intricate tapestry. To pull on a single thread is to unravel a series of wider implications across a vast web of understanding.That outlook instills in me an insatiable hunger to constantly expand my mental universe by devouring as much knowledge as possible. I'm hooked on the perpetual cycle of my latest realizations inspiring new questions that spur me to dig even deeper.Every new subject I immerse myself in connects back to pieces I've previously learned, adding new dimensions to an ever-evolving big picture. It's a ceaseless journey of gradually weaving together a more comprehensive and nuanced worldview strand by strand. And that perspective of progressive enlightenment is what keeps me perpetually hungry to take on more challenges and master new competencies.So while things like grades and earning potential fuel me to a degree, my principal motivation stems from that intrinsic drive to continually expand my understanding. I know every new skill or concept I dedicate myself to mastering turbocharged that compounding growth. It's like one of those visual recursions where zooming in reveals yet another layer of hidden depths. Each academic success empowers me to venture even further into the ultimate meta of all: making sense of the greatest recursion of all -- existence itself.Some may call that an obsessive or lofty ambition. I call it the grandest motivation of all. With that outlook, studying and honing my mind never feels like a chore, but an impassioned lifelong calling. Striving to optimize my methods and sustain that internal fire isn't just about checking boxes, but about doing justice to the boundless privilege of consciousness itself. That's the perspective that will keep me ceaselessly devouring knowledge until my last breath.。
高三英语学术研究方法创新不断探索单选题30题
高三英语学术研究方法创新不断探索单选题30题1.In an academic research discussion, what is the most important aspect of a research method?A.AccuracyB.SpeedC.CreativityD.Popularity答案：A。
解析：在学术研究中，准确性是至关重要的，它确保研究结果的可靠性。
速度在某些情况下可能重要，但不是最主要的。
创造力也很重要，但不是最重要的方面。
而受欢迎程度与研究方法的重要性关系不大。
2.What does a good research method ensure?A.Lots of dataB.Accurate resultsC.Fast completionD.High popularity答案：B。
解析：一个好的研究方法能确保得到准确的结果。
大量的数据不一定能保证结果准确。
快速完成也不是主要目的。
高人气与研究方法的主要作用无关。
3.In academic research, the definition of a research method mainly includes?A.Question asking and data collectionB.Guessing and intuitionC.Opinion sharing and discussionD.Random selection and chance答案：A。
解析：学术研究方法主要包括提出问题和收集数据。
猜测和直觉不是科学的研究方法。
意见分享和讨论是研究的一部分但不是研究方法的定义。
随机选择和偶然也不是研究方法的主要内容。
4.Which of the following is not a characteristic of an effective research method?A.Biased data collectionB.Systematic approachC.ReliabilityD.Validity答案：A。
软件工程专业英语-Artificial Intelligence
“The science and engineering of making intelligent machines". —— John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956
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5.1.1 Precursors
✓ Turing‘s theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as “0” and “1”, could simulate any conceivable (imaginable) act of mathematical deduction.
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5.1.3 AI’s Golden Years and Its Boom
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5.1.2 The Birth of Artificial Intelligence
the attendees,
✓John McCarthy ✓Marvin Minsky ✓ Allen Newell ✓Arthur Samuel ✓Herbert Simon
the leaders of AI research for many decades
The years (1956–1974)
✓after the Dartmouth conference was the golden years of artificial intelligent, an era of discovery, of sprinting across new ground.
面向概念设计过程的隐性知识获取方法
⾯向概念设计过程的隐性知识获取⽅法第47卷第14期2011年7⽉机械⼯程学报JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGVol.47 No.14Jul. 2011DOI：10.3901/JME.2011.14.184⾯向概念设计过程的隐性知识获取⽅法*刘征1 鲁娜2 孙凌云3(1. 中国美术学院设计艺术学院杭州 310002；2. 浙江财经学院艺术学院杭州 310028；3. 浙江⼤学现代⼯业设计研究所杭州 310027)摘要：在⼯业设计领域，为扩展设计知识空间，提出⾯向概念设计过程的隐性知识获取⽅法。
在讨论设计知识和隐性知识基本概念的前提下，指出概念设计过程集成特定的问题、情境和设计经验，是隐性知识的重要来源。
根据隐性知识产⽣和转化的特征，建⽴从底层认知⾏为⼊⼿、完备概念定义体系以及信息逐层加⼯的知识获取策略。
在隐性知识获取过程中，基于⼝语报告、问题、选项及标准(Question, Option, Criterion, QOC)和草图解释的⽅法捕捉设计师个体活动信息，并通过草图⽅案划分设计状态，初步整理收集信息。
基于预设概念定义获取信息的知识转化原理，通过知识元级模型和本体配置单元，表达设计对象和设计过程两⼤类⽬标知识。
通过主客观相结合的⽅法，评价转化知识的创新程度。
通过应⽤知识获取系统，以获取闪存U 盘隐性知识为例，验证以上⽅法。
关键词：概念设计隐性知识知识获取⼝语报告中图分类号：TB472Tacit Knowledge Acquisition Method for the Process of Concept DesignLIU Zheng1LU Na2 SUN Lingyun3(1. Design Art College, China Academy of Art, Hangzhou 310002;2. Art College, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou 310028;3. Modern Industrial Design Institution , Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027)Abstract：In the industrial design area, a method of tacit knowledge acquisition for the concept design process is put forwards to expand the design knowledge space. With the discussion on the basic definition of design knowledge and the tacit knowledge, the concept design process is the important resource of tacit knowledge, which integrates specific problem, scenario and design experience. According to the characteristics of the tacit knowledge production and transformation, the knowledge acquisition strategies are established，including collecting the date from the bottom cognitive behavior, defining full concept system and processing the information by degrees. During the tacit knowledge acquisition process, the information on designer’s individual activities is captured on the basis of oral reports, QOC(Question, Option, Criterion) and sketch explanation method. The design states are divided according to the sketch scheme, and items of information are collected and arranged. Based on the knowledge transformation principle of the pre-concept defining information, the target knowledge of design object and process is expressed by the knowledge meta-model and the ontology configuration. The innovation degree of transformed knowledge is evaluated by the combination method of objection and subjection. Finally, the knowledge acquisition system is established to verify the above methods by the cases of USB flash disk form tacit knowledge acquisition for USB flash disk form design.Key words：Concept design Tacit knowledge Knowledge acquisition Oral report0 前⾔按照编码和传播程度的难易，可以将知识分为显性和隐性两⼤类。
人教版 九年级 英语 课堂评价 案例
人教版九年级英语课堂评价案例中文：本节课以一段生动有趣的动画视频为开端，成功吸引了学生的注意力。
视频内容围绕单元主题“科技与生活”，展示了科技在日常生活中如何带来便利，为后续深入探讨奠定了基础。
English: The class commenced with an engaging and entertaining animated video, effectively capturing students' attention. The content revolved around the unit theme "Technology and Life," illustrating how technology brings convenience to our daily lives, thereby laying a solid foundation for further in-depth exploration.二、教学目标明确中文：教师清晰阐述了本节课的学习目标，包括掌握科技相关词汇、理解并运用科技影响生活的实例进行讨论、以及培养对科技发展的批判性思考能力。
这些目标与新课标要求紧密契合，有助于提升学生的英语综合素养。
English: The teacher explicitly stated the learning objectives for the lesson, which included mastering technology-related vocabulary, understanding and utilizing examples to discuss technology's impact on life, and fostering critical thinking about technological development. These objectives align closely with therequirements of the new curriculum standards, contributing to the enhancement of students' overall English proficiency.三、教学内容丰富且层次分明中文：教师精心设计了丰富多样的教学活动，涵盖词汇讲解、听力训练、小组讨论、角色扮演等环节。
多读书的英语作文
Reading is an essential part of personal development and intellectual growth.It not only broadens our horizons but also enhances our understanding of the world around us. Here are some key points to consider when discussing the importance of reading in an English essay:1.Knowledge Acquisition:Books are treasure troves of information.They provide us with knowledge on a wide range of subjects,from history and science to literature and philosophy.2.Vocabulary Expansion:Reading regularly helps in expanding ones vocabulary. Exposure to new words and their usage in different contexts aids in improving language skills.3.Critical Thinking:Books often present complex ideas and scenarios that require readers to think critically and analytically.This helps in developing problemsolving skills.4.Cultural Understanding:Reading books from different cultures and countries can provide insights into various traditions,customs,and ways of life,fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of diversity.5.Emotional Intelligence:Novels and stories often explore the emotional depths of characters,allowing readers to empathize and understand different perspectives,which is crucial for emotional intelligence.6.Stress Relief:Reading can be a form of escapism,providing a break from the stresses of daily life.It can be a relaxing activity that calms the mind.7.Improved Concentration:Engaging with a book requires focus and concentration.Over time,this can improve ones ability to maintain attention on tasks.8.Creativity Boost:Reading stimulates the imagination and can inspire creative thinking. It can serve as a source of inspiration for ones own writing or artistic endeavors.9.Lifelong Learning:The habit of reading fosters a love for lifelong learning.It keeps the mind active and curious,which is important as we age.10.Professional Advancement:Reading industryrelated books and articles can provide insights and knowledge that can be applied in professional settings,potentially leading to career advancement.In conclusion,reading is a multifaceted activity that offers numerous benefits.It is a practice that should be encouraged and nurtured from a young age to ensure a wellrounded education and personal development.。
机械零件设计的知识服务方法及系统实现
机械零件设计的知识服务方法及系统实现李录;毛汉颖;吴振勇;毛汉领【摘要】为了解决机械零件类知识资源难以被发现，获取效率低的问题，提出一种基于零件实例库的关联知识服务方法。
根据知识间的从属关系，设计三种关联知识检索方法；基于相似度匹配算法，设计关联知识推送方法，并通过以上两种知识获取方法实施知识服务。
设计并实现了机械非标零件设计知识服务平台，为非标零件设计过程中知识的共享和管理提供一个综合的网络服务平台。
最后通过应用实例对该平台知识服务的应用效果进行了验证。
%To solve the problem that the knowledge resource of mechanical parts category is hard to be discovered and is low in acquisition efficiency,we proposed a parts case library-based association knowledge service method.According to the subordination relation between the knowledge,we designed three types of association knowledge retrieval method,and based on similarity matching algorithm,we designed the association knowledge push method.By the above two knowledge acquisition methods we implemented the knowledge service.We also designed and implemented the knowledge service platform for non-standard mechanical parts and provided a comprehensive network service platform for knowledge sharing and management in the process of non-standard mechanical partsdesign.Finally,we verified the application effect of the knowledge service on the platform through application examples.【期刊名称】《计算机应用与软件》【年(卷),期】2016(033)006【总页数】5页(P68-72)【关键词】零件;关联知识服务;关联知识检索;关联知识推送;知识服务平台【作者】李录;毛汉颖;吴振勇;毛汉领【作者单位】广西大学机械工程学院广西南宁530004;广西科技大学汽车与交通学院广西柳州542506;广西大学机械工程学院广西南宁530004;广西大学机械工程学院广西南宁530004【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TP391机械零部件产品的设计制造是一个重用和创新已有的设计成果和设计知识的过程。