Chinese phonemic errors
陈新仁答案
《英语语言学实用教程》教学提示Unit 1 Some Preliminaries about Language[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.(1) There is universal agreement about the origin of language. F(2) Pet dogs can speak human languages. F(3) All human infants can speak some language. FNote: All normal human infants can learn to speak some language.(4) By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets. FNote: By creativity we mean that we can always create and understand new sentences never used before.(5) With different cultures there will be different languages. FNote: Some cultures can share the same language.(6) Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information. TNote: Example: language used for phatic communion is not meant to convey new information.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What does ―language‖ mean in each of the context s?a. a natural language; language in particular.b. a human-specific tool for communication; language in general.c. individual style of language use.d. a metaphorical way of referring to bees’ system of communication.(2) Is there any other context in which the use of the word means something else?Yes. Example: language for the computer like C+2. ASK:(1) What if there were no language?Omit.(2) What if there were only one language the world over?Omit.(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.3. ASK:(1) Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?(a) is more likely than (b), because the word as the basic unit of meaning that can occur independently in language is finite in number, whereas the sentence as composed of words, though almost infinite in number, is made possible by our knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. We canalways produce and understand sentences that we never come across before. In that sense, no sentence is really new.(2) In what context do we make the second statement?When we focus our attention on the meaning of a sentence or when we are concerned with the form of a sentence as found in a language class.4. ASK:(1) Are there onomatopoeic words in Chinese?Yes. e.g. “哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.(2) Does the existence of onomatopoeic words overthrow the claim that language is arbitrary?No. Onomatopoeic words account for a very limited percentage in the vocabulary of a language.5. ASK:(1) Can one really invent a language of one’s own?No.(2) If not, why?A language comes into being and use by convention or agreement among its speakers.6. ASK:(1) Is there any basic flaw in this experiment?The process is not strictly controlled. There may have been some coincidence. The sample size is too small for the experiment to be valid.(2) Do you think we really can answer the question about the beginning of language?No, at least in the present condition where/when we cannot perform experiments on the human brain, the key organ of speech.7. ASK:(1) Can you identify the most likely order (from least to most advanced) of these samples?C→B→A(2) What features in each child’s utterances can you use as evidence to support your ordering?Child A: good syntax except for improper question form.Child B: visible development of syntax; overgeneralizationChild C: Not much syntax; two-word utterances; telegraphic sentences (sentences that contain only content words but lack function words)8. ASK:(1) It is often assumed that children imitate adults in the course of language acquisition. Canimitation account for the above production on the part of the child?Not wholly. There is counter evidence against the assumption, like the overgeneralization ―go-ed‖ for ―went‖.(2) What distinguishes the child’s production from that of the adult?Overgeneralization of ―-ed‖ for the past tense as shown by ―holded‖.9. ASK:(1) How do adults reinforce the process of children’s acquisition as exemplified here?They use explicit correction.(2) Do children know what they are doing wrongly?Not exactly.(3) Do the adults succeed in their reinforcement?Not always, at least.(4) How should we treat the ―mistakes‖ that children make while acquiring their mother tongue?We may ignore them sometimes, although some amount of reinforcement may turn out to be helpful.10. ASK:(1) Do children learn through structured or simplified input, as suggested?Not always. There is evidence for both sides.(2) Can you offer some examples illustrating, representing the way adults talk to infants?Omit.Note: Motherese is characterized by shorter sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, higher proportion of content words to function words, simple syntax, more interrogatives and imperatives, more repetitions. Yet it is not syntactically simpler. Rather, it may include syntactically complex sentences such as questions: Do you want your juice now?Embedded sentences: Mommy thinks you should sleep now. Imperatives: Pat the dog gently! Negatives with tag questions: We don‟t want to hurt him, do we?Indeed, it is fortunate that motherese is not syntactically restricted. If it were, children might not have sufficient information to extract the rules of their language.11. ASK(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages?Omit.(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or somedayno dialect will exist?Omit.12. ASK:Are there any universals that you think all languages share but are not mentioned here?E.g. All languages have internal structures.All languages have numericals.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. What do you think is essential to the emergence of language?The existence of social activities; the need to express diverse ideas, emotions, etc.; the need to communicate ideas to distant places; etc.2. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.3. What role does body language play in language communication?Omit.4. N aturally occurring ―experiments‖ with so-called ―wolf-children‖, ―bear-children‖,―Mowgli‖or ―monkey-children‖ and other such feral youngsters have been widely reported for hundreds of years. None of these children could speak or understand speech and, indeed, most efforts to teach them language ended in failure. How would you account for the failure?The language acquisition device has to be triggered before a certain age (that of puberty). Sufficient expose to a language environment at the right time is essential to language acquisition.5. The following are some instances of using English for communication. What specific functiondoes each use of English serve in the following pictures?Informative (in the form of commanding)Directive (Advertising in the form of requesting)Directive (Persuading in the form of threatening)Directive (Recruiting)6．Iconicity of language is an aspect of language where form echoes meaning. Onomatopoeia, also known as ―sound symbolism‖, is one type of iconicity. Some researchers have found other evidence of iconicity. For example, words beginning with the sound combination sl- in English often have an unpleasant sense, as in slithering, slimy, slugs. Here are some questions:a. Is the ―unpleasant‖ sense actually true of all, or even most, words beginning with sl- in English? No. e.g. slight.b. Are there any other sounds or sound combinations that you associate with particular meanings? Gliding: slide, slip, slippery;Rolling: tumble, crumble, stumblec. How about the vowel sounds in words that identify near-to-speaker concepts (this, near, here) versus far-from-speaker concepts (that, far, there)? What is the difference? Is it a general pattern distinguishing terms for things that are near versus far in English? What about the case in Chinese?Front vowels for near-speaker concepts; central or back vowels for far-from-speaker concepts. There seems to be a similar kind of pattern in Chinese. C.f. 近jin /远yuan；这zhe /那na7. In many of the world’s languages there are so-called nursery names for parents. In English, for example, corresponding to the word mother is the nursery name mama, and for father one finds dada and papa. There is remarkable similarity across different languages in the form of these nursery names for parents. For example, in Chinese and Navajo ma corresponds to English mama. Why do you think that this is the case?Bilabials are learned and produced first because they are the easiest.8.a. What are some of the changes which appear to have taken place in the child’s ability to useEnglish during that period?Like the basically proper use of interrogatives and the correct use of inflection.b. What do these changes suggest about the order of language acquisition?Complete sentences are acquired later than elliptical ones. Inflection is acquired at a late stage.Unit 2 The Sounds of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme. F2. Not all English phonemes have allophones. TNote: /☠/ and /j/ occur in one single position and therefore do not have allophones.3. The same set of vowels is used in all languages. F4. All syllables must contain at least one vowel. FNote: Some syllables may contain no vowels. They may, instead, employ some syllabic consonant, as in people and muscle.5. The marking of word stress is arbitrary for the most part in English. F6. English is a tone language. FNote: Chinese is a tone language.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What is the phonetic environment of [t] in [pit]?[i_#](2) Are the following pairs of words minimal pairs?(a) desk vs. task No.(b) leave vs. Leak Yes. ( li:v vs. li:k )2. ASK:(1) Characterize how the allophones of the phoneme /k/ are complementarily distributed.[k h ] in initial position; [k]after /s/; [k¬] in final position.(2) Is there any other way of charactering the complementary distribution of clear [l] and dark [ł]?[l] before vowels; [ł] elsewhere.3. ASK:(1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different?[voiced](2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes?(a) /☞/ [fricative] + [voiceless] + [palatal](b) /k/ [velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive](c) /n/ [nasal]+[voiced] +[alveolar]4. ASK:(1) Are [r] and [l] in complementary distribution? In what environment does each occur?Yes. [r] occurs before vowels; [l] occurs after vowels.(2) Do they occur in any minimal pairs?No.(3) Suppose [r] and [l] are allophones of one phoneme. State the rule that can derive the allophonicforms.[r] is lateralized when it occurs after vowels.5. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of assimilation?compatriot, sing(2) Can you find any exceptions?input, unbeatable, Canberra(3) What phonetic segments condition this change?The consonant immediately after the vowel.[Note] 2) [tai] should be [tay].6. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of free variation?advertisement [əd΄və:ti s mənt] [əd΄və:ti z mənt]association [ə səu s i΄ei☞ən] [ə səu☞i΄ei☞ən](2) Why do you think such a phenomenon exists in a language like English?Individual variation is responsible for this phenomenon.7. ASK:(1) Which sound is deleted in ―sign‖, ―design‖, and ―resign‖?[g](2) Can you offer other examples of deletion?paradi g m (atic), condem n(ation)(3) Can you give some words that involve total deletion?plum b, plum b er; clim b, clim b ing(4) Are there any other types of deletion in English?de b t, k now8. ASK:(1) Can you think of a phonetic description of the regular pattern in these expressions?They all start with a front, high vowel and follow up with a mid or low vowel.(2) Can you think of any possible explanation for the observed pattern?[i] involves the least degree of mouth opening while the mid or low vowels necessitate biggeropening. There is an increase of mouth opening in pronouncing the whole word, which is symbolic in meaning.9. ASK:(1) What are likely positive effects of using alliteration? Use one of the poetic examples toillustrate.Coherence, connectedness, smoothness, consistency. Take ―I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance‖for example. The double alliteration involved helps to create a picture of smooth and coherent dance.(2) Is there a similar use of alliteration in Chinese?Yes, though less often. 花好月圆is a good example.10. ASK:(1) What is the stylistic effect of rhyming?echoing, agreement, correspondence, etc.(2) Can you find more proverbs that involve internal rhyming?First thrive and then wive.Fancy passes beauty.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1.a. Does the string of sounds mean anything to you?If we want to talk really good, we’ll have to invent vowels.b. What does the picture suggest to you about the role of consonants and vowels in English? Consonants are the backbones of syllables and words.2. Some phonetic transcriptions below are English words, some are not existing words but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are definitely ―foreign‖or impossible because they violate English sequential constraints. Specify each of the a-e cases as illustrated.Word Possible Foreign ReasonExample:[pa:k][tif][lkib]a. [ŋa:f] √[☠] must occur after a vowel.b. [ski:] skic.[knait] √d.[meij] √[ ] must occur initially before avowel.e.[blaft] √3. In English, the /i/ vowel becomes almost as long as /i:/ under certain conditions (written as /i:/ for convenience). Consider the examples listed below:a. List the phonemes that condition the change.voiced consonantsb. State the rule that seems involved.[i] is lengthened before a voiced] consonant.Note: Start with the fact that the /i/ is basic and that short /i/ becomes long /i:/. The change from short /i/ to long /i:/ is phonologically determined; that is, the lengthening takes place in the presence of certain phonemes. A good strategy is to first list the phonemes to the right of long /i:/, then list those to the left. As an answer to (a), then, one would propose that /i/ become /i:/ whenever the phonemes to the right (/d, m, l, b, z, j, ŋ/) occur immediately after that vowel. This hypothesis looks promising because, in fact, the short variant /i/ never occurs before these segments. The next question is, what is it about the phonemes on the right that unify them as a class? One may find that these phonemes are all voiced ([+voice]), and, in fact, the short /i/ never lengthens before voiceless segments. Thus the answer to (b) is that the vowel /i/ is lengthened before (the natural class of) voiced consonants.4. The use of plural–s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives.a. Can you work out the set of sounds which regularly precedes each of these alternatives?/s/ to words like ship, bat, book and cough;voiceless plosives [voiceless]/z/ to words like cab, lad, cave, rag and thing;after voiced consonants [voiced]/əz/ to words like bus, bush, judge, church and maze.after /s/, /☞/, /d✞/, /z/b. What features does each of these sets have in common?[palatal] or [alveolar]+[fricative]c. Is there any pattern regarding the different pronunciations of the past tense marker?[t] after voiceless consonants except [t]; [d] after voiced consonants except [d]; [id] after [t] or [d].d. Do you think that one of these phonological forms for –ed is more basic, with the others beingderived from it in a regular way? Which, and how?[d] is more basic. [t] after devoicing. [id] after epenthesis (i.e. addition of a sound).5. Below are three columns of words with different patterns of stress:a. How is stress distributed in each column?penultimate for A; last syllable for B; on the last syllable.b. In Column B, what kinds of vowels appear in the last syllable? How does the syllabic structure of Column C differ from A and B?In Column B, long vowels or diphthongs appear in the last syllable.The last syllable of the words in C ends in consonant clusters.[Note] For ―usurp‖, ―r‖ may be pronounced as in /ju(:)΄zə(r)p/.6. The following is a list of words that are spelt in a similar way:fuddy-duddy hocus-pocus namby-pambyfuzzy-wuzzy hurly-burly razzle-dazzlehanky-panky lovey-dovey roly-polyhelter-skelter mumbo-jumbo super-dupera. What similarity can you spot among the words listed?All pairs are the same except the initial consonants.b. What effects may such words have in common when they are put into use?Redundancy, repetitiveness, etc.7. Write the phonetic transcription for each of the following words.Omit.8. Read the following words or phrases and point out the phonological processes that yield assimilation.(a) pat /pæt/ pan /pãn/ sat /sæt/ Sam /sãm/Nasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] /_____ [+nasal](b) since /sins/ sink /siŋk/ hint /hint/ dink /diŋk/Velarization rule: [-velarl] →[+velar] /_____ [+velar](c) five pits /faifpits/ love to /l∧ftə /Devoicing rule: [+voiced →[-voiceless] /_____ [-voiceless]9.a. Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration, and assonance(that is, use of syllables with a common vowel, as in ―come‖ - ―love‖) in this poem. How are they used to stress the sense of superficiality and lack of meaning the poet is trying to convey here? (Note especially the role of rhyming pairs of monosyllables and their effect on meter.)assonance: [ri:t☞] [skri:n] [spi:t☞][♈ud] [huk] [buk]The ryhmed words, all monosyllabic and stressed, are semantically unrelated and separated.Alliteration is only sporadically used. Assonance suggests apparent connection but actual disconnectedness.b. Comment more carefully on meter in the first two stanzas. How does it contribute to the meaning? How and where does it work against our expectations?Lack of regularity and thus unpredictability.10. Collect some data to show that English advertisements, newspaper headlines, English songs,and presidential addressee sometimes make use of alliteration and rhyming.Omit.11. What interesting things do speech errors tell us about language and its use? Collect a few casesof slips of tongue from daily conversations.Speech errors are often explainable, often semantically motivated.Unit 3 The Units of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. All words in English have a hierarchical structure. FNote: Mon-morphemic words do not.2. Clipping is one of the three most important devices of word-formation in English. FNote: The three most important devices are affixation, compounding (or composition) and conversion (or functional shift).3. Idioms in English are modifiable in some grammatical ways. T4. The presence of constructions is unique to English. F5. Every English sentence has a subject. FNote: Imperative sentences do not have any subject.■ In-Class Activities1．ASK:(1) What is the infix used in the above language data?―-um-―(2) What is the verb form in Bontoc for ―to be poor‖, given that pusi means ―poor‖?―pumusi‖2. ASK:(1) What is the Samoan for: (a) ―they travel‖ (b) ―he sings‖ respectively?(a) savavali (b) pese(2) Formulate a morphological rule regarding how to form the plural verb form from the singularverb form in Samoan.Duplicate the penultimate syllable.3. ASK:(1) Which other affixes are there in English that function as markers of negation?dis-, non-, a-, in-, il-, im-, ir-(2) What pattern underlies the use of un- in the data above?Positive terms can have negative morphemes added to them, as in ―happy-unhappy‖, but semantically negative ones rarely do, because un- is deprecatory as well as negative.(3) Why are ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖ not found in English, although George Orwell coined―ungood‖in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four? Do you think they are accidental gaps in the lexicon of English?There already exist words that correspond to ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖. It is not accidental. This is what is technically called lexical blocking.(4) Read the following extract from Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass. How do you think Humpty Dumpty would explain the word ―un-birthday‖ to Alice?―Un-birthday‖ means some day that is not one’s birthday.(5) The fact that un- can be both a verb prefix and an adjective prefix may explain the occurrenceof the ambiguous word ―unlockable‖. Can you imagine two situati ons corresponding to the two senses of the word?? Can you give mo re examples like ―unlockable‖?Imagine you are inside a room and you want some privacy. You would be unhappy to find the door is unlockable–―not able to be locked.‖ Now imagine you are inside a locked room trying to get out. You would be very relieved to find that the door is unlockable–―able to be unlocked.‖ These two meanings correspond to two different structures, as follows:Adjective Adjectiveun- Adjective Verb -ableV erb -able un- V erblock lockIn the first structure the verb ―lock‖ combines with the suffix –able to form the adjective lockable (―able to be locked‖). Then the prefix un-, meaning ―not,‖ combines with the derived adjective to form a new adjective unlockable (―not able to be locked‖). In the second case, the prefix un- combines with the verb lock to form a derived verb, unlock. Then the derived verb combines with the suffix –able to form unlockable, ―able to be unlocked.‖Other examples are unbuttonalbe, unzippable, and unlatchable.4. ASK:(1) How are the verbs in Column A different from those in Column B?Verbs in Column A are transitive while those in Column B are generally intransitive.(2) Can we use ―able to be X-ed‖ to paraphrase ―perishable‖?No. ―Perish‖ is intransitive.(3) A further complication with -able is that in words li ke ―unthinkable‖, the suffix means morethan ―able to be X-ed‖. Why? Can you think of more words of this type?unbreakable,presentable, readable, questionable, payable, washable.(4) Now, let’s l ook at another complication. None of the following words are permitted. What doesthis suggest about the use of the suffix ―-able‖?―-able‖ are not attached to nouns, adjectives, or prepositions.5. ASK:(1) Note the contrast between list A and List B. Can you think of any reason that can explain whythe set of words on List B are impossible words in English?Verbs on List B are intransitive.(2) How are the re- words on List C and List D different from those on List A?Words on List C are made up of re- +adjectives. In the words on List D, ―re-‖ means ―back‖instead of ―again‖.(3) Some re- prefixed words may mean more than the simple addition of the meaning of re- andthe meaning of its base. For example, ―rewrite‖ means ―write something again, especially in a different or improved form‖.Can you give more examples like ―rewrite‖?rebuild, rethink, retry, retell, reorganize, reconsider, reform, etc.6. ASK:(1) Can you give some examples that you consider to be chunks?Omit.(2) Read the following spoken data of a Chinese student. Can you point out the chunks used in it?Can you classify them into some types?It is the most unforgettable birthday um ... that I ... and I can not forget it for forever. Um ... it it was when I was a freshman. It is the first year um ... I left my family and spend my birthday alone. Um ... I remember clearly um ... that day I strode gloomily at campus along for a long time um. And um ... um ... I I felt very ... I I felt ...I felt very gloomy because no one, um no one except my parents um remember my birthday and, and, wan and wanted to um ... and wanted to stay with me for my birthday. Um ... um ... I did, I did not went back I did not go back to the dormitory um ... until um ... until seven o‟clock in the evening. Um ... the light, the lig ht in the dormitory was off. Obviously, um there was no ... there was nobody staying in the dormitory. Um ...but now um ... it may ... it ... it ... seemed um ... it seemed that it doesn‟t matter. Um ... And I open the door um ... and I found except darkness there was nothing. Suddenly a song “Happy birthday to you” sound. I felt, I felt very astonished. Then, the light was turned on. Some familiar faces um ... um full of full of sweet smiles towards me. Um they were my dorm they were my dorm mates ... Yes, they still remembered um ...my birthday, my birthday. And in fact they have ... they indeed prepared for it two years ago. They bought er ... a very beautiful cake for me, and that night um ... we sang, we danced and ... and had that delicious cake. I felt very happy, and and later I (I)made a call to my parents that told them that I has spent a very unforgettable birthday with my roommates.verbal: went/go back; turn(ed) on; prepare for; make a call toadjectival: full ofprepositional: at campus (it should be ―on campus‖, though); for a long time; in the evening; in factclausal: it seemed that ….; it doesn’t matter7. The notion of subject may be classified into three types: grammatical subject(the major nominal part corresponding to the predicate), logical subject (the doer or executor of the action concerned), and psychological subject(the first major component of the sentence, like a nominal phrase, an adverbial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). For instance,a. John(grammatical subject, psychological subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank last night.b. The City Bank (grammatical subject, psychological subject) was robbed by John (logical subject) last night.c. Last night (psychological subject) John (grammatical subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank.Analyze the following newspaper headlines from the Washington Post (July 21-24, 2006) in terms of the effect of subject type selection.(a) In Iraq, Military Forgot Lessons of Vietnam (psychological)(b) Evacuation Rules Separate N.Va. Friends (grammatical)(c) Woods Is Closely Followed At British (logical, grammatical)8. ASK:(1) Can you write the public signs in complete forms?You may push the button and wait for the signal of walk.You must use caution when the ground is wet.(2) What rules are there when we write elliptical English newspaper headlines?a. Omit auxiliary or linking verb BE;b. Omit determiners;c. Omit indefinite nouns of person.d. Omit There Be.Task 3: Study Questions1. Point out the word-formation process that applies to each of the following words: Affixation: worsen endearmentConversion: dust (v.) plane (v.)Compounding: laptop airsick daughter-in-lawBack-formation: edit televise peddle swindle (swindler)Shortening: tec (detective) prof (professor) bike (bicycle)Blending: brunch urinalysis (urine + analysis) fantabulous (fantasy + fabulous)Initialism: WTO (World Trade Organization)Acronym: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association)Coinage (in the forms of invention and eponym—words derived from proper names): Xerox nylon jumbo (name of an elephant brought to the United States by P. T. Barnum)2. How are the open-class words and the closed-class words different from each other?Open-class words:(1)large in number;(2)easy to expand;(3)mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Closed-class words:(1) small in number;(2) stable;(3) basically pronouns, prepositions, function words, etc.3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?(a) the government‟s policies ’s; -s(b) the latest news -est(c) Isn‟t it snow ing! -ing(d) two frightened cows-ed; -s4. Suppose a speaker of English invents the following italicized English words as a joke: ―they’re always causing a commotion. I tell them not to commote, but they insist on being big commoters.” What process of word creation does this example illustrate, and why? What do the new words mean?It is a process of back-formation. ―Commote‖means the act of causing disorder and ―commoter‖ means someone who causes disorder.。
Phonetics of standard Chinese
Phonetics of standard ChineseTherefore, the syllable structure of standard Chinese is composed of an initial segmental consonat, a medial(also known as on-glide), a vowel, a syllabic terminal (or of glide), and a supra-segmental tone. The traditional conceptual framework of a Chinese syllable is to analyze Chinese syllables in terms of initials, finals, and tones, in contrast to the cross-linguistic, or common, practice that simply provides a phonemic inventory of consonants and vowels.(P34)Whereas the initials of a Chinese syllable are most an optional consonant represented by a C in the following, the finals begin with an optional medial(represented by an M), a vowel(V) or a diphthong(VV), and an optional nasal consonant(N). That is the canonical syllable structure in standard Chinese can be represented by the following: (C) (M) (V) (V/N). In other words, in standard Chinese syllable may exist as a single vowel, such as ⑧ 饿 hungry or possibly consist of a string of phones like ⏹♓③☐ 鸟✂♌♓❒♎✂, with a syllable structure like CMVV, or ni②ng 娘"mother," CMVN.(P35)Traditionally, Chinese finals are divided into three parts: an optional medial, a necessary vowel, and an optional syllabic terminal, i.e., finals= (medial) + vowel + (terminal). Thus, diphthongs in Chinese are so dissected into different parts of the finals.(P36-37)There are five optional syllabic terminals in standard Chinese with three vowels[i], [u] [o] and two nasals, an alveolar [n] and a velar [☠]. No labial nasal [m] is possible at the end of a syllable, although a velar nasal can occur only as a syllabic terminal in standard Chinese.(P38)The northern dialects, with nearly 900 million speakers, are commonly subdivided into four major varieties: Northwestern, Northern proper, River, and Southwestern. The Northern proper variety is is spoken in the areas such as Hebei province, Shandong province and provinces in the northeast （Manchuria）.(P29) However the most remarkable feature distinguishing Northern Chinese from the mutually unintelligible Southern Chinese dialects is perhaps the lack of stop endings that are prevalent in many Southern dialects like Wu, Yue and Min.(P30)Chinese: A Linguistic Introduction by Chaofen Sun first published in 2006 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, CambriageShandong dialect includes Jiaoliao Mandarin, Jilu Mandarin and Zhongyuan Mandarin, which is divided into East region and West region: East region includes East Lai area and East Wei area; West region has West Qi area and West Lu area. East region is namely Jiaoliao Mandarin, West Qi area is namely Jilu Mandarin, and West Lu area is namely Zhongyuan Mandarin. Weishan dialect is subordinate to West Lu area of West region in Shandong dialect, belongs to Zhongyuan Guanhua in Northern Guanhua dialect. On the basis of internal diversity, Weishan dialect is divided into three parts: North area, South area and West area. This dissertation studies the grammar in Weishan dialect. Weishan city has 18 villages and towns, and we invested 14 ones of them area by area. The results show that there are more common features than different features among different areas. The common features on grammar in Weishan dialect focus on nouns, verbs, adjectives, as well as special phrases, sentence structures and patterns of compound sentences, which are discussed on a whole in the dissertation. The different features on grammar in Weishan dialect mainly reflect in adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, interjections, mood words and quantifiers, which are discussed area by area. Referring to the grammar in Mandarin, we try to reveal grammar rules and features in Weishan dialect at the time of describe different dialectal phenomenons. The main grammatical features in Weishan dialect are concluded as following: 1. From the perspective of word formation, the grammar in Weishan dialect among three areas shows a great consistent, the ability on word formation is stronger than Mandarin. The adjective formation such as AAAA exists commonly in three areas, and the ability on word formation is stronger than Mandarin in noun affix “Zi(子)”. Abundant morphemes of affixes and high using-frequency are main features on word formation of Weishan dialect. 2. There are abundant adverbs, prepositions and quantifiers in Weishan dialect, which show the features of abundantamount, diversity on form, and complexity of meaning and usage. The adverbs of degree such as Zhen(真), Ning(宁), Xi(稀), Xue(血) are separately modified different emotional words. The internal diversity on the grammar of Weishan dialect is mainly about: 1. The same grammatical meaning is put into different grammatical forms. In different dialectal areas, there exist different case-markings and structures. The preposition of Lian(连) is used to express disposal meaning in South area while Lai(来) is used in West area and North area. 2. The diversity on grammar between New and Old factions enlarges the diversity on grammar between Weishan dialect and Mandarin. Comparison sentences such as “A + (还)不子+ B + results of comparison” structure only exists in Old factions of South area, while disappears in New factions.。
浅析汉语对英语语音的负迁移
•Thank you
Suggestions
• 1. For teachers • 2. For students
Conclusion
•பைடு நூலகம்
The contrasive study at the segmental and supra-segmental levels show that errors at these levels are mainly caused by the differences in manner, place of articulation and the influence of mother tongue.Under the guidance of the segmental and supra-segmental knowledge and the suggestions, it is not difficult to correct errors in pronouncing English
Theoretical basis
• 1.Phonetics, phonology knowledge.
• 2.Transfer theory
Introduction
• The background knowledge • Language is an important tool to convey messages.Right phonetic system is a basic thing for second language learners.However many learners still have problems in mastering English pronunciation correctly. • The aim of the thesis • The author use contrasive analysis to trace the orgins of pronunciation errors committed by learners, thus providing an alternative approaches to correct them.
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析摘要：中国学生在学习英语发音的过程中往往会产生问题，这是因为学生所熟悉的汉语与英语属于两种不同的语系，在语音系统上存在很大差别，而第二语言学习过程中普遍存在着语言迁移现象，于是学生在发音上容易受他们的母语，即汉语的影响，从而形成发音错误和偏差。
根据语言迁移理论，通过汉语和英语发音的对比，分析常见的中国学生英语发音错误，可以针对这些问题提出一些可行的解决方法。
关键词：发音问题语音系统对比不同点语言迁移IntroductionAccurate pronunciation and intonation are the basic quality of a language user. However, there are many problems in Chinese students’ pronunciation of English, resulting from the negative transfer of their mother tongue—Chinese. Examples of errors made by English learners in pronunciation are common, displaying on both segmental and suprasegmental levels.The slight differences between Chinese and English in pronunciation which are not so obvious can easily cause negative transfer. By contrasting the sound systems of the two languages, learners will be clear about the causes of the problems and learn some skills to avoid or tackle these problems.1. Problems in Pronouncing Segmental PhonemesDifferent languages have different phonemic systems. Still, there exist true linguistic universals and near universals in all languages. An awareness of the differences between the new and the native language can help students realize which of their native language speech habits can be transferred to the new language and which can not.Problems for Chinese students at segmental level can mainly be divided into two kinds:1.1 Problems with Sounds Totally New to Chinese StudentsSome English sounds do not exist in the Chinese sound system, which leaves a gap between the two language sound systems. Thus it imposes certain limitations on the Chinese students’ English pronunciation learning. As a result, Chinese learners of English are always trying to find a similar sound in Chinese language to substitute for the English sound, which causes deviation:(1)Many Chinese learners ignore the difference between /w/ and /v/. Because inChinese the distinction between [w] and [v] is not phonemic, i.e. sound substitution of the two sounds cannot cause differences in meaning. As a result, although the students may clearly know the manner of articulation, they still wou ldn’t like to make effort to distinguish the two sounds. For example, the phrase ‘very well’ is always wrongly pronounced as /veri vel/ or /weri wel/.(2)/θ/ and / / are sounds which fail to find their Chinese counterparts. Students usually produce /s/ and /z/ because alveolar causes less effort and is easier to pronounce than dental. Much practice is needed for Chinese students to get used to the special way of pronouncing.(3)V owel length does not cause differences in Chinese. Different tones are used to distinguish sounds of the same quality. For example, mā, má, mǎ, mà represent four different words. In Chinese, since there are tones, the meanings of words can be told easily. Although students are told in English there is difference between short vowel and long vowel, they don’t thoroughly know the way of articulation. In English the short vowels do not need much muscular tension; the tongue should be held loosely. In Chinese there are no such lax and tense pairs, thus they become difficult for Chinese students. Actually few Chinese students can clearly distinguish short vowels from long vowels.(6)The pronunciation of the diphthongs in English vowels has an obvious process of glide from one sound to another with certain length and degree, and the shape and width of mouth, but the diphthongs in Chinese do not have these characteristics. When pronouncing a diphthong in Chinese, the shape of mouth is relaxed, and there is no obvious process of gliding.(7)/i/ is sometimes pronounced by Chinese students as /ei/ when following an “h”. That is because /h/ and /i/ never appear together in Chinese. What’s more, “h”(/x/) in Chinese is a velar fricative while /h/ in English is a glottal. Thus history (/`hist ri/) is often pronounced by some Chinese students as/`heist ri/ and he (/hi:/) as /hei/(like “嘿” in Chinese).2. Suprasegmental Analysis on Pronunciation ProblemNunan argues that suprasegmental contrast is particularly important when moving from a non-tonal language like English, in which pitch changes indicate attitudinal and emotional meaning, to a tonal language like Thai in which changes in intonation and pitch mark phonemic differences. This part is to discuss the Chinese students’ pronunciation problems by analysis from suprasegmental aspects—stress,intonation and liasion:2.1 Analysis in StressStress patterns are vital in English pronunciation, and sometimes the stress alteration will result in the change of part of speech such as nouns and verbs which is confusing to the beginning learners. For instance, record /ri`k d/ is a verb with its stress on the second syllable, while record /`rek d/ is a noun with its stress on the first syllable, and content /k n`tent/ is a verb, while /`k nt nt/ is a noun. The beginning learners cannot distinguish this because in Chinese tone is used to distinguish words and it only has sentence stress, while English has primary stress and secondary stress both in words and sentences.The beginning learners tend to stress each syllable when reading an English word and stress each word when reading an English sentence. For example, they usually pronounce greenhouse /`gri:nhaus/ as /`gri:n `hause/, blackboard /`bl kb :d/ as /`bl k `b :d/. And because in their native speech each word is read with almost equal stress, they tend to stress each word in a sentence.Students should know that English is timed by stress; when reading an English sentence, we do not consider how many syllables in a sentence, and the non-stressed words are usually read vaguely.2.2 Analysis in IntonationEnglish is generally regarded as an intonation language, while Chinese is a tone language. In English, the change of intonation in a sentence can be used to express different meanings and different emotions of the speaker. English has a number of intonation patterns which add conventionalized meanings to the utterance: question, statement, surprise, disbelief, sarcasm, teasing. The most active elements of intonation are the tones, which always occur in association with stress.Although both Chinese and English have tones, there are differences in the functions of the tones between the two languages. In a tone language like Chinese, the tone system is an integral part of the vocabulary. There are four tones in Chinese. English is quite different in this respect. The English tones are used according to the contexts. They function at the level of utterances (or discourse), not at lexical level as in Chinese. Students should have such knowledge about intonation and tone. They should know a certain tone in English expresses a certain meaning or attitude and arbitrarily using tones is not accepted when speaking English.2.3 Analysis in liaisonLiaison means the linking of sounds or words in connected speech. If we want to speak English fluently, we must try to link words together smoothly and naturally. In other words, we should learn to produce connected speech without gaps between words: the end of one word should flow straight on to the beginning of the next in the same sense group.Although both Chinese and English sentences are made up of syllables, the juncture between syllables and words are quite different. In Chinese each character is a syllable, we pronounce them one by one with clear division. But in English there is no clear division between syllables in the same sense group.3. ConclusionTo erase these problems all is impossible, but in practice negative transfer does reduce with the increase in the learner's proficiency in the target language. Imitation is necessary; and the phonetic knowledge as well as some phonological rules should be learned systematically which will be helpful to reduce the errors.。
语言学常用术语英汉对照表
语言学常用术语英汉对照表(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--语言学常用术语英汉对照表Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics语言学简介1. anthropological linguistics 人类语言学2. applied linguistics 应用语言学3. arbitrariness任意性4. competence 语言能力5. computational linguistics 计算机语言学6. cultural transmission 文化传递性7. descriptive (grammar) 描写（语法）8. descriptive function 描写功能9. design features识别特征10. diachronic linguistics 历时语言学11. duality二重性12. displacement不受时空限制的特征13. emotive function 表情功能14. expressive function表达功能15. general linguisitcs 普通语言学16. ideational function概念功能17. interpersonal function人际功能18. langue语言19. linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学20. morphology 形态学21. mathematical linguistics 数理语言学22. metalinguistic function23. neurological linguistics 神经语言学24. phonetics 语音学25. phonology 音系学26. pragmatics 语用学27. prescriptive (grammar)规定（语法）28. psycholinguistics 心理语言学29. parole 言语30. performance语言运用31. productivity能产性32. poetic function诗学功能33. phatic communion 交感性谈话34. referential function所指功能35. semantics 语义学36. social function社会功能37. socio-linguistics 社会语言学38. synchronic linguistics共时语言学39. syntax句法学40. textual function语篇功能41. Traditional Grammar传统语法Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. acoustic phonetics声学语音学2. articulatory phonetics发音语音学3. affricate破擦音4. allophone音位变体5. alveolar齿龈音6. auditory phonetics听觉语音学7. aspiration送气8. assimilation rules同化现象9. back vowel后元音10. bilabial双唇音11. broad transcription宽式音标12. central vowel中元音13. close vowel闭元音14. complementary distribution互补分布15. deletion rules省略规则16. dental齿音17. diphthong双元音18. fricative摩擦音19. front vowel前元音20. glide滑音21. glottal声门音22. hard palate硬腭23. International Phonetics Alphabet国际音标24. intonation语调25. labiodental唇齿音26. liquid流音27. manner of articulation发音方式28. minimal pair 最小对立体29. minimal set最小对立组30. monophthong单元音31. narrow transcription严式音标32. nasal鼻音33. nasal cavity鼻腔34. open vowel开元音35. oral cavity口腔36. palatal硬腭37. pharyngeal cavity咽腔38. place of articulation发音部位39. phone因素40. phoneme音素41. phonemic contrast音位对立42. rounded vowel元唇元音43. semi-close vowel半闭元音44. semi-open vowel半开元音45. sequential rules序列规则46. segment切分成分切分48. soft palate软腭49. stop塞音50. stress 重音51. suprasegmental features超切分特征52. teeth ridge齿龈53. tone声调54. unrounded vowel非圆唇元音55. uvula小舌56. velar软腭音57. velum软腭58. voicing浊音化Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1. affix词缀2. allomorph语素变体3. base词基4. bound morpheme黏着语素5. lexicon词汇6. closed class words封闭词类7. compound words 合成词8. derivation派生；派生过程9. derivational morphem派生语素10. free morpheme自由语素11. inflectional morpheme屈折语素12. infinitive marker不定式标记13. morph形素14. morphological rules形态规则15. open class words开放词类16. root 词根17. stem词干Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1. auxiliary助动词2. category范畴3. complement补足语；补充成分4. complement clause补足分句5. coordination rule并列规则6. coordinate structure并列结构7. deep structure深层结构8. determiner限定词9. head中心词10. head movement中心词移位11. insertion插入12. inversion倒装13. major lexical categories主要词汇范畴14. matrix clause主句15. minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴16. phrase structure短语结构17. modifier修饰成分18. qualifier后置修饰成分19. specifier标志语20. subcategorization次范畴化21. surface structure表层结构22. syntactic category句法范畴23. trace语迹24. transformation转换Chapter 5 Semantics语义学1. antonymy反义现象2. argument谓元；变元3. behaviorism行为主义4. co-hyponym并列下义词5. collocational synonym搭配同义词6. complementary antonym互补反义词7. complete homonym完全同形异义词8. componential analysis成分分析9. conceptualist view概念论10. contextualism语境主义11. contradition自相矛盾的说法12. dialectal synonym方言同义词13. emotive meaning情感意义14. entailment蕴含15. evaluative meaning评价意义16. gradable antonym层级反义词17. homograph同形异义词18. homonymy同音同形异义关系19. homophone同音异义词20. hyponym下义词21. hyponymy下义关系22. inconsistency自相矛盾23. polysemy多义关系24. polysymous word多义词25. presupposition预设26. predication analysis述谓分析27. predicate谓词28. naming theory命名论29. no-place predicaiton空位述谓解耦股30. one-place predication一位述谓结构31. reference（所指）语义32. referent所指物；所指对象33. relational opposite关系反义词34. semantic triangle语义三角35. sense意义36. stylistic synonym语体同义词37. superordinate上坐标词38. symbol符号39. synonym同义词40. synonymy同义关系41. two-place predicaiton二位述谓结构42. three-place predication三位述谓结构Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学1. Commissives承诺类2. Cooperative Principle合作原则3. constatives述事话语4. context语境5. conventional implicature规约含义6. declarations宣告类7. directives指令类8. expressives表情类9. illocutionary act言外功能10. illocutionary point言外之的11. implicature蕴含；含义；会话含义；言外之意12. indirect speech act间接言语行为13. locutionary act言内行为14. maxim of relation关系准则15. maxim of manner方式准则16. maxim of quality质准则17. maxim of quantity量准则18. particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义19. perfomatives行事话语20. perlocutionary act言后行为21. presupposition前提22. primary speech act 主要言语行为23. representatives表述类24. secondary speech act次要言语行为25. sentence meaning 句子意义26. speech act theory言语行为理论27. utterance meaning话语意义Chapter 7 Language Change语言变化1. acronyms 词首字母缩略词2. back-formation 逆成法3. blending混成法4. borrowing借词5. clipped words截略词6. coinage创新词7. functional shift功能性变化8. historical linguistics历史语言学9. Middle English中世纪英语10. Modern English现代英语11. morphological change形态变化12. negation rule否定规则13. Old English古英语14. phonological change音位变化15. semantic change语义变化16. semantic shift语义转移17. syntactic change句法变化Chapter 8 Language and society语言与社会1. bilingualism双语制2. Black English黑人英语3. creole克里奥尔语4. diglossia双语；双言制5. ethnic dialect种族变体6. field of discourse语场7. gender性别8. idiolect个人变体9. mode of discourse语式10. multilingualism多语制11. pidgin洋泾浜语12. regional dialect地域方言13. register语域14. sociolect社会变体15. speech community言语社团16. speech variety言语变体17. tenor of discourse语旨Chapter 9 Language and culture语言与社会1. acculturation 同化过程2. amalgamation混合3. assimilation同化（现象）；同化（作用）4. connotative meaning内涵意义5. colour words颜色词6. cultural overlap文化重叠7. cultural imperialism文化帝国主义8. denotative meaning外延意义9. linguistic relativity语言相对性10. metaphor隐喻11. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12. socialization社会化13. taboo禁忌语14. intercultural communication跨文化交际15. linguistic imperialism语言学中的帝国主义16. linguistic nationalism语言学中的民族主义Chapter 10 Language acquisition语言习得1. aphasia失语症2. behaviorist 行为主义者3. caretaker talk保姆式语言4. cognitive linguistics认知语言学5. content word实词6. Critical Period Hypothesis临界期假说7. dysgraphia书写困难8. dyslexia失读症9. feedback反馈10. function element起功能作用成分11. hearing impairment听力受损12. innatist语法天生主义者13. interactionist互动主义者14. Language Acquisition Device语言习得机制15. lexical contrast词汇对比16. mental retardation智障17. motherese保姆式语言18. over-extension过度扩展19. prototype theory 原型理论20. recast修正性重复21. stuttering口吃22. telegraphic speech电报式言语23. under-extension扩展不足24. Universal Grammar普遍语法Chapter 11 Second language acquisition 第二语言习得1. affect/social strategies 社会策略2. age of acquisition习得年龄3. cognitive strategies认知策略4. comprehensible input可理解性输入5. Constrastive Analysis对比分析6. cross-association互相联想7. Error Analysis错误分析8. foreign language外语9. foreigner talk外国人谈话10. fossilization语言石化（现象）11. Input Hypothesis输入假说12. instrumental motivation工具动机13. intake 纳入14. integrative motivation综合动机15. interference干扰16. interlanguage中介语17. interlingual errors语际错误；受母语影响的错误18. Intralingual error语内错误19. intrinsic motivation内在动机20. intuition知觉；语感21. learner language学习者语言22. learning strategies学习策略23. language aptitude语言能力24. language transfer语言迁移25. metacognitive strategies元认知策略26. motivation动机27. modified input修改后的输入28. modified interaction变化性的互动29. negative transfer消极迁移；负迁移30. overgeneralization概括过头31. personality人格；性格；个性32. positive transfer积极迁移；正迁移33. resultative motivation结果动机34. second language第二语言35. second language acquisition第二语言习得36. teacher talk教师谈话37. target language目标语Chapter 12 Language and the brain 语言与大脑1. acquired dysgraphia习得性书写障碍2. acquired dyslexia习得性失读症3. angular gyrus隅骨4. autopsy studies尸检研究5. brain stem脑干6. Broca’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7. Broca’s area布罗卡区8. bottom-up processing自下而上处理过程cerebrum大脑9. central sulcus中央沟10. cerebellum小脑脑向背侧突出的一个较大的部分，尤与肌肉的共济运动和维持身体平衡有关11. cerebral hemisphere大脑半球12. cohort model交股模型13. Computarized Axial Tomography计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法14. corpus（语言）素材15. corpus callosum胼胝体16. cortex大脑皮层17. deep dyslexia深层诵读困难18. Dichotic listening studies双耳分听实验19. event-related potential experiment20. eye movement experiment眼动实验21. fissure裂缝；裂隙22. fluent aphasia流利性失语症23. frontal lobe额叶（大脑半球的前部，其下部位于颅前窝，后界中央沟24. Functional MRI功能磁共振成像25. garden path sentence花园路径句26. global aphasia整体性失语症27. gyrus回28. hierarchical structure层级结构29. late closure principle后封闭原则；晚封闭原则30. lateral fissure侧脑裂31. lateralization侧化32. lesion损害33. lexical decision词汇判断；词汇确定法34. lobes叶，身体器官的由表面的沟裂分出的部分35. longitudinal fissure纵裂36. Magnetic Resonance Imaging磁共振成像37. neuron神经细胞，神经元38. minimal attachment principle最低限度结合原则39. module模块；组块40. non-fluent aphasia失语症41. occipital lobe枕叶大脑半球的后叶，呈三面的锥形，与前方的顶叶和下方的颞叶没有明显的界限42. parietal lobe顶叶Positron emission Tomography正电子发射X射线层析照相术；计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43. phological dyslexia拼音性失读症44. priming启动45. priming effect启动效应46. priming experiment启动实验47. right ear advantage右耳优势；右耳听力强48. selectional restriction选择限制49. sentence ambiguity句子歧义50. “Sodium Amystal “Test阿米妥纳实验Spoonerism斯本内现象51. split brain studies裂脑研究52. sulcus沟53. surface dyslexia浅层诵读困难54. syntactic parser句法处理器55. temporal lobe颞叶56. timed-reading experiment限时阅读实验57. top-down processing自上而下处理过程58. Wernicke’s aphasia韦尼克失语症11。
浅析英语写作中的汉语干扰因素及应对之策
文化之间的差异会对英语学习造成干扰遥 那么袁 分析 英语写作中汉语干扰对学生学习外语的影响袁 无论是 从理论上袁还是从教学实践上看袁都将大有裨益遥 在本 文中袁 我将从以下两个主要方面分析由于汉语干扰致 错的原因遥
1 由于文化差异造成的错误
渊1冤在英语写作中袁由于学生对汉语语言文化和英 语语言文化之间的差异袁 及不同文化背景所产生的不 同思维方式了解得不够袁 再加上根深蒂固的汉语思维 做主导袁经常导致用词错误遥 例如院野深色的冶被学生写 成 野 deep colour 冶 袁 实 际 上 英 语 是 野 dark colour 冶 遥 又 如 院 野 一 阵 大 雨 冶 袁 学 生 给 写 成 野 a big rain 冶 袁 但 实 际 上 应 为 野 a heavy rain 冶 遥
渊2冤在英语写作中袁有些学生由于英语语言功底较 差袁不能用英语思考袁所以就先用汉语构思袁然后将构
作 者 简介 院 秦颖渊1967.11要冤袁女袁汉族袁北京人袁本科袁中级职称袁北京电子科技职业学院袁研究方向为教学教改遥 100 科技视界 Science & Technology Vision
Science & Technology Vision
good to your body . 冶 一 句 中 袁 野 body 冶 在 英 语 中 是 野 身 体 冶
英语中的虚词有四种袁包括冠词尧介词尧连词和感
即 野 躯 体 冶 的 意 思 袁 而 在 汉 语 野 身 体 冶 有 两 重 意 思 袁 一 个 叹 词 等 遥 有 时 人 们 将 虚 词 翻 译 为 院 empty word 袁 表 明 它
语言学第2章习题
语言学第2章习题Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.220. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds. 24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription. 30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stressand s_________ stress.3III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.4A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesSuggested answers to supplementary exercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics5656. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is7usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.8。
胡壮麟语言学名词解释
胡壮麟语言学名词解释is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.Langue语言：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Langue is abstract.Parole言语：refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence：(N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance：defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 设计特点是指界定性质的人类区别于其他动物的交际系统。
特点：(1) arbitrariness. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For example: the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.(2) productivity生成性: Language is productive orcreative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels.(4) displacement移位性：language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5) cultural transmission文化的传播: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.第二章phonology音系学phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介.These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics发声语音学, auditory phonetics听觉语音学, and acoustic phonetics声响语音学respectively.辅音分类见本子Phone音素：is a phonetic语音的unit or segment. Phoneme音位：is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.Allophones音位变体：refers to the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. For example [l] and [l]Phonemic contrast音位对立：phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution互补分布：if they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments.Minimal pair最小对：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. For examples, pill and bill are a minimal pair.第三章morphology形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structureof words, and the rules by which words are formed. Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.Derivational morphemes派生词素(do not change grammatical class)：a verb, for example is formed by adding –en to the adjective black, --blacken. –en, -ate,-ic are thus called derivational morphemes, because when they are conjoined to other morphemes(or words)a new word is derived, or formed.Inflectional morphemes屈折词素：they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.第四章syntax 句法学Syntactic categories句法范畴：a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Modifiers修饰语：still another kind of element we have not touched upon so far is modifiers, which specify optionally选择expressible properties of heads.第五章semantics 语义学Contextualism 语境论: they hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.Behaviorism行为主义：defines as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Sense意义：is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference所指：means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Predication述谓结构：in G. Leech’s framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument变元and predicate谓语.第六章pragmatics 语用学Pragmatics: can be defined that it is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Context语境：is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.（various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e. g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. ）Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable;Performatives行事话语：the idea of doing something while speaking can certainly be broadened to include non-conventional acts such as stating, promising, requesting, and suggesting.locutionary act言内行为：is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. (the act by the speaker is his utterance of all the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.)illocutionary act言外行为：is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.(the act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.)Perlocutionary act言后行为：is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.Searle’s classification of speech acts:1. representatives阐述类: sating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.2. directives指令类：trying to get the hearer to do something.3. commissives承诺类：committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.4. expressives 表达类：expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.5. declarations宣告类：bringing about immediate changes by saying something.Cooperative Principle(C P)合作原则：Make yourconversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.1.the maxim of quantity数量准则。
Learn_Chinese_Pinyin_By_MaxChinese
IntroductionPinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin romanization system in use. Hanyu means the Chinese language, and pinyin means "spell sound", or the spelling of the sound. It is used to teach Chinese schoolchildren and foreign learners the standard pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese, to spell Chinese names in foreign publications. It has also become a useful tool for entering Chinese language text into computers.Initials and FinalsThe pronunciation of Chinese is generally given in terms of initials and finals, which represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medial (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).(1). Initialsb p m f d t n l玻坡摸佛得特讷勒ɡk h j q x哥科喝基欺希zh ch sh r z c s知蚩诗日资雌思(2). Finalsi衣u乌ü迂ɑ啊iɑ呀uɑ蛙o喔uo窝e鹅ie耶üe约ɑi哀uɑi歪ei诶uei威ɑo熬iɑo腰ou欧iou忧ɑn安iɑn烟uɑn弯üɑn冤en恩in因uen温ün 晕ɑnɡ昂iɑnɡ央uɑnɡ汪enɡ亨的韵母inɡ英uenɡ翁onɡ轰的韵母ionɡ雍LessonsLesson 1. Initials _ b p m f d t n lLesson 2. Initials _ g k h j q xLesson 3. Initials _ zh ch sh r z c sLesson 4. Finals _ a o e ai ei ao ou an en ang eng ongLesson 5. Finals _ i ia ie iao iou ian in iang ing iongLesson 6. Finals _ u ua uo uai uei uan uen uang uengLesson 7. Finals _ ü üe üɑn ünAll audios are available online at:Lesson 1. Initials _ b p m f d t n las in b ed ro b, unaspiratedb广播 (radio)白色 (white)爸爸 (father)guǎng bōbái sèbà bàas in p ass sto p, aspiratedp上坡 (uphill)皮球 (ball)苹果 (apple)shàng pōpí qiúpíng guǒas in m um m agic m ugm魔术 (magic)妈妈 (mother)买/卖 (buy/sell)mó shùmā māmǎi màias in f un f astf发现 (discovery)飞机 (plane)否认 (deny)fā xiàn fēi jīfǒu rènas in d og be d, unaspiratedd德国 (Germany)大 (big)代理 (agent)dé guódà xiǎo dài lǐas in t op, aspiratedt特殊 (special)他们 (they)太太 (wife)tè shūtā men tài tàias in n it n ursen你们 (you)哪个 (which)牛奶 (milk)nǐ men nǎ gèniú nǎias in l ove l ikel离开 (leave)喇叭 (speaker)来/去 (come/go)lí kāi lǎ bālái qùLesson 2. Initials _ g k h j q xas in g irl g oal, unaspiratedg鸽子 (pigeon)修改 (modify)工人 (worker)gē zi xiū gǎi gōng rénas in k iss, aspiratedk科学 (science)卡车 (truck)扩张 (expand)kē xuékǎ chēkuò zhāngas in h at h eighth江河 (river)海洋 (sea)银行 (bank)jiāng héhǎi yáng yín hánglike g enius, unaspiratedj吉普 (jeep)加法 (plus)简单 (simple)jí pǔjiā fǎjiǎn dānlike ch eek a ch ieve, with the lips spreadq骑马 (ride horse)番茄 (tomato)强壮qí mǎfān qié qiáng zhuànglike sh e sh eep, with the lips spreadx谢谢下雨熊猫xiè xièxià yǔxióng māoLesson 3. Initials _ zh ch sh r z c slike j ob j okezh制造 (manufacture)上涨 (increase)中国 (China)zhì zào shàng zhǎng zhōng guóas in ch in por chch迟到 (late)橙子 (orange)宠物 (pet)chí dào chéng zi chǒng wùas in sh oe, like mar sh pu shsh老师 (teacher)沙子 (sand)上海 (Shanghai)lǎo shīshā zi shàng hǎias in r ed r atr日本 (Japan)热带 (tropic)如果 (if)rì běn rè dài rú guǒlike su ds and ca ts, unaspiratedz自由 (freedom)下载 (download)增加 (increase)zì yóu xià zǎi zēng jiālike ts in ba ts, aspiratedc手册 (menu)彩色 (colorful)字词 (word)shǒu cècǎi sèzì cías in s un mou s eS丝绸 (silk)比赛 (match)雨伞 (umbrella)sī chóu bǐ sài yǔ sǎnLesson 4. Finals _ a o e ai ei ao ou an en ang eng ongas in f a thera爸爸 (father)检查 (check)牙齿 (tooth)bà bàjiǎn cháyá chǐstarts with "oo" and ends with "o", like h ouro蜗牛 (snail)广播 (radio)模具 (mold)wō niúguǎng bōmó jùlike b ir de哥哥 (brother)喜乐 (happiness)德国 (Germany)gē gēxǐ lèdé guólike eye, but a bit lighterai白色 (white)奶奶 (grand mother)文摘 (digest)bái sènǎi nǎi wén zhāias in h ey d ayei北方 (north)美国 (USA)雷电 (thunder)běi fāng měi guóléi diànas in c ow l awao保护 (protect)跑步 (jog)大脑 (brain)bǎo hùpǎo bùdà nǎoas in s oou高楼 (high building)某人 (someone)否认 (deny)gāo lóu mǒu rén fǒu rènas in an dan蓝色 (blue)班级 (class)但是 (but)lán sèbān jídàn shìas in tak enen奔跑 (run)分数 (score)真实 (true)bēn pǎo fèn shùzhēn shílike s ong l ongang帮助 (help)旁边 (side)房子 (house)bāng zhùpáng biān fáng zǐlike e above but with ng added to it at the backeng能力 (ability)冷/热 (cold/hot)更新 (newer)néng lìlěng /règèng xīnstarts with b'oo k and ends with si ngong孔子 (Kongzi)恐龙 (dragon)儿童 (child)kǒng zǐkǒng lóngér tóngLesson 5. Finals _ i ia ie iao iou ian in iang ing iongas in l ea k sl ee pi衣服 (clothes)大米 (rise)你好 (hello)yī fu dà mǐnǐ hǎoas i + a; like ya rdia牙齿 (tooth)夏天 (summer)家庭 (family)yá chǐxià tiān jiā tíngas i + ê; but is very short; like ye tie间谍 (spy)鞋子 (shoes)钢铁 (steel)jiān diéxié zǐgāng tiěas i + aoiao喊叫 (shout)手表 (watch)调查 (investigate)hǎn jiào shǒu biǎo diào cháas i + ou, like youiou啤酒 (beer)足球 (soccer)休息 (rest)pí jiǔzú qiúxiū xīas i + ê + n; like yenian变更 (change)面粉 (flour)青年 (teenage)biàn gèng miàn fěn qīng nián inas i + n, like in拼音 (pinyin)人民 (people)您好 (hello)as i + ang, like youngiang凉快 (cool)姑娘 (girl)将要 (will)liáng kuài gū niang jiāng yàoas i but with ng added to it at the backing士兵 (soldier)明天 (tomorrow)宁静 (quiet)shì bīng míng tiān níng jìngas i + ongiong狗熊 (bear)贫穷 (poor)兄弟 (brother)gǒu xióng pín qióng xiōng dìLesson 6. Finals _ u ua uo uai uei uan uen uang uengas in f oo du不是 (no)母亲 (mother)努力 (work hard)bú shìmǔ qīn nǔ lìas u + aua化学 (chemical)刮风 (wind)夸奖 (praise)huà xuéguā fēng kuā jiǎngas u + ouo椭圆 (ellipse)挪动 (mvoe)螺钉 (screw)tuǒ yuán nuó dòng luó dingas u + ai, like whyuai怪物 (monster)快速 (express)好/坏 (good/bad)guài wùkuài sùhǎo/huàias u + ei, like wa geuei回合 (round)魁梧 (strong)规定 (rule)huí hékuí wú guī dìngas u + anuan团队 (team)飞船 (aircraft)温暖 (warm)tuán duìfēi chuán wēn nuǎnas u + enuen温度 (temperature)车轮 (wheel)海豚 (dolphin)wēn dùchē lún hǎi túnas u + ang, like wan tuang庄子 (Zhuangzi)双数 (even number)窗户 (window)zhuāng zǐshuāng shùchuāng huas u + eng, like winueng老翁 (old man)瓮 (earthen jar)wēng wèngLesson 7. Finals _ ü üe üɑn ünTo get this sound, say "ee" with rounded lipsü英语 (English)男/女 (man/women)绿色 (green)yīng yǔnán /nǚlǜ sèas ü + ê; the ü is short and lightüe学习 (learn)越南 (Vietnam)确实 (indeed)xué xíyuè nán què shías ü + ê+ n;üan花园 (gardon)杜鹃 (cuckoo)泉水 (spring water)huā yuán dù juān quán shuǐas ü + nün怀孕 (pregnant)询问 (ask)裙子 (skirt)huái yùn xún wèn qún zi。
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析
中国学生的英语发音问题浅析摘要：中国学生在学习英语发音的过程中往往会产生问题，这是因为学生所熟悉的汉语与英语属于两种不同的语系，在语音系统上存在很大差别，而第二语言学习过程中普遍存在着语言迁移现象，于是学生在发音上容易受他们的母语，即汉语的影响，从而形成发音错误和偏差。
根据语言迁移理论，通过汉语和英语发音的对比，分析常见的中国学生英语发音错误，可以针对这些问题提出一些可行的解决方法。
关键词：发音问题语音系统对比不同点语言迁移IntroductionAccurate pronunciation and intonation are the basic quality of a language user. However, there are many problems in Chinese students’ pronunciation of English, resulting from the negative transfer of their mother tongue—Chinese. Examples of errors made by English learners in pronunciation are common, displaying on both segmental and suprasegmental levels.The slight differences between Chinese and English in pronunciation which are not so obvious can easily cause negative transfer. By contrasting the sound systems of the two languages, learners will be clear about the causes of theproblems and learn some skills to avoid or tackle these problems.1. Problems in Pronouncing Segmental PhonemesDifferent languages have different phonemic systems. Still, there exist true linguistic universals and near universals in all languages. An awareness of the differences between the new and the native language can help students realize which of their native language speech habits can be transferred to the new language and which can not.Problems for Chinese students at segmental level can mainly be divided into two kinds:Problems with Sounds Totally New to Chinese StudentsSome English sounds do not exist in the Chinese sound system, which leaves a gap between the two language sound systems. Thus it imposes certain limitations on the Chinese students’ English pronunciation learning. As a result, Chinese learners of English are always trying to find a similar sound in Chinese language to substitute for the English sound, which causes deviation:(1)Many Chinese learners ignore the difference between /w/ and /v/. Because in Chinese the distinction between [w] and [v] is not phonemic, . sound substitution of the two soundscannot cause differences in meaning. As a result, although the students may clearly know the manner of articulation, they still wouldn’t like to make effort to distinguish the two sounds. For example, the phrase ‘very well’is always wrongly pronounced as /veri vel/ or /weri wel/.(2)/θ/ and / / are sounds which fail to find their Chinese counterparts. Students usually produce /s/ and /z/ because alveolar causes less effort and is easier to pronounce than dental. Much practice is needed for Chinese students to get used to the special way of pronouncing.(3)Vowel length does not cause differences in Chinese. Different tones are used to distinguish sounds of the same quality. For example, mā, má, mǎ, mà represent four different words. In Chinese, since there are tones, the meanings of words can be told easily. Although students are told in English there is difference between short vowel and long vowel, they don’t thoroughly know the way of articulation. In English the short vowels do not need much muscular tension; the tongue should be held loosely. In Chinese there are no such lax and tense pairs, thus they become difficult for Chinese students. Actually few Chinese students can clearly distinguish short vowels from long vowels.(6)The pronunciation of the diphthongs in English vowels has an obvious process of glide from one sound to another with certain length and degree, and the shape and width of mouth, but the diphthongs in Chinese do not have these characteristics. When pronouncing a diphthong in Chinese, the shape of mouth is relaxed, and there is no obvious process of gliding.(7)/i/ is sometimes pronounced by Chinese students as /ei/ when following an “h”. That is because /h/ and /i/ never appear together in Chinese. What’s more, “h”(/x/) in Chinese is a velar fricative while /h/ in English is a glottal. Thus history (/`hist ri/) is often pronounced by some Chinese students as/`heist ri/ and he (/hi:/) as /hei/(like “嘿” in Chinese).2. Suprasegmental Analysis on Pronunciation ProblemNunan argues that suprasegmental contrast is particularly important when moving from a non-tonal language like English, in which pitch changes indicate attitudinal and emotional meaning, to a tonal language like Thai in which changes in intonation and pitch mark phonemic differences. This part is to discuss the Chinese students’pronunciation problems by analysis from suprasegmental aspects—stress, intonation and liasion:Analysis in StressStress patterns are vital in English pronunciation, and sometimes the stress alteration will result in the change of part of speech such as nouns and verbs which is confusing to the beginning learners. For instance, record /ri`k d/ is a verb with its stress on the second syllable, while record /`rek d/ is a noun with its stress on the first syllable, and content /k n`tent/ is a verb, while /`k nt nt/ is a noun. The beginning learners cannot distinguish this because in Chinese tone is used to distinguish words and it only has sentence stress, while English has primary stress and secondary stress both in words and sentences.The beginning learners tend to stress each syllable when reading an English word and stress each word when reading an English sentence. For example, they usually pronounce greenhouse /`gri:nhaus/ as /`gri:n `hause/, blackboard /`bl kb :d/ as /`bl k `b :d/. And because in their native speech each word is read with almost equal stress, they tend to stress each word in a sentence.Students should know that English is timed by stress; when reading an English sentence, we do not consider how many syllables in a sentence, and the non-stressed words are usuallyread vaguely.Analysis in IntonationEnglish is generally regarded as an intonation language, while Chinese is a tone language. In English, the change of intonation in a sentence can be used to express different meanings and different emotions of the speaker. English has a number of intonation patterns which add conventionalized meanings to the utterance: question, statement, surprise, disbelief, sarcasm, teasing. The most active elements of intonation are the tones, which always occur in association with stress.Although both Chinese and English have tones, there are differences in the functions of the tones between the two languages. In a tone language like Chinese, the tone system is an integral part of the vocabulary. There are four tones in Chinese. English is quite different in this respect. The English tones are used according to the contexts. They function at the level of utterances (or discourse), not at lexical level as in Chinese. Students should have such knowledge about intonation and tone. They should know a certain tone in English expresses a certain meaning or attitude and arbitrarily using tones is not accepted when speaking English.Analysis in liaisonLiaison means the linking of sounds or words in connected speech. If we want to speak English fluently, we must try to link words together smoothly and naturally. In other words, we should learn to produce connected speech without gaps between words: the end of one word should flow straight on to the beginning of the next in the same sense group.Although both Chinese and English sentences are made up of syllables, the juncture between syllables and words are quite different. In Chinese each character is a syllable, we pronounce them one by one with clear division. But in English there is no clear division between syllables in the same sense group.3. ConclusionTo erase these problems all is impossible, but in practice negative transfer does reduce with the increase in the learner's proficiency in the target language. Imitation is necessary; and the phonetic knowledge as well as some phonological rules should be learned systematically which will be helpful to reduce the errors.References[1] He, Shanfen. Practical English Phonetics [M]. Beijing Normal University Press, 1992.[2] Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers [M]. New York: Prentic Hall, 1991.[3] 戴建东. 谈谈英语语音与英语学习[J]. 太原师范学院学报(社会科学版)，2003:104-105.[4] 洪明. 英汉语音差异与英语语音习得产生的母语负迁移作用[J]. 浙江师范大学学报(社会科学版)，2004:108-111.[5] 王桂珍．英语语音教程[M]. 北京：高等教育出版社，2002.[6] 张大均．教育心理学[Z]．北京：人民教育出版社，2001．[7] 赵帆声，王庆祥. 英语语音释疑[M]. 郑州：河南教育出版社, 1991.[8] 赵德梅．英汉比较语音学[M]．青岛海洋大学出版社，1995．。
简明语言学教程第2章Chapter 2-Phonology
[j]: the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of
the tongue [t] [d]: the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the velar ridge [θ] [ð ]: partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of
Classification of vowels
1. According to the position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back vowels front vowel: the front part of tongue maintains the highest
semi-open vowels: [ə] [ɔ:]
The place of articulation
1. Bilabial; 2. Labiodental; 3. Dental or interdental; 4. Alveolar; 5. Palato alveolar; 6. Palatal; 7. Velar; 8. Uvular; 9. Glottal.
[t] [d]
[f]
[v]
[k] [g]
Fricatives
Affricates
VL
VD VL VD
[θ]
[ ð]
[s]
[z]
([tʃ] ) ([dʒ])
[ʃ]
[ʒ] [ tʃ ] [ dʒ ]
[h]
Nasals
第八章言语产生
语法规则失误
在应用屈折和派生形态规则时同样有可能 发生错误。
eg: 1) I knew about it soon. → I knowed about it soon. 2) He always keeps a pack. →He always packs a keep.
第34页，共82页。
1）人在说话时心里出现的并不只有一个意愿
2）这种失误体现的是一种相互对立的活动，是两种不 同意愿同时进行的活动。 3）心理动力因素也可促使某些内容比别的更容易出现
第38页，共82页。
心理语言学解释言语失误
1）心理语言学家的研究目的是，通过言语失误来了解人 的语言机制。 2）言语失误中的音段变化、移动等支持了认为区别性特 征、音素、语素组成了话语产生中制订计划的单位的说 法。
第13页，共82页。
重复(repeats)
eg: Turn on the heater / the heater switch. 打开热水器，热水器开关。
第14页，共82页。
开始失误(false start)
1）重复性开始失误 eg:Turn on the stove / the heater switch.
动词短语互换
He prefers playing football to reading books. → He prefers reading football to playing books.
第32页，共82页。
重音失误（stress errors）
重音和其他音素特征一样同样可以错位
eg: apples of origin→apples of origin mobility →mobility phonetic →phonetic
失语症的诊断与治疗
8
Global Aphasia
• Nonfluent • Few words or sterertypic utterances • May ands • Unable to repeat, limb and oral apraxia • Dense hemiplegia in most cases
2
病歷/CT/MRI scan
• • • • • 初次中風? 多次中風? 中風部位:左/右 自然恢復情況 發病前之狀況 • 發病日期 • 家人支持度 • CT/MRI scan 結果
3
失語症的分類
• • • • • • • Broca Aphasia 非流利性 語法不對 口腔/說話失用症 輕微口齒不清 看報能力差 不能寫字 • CT/MRI scan • Inferior frontal & parietal, frontalparietal operculum and insula
很好
很好 好
好
不好 好
不好
不好 好
13
Thalamic 流利 VP
言語失用症(Apraxia of Speech)
• Limb apraxia: waving bye bye • Trunk apraxia: swinging an imaginary baseball • Ideational apraxia • • • • Construction Oral apraxia Verbal apraxia Developmental apraxia of speech
• Large portions of fronto-temporoparietal lobes extending from ant. To post poles.l
语言学期末复习练习及答案
语言学期末复习练习及答案英语语言学期末预测及答案Translate the following terms into Chinese: (0.5%×10=5%)1) affricate 2)distinctive feature 3) parole 4) generative grammar 5) bilingualism 6) felicity condition 7) design feature8) denotation 9) labiodental 10) linguistic relativity Translate the following terms into English:(0.5%×10=5%)11)人际功能 12) 真值条件 13)女性语域 14)音节划分 15)结构主义16)社会语言学 17) 论元 18)单元音 19)衔接 20)对比分析III. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the corresponding letter A, B, C orD on the answer sheet. (1%×20=20%)1). language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.A. culturalB. conventionalC. decodedD. vocal2). A word with several meanings is called _________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemous wordC. a synonymous wordD. none of the above3). There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is known as a(n) __________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form4). The syntactic rules of any language are ________ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite5). “I picked some tulips.” __________ “I picked some flowers.”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with6). Y's utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of __________.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner7) “Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes8) The study of language at one point of time is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. historicC. diachronicD. descriptive9) Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above10) Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ___________.A. phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. minimal pairD. none of the above11) In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of _________.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental12) Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by _______ in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. N. ChomskyC. F. SaussureD. M. A. K. Halliday13) Which of the following is a correct description of reference?A. a relationship between an expression and other expressions which have the same meaningB. the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expressionC. a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression usedin an utterance to pick out that objectD. an intra-linguistic relationship between lexical items14) What is function of the sentence “How do you do’?A. DirectiveB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Evocative15) In the following sounds, ________is a central vowel.A. /?/B. /u/C./?/D. /з/16) Which of the following languages has the syllabic writing system?A. ChineseB. JapaneseC. EnglishD. French17) Which description of the meaning components of the word “father” is right?A. [+human, +adult,-male]B. [+human, -adult, +male]C. [–human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, +adult, +male]18) Once the notion of ________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content19) Black English has a number of distinctive features in its phonological, morphological and syntactic systems which are _______.A. rule-governedB. systematicC. arbitraryD. both A and B20) “Hot dog” with the first syllable stressed means _________.A. an overheated animalB. a kind of foodC. a barking dogD. a dead dogIV. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:(15 pts, 1 point for each)Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false: (1%×15=15%)1)Animal call systems are not genetically transmitted.2)According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the actual realization of his knowledgein utterance.3)A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable.4)Parole refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.5)Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of alanguage.6)Languages differ in their selection of contrastive sounds.7)The English spelling exactly represents its pronunciation.8)Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.9)According to semantic triangle, there is no direct link between a symbol andreferent, i.e. between a word and a thing it refers to.10) A referring expression can be used to refer to nonexistent things.11) All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.12) Pragmatics studies the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.13) An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by theutterance.14) Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by peoplebelonging to particular social classes.15) The structural tests focus on the communicative and linguistic competence.V. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.(1%×10=10%)1)The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a____________ phonetics, auditoryphonetics and acoustic phonetics respectively.2)One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacyof speech overw_________.3)S_________ studies the sentence structure of language.4)C____________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word canbe divided into meaning components.5)The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are h_____________.6)H. Sweet made a distinction between narrow and b_________ transcription.7)Linguistics’ found that it would be impossible to give an adequate descriptionof meaning if the c_________ of language use was left unconsidered.8)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a_______of messages.9)Language may determine our thinking pattern and similarity between languages isrelative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. This has often been called the Sapir-Whorf h___________.10)S______ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.II.Translate the following terms: (0.5%×20=10%)Translate the following terms into Chinese: (0.5%×10=5%)1)塞擦音 2)区别性特征 3) 言语 4)生成语法 5)双语现象6)适切条件 7)结构特征 8)外延 9)唇齿音 10)语言相对论Translate the following terms into English:(0.5%×10=5%)11)interpersonal function 12) truth condition 13)women register14)syllabification 15) structuralism 16) sociolinguistics 17) argument 18) monophthong 19)cohesion 20) contrastive analysis III. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets.(1%×20=20%) 1-5 DBCCA 6-10 CDABB 11-15 BBCBA 16-20 BDBDBIV. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.(1%×15=15%)1-5 FFFFF 6-10 FFFTT 11-15 FTFTFV. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the firstletter of which is already given as a clue. (1％×10=10％)1) articulatory 2) writing 3) syntax 4) contituent5)homograph6) broad 7)context 8)receiver 9) hypothesis 10) Speech。
初中英语教资科三词汇总结
Monophthong 单元音Mono——代表单数，单个的，孤独的。
为啥？Mon——联想一下，Monday，星期一，“一”就是单数啊~Diphthong 双元音Di——代表双数，一对的，成双成对的。
由D可以联想一下double。
Plosive 爆破音源自于explosion，爆发，喷发。
plo——记住p，就是破。
Fricative 擦音源自于friction，摩擦，摩擦力。
fric——记得以前学物理用F代表摩擦力吗？就是这么来的。
Affricate 塞擦音A代表air,意思是气流受阻，正是塞擦音的形成方式：压迫气流把闭塞部分冲开，气流从窄缝中挤出，摩擦成声。
Lateral 边音边音就只有一种，就是L,中文里“了”的发音就是边音，因此看见“L”首先猜边音。
Nasal 鼻音N就是鼻音。
Approximant 近音源自于approximately，大约，近似，约等于。
Approxi——这个词缀就是无限接近的意思。
Bilabial 双唇音labial是唇音。
bi——就是双的意思，光看B这个字母是不是很像都起来的嘴唇Labiodental 唇齿音Labio——源自于labial就是唇音的意思dental——就是牙科的意思，如果背过四六级单词，应该可以联想到dentist 牙医。
Dental 齿音dental——就是牙科的意思，如果背过四六级单词，应该可以联想到dentist 牙医。
Alveolar 齿龈音Palatal 硬腭音Velar 软腭音Glottal 声门音Phone 音素phone,(lll￢ω￢)，对就是电话这个phone，打电话最重要的就是要能听到声音。
所以phone，跟声音有关。
Phonemes 音位一种语言中能够区别意义的最小的语音单位。
Allophones 音位变体在不同的语音环境中能够代表同一个音位的不同音素，叫作音位的音位变体。
Allomorph 语素变体语素再不同情况下的的任何不同形式（属于语法结构）。
汉语缺陷英语作文
汉语缺陷英语作文Having a command of the Chinese language is undoubtedly advantageous for those who want to expand their horizons and explore the rich culture and history of China. However, there are some challenges and limitations that speakers of Chinese face when it comes to using English as a second language.One of the main difficulties for Chinese speakers is pronunciation. The tonal nature of the Chinese language means that Chinese speakers often struggle to accurately produce the different sounds and intonations of English words. This can lead to misunderstandings and communication barriers, especially in a professional or academic setting.In addition to pronunciation, grammar and sentence structure also pose challenges for Chinese speakers. The syntax and word order in English are very different from Chinese, and this can lead to confusion and errors in writtenand spoken English. Chinese speakers often struggle with verb tenses, prepositions, and articles, which are not present in the Chinese language.Furthermore, the vast vocabulary of the English language can be overwhelming for Chinese learners. Memorizing and recalling thousands of English words, along with their various meanings and usage, can be a daunting task. This can make it difficult for Chinese speakers to express themselves fluently and confidently in English.Cultural differences also play a role in the challenges Chinese speakers face when learning English. The use of idioms, colloquial expressions, and cultural references in English can be unfamiliar and confusing for Chinese learners. Understanding the nuances of English language and culture requires a deep understanding and exposure, which can be difficult to achieve for Chinese speakers living in predominantly Chinese-speaking communities.Despite these challenges, it is important to acknowledge the efforts of Chinese speakers who are learning English as a second language. Many Chinese learners are dedicated and hardworking, striving to overcome these obstacles and achieve proficiency in English. They attend language classes,practice speaking and writing, and immerse themselves in English-speaking environments to improve their skills.In conclusion, while there are certainly limitations and challenges for Chinese speakers learning English, it is important to recognize their determination and perseverance. With continued practice, exposure, and support, Chinese speakers can overcome these difficulties and becomeproficient in English, expanding their opportunities and connections on a global scale.。
关于本班错别字研究报告作文
关于本班错别字研究报告作文英文回答：The results of the study on common misspellings in our class provide valuable insights into the spelling patterns of our students. The analysis revealed a range of errors that can be categorized into several types.One of the most frequent types of misspellings was homophone errors, where students confused words that sound the same but have different spellings, such as "there" and "their." This suggests a need for increased attention to auditory discrimination and the development of spelling strategies that differentiate between homophone words.Another common type of misspelling was morphological errors, which occurred when students added or omitted affixes such as prefixes and suffixes. For example, words like "uncomfortable" and "disappear" were often misspelled as "unconfortable" and "dissappear." This highlights theimportance of teaching spelling rules and patterns related to prefixes and suffixes.Phonetic errors were also observed, where students spelled words based on how they sounded rather than adhering to the correct orthography. For instance, words like "because" and "receipt" were sometimes misspelled as "becauz" and "receet." These errors indicate a need for systematic phonics instruction and practice.In addition to these types of errors, the study identified instances of visual errors, where students confused letters that look similar, such as "b" and "d" or "p" and "q." This suggests a need for increased exposure to written language and the development of visual discrimination skills.Furthermore, the analysis revealed a pattern of regional spelling variations, where students used spellings that are common in their geographic area but differ from standard English orthography. For example, words like "color" and "honor" were often spelled as "colour" and"honour." This highlights the importance of recognizing and addressing regional spelling differences in the classroom.Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations can be made to improve spelling instruction in our class. These include:Implementing systematic phonics instruction and practice to develop phonemic awareness and decoding skills.Explicitly teaching spelling rules and patterns, including those related to prefixes, suffixes, and homophones.Providing ample opportunities for students to practice spelling and correct their own errors.Incorporating multisensory activities, such asspelling games and activities that encourage the use of different senses (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic).Utilizing technology to support spelling practice,such as online spelling programs and games.Collaborating with parents and caregivers to provide additional spelling support outside the classroom.By implementing these recommendations and addressing the common misspellings identified in this study, we can enhance our students' spelling skills and improve their overall literacy development.中文回答：本班错别字研究报告结果为我们提供了对学生拼写模式的宝贵见解。
关于本班错别字研究报告作文
关于本班错别字研究报告作文English Response:Introduction:This report analyzes the frequency and patterns of orthographic errors in a specific class. The study aims to identify common errors, explore potential causes, and suggest remedial strategies to improve students' spelling accuracy.Methods:A sample of written work from all students in the class was collected. Errors were identified and categorized based on their type (e.g., phonetic, visual, structural, semantic). Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and qualitative analysis.Results:The most frequent errors were:Phonetic errors (e.g., "rite" for "write")。
Visual errors (e.g., "their" for "there")。
Structural errors (e.g., "recieved" for "received")。
Errors were more common in words that were more difficult to spell and contained irregular patterns. Students who had difficulty with reading and decoding tended to make more spelling errors.Discussion:The results suggest that students need additional support in:Phonological awareness and phonemic segmentation.Visual discrimination and letter-sound recognition.Understanding word structure and morphology.Semantic processing and vocabulary development.Recommendations:To improve spelling accuracy, the following strategies are recommended:Explicit instruction in phonics and phonemic awareness.Guided practice with challenging words.Multisensory activities that engage different learning styles.Use of technology and assistive devices for struggling learners.Collaboration between teachers, students, and parentsto support spelling development.Conclusion:This study provides insights into the nature and causes of spelling errors in the specific class studied. By addressing the underlying factors identified in this report, educators can implement targeted interventions to enhance students' spelling abilities and foster their overallliteracy development.Chinese Response:引言:本报告旨在分析一个特定班级中错别字出现的频率和规律，进而找出常见错误，探究潜在原因，并提出补救策略，以提高学生拼写准确率。
中英文差异的作文
中英文差异的作文英文回答：Cultural and linguistic diversity is a common phenomenon around the world, and the differences between Chinese and English are particularly evident. These differences manifest in various aspects of language, including grammar, vocabulary, and usage.In terms of grammar, Chinese and English differ significantly. Chinese is a tonal language, meaning thatthe meaning of a word can change depending on the tone used. English, on the other hand, is a stress-timed language, where emphasis is placed on certain syllables within a word. Additionally, Chinese sentences are typically structured in a subject-verb-object order, while English sentences follow a subject-verb-complement order.Vocabulary-wise, Chinese and English also exhibit notable differences. Many words in Chinese have multiplemeanings, which can lead to confusion for non-native speakers. For example, the word "好" (hǎo) can mean "good," "well," or "like." English vocabulary, on the other hand, is more precise, with specific words used fordifferent concepts.In terms of usage, Chinese and English differ inseveral ways. Chinese culture places great emphasis on politeness and indirectness, which is reflected in the language. For example, it is considered rude to directlyask someone for something, and instead, speakers often use婉转(wǎn zhuǎn) expressions to convey their requests. English, on the other hand, is more direct and to-the-point.Furthermore, Chinese and English have different writing systems. Chinese characters are logographic, representing entire words or morphemes, while the English alphabet is phonemic, representing individual sounds. This differencein writing systems contributes to the unique visual and aesthetic qualities of each language.In conclusion, the differences between Chinese andEnglish are multifaceted, encompassing grammar, vocabulary, usage, and writing systems. These differences reflect the distinct cultural and historical backgrounds of each language and contribute to the rich tapestry of human linguistic diversity.中文回答：中文和英文作为两种不同的语言，在很多方面存在差异，主要表现在语法、词汇、用法和书写系统上。
英汉超音段音位特征比较
英汉超音段音位特征比较Comparative Study of Suprasegmental Features between English and ChineseMa Lihua【】Suprasegmental features are defined as the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. English and Chinese display difference in suprasegmental features due to the disparity of the two phonology systems. In the paper, the difference is studied contrastively with the focus on such phonological properties as syllable, stress and intonation.1 引言早在20世纪30年代, 赵元任等学者已经开始对英汉语音的异同进行了比较研究，而在现代语音学的研究中，对音段音位的研究逐渐让位于超音段音位（何善芬，1999；张文，1994）。
英汉语音对比的方向也从以往对元、辅音的差异分析发展到对音节、重音、节奏及语调等超音段音位对比研究上。
这主要是由于随着语音学研究的发展，超音段音位特征的功能不断显现，引起了研究者的注意。
人们逐渐认识到在语言交流中超音段音位特征比音段音位重要得多；由于音位发音不准而引起的障碍在共知的语境中是可以消除的；在音段音位可接受的情况下，超音段音位更能传达交际功能，因而显得更具有研究价值。
因此，随着语音学研究重点的转移，许多学者开展了这方面的研究，如：对比分析英语与汉语的某一个或某几个超音段音位特征；但大多仅限于对英汉超音段音位的现象进行列举比较，到目前为止，尚没有全面系统的对比研究。
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Chinese Pronunciation ProblemsCommon Pronunciation Problems for ChineseLearnersError Type 1: Pitch and stressERROR DESCRIPTION EXAMPLESPitch and stress are two quite distinctive areas in English but not in Chinese. In Chinese (Mandarin), thereis no such thing as word stress. Pitch, on the other hand, plays a greater role in Chinese than in English. It actually changes the meaning of the word. The pitch movement is referred to as “tone”, and so there are 4 different tones in Chinese. Each tone gives a certain meaning to a word. Just to help you to understand this, IMAGINE that the sound [no] is an English word and Chinese word. In English, whether I change my voice pitch or not, the meaning of [no] will never change. [no] will never mean [table] or [life] or [pen] or [suitcase], it will mean [no] as in [negative]. Now, saying [no] in English in different tones could show the others how I feel but it will always mean NO (unless it’s sarcasm). Now in Chinese, depending on the changes I make to the pitch while saying [no], the actual meaning of the sound [no] totally changes, so [no] may actually mean [table] or [life] or [pen] or [suitcase]. Error Type 1 is probably one of the most important source of error for Chinese learners. Teachers MUST do plenty of stress exercises and explain that pitch in Chinese has a different role in English.In English:Consider how you (a native speaker) would say [no] when answering the following 4 questions in 4 different scenarios: 1-Do you like horror movies? No. (Neutral) 2-Are you mad at me because I offered your girlfriend a drink? No (but you ARE actually mad at him for doing that)3-So you’re coming to my wedding on Saturday right? No. No??? (surprised)4-Give me your money, give me your money now! No. (resistant, challenging and firm)Error Type 2: Connected speechError Type 3: Words ending with consonants ERROR DESCRIPTION EXAMPLESAs I mentioned above, in Mandarin, the syllables or words never end with consonants, except with /n/ or /ŋ/. As a result, Chinese learners either omit (delete) the final consonant or add an extra sound (probably a schwa sound) after it, which makes it very difficult for English speakers to follow. Although most consonants will be difficult to pronounce at word endings for Chinese, voiced consonants are the most challenging ones. By voiced consonants, I mean the consonants that need vibration at the throat like /b/ /d/ /z/ /g/ /v/ /ʒ/ /dʒ/ and /ð/. In addition to omitting those consonants or adding an extra sound after them, Chinese also de-voice them, which means that the /b/ becomes /p/, the /d/ /t/, the /z/ /s/, the /g/ /k/, the /v/ /f/, the /dʒ/ /tʃ/ and the /ʒ/ /ʃ/. Words ending with /v/: di ve; lo v e; cra veWords ending with /g/: mor gue; ro gue; ba gWords ending with /d/: hi de; foo d; ru deWords ending with /z/: bear s; toy s; boo zeError Type 4: Consonants clusters ERROR DESCRIPTION EXAMPLESAs for most Asian learners of English, Chinese find consonants clusters extremely challenging as not a single Chinese language allows consonants cluster, so teachers should expect to see plenty of omissions, additions and substitutions occurring in words with [pr] [pl] [tr] [kr] [kl] [fl] [ks] [sk] [st] [ts] combinations. Teachers need to spend a considerable amount of time with the students to practice these sounds as they affect intelligibility dramatically. /pr/: pr oblem; pr actice; pr onunciation; pr esent /pl/: pl ace; pl ough; pl ane; pl ease; pl umber./tr/: tr y; tr ain; tr ophy; tr ail; tr icky; tr ace; tr im. /kr/: cr ane; cr ab; cr ime; Kr isten; cr am; cr adle. /kl/: cl imb; cl aim; cl oud; cl ear; Cl ayton; cl uster. /fl/: fl y; fl eece; Fl etcher; fl uke; fl irt; fl uster./ks/: la cks; Ma x; spi kes; ta kes; see ks, ti cks./sk/: a sk; ta sk; hu sk y; ra sc al; ma sc ot; ri sk y./st/: mu st; ru st y; fe st ival; Cry st al; pa st or; be st /ts/: righ ts; ma tes; figh ts; boo ts; sea ts; hi tsError Type 5: Vowels reduction & the schwa soundError Type 6: /r/Error Type 8: /v/Error Type 9: Confusing /l/ for /n/Error Type 10: Confusing between /iː/ and /ɪ/Error Type 11: Confusing between /e/ and /æ/Error Type 12: Confusing between /uː/ and /ʊ/Error Type 13: Confusing between /æ/ or /e/ for /eɪ/Error Type 14: /m/ at the end of the wordsError Type 15: Confusing/oʊ/ for /ɔː/Further Reading or practice:Hornsby, B. Shear, F. Pool, J. (2006) Alpha to Omega, Gosport, Heinemann.。