克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题05_06
曼昆宏观经济学第10版课后答案和笔记
曼昆《宏观经济学》第10版笔记和课后习题详解目录第1篇导言第1章宏观经济学科学1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解第2章宏观经济学的数据2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解第2篇古典理论：长期中的经济第3章国民收入：源自何处？去向何方？3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解第4章货币系统：它是什么？如何起作用？4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解第5章通货膨胀：起因、影响和社会成本5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解第6章开放的经济6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解第7章失业7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解第3篇增长理论：超长期中的经济第8章经济增长Ⅰ：资本积累与人口增长8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解第9章经济增长Ⅱ：技术、经验和政策9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解第4篇经济周期理论：短期中的经济第10章经济波动导论10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解第11章总需求Ⅰ：建立IS-LM模型11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解第12章总需求Ⅱ：应用IS-LM模型12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解第13章重访开放经济：蒙代尔-弗莱明模型与汇率制度13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解第14章总供给与通货膨胀和失业之间的短期权衡14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解第5篇宏观经济理论和政策专题第15章一个经济波动的动态模型15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解第16章关于稳定化政策的不同观点16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解第17章政府债务和预算赤字17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解第18章金融系统：机会与危险18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解第19章消费和投资的微观基础19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解附录指定曼昆《宏观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表内容简介本书是曼昆《宏观经济学》（第10版）教材的学习辅导书，主要包括以下内容：（1）整理名校笔记，浓缩内容精华。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
(完整版)克鲁格曼国际经济学第十版重点笔记
《国际经济学》（第10版）保罗·R·克鲁格曼重点笔记第三章劳动生产率与比较优势：李嘉图模型1.机会成本：利用一定资源或时间生产一种商品时，而失去的利用这些资源生产其他最佳替代品的机会。
2.比较优势：如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本（用其他产品来衡量）低于在其他国家生产该种产品的机会成本，则这个国家在生产该种产品上就具有比较优势。
比较优势和国际贸易的基本原理：如果每个国家都出口本国具有比较优势的商品，则两国之间的贸易能使两国都受益。
英国经济学家大卫·李嘉图提出的国际贸易模型。
他指出，国际劳动生产率的不同是国际贸易的唯一决定因素。
该理论被称为李嘉图模型。
3.单一要素经济单位产品劳动投入（a L）：生产率的倒数，用来表示劳动生产率。
生产可能性边界（PPF）：一个国家的资源是有限的，它所能生产的产品也是有限的，因此就存在着产品替代的问题：多生产一种产品就意味着要牺牲另一种产品的产量。
一个经济体的生产可能性边界（PPF）显示了其固定数量资源所能生产的商品的最大数量。
本国资源对产出的限制：a LC Q C + a LW Q W≤ L（斜率的绝对值等于横轴商品的机会成本）Q W = L/a LW– (a LC /a LW )Q C，k= - a LC /a LW =奶酪的机会成本相对价格与供给简化模型中，劳动是唯一的生产要素，奶酪和葡萄酒的供给是由劳动力的流向决定的，而劳动力总会流向工资比较高的部门。
单一要素模型中不存在利润，奶酪部门每小时的工资率等于一个工人在1小时内创造的价值P C/a LC，葡萄酒部门每小时的工资率等于P W/a LW。
当P C /P W > a LC /a LW时，奶酪部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产奶酪；当P C /P W < a LC /a LW时，葡萄酒部门的工资率就比较高，该国会专业化生产葡萄酒；当P C /P W = a LC /a LW 时，该国会生产奶酪和葡萄酒两种产品。
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点】lass=txt>第12章国民收入核算和国际收支1、如问题所述，gnp仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从gnp中减去，出口的中间品价值加到gnp中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的gnp中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的gnp，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的gnp中减去，并加入美国的gnp。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成ca?(sp?i)?(t?g)。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
国际经济学第十版课后答案
国际经济学第十版多米尼克.萨尔瓦多着P16页练习题6.1根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高如由于税率的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答：根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高,则该商品的需求量将会下降;2根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高如由于进口关税的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答：根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高,则该商品的出口量将会下降;7．1一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收,来消除或者减少预算赤字;2一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口,借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券,降低该国的国民收入水平; 8．1国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别答：在国际经济关系下,国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素,不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动,此外,国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通;而在地区经济关系下,就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素,它们经常是在同样的语言环境下,在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的,这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比;2它们在哪方面相似答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离,事实上,它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物,把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点,这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分;10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益,那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格,这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利,挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额;通常在这种情况下,本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单,并且向政府提议限制进口;而由于消费者很多,平均每个消费者只有非常小的进口商品利益,政府就会根据生产商的要求,施加一些进口限制;第二章比较优势原理P45页练习题1.表列出了在4中假定下,英美两国1劳动小时可生产的小麦与布匹的数量;支出每种情况下,美、英两国具有绝对优势或劣势的商品;答：在A情形下,美国具有绝对优势的商品是小麦；英国具有绝对优势的商品是布匹；在B情形下,美国在小麦和布匹都有绝对优势；在C情形下,美国在小麦和布匹生产商都具有绝对优势,而英国在这两种商品的生产中都不具有绝对优势；在D情形下,美国在小麦、布匹这两种商品具有的绝对优势都比英国明显;2.指出表中每个国家有比较优势与比较劣势的商品;答：在A情形下,美国具有相对优势的商品是小麦；英国在布匹生产上具有相对优势；在B情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在C情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在D情形下,美国、英国在小麦、布匹这两种商品生产上没有相对优势; 3.指出表中每种情况下,贸易的可能性贸易基础;答：在A情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是绝对优势；在B情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在C情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在D情形下,没有贸易的可能性,因为美国在这两种商品的生产上都比英国具有绝对优势;4. 假设在表中的B 情况下,美国用4单位小麦与英国用的4单位布交换： （1） 美国获利多少 （2） 英国获利多少（3） 互惠贸易的范围有多大（4） 如果改用4单位小麦与6单位布交换,两国分别获利多少 答：1美国获利1C 2英国获利3C 3 3C<4W<8C4美国获利3C,而英国获利1w;5. 表中的B 情况下,假设劳动是唯一生产要素而且是同质的即只有一种类型： （1） 用劳动测度,美、英两国生产小麦和布的成本是多少 （2） 如果工资率为6美元,则小麦和布在美国的价格是多少 （3） 如果工资率为1英镑,则小麦和布在英国的价格是多少答：1在劳动测度下,生产小麦的成本在美国是1/4,在英国为1；而生产布匹的成本在美国是1/3,在英国为1/2.2在美国,小麦的价格w P =美元,而布匹的价格c P =美元； 3在英国,小麦的价格w P =英镑,而布匹的价格c P =英镑；6. 参考第5题回答：（1） 若美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元,则小麦与布在英国的美元价格是多少在此汇率下,美国会想英国出口小麦吗在此汇率下,英国会想美国出口布吗（2） 当汇率是1英镑=4美元时情况如何 （3） 当汇率是1英镑=1美元时又如何（4） 允许美国向英国出口小麦和允许英国向美国出口布的汇率范围是多少 答：1在英国,当美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元时,美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国会出口布匹到美国；2当汇率是1英镑=4美元时,在英国：$4.00w P =,$2.00c P =,因此美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国不会出口布匹到美国;3当汇率是1英镑=1美元时,在英国,$1.00,$0.50w c P P ==,因此英国会都出口小麦、布匹这两种商品到美国;4$1.50￡1.00$4.00<< 7. 假设表中B 情形的数据单位是百万蒲尔式小麦和百万码布： （1） 画出英美两国的生产可能线（2） 美、英两国的小麦相对价格为多少即c /w P P （3） 美、英两国的布匹相对价格为多少即/c w P P答：12小麦相对价格：在美国,w /3/4c P P =,在英国w /2c P P =； 3布匹相对价格：在美国,w /4/3c P P =,在英国w /1/2c P P =; 9.1如果图左图中的w()US UK D +向上移1/3,则小麦的均衡价格是多少此时,美、英国生产多少单位小麦和布21中的答案对右图的()c US UK D +意味着什么答：1此时小麦的均衡价格会从1/3上升到w /4/3c P P =；因为更高的w()US UK D +会和()W US UK S +曲线交叉,美国会继续专门生产小麦180W,而英国会继续专门生产布匹120C.2由于布匹的均衡价格是小麦的均衡价格的倒数,所以如果小麦的均衡价格是4/3,则布匹的均衡价格是3/4.这就意味着图中右图的()C US UKD +将会向右下移1/3;11.画一张与图类似的图,表明英国现在是一个小国,为图中右图所示的一半,并在c /w P P =2/3时用20单位布与美国的30单位小麦交换;第三章 国际贸易的标准理论P66页 练习题1. 在一个坐标系中,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线（1） 从生产可能性曲线的中点开始,用箭头表示该国在生产更多X 纵轴表示的商品和更多Y 时所发生的机会成本递增情况;（2） 当生产更多的X 时,生产可能性曲线的斜率如何变化生产更多的Y 呢这种变化反映了什么答：12当生产更多的X时,则Y 的产量将减少,生产可能性曲线的斜率会增大;当生产更多的Y时,X的产量也会减少;这种变化反映了随着生产更多的X或者Y,机会成本是递增的,即：一个国家每多生产以单位该种商品,就必须放弃越来越多的另一种商品的生产以提高足够的资源;2.在另一个坐标系中,画出三条社会无差异曲线,并令最高两条相交：（1）社会无差异曲线为什么向下倾斜,或者说斜率为负（2）曲线的斜率代表什么为什么每条无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小呢（3）考虑相交的两条无差异曲线,在交点右边的那一条曲线表示的满意程度较高吗在交点左边呢为什么和无差异曲线的定义不一致你可以得出什么结论答：1社会无差异曲线向下倾斜是因为：在无差异曲线上,当消费者购买更多的X时,他们会放弃部分Y;2曲线的斜率代表社会或国家在获得相同的满足程度下,多消费一单位X的同时,必须减少Y 的消费量;无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小是因为：随着X的增大,Y减小,则从一单位的X得到的满足程度降低,而从一单位Y所得到的满足程度将增大; 3当在交点在右边时,满意程度：C>B；当交点在左边是：B>C;这种不一致是因为无差异曲线反映的是一个给定的满足程度的两种商品的不同组合,因此无差异曲线不能相交;、而一组特定的无差异曲线拜师的是一国国内一种特定的收入分配,一种不同的收入分配会导致一组全新的无差异曲线,而它很可能与先前的无差异曲线相交;例如一国开始贸易或扩大外贸规模时,无差异曲线的相交就会发生;3.在一个坐标系内,画一条生产可能性曲线,再画一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较平坦的地方；在另一个坐标系内,画另一条生产可能性曲线,再画另一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较陡直的地方;（1）画一条表示各国在孤立情形下的均衡想多商品价格的直线;（2）各国具有比较优势的商品分别是什么（3）在什么情况下,两国之间不存在比较优势或比较劣势答：12国家1在商品X上具有比较优势,而国家2在Y商品具有比较优势;3当两国的这两种商品的相对价格线具有相同的斜率时,两国不存在比较优势; 4．1在第3题图中,用箭头表示在贸易条件下各国专业化生产的方向,标出各国均衡的产量和消费2各国相对自给自足状态有什么额外所得哪个国家所得更多为什么答：12对于国家1,在E点到A点的右上方获利,而国家2从E'超过A'获利;国家1将从贸易中获得额外所得,因为X的相对价格比贸易前差别更大;5.在一个坐标系内,画出国家1对于X 的出口供给曲线,/X Y P P =1/4,X 的共给量X QS =0；/X Y P P =1/2时,X QS =40；/X Y P P =1时,X QS =60；/X Y P P =112时,X QS =70.在同一坐标系内,画出国家2对于国家1出口商品X 的需求曲线;/X Y P P =112时,对X 的需求X QD =40; /X Y P P =1时, X QD =60; /X Y P P =1/2时, X QD =120. 1确定出口X 的贸易均衡的相对商品价格;2如果/X Y P P =112,会发生什么3如果/X Y P P =1/2,又会发生什么 答：1S 是国家1的出口商品X 的供给曲线,而D 是国家2的出口商品X 的需求曲线,而需求和供给曲线在E 点相交,决定了X 的出口贸易均衡的相对价格为/B X Y P P P ==1,和均衡出口量是60X;2如果/X Y P P =112,将出现一个30R R X '=的出口供给过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 将会降低至/X Y P P =1.（3） 如果/X Y P P =1/2,将出现一个80H HX '=的出口需求过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 会升至/X Y P P =1.7.在一坐标系内,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线,再画一条社会无差异曲线与其相切于平坦的部分;标出该国在自给自足状态下的均衡相对商品价格,记为A P ,假设该曲线表示一个小国,其对贸易并不影响世界市场的相对价格W P ,在图上标出分工的过程、贸易量和贸易所得;答：该小国的生产会从A点移动到B点,出口商品X来交换商品Y以达到最佳点E>A;9.在两个坐标系中,画两条相同的凹向原点的生产可能性曲线;再画两条分别与其相切的社会无差异曲线;1指出各国自给自足状态下的均衡相对价格;2指出生产分工的过程及互利贸易的过程;答：1211.在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,会发生什么情况画一条曲线来表示这种情况;答：在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,但持续的机会成本,使这两个国家之间不存在互利贸易的可能;第一章供给、需求、提供曲线与贸易条件P87页练习题5．一国的提供曲线与下列曲线有哪些相似之处1需求曲线 2供给曲线 3提供曲线与普通的需求曲线和供给曲线有哪些差异答：1一国的提供曲线与需求曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的进口需求;2一国的提供曲线与供给曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的出口供给;3提供曲反映的是一国为了进口其需要的某一数量的商品而愿意出口的商品的数量;而普通的需求曲线和供给曲线反映的是供给和需求的相对数量;7．为了说明两国如何不平均分配贸易所得：（1） 画一幅图,一国的提供曲线的曲率远大于其贸易伙伴国提供曲线的曲率；（2） 哪个国家在贸易中获益更大（3） 解释原因答：12提供曲线的斜率越大,则该国家获利越大;3提供曲线越大的国家越能从贸易中获利,这是因为斜率越大,该提供曲线反映的国家对外国出口商品的需求越弱;8．.从图中左图推导国家2对于商品Y 的出口供给曲线;从图的左图推导国家1对于国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线与需求曲线;用你所得到的供给曲线与需求曲线表示如何确定Y 的贸易均衡相对价格;答：从教材图的左图可以看出,在/=4X Y P P 的相对价格下,国家2并没有出口任何数量的商品Y,令为国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线S 上的A 点,同时也可知,/X Y P P =2是,国家2出口40单位的Y,得到S 曲线上的H 点;从教材左图,在//X Y Y X P P P P =1时,国家1需要国家2出口60单位的Y,这就在国家1的需求曲线D 上找到了点E,我们还可以估计国家1在/Y X P P =3/2时D 曲线上的H 点,需要40单位的Y,在/Y X P P =2时D 曲线上的H '点,需要120单位的Y;商品Y 的相对均衡价格是/Y X P P =1,这就决定了D 曲线的交点;在/Y X P P =3/2时,存在一个过度供给R R '=30Y 且/Y X P P 降至/Y X P P =1.在/Y X P P =1/2时,则存在=1个过度需求H H '=80Y,且/Y X P P 升至/Y X P P =1;9．1为什么第8题所使用的是局部均衡分析2为什么图的分析是一般均衡分析3局部均衡分析和一般均衡分析之间有什么关系答：1原因：利用传统的供给需求曲线,这两种曲线涉及到从经济体中所有的与商品Y 相关联的其他市场相分离,这只是对这个问题探索的大概分析;2图的分析是建立在提供曲线的基础上的;这些联系是发生在这两个国家的这两种商品的需求、供给里的,因此才能从每个国家、每种商品的供给和需求方面分别分析;这中分析法对这个问题的解释将比局部均衡分析更为全面、清晰,也更复杂;10．绘制国家1和国家2的提供曲线,国家2是一个小国,在国家1的贸易前的相对商品价格水平上进行贸易,贸易所得在两国之间如何分配为什么答：贸易在两国之间的分配：由于国家2是一个小国,在原点附近放大国家1的部分,意味着国家2可以进口充分小的商品X 就可以影响到国家1 的相对价格/X Y P P ,因此国家2是一个价格决定者;只要国家1维持不变的机会成本,且不是专门生产商品X,则在贸易中国家2将获得所有的利益,即使国家2不是一个小国,结果也是一样的; 11．画一幅图表示两个生产机会成本不变的国家的贸易均衡点;答：两国都的机会成不变,这是不可能的事件;两国的提供曲线都是直线直到两国在产品上完全专门化生产;之后,提供曲线会以正常形状相交于E点,并在E点得到相对价格/=P P P;X Y E12．假设在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110：1该国贸易伙伴国的贸易条件恶化了多少2从什么角度可以说贸易伙伴国由于这个变化,其贸易状况发生了恶化能认为贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了吗答：1在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110,则该国贸易伙伴的贸易条件恶化了9%;2贸易国的贸易条件恶化了,则其贸易伙伴国必须为该国的商品进口支付更高的价格;而这并不意味着贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了,因为这时期的贸易恶化可能是由于生产力比其他国家增加的更高效;第二章要素禀赋与赫克歇尔—俄林理论P123页练习题1.画两个坐标系分别表示国家1和国家2,横轴代表劳动,纵轴代表资本;（1）用通过远点的直线表示前两国生产Y时的资本/劳动比率高于生产X时的这一比率,以及国家2生产两种商品时的资本/劳动比率均高于国家1生产相应商品时的这一比率;（2）在国际贸易条件下,当国家2的利率/工资比率上升时,表示国家2每一种上平的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化（3）在国际贸易条件下,当国家1的利率/工资比率下降时,表示国家1的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化（4）根据2和3的结果说明,与贸易前的情况相比,国际贸易叩打还是缩小了两国生产每一商品的资本/劳动比率的差异呢答：12国家2的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会下降;3国家1的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会上升;4国际贸易缩小了两国生产每一种商品的资本/劳动比率差异;2.1画出与相似的图,说明在自给自足的条件下各国的均衡点以及贸易条件下各国的生产和消费点2解释是什么因素决定了两国的比较优势3为什么在无贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量不同而在贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量相同答：12在相同生产条件下的差异决定了两国的比较优势3因为无贸易条件下,两国的同种商品分别在本国的价格不同,因此其消费数量也不同；但是一旦有了贸易,则价格就相同了,因此消费两种商品的数量也相同;6.要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同：1还有什么其他因素会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同的形状2在赫—俄模型中,赫克歇尔和俄林做了哪些假设来防止1中的情形发生3在无贸易条件下,还有什么其他可能的原因会导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异答：1生产前沿也会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同形状;2为了防止要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同,赫克歇尔和俄林假设：两国的生产前沿不同是因为这两国的技术水平不同;3在无贸易条件下,导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异的其他可能原因有：两国的相关商品的价格不同;7.在两国需求偏好不同的条件下,作与图相似的直线,表明赫克歇尔—俄林模型仍然使用;答：12.1讨论里昂惕夫之谜的含义和重要意义;2概括说明克拉维斯、基辛、肯恩、鲍德温利用人力资本解决里昂惕夫之谜的经验检验的结果;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什是如何解释里昂惕夫之谜的答：1里昂惕夫之谜的含义：里昂惕夫用1947年美国数据对赫克歇尔—俄林模型做了第一个经验性检验;发现美国进口替代品的资本密集程度比美国出口商品的资本密集程度高出大约30%,由于美国是世界是上资本最密集的国家,这意味着美国进口的是资本密集型商品,出口的反而市劳动密集型商品;这与赫—俄理论的预测完全相反;里昂惕夫之谜的意义：里昂惕夫对赫——俄学说的验证,不仅开创了用投入——产出法这类经验手段检验理论假说的先河,大大推动了国际贸易的实证研究,而且第一个指明该理论学说与事实相悖逆,从而促进了战后各种各样贸易理论和见解的涌现;可见,里昂惕夫之谜的发现已成为战后国际贸易发展的基石;对该谜的种种解释,也没有从根本上否定赫——俄学说,而只是试图改变该学说的某些理论前提以适用实际情况;这表明,比较利益说仍是这些理论解释的内核;2科维拉斯得出正确结论：美国出口行业的高工资反映了美国出口行业比美国进口替代行业有较高的劳动生产率和较多的人力资本；肯恩实际估计了美国进出口竞争商品中人力资本的含量,并把其加载实物资本需求之上重新计算美国出口和进口替代品的资本/劳动比率;发现,利用%的收益率时比较保守估计,并不能彻底消除里昂惕夫悖论；但是,利用9%的收益率时,则可以完全消除里昂惕夫悖论,于是成功解释和消除了里昂惕夫之谜；1987年,鲍恩、利墨尔、思威考斯卡斯使用27个国家12种要素资源和多种商品的更完整的1967年贸易、要素投入需求和要素禀赋的剖面数据进行考察,发现赫克歇尔—俄林贸易模型只在部分情况下成立;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什对里昂惕夫之谜的解释方式是：由于美国劳动不必外国劳动含有更多的人力资本,把人力资本这一部分加到实物资本上就会使美国的出口相对于进口替代品的资本密集程度要大,从而解释了里昂惕夫之谜;14.解释为何在存在要素密集度颠倒的条件下,资本价格的世界性差异会缩小、上升、不变;答：要素密集度颠倒是指：一种给定商品在劳动丰裕的国家是劳动密集型产品,在资本密集型国家是资本密集型产品;例如：如果商品X在国家1低工资国家是劳动密集型商品,同时在国家2高工资国家是资本密集型产品,要素密集度的颠倒就发生了;要素密集度颠倒一旦发生了,则H—O理论和要素价格均等理论不再成立;原因是：国家1分工生产商品X,从而需要更多的劳动,国家1的相对和绝对工资就会上升;另一方面,由于国家2不能像国家1出口X,它就不得不分工生产和出口商品Y,而在国家2,Y是相对劳动密集的商品,故国家2对劳动需求以及工资也会上升,两国相对工资和绝对工资之间的差异如何变化取决于各国工资上涨的快慢程度;在贸易条件下,两国的相对和绝对工资差异会缩小、扩大或保持不变,要素价格均等理论不成立;第三章规模经济、不完全竞争与国际贸易P157 练习题1.画一张与相似的图,表示在规模经济下,生产可能性曲线相同而偏好不同的国家之间是如何进行互利贸易的答：2.如果两国生产可能性曲线不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第1 题;答：3.如果两国生产可能性曲线及偏好均不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第 1题;答：6.使用与图相同的AC曲线和MC曲线,运用与图相似的图显示一个厂商可以在其他厂商模仿其市场份额之前获得超额利润答：AC曲线和MC曲线和教材图相同;但是假定在其他企业尚未开始生产该企业的产品,市场份额减少或者失去竞争优势,该需求曲线D和MR曲线边际收益曲线更高;在上图中的E点,MR=MC,所以该企业的最优产出水平是5个单位,价格是$;由于在Q=5,AC=$30时,该企业的利润为每单位AB=$和总利润10$;7.1垄断竞争和垄断有什么相同之处2他们之间有什么区别3为什么在我们的产业内贸易模型中,垄断竞争与完全垄断之间的差别对于消费者的福利十分重要。
曼昆宏观经济学第10版课后答案和笔记
曼昆宏观经济学第10版课后答案和笔记XXX的《宏观经济学》第10版是一本经典的宏观经济学教材。
本书是该教材的研究辅导书，包括复笔记和课后题详解。
第1篇导言第1章介绍了宏观经济学的科学性，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第2章讨论了宏观经济学的数据，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第2篇古典理论：长期中的经济第3章讨论了国民收入的来源和去向，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第4章介绍了货币系统的作用，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第5章讨论了通货膨胀的起因、影响和社会成本，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第6章介绍了开放的经济，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第7章讨论了失业问题，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第3篇增长理论：超长期中的经济第8章介绍了经济增长中的资本积累和人口增长，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第9章讨论了经济增长中的技术、经验和政策，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第4篇经济周期理论：短期中的经济第10章介绍了经济波动，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第11章建立了IS-LM模型，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第12章应用了IS-LM模型，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第13章介绍了XXX模型和汇率制度，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第14章讨论了总供给和通货膨胀、失业之间的短期权衡，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第5篇宏观经济理论和政策专题第15章介绍了经济波动的动态模型，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第16章讨论了稳定化政策的不同观点，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第17章介绍了政府债务和预算赤字，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第18章讨论了金融系统的机会和危险，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第19章介绍了消费和投资的微观基础，本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
附录列出了指定XXX《宏观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解(发展中国家的贸易政策)【圣才出品】
十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台第10章发展中国家的贸易政策10.1 复习笔记1．进口替代战略（1）含义及特征进口替代战略又称内向型发展战略，其基本特征是以国内生产的工业制成品代替进口品，满足国内需求，并以此带动国民经济增长。
（2）一般做法①首先发展相对简易的日用工业，然后发展重化工业。
②压缩政府的不必要开支，增加生产性投资比重。
③对建立替代工业所必须的机器设备、中间品或原料进口采取关税减免和政府补贴的优惠政策。
④通过关税、非关税壁垒以及高估本国币值的方式，限制一般工业品进口，同时保证资本品以较低价格进口。
（3）幼稚工业论（幼稚工业论是进口替代战略的指导思想）①含义发展中国家具有制造业的潜在的比较优势，但发展中国家新建的制造工业最初却不能与发达国家已经成熟完善的制造业竞争。
为了使新成长的制造业获得立足之地，政府应该暂时地给予支持，直到它们足够强大，能够参与国际竞争为止。
②注意之处十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台a．试图从现在就进入未来才会具有比较优势的产业，并不总能得到好处。
b．如果政府保护本身有助于培养制造业的竞争力，那么保护才是值得的。
反之，则不值得。
总之，只有存在某种国内市场失灵的情况下，幼稚工业论才能成为政府干预的有效论据。
③市场失灵幼稚工业是否需要保护取决于幼稚工业的保护必须与一种具体的市场失灵相联系，这种市场失灵会使得私有市场不能以应有的速度发展这一产业。
有两种类型的市场失灵可以作为保护幼稚工业的依据：不完全资本市场和无偿占用问题。
a．不完全资本市场作为保护幼稚工业的依据认为，如果一个发展中国家没有一整套金融机构可以使得传统部门的储蓄用于新成长部门的投资，那么新工业部门的增长将会受这些工业当前盈利能力的限制。
最优政策是建立更完善的资本市场。
但是，由于对这些幼稚工业的保护可以提高利润，从而使其更快成长，所以保护幼稚工业可以作为次优的政策选择。
b．无偿占用问题的思想是：新产业产生的社会福利没有得到补偿。
克鲁格曼国贸理论第十版课后习题集答案解析CH04
Chapter 4Specific Factors and Income Distribution⏹Chapter OrganizationThe Specific Factors ModelBox: What Is a Specific Factor?Assumptions of the ModelProduction PossibilitiesPrices, Wages, and Labor AllocationRelative Prices and the Distribution of IncomeInternational Trade in the Specific Factors ModelIncome Distribution and the Gains from TradeThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsCase Study: Trade and UnemploymentInternational Labor MobilityCase Study: Wage Convergence in the Age of Mass MigrationCase Study: Foreign Workers: The Story of the GCCSummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 4: Further Details on Specific FactorsMarginal and Total ProductRelative Prices and the Distribution of Income⏹Chapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, the Ricardian model of trade was introduced with labor as the single factor of production exhibiting constant returns to scale. Although informative, this model fails to highlight the observed opposition to free trade. In this chapter, the Specific Factors model is presented to gain a better understanding of the distributional effects of trade. After trade, the exporting industry expands, while the import competing industry shrinks. As a result, the factor specific© 2015 Pearson Education Limitedto the exporting industry gains from trade, while the factor specific to the import competing industry loses from trade. However, the aggregate gains from trade are greater than the losses.The Specific Factors model assumes that there is one factor that is mobile between sectors (commonly thought of as labor) and production factors that are specific to each sector. The chapter begins with a simple economy producing two goods: cloth and food. Cloth is produced using labor and its specific factor, capital. Food is produced using labor and its specific factor, land. Given that capital and labor are specific to their respective industries, the mix of goods produced by a country is determined by share of labor employed in each industry. The key difference between the Ricardian model and the Specific Factors model is that in the latter, there are diminishing returns to labor. For example, production of food will increase as labor is added, but given a fixed amount of land, each additional worker will add less and less to food production.As we assume that labor is perfectly mobile between industries, the wage rate must be identical between industries. With competitive labor markets, the wage must be equal to the price of each good times the marginal product of labor in that sector. We can use the common wage rate to show that the economy will produce a mix of goods such that the relative price of one good in terms of the other is equal to the relative cost of that good in terms of the other. Thus, an increase in the relative price of one good will cause the economy to shift its production toward that good.With international trade, the country will export the good whose relative price is below the world relative price. The world relative price may differ from the domestic price before trade for two reasons. First, as in the Ricardian model, countries differ in their production technologies. Second, countries differ in terms of their endowments of the factors specific to each industry. After trade, the domestic relative price will equal the world relative price. As a result, the relative price in the exporting sector will rise, and the relative price in the import competing sector will fall. This will lead to an expansion in the export sector and a contraction of the import competing sector.Suppose that after trade, the relative price of cloth increases by 10 percent. As a result, the country will increase production of cloth. This will lead to a less than 10 percent increase in the wage rate because some workers will move from the food to the cloth industry. The real wage paid to workers in terms of cloth (w/P C) will fall, while the real wage paid in terms of food (w/P F) will rise. The net welfare effect for labor is ambiguous and depends on relative preferences for cloth and food. Owners of capital will unambiguously gain because they pay their workers a lower real wage, while owners of land will unambiguously lose as they now face higher costs. Thus, trade benefits the factor specific to the exporting sector, hurts the factor specific to the import competing sector, and has ambiguous effects on the mobile factor. Despite these asymmetric effects of trade, the overall effect of trade is a net gain. Stated differently, it is theoretically possible to redistribute the gains from trade to those who were hurt by trade and make everyone better off than they were before trade.Given these positive net welfare effects, why is there such opposition to free trade? To answer© 2015 Pearson Education LimitedChapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 15this question, the chapter looks at the political economy of protectionism. The basic intuition is that the though the total gains exceed the losses from trade, the losses from trade tend to be concentrated, while the gains are diffused. Import tariffs on sugar in the United States are used to illustrate this dynamic. It is estimated that sugar tariffs cost the average person $7 per year. Added up across all people, this is a very large loss from protectionism, but the individual losses are not large enough to induce people to lobby for an end to these tariffs. However, the gains from protectionism are concentrated among a small number of sugar producers, who are able to effectively coordinate and lobby for continued protection. When the losses from trade are concentrated among politically influential groups, import tariffs are likely to be seen. Ohio, a key swing state in U.S. presidential elections and a major producer of both steel and tires, is used as an example to illustrate this point with both Presidents Bush and Obama supporting tariffs on steel and tires, respectively.Although the losers from trade are often able to successfully lobby for protectionism, the chapter highlights three reasons why this is an inefficient method of limiting the losses from trade. First, the actual impact of trade on unemployment is fairly low, with estimates of only 2.5 percent of unemployment directly attributable to international trade. Second, the losses from trade are driven by one industry expanding at the expense of another. This phenomenon is not specific to international trade and is also seen with changing preferences or new technology. Why should policy be singled out to protect people hurt by trade and not for those hurt by these other trends? Finally, it is more efficient to help those hurt by trade—by redistributing the gains from trade in the form of safety nets for those temporarily unemployed and worker retraining programs to ease the transition from import competing to export sectors—than it is to limit trade to protect existing jobs.Finally, the chapter uses the framework of the Specific Factors model to analyze the distributional effects of international labor migration. With free migration of labor across borders, wages must equalize among countries. Workers will migrate from low-wage countries to high-wage countries. As a result, wages in the low-wage countries will rise, and those in the high-wage countries will fall. Though the net effect of free migration is positive, there will be both winners and losers from migration. Workers who stayed behind in the low-wage country will benefit, as will owners of capital in the high-wage country. Workers in the high-wage country will be hurt, as will owners of capital in the low-wage country. We also need to consider the education levels of migrants relative to the country they move to. Immigrants to the United States, for example, tend to be concentrated in the lowest educational groups. Thus, migration is likely to only have negative effects on the wages of the least educated Americans while raising the wages of those with more education.Answers to Textbook Problems1. A country would opt for international trade even though the workers in the importcompetitive sector face the risk of losing their jobs. This is mainly because if the gains that the consumer realizes if more imports were allowed and the associated increase in employment in the export sectors. Under perfect labor mobility, if the real wage inThailand is higher than Bangladesh, then labor movement from Bangladesh to Thailand takes place. This reduces the labor force and raises the wage rates in Bangladesh.Similarly a movement in labor to Thailand increases the labor force and reduces the real wage rate in Thailand. The movement between two countries will continue until the wages in these two countries are equalized.2. a.b.The curve in the PPF reflects diminishing returns to labor. As production of Q1increases, the opportunity cost of producing an additional unit of Q1 will rise. Basically,as you increase the number of workers producing Q1 with a fixed supply of capital, each additional worker will contribute less to the production of Q1 and represents anincreasingly large loss of potential production of Q2.3. a. Draw the marginal product of labor times the price for each sector given that the totallabor allocated between these sectors must sum to 100. Thus, if there are 10 workers© 2015 Pearson Education LimitedChapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 17employed in Sector 1, then there are 90 workers employed in Sector 2. If there are 50workers employedin Sector 1, then there are 50 workers employed in Sector 2. For simplicity, define P 1 = 1 andP 2 = 2 (it does not matter what the actual prices are in determining the allocation oflabor, only that the relative price P 2/P 1 =2).In competitive labor markets, the wage is equal to price times the marginal product oflabor. With mobile labor between sectors, the wage rate must be equal betweensectors. Thus, the equilibrium wage is determined by the intersection of the two P ⨯MPL curves. Looking at the diagram above,it appears that this occurs at a wage rate of 10 and a labor supply of 30 workers inSector 1(70 workers in Sector 2).b. From part (a), we know that 30 units of labor are employed in Sector 1 and 70 units oflabor are employed in Sector 2. Looking at the table in Question 2, we see that theselabor allocations will produce 48.6 units of good 1 and 86.7 units of good 2.At this production point (Q 1 = 48.6, Q 2 = 86.7), the slope of the PPF must be equal to-P 1/P 2, which is -½. Looking at the PPF in Question 2a, we see that it is roughly equalto -½.© 2015 Pearson Education Limitedc. If the relative price of good 2 falls to 1.3, we simply need to redraw the P ⨯ MPLdiagram withP 1 = 1 and P 2 =1.3.The decrease in the price of good 2 leads to an increase in the share of labor accruingto Sector 1. Now, the two sectors have equal wages (P ⨯ MPL ) when there are 50workers employed in both sectors.Looking at the table in Question 2, we see that with 50 workers employed in bothSectors 1 and 2, there will be production of Q 1 = 66 and Q 2 = 75.8.The PPF at the production point Q 1 = 66, Q 2 = 75.78 must have a slope of -P 1/P 2 = -1/1.3 = -0.77. d. The decrease in the relative price of good 2 led to an increase in production of good 1and a decrease in the production of good 2. The expansion of Sector 1 increases the income of the factor specific to Sector 1 (capital). The contraction of Sector 2decreases the income of thefactor specific to Sector 2 (land).Chapter 4 Specific Factors and Income Distribution 194. a. The increase in the capital stock in Home will increase the possible production of good 1,but have no effect on the production of good 2 because good 2 does not use capital inproduction. As a result, the PPF shifts out to the right, representing the greaterquantity of good 1 that Home can now produce.b. Given the increased production possibility for Home, the relative supply of home (definedas Q 1/Q 2) is further to the right than the relative supply for Foreign. As a result, therelative price of good 1 is lower in Home than it is in Foreign.c. If both countries open to trade, Home will export good 1, and Foreign will export good 2.d. Owners of capital in Home and owners of land in Foreign will benefit from trade, whileowners of land in Home and owners of capital in Foreign will be hurt. The effects onlabor will be ambiguous because the real wage in terms of good 1 will fall (rise) in Home(Foreign) and the real wage in terms of good 2 will rise (fall) in Home (Foreign). The net welfare effect for labor will depend on preferences in each country. For example, iflabor in Home consumes relatively more of good 2, they will gain from trade. If labor in Home consumes relatively more of good 1, they will lose from trade.5. The real wage in Home is 10, while real wage in Foreign is 18. If there is free movement oflabor, then workers will migrate from Home to Foreign until the real wage is equal in each country. If 4 workers move from Home to Foreign, then there will be 7 workers employed in each country, earning a real wage of 14 in each country.We can find total production by adding up the marginal product of each worker. After trade, total production is 20 + 19 + 18 + 17 + 16 + 15 + 14 = 119 in each country for total world production of 238. Before trade, production in Home was 20 + 19 + 18 = 57. Production in Foreign was 20 + 19 + … + 10 = 165. Total world production before trade was 57 + 165 = 222. Thus, trade increased total output by 16.Workers in Home benefit from migration, while workers in Foreign are hurt. Landowners in Home are hurt by migration (their costs rise), while landowners in Foreign benefit.6. If only 2 workers can move from Home to Foreign, there will be a real wage of 12 in Homeanda real wage of 16 in Foreign.a. Workers in Foreign are hurt as their wage falls from 18 to 16.b. Landowners in Foreign benefit as their costs fall by 2 for each worker employed.c. Workers who stay at home benefit as their wage rises from 10 to 12.d. Landowners in Home are hurt as their costs rise by 2 for each worker employed.e. The workers who do move benefit by seeing their wages rise from 10 to 16.7. If the price of wheat increases by 10%, then the labor demand in the wheat sector wouldincrease by the same 10 percent. In other words, the curve defined by MPLw × Pw would increase by 10 percent. On the other hand, if the price of paddy remains the same and only there is an increase in the price of wheat, this result in an increase in the wage rate less than the increase in the price of wheat. In the present case the wage rate will increase less than 10 percent.© 2015 Pearson Education Limited。
国际经济学第十版答案
国际经济学第十版答案【篇一：国际经济学复习课后答案】1．为什么说生产和消费只取决于相对价格？答：经济主体的经济行为考虑的是所有商品的价格，而不是单一价格因素。
3.在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案：是4.如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5.如果改用y商品的过剩供给曲线（b国）和过剩需求曲线（a国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：不一定一致，x商品的价格是px/py，而y商品的价格是py/px.7.如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8.根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。
第二章答案1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
表1 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x y表2 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入ab 5 5a 6 2b 15 12x 10 y4答案提示：首先将劳动投入转化为劳动生产率，然后应用与本章正文中一样的方法进行比较。
（表2-2（a）和表2-2（b）部分的内容） 2．假设a、b两国的生产技术条件如下所示，那么两国还有进行贸易的动机吗？解释原因。
表3 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x ya 4 2b 8 4答案提示：从绝对优势来看，两国当中a国在两种产品中都有绝对优势；从比较优势来看，两国不存在相对技术差异。
所以，两国没有进行国际贸易的动机。
3．如果一国在某一商品上具有绝对优势，那么也必具有比较优势吗？答案提示：不一定，比较优势的确定原则是两优取最优，两劣取最劣。
5.假设某一国家拥有20，000万单位的劳动，x、y的单位产出所要求的劳动投入分别为5个单位和4个单位，试确定生产可能性边界方程。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题
Q 400 苹果的相对产量, Qa + Q*a
800
Qb + Q*b
2 特定要素 与
收入分配
问题一：题目 描述
一个国家用劳动和资本生产产品1，用劳动和土 地生产产品2，总劳动供给量是100个单位.在 资本供给量给定时,两种产品随劳动投入产出的 变化和边际生产量的变化如下表所示:
投入产 产品1 产品2 部门1
40 57.7 69.3 0.87 8.70 0.69 13.8 8.97
50 66.0 75.8 0.78 7.80 0.6 12 7.8
60 73.6 81.5 0.74 7.40 0.54 10.8 7.02
70 80.7 86.7 0.69 6.90 0.5 10 6.5
80 87.4 91.4 0.66 6.60 0.46 9 5.98
解答 2
世界相对供给和相对需求
苹果的相对价格Pa, / Pb
a*La/a*Lb =5
RS
aLa/aLb =3/2
（1/2，,2） RD
横轴：苹果数量/香蕉数量，即 Qaw/Qbw；纵轴：苹果的相对 价格，即Pa/Pb
供给曲线：起点从纵轴3/2处水 平向右到横轴400/800（该点为 本国专业化生产苹果，外国专 业化生产香蕉的相对产量，即 本国在苹果价格为3/2下苹果的 最大生产量），然后垂直向上 到纵轴为5处水平一直向右
2.假定世界相对需求的表示为:对苹果的需求/对香蕉的需求 =香蕉价格/苹果价格 ① 画出世界的相对供给曲线和相对需求曲线。 ② 苹果的世界均衡相对价格是多少？ ③ 描述本题的贸易模式。 ④ 说明本国和外国都可以从贸易中获利。
3. 假设本国有2400名工人，画出世界相对供给曲线，并确
克鲁格曼-国际经济学第十版 课件C05
– low (2/3 in example) when the economy produces a low amount of cloth and a high amount of Production Possibility Frontier without Factor Substitution
•© Pearson Education Limited 2015. All rights reserved.
1-11
Production Possibilities (cont.)
aKCQC + aKFQF ≤ K
Capital used for each yard of cloth production
Total yards of cloth production
Capital used for each calorie of food production
Total amount of capital resources
1-5
Production Possibilities (cont.)
• Suppose use a fixed mix of capital and labor in each sector.
aKC = 2, capital used to produce one yard of cloth aLC = 2, labor used to produce one yard of cloth aKF = 3, capital used to produce one calorie of
多恩布什宏观经济学第十版课后习题答案05
Chapter 5Solutions to the Problems in the TextbookConceptual Problems:1. The aggregate supply curve shows the quantity of real total output that firms arewilling to supply at each price level. The aggregate demand curve shows all combinations of real total output and the price level at which the goods and the money sectors are simultaneously in equilibrium. Along the AD-curve nominal money supply is assumed to be constant and no fiscal policy change takes place.2. The classical aggregate supply curve is vertical, since the classical model assumes thatnominal wages adjust very quickly to changes in the price level. This implies that the labor market is always in equilibrium and output is always at the full-employment level.If the AD-curve shifts to the right, firms try to increase output by hiring more workers, who they try to attract by offering higher nominal wages. But since we are already at full employment, no more workers can be hired and firms merely bid up nominal wages. The nominal wage increase is passed on in the form of higher product prices. In the end, the level of wages and prices will have increased proportionally, while the real wage rate and the levels of employment and output will remain unchanged.If there is a decrease in demand, then firms try to lay off workers. Workers, in turn, are willing to accept lower wages to stay employed. Lower wage costs enable firms to lower their product prices. In the end, nominal wages and prices will decrease proportionally but the real wage rate and the level of employment and output will remain the same.3. There is no single theory of the aggregate supply curve, which shows the relationshipbetween firms' output and the price level. A number of competing explanations exist for the fact that firms have a tendency to increase their output level as the price level increases. The Keynesian model of a horizontal aggregate supply curve supposedly describes the very short run (over a period of a few months or less), while the classical model of a vertical aggregate supply curve is supposed to hold true for the long run (a period of more than 10 years). The medium-run aggregate supply curve is most useful for periods of several quarters or a few years. This upward-sloping aggregate supply curve results from the fact that wage and price adjustments are slow and uncoordinated. Chapter6 offers several explanations for the fact that labor markets do not adjust quickly. Theseinclude the imperfect information market-clearing model, the existence of wage contracts or coordination problems, and the fact that firms pay efficiency wages and price changes tend to be costly.4. The Keynesian aggregate supply curve is horizontal since the price level is assumed to befixed. It is most appropriate for the very short run (a period of a few months or less). The classical aggregate supply curve is vertical and output is assumed to be fixed at its potential level. It is most appropriate for the long run (a period of more than 10 years) when prices are able to fully adjust to all shocks.5. The aggregate supply and aggregate demand model used in macroeconomics is notvery similar to the market demand and market supply model used in microeconomics.While the workings of both models (the distinction between shifts of the curves versus movement along the curves) are similar, these models are really unrelated. The "P" in the microeconomic model stands for the relative price of a good (or the ratio at which two goods are traded), whereas the "P" in the macroeconomic model stands for the average price level of all goods and services produced in this country, measured in money terms.Technical Problems:1.a. As Figure 5-9 in the text shows, a decrease in income taxes will shift both the AD-curveand the AS-curve to the right. The shift in the AD-curve tends to be fairly large and, in the short run (when prices are fixed), leads to a significant increase in output without a change in prices. In the long run, the AS-curve will also shift to the right--since lower income tax rates provide an incentive to work more--but only by a fairly small amount.Therefore we see a slightly higher real GDP with a large increase in the price level in the long run.1.b. Supply-side economics is any policy measure that will increase potential GDP by shiftingthe long-run (vertical) AS-curve to the right. In the early 1980s, supply-side economists put forth the view that a cut in income tax rates would increase the incentive to work, save and invest. This would increase aggregate supply so much that the inflation and unemployment rates would simultaneously decrease. The resulting high economic growth might then even lead to an increase in tax revenues, despite lower tax rates. However, these predictions did not become reality. As seen in the answer to 2.a., the long-run effect of a tax cut on output is not very large, although it can increase long-term output to some degree.2.a. According to the balanced budget theorem, a simultaneous and equal increase ingovernment purchases and taxes will shift the AD-curve to the right. But if the AS-curve is upward sloping, then the balanced budget multiplier will be less than one, that is, the increase in output will be less than the increase in government expenditures. This occurs, since part of the increase in government spending will be crowded out due a higher price level, lower real money balances, and a resulting rise in interest rates.P ADP oPo12.b. In the Keynesian case, the AS-curve is horizontal and the price level remains unchanged. There is no real balance effect and therefore income will increase more than in3.a. However, the interest rate will still increase and therefore the balanced budget multiplier will be less than one (but greater than zero).PP o0 Y o Y1Y2.c. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical and the output level remains unchanged. Inthis case, a shift in the AD-curve leads to a price increase and real money balances decline. Therefore interest rates increase further than in 3.b., leading to full crowding out of investment. Hence the balanced budget multiplier is zero.PP1P0Additional Problems1. Briefly explain why the AS-curve is upward sloping in the intermediate run?An upward-sloping AS-curve assumes that wage and price adjustments are slow and uncoordinated. This can be explained most easily by the existence of wage contracts and imperfect competition. Because of wage contracts, wages cannot be changed easily and, since the contracts tend to be staggered, they cannot be changed all at once. In an imperfectly competitive market structure, firms are reluctant to change their prices since they cannot accurately predict the reactions of their competitors. Therefore, wages and prices will adjust only slowly. (Chapter 6 provides more elaborate explanations for this.)2. Briefly discuss in words why the AD-curve is downward sloping.In the AD-AS framework, we assume that nominal money supply (M) is constant unless it ischanged by the Fed's monetary policy (which would result in a shift in the AD-curve). Therefore, if the price level increases, then real money (M/P) decreases, driving interest rates (i) up and lowering the level of investment spending (I). This means that total output demanded (Y) will decrease.A more elaborate answer may include that lower real money balances (M/P) result in less real wealth, leading to a lower level of consumption (C) due to the wealth effect. This means that total output demanded (Y) will decrease. A higher domestic price level (P) also means that domestic goods will become less competitive in world markets. This will stimulate imports while reducing exports, leading to a reduction in net exports (NX), and a decrease in total output demanded (Y).3. "In the classical aggregate supply curve model, the economy is always at thefull-employment level of output and the unemployment rate is always zero."Comment on this statement.The classical aggregate supply curve model implies a vertical AS-curve at the full-employment level of output. However, this does not mean that the unemployment rate is zero. There is always some friction in the labor market, which means that there is always some (frictional) unemployment as workers switch jobs. The (positive) amount of unemployment at the full-employment level of output is called the natural rate of unemployment and is estimated to be roughly 5.5 percent for the United States; however, an exact value for this natural rate has not been established.4. Assume a technological advance leads to lower production costs. Show the effect ofsuch an event on national income, unemployment, inflation, and interest rates with the help of an AD-AS diagram, assuming completely flexible wage rates.A decrease in production costs shifts the AS-curve to the right. The price level decreases, leading to a higher level of income and lower interest rates. Since wages are completely flexible, the AS-curve is vertical and we are always at full-employment (this is the classical case). This implies that the unemployment rate stays at the natural rate, but output goes up since workers are now more productive.1.→2. Cost of prod.↑== > AS →Ex.S. == > P↓real ms ↑i ↓I↑Y↑Effect: Y↑UR ↓P ↓i↓0 Y o FE Y1FE Y5. "Monetary expansion will not change interest rates in the classicalAS-curve model." Comment on this statement.An increase in the nominal money supply will shift the AD-curve to the right. There will be excess demand for goods and services, which will force the price level up. In the classical AS-curve model, a new equilibrium will be established at the same level of output but at a higher price level. Real money balances will be reduced to their original level and interest rates will not be affected in the long run (the classical case).6. "Expansionary fiscal policy does not affect the level of real output or real moneybalances in the classical AS-curve case." Comment on this statement.Expansionary fiscal policy will shift the AD-curve to the right, causing excess demand for goods and services at the existing price level. This forces the price level up, reducing real money balances. Interest rates increase, which results in a lower level of investment spending. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical, so the level of output will not change. In other words, the increase in the level of prices and interest rates continues until private spending is reduced again to the original full-employment level.7. "In the classical AS-curve case, a reduction in government spending will lowerinterest rates and the real money stock." Comment on this statement.A decrease in government spending will shift the AD-curve to the left, causing excess supply of goods and services at the original price level. As the price level decreases to restore equilibrium, real money balances increase and interest rates fall. This will increase the level of investment spending until a new equilibrium is reached at the original level of output but at lower prices and interest rates. Thus, real money balances will rise, but interest rates fall.8. "In the Keynesian aggregate supply curve model, the Fed, through restrictivemonetary policy, can easily lower inflation without creating unemployment."Comment on this statement.This statement is wrong. In the Keynesian aggregate supply curve model, the AS-curve is horizontal, since prices are assumed to be fixed. Restrictive monetary policy will shift the AD-curve to the left. This will reduce the level of output without any change in the price level.But a lower level of output implies a higher rate of unemployment.9. True or false? Why?"Monetary policy does not affect real output in the Keynesian supply curve model."False. An increase in money supply will shift the AD-curve to the right, leading to a higher level of income. In the Keynesian supply curve model, the price level is fixed, hence real balances will not fall as they would in the classical supply curve model. We will reach a new equilibrium at a higher level of output, at a lower interest rate, but at the same price level. In this case monetary policy is not neutral.10. Explain why there is so much interest in finding ways to shift the AS-curve to the right.Shifting the AS-curve to the right seems to be the only way to offset the effects of an adverse supply shock without negative side effects. An adverse supply shock, such as an increase in oil prices, causes a simultaneous increase in unemployment and inflation, and policy makers have only two options for demand-management policies. Expansionary fiscal or monetary policy will help to achieve full employment faster but will raise the price level, while restrictive fiscal or monetary policy will reduce inflationary pressure but increase unemployment. Therefore, any policy that would shift the short-run AS-curve back to the right seems preferable, since it might bring the economy back to the original equilibrium by simultaneously lowering inflation and unemployment.11. "Restrictive fiscal policy will always lower output, prices, and interest rates."Comment.This statement is true in the intermediate run when the AS-curve is upward sloping. Restrictive fiscal policy will shift the AD-curve to the left. In the Keynesian case, the AS-curve is horizontal and prices remain constant, while both output and interest rates decrease. In the classical case, the AS-curve is vertical and the decrease in the price level will increase real money balances and interest rates. Prices will fall until spending is again consistent with the full-employment level of output. Thus in the long run, prices and interest rates will decline, while output will remain the same. Only in the intermediate run (when the AS-curve is upward sloping due to slowly adjusting wages and prices) will output, prices, and the interest rate all go down.12. "The real impact of demand management policy is largely determined by theflexibility of wages and prices." Comment on this statement.If wages and prices are completely flexible, then the economy will always be at the full-employment level of output, independent of the price level. In other words, we have the classical case of a vertical (long-run) AS-curve. In this case, a shift in the AD-curve will affect only the price level but not the level of output. However, if wages and prices are completely inflexible, then we have the (horizontal) Keynesian aggregate supply curve. In this case, any shift of the AD-curve will have a large effect on the level of output but will not affect the price level. Only in the intermediate run, when we have an upward-sloping AS-curve, will the level of output and the price level both be affected by a shift in theAD-curve. More flexibility in wages and prices implies a steeper the AS-curve. Therefore the effect of a shift in the AD-curve will be smaller on output and larger on the price level.13."An increase in the income tax rate will lower the level of output and increase theprice level." Comment on this statement.Supply siders argue that a decrease in income taxes will shift both the AD-curve and the AS-curve to the right (as shown in Figure 5-10). Conversely, an increase in the income tax rate will shift the AD-curve and the AS-curve to the left. The shift in the AD-curve will be fairly large and, in the medium run, will lead to a significant decrease in output without a (significant) change in the price level. However, in the long run, the AS-curve will also shift to the left, since higher income tax rates provide a disincentive to work. Since the AS-curve will shift only by a fairly small amount, we will see a slightly lower real GDP with a large decrease in the price level.。
克鲁格曼国贸理论第十版课后习题答案 CH05
Chapter 5Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model⏹Chapter OrganizationModel of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade between Two-Factor EconomiesRelative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityCase Study: Skill-Biased Technological Change and Income InequalityFactor-Price EqualizationEmpirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTrade in Goods as a Substitute for Trade in Factors: Factor Content of TradePatterns of Exports between Developed and Developing CountriesImplications of the TestsSummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 5: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Production Decisions Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesMore on Resources and Output⏹Chapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, the Specific Factors model considered additional factors of production, but only labor was mobile between sectors. In Chapter 5, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade that will arise when countries have different endowments of such factors of production as labor, capital, and land and where these factors are mobile between sectors in the long run. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are22 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Editionintensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources and, according to theory, leads to equalization across countries of factor prices. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods that are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (A more realistic model allowing for substitution between factors of production is presented later in the chapter with the same conclusions.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good that uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post–Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior? What effect would a more restrictive immigration policy have on the pattern of production and trade for the United States?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. Comparing the United States and Mexico, for example, we observe a relative abundance of capital in the United States and a relative abundance of labor in Mexico. Thus, goods that intensively use capital in production should be cheaper to produce in the United States, and those that intensively use labor should be cheaper to produce in Mexico. With trade, the United States should export capital-intensive goods like computers, while Mexico should export labor-intensive goods like textiles. With integrated markets, international trade should lead to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the prices of capital-intensive goods in the United States and labor-intensive goods in Mexico will rise. According to the Stolper-Samuelson effect, owners of a country’s abundant factors (e.g., capital owners in the United States, labor in Mexico) will gain from trade, while owners of the country’s scarce fact ors (labor in the United States, capital in Mexico) will lose from trade. The extension of this result is the Factor Price Equalization theorem, which states that trade in goods (and thus price equalization of goods) will lead to an equalization of factor prices. These income distribution effects are more or less permanent, given that factor abundances do not quickly change within a country. Theoretically, the gains from trade could be redistributed such that everyone is better off; however, such a plan is difficult to implement in practice. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.After presenting the basic theory behind the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the rest of the chapter examines empirical tests of the model, beginning with a pair of case studies looking at income inequality in the United States. Wages paid to skilled workers in the United States have been rising at a much faster rate than those paid to unskilled workers over the past few decades. At the same time, there has been a large increase in international trade. Given that the United States is relatively abundant in skilled labor, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would predict that increased trade should lead to higher wages for skilled workers and lower wages for unskilled workers. On the surface, this appears to be an empirical confirmation of the theory. However, other studies argue that rising wage inequality can only partially be explained by increased trade. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the increase in skilled wages should be driven by an increase in the price of skill-intensive goods following trade. However, skill-intensive goods prices have not increasedChapter 5 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model 23 by nearly the same proportion as skilled wages. If rising wage inequality in a rich country like the United States is driven by factor price equalization, then we should also observe a narrowing gap in developing countries that are exporting low-skill intensive goods. However, income inequality in these nations is actually larger than in rich countries. Finally, trade between rich and poor nations is simply not large enough to be entirely responsible for the size of the income gap. Rather, the increasing skill premium is most likely due to skill-biased technical innovations like computers that have increased the productivities of skilled workers more than that of unskilled workers.Another empirical observation testing the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is the Leontief paradox. This is the observation that the capital intensity of U.S. exports is actually lower than that of U.S. imports, exactly the opposite of what the theory would predict for a capital abundant country. Further evidence of this paradox is found in global data, with a country’s factor abundance doing a relatively poor job of predicting its trade patterns. Finally, the theory predicts a much larger volume of trade (given observed differences in factor endowments) than we actually see in the data. A country like China, for example, has a significant abundance in labor. H owever, China’s net exports of labor-intensive goods are lower than what the theory would predict. Similarly, U.S. net imports of labor-intensive goods are lower than what would be expected given its relative labor scarcity. An explanation for this “missing trade” is that the assumption of identical technology across countries is flawed. Rather, there are significant differences in productivity across countries. That said, when the sample is restricted to trade between developed and developing countries (i.e., North-South trade), the Heckscher-Ohlin theory fits well. This is clearly seen in Figure 5-12, with low-skill countries like Bangladesh, Cambodia, and Haiti exporting products that are considerably less skill-intensive than the exports of more developed nations like France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. We can also see this pattern of trade changing as countries develop, as evidenced by the increasing skill intensity of Chinese exports following China’s increased growth and development. These observations have motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be explored in later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.⏹Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. The first step is to compute the opportunity costs of both cloth and food. We are given thefollowing resource constraints:a KC=2, a LC=2, a KF=3, a LF=1L =2,000; K =3,000Each unit of cloth is produced with 2 units of capital and 2 units of labor. Each unit of food isproduced with 3 units of capital and 1 unit of labor. Furthermore, the economy is endowed with2,000 units of labor and 3,000 units of capital. Given these values, we can define the followingresource constraints:2Q C + Q F≤ 2,000 → Labor constraint2Q C+ 3Q F≤ 3,000 → Capital constraintSolve these two constraints for the quantity of food produced:Q F≤ 2,000 - 2Q CQ F≤ 1,000 - 2/3Q CThis gives us two budget constraints for food production that must both be met. The productionpossibilities frontier traces out these budget constraints for food and cloth production.24 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth EditionLooking at the diagram, we see that production of both food and cloth will take place when therelative price of cloth is between the two opportunity costs of cloth. The opportunity cost of cloth is given by the slopes of the two components of the production possibilities frontier above, 2/3and 2. When cloth production is low, the economy will be using relatively more labor to produce cloth, and the opportunity cost of cloth is 2/3 a unit of food. However, as cloth production rises,the economy runs scarce on labor and must take capital away from food production, raising theopportunity cost of cloth to 2 units of food.As long as the relative price of cloth lies between 2/3 and 2 units of food, the economy will produce both goods. If the price of cloth falls below 2/3, then the economy should completely specialize in food production (too low a compensation for producing cloth). If the price of cloth rises above 2, complete specialization in cloth will occur (too low a compensation for producing food).b. Note the input requirements for each good. One unit of cloth can be produced using 2 units ofcapital and 2 units of labor. One unit of food is produced using 3 units of capital and 1 unit oflabor. In a competitive market, the unit cost of each good must be equal to the output price.Q C= 2K+ 2L→P C= 2r+ 2wQ F= 3K+L→P F= 3r+wThis gives us two equations and two unknowns (r and w). Solve for the factor prices:w=P F- 3rP C= 2r+ 2(P F- 3r) = 2r+ 2P F- 6r= 2P F- 4r***r= (2P F-P C)/4***w= (3P C- 2P F)/4c. Looking at the two expressions in part (b), we see that an increase in the price of cloth will causethe rental rate of capital to fall and the wage rate to laborers to rise. This makes sense, as cloth isa labor-intensive good. An increase in its price will lead to greater production of cloth and anincrease in demand for the factor it uses intensively—labor.d. The capital stock increases to 4,000. The labor constraint will remain unchanged, keeping themaximum price of cloth at 2 units of food. The new capital constraint is given by:2Q C+ 3Q F≤ 4,000Solving for Q F yields:Q F≤ 1,333 - 2/3Q CThus, the minimum price of cloth is also unchanged at 2/3 units of food. The only difference now is that the production possibilities frontier will have a larger horizontal intercept (if cloth is on the horizontal axis). Compared to Figure 5-1, the new production possibilities frontier will interceptthe x-axis at 2,000 instead of 1,500.e. The actual production point for cloth and food will depend on the relative prices of cloth and food.If we assume that the economy is producing at a point such that all resources are being utilized(point 3 in Figure 5-1), then we can compute the quantities of cloth and food by setting the resource constraints equal to one another:Q F= 1,333 - 2/3Q C= 2,000 - 2Q C2Q C- 2/3Q C= 2,000 - 1,3334/3Q C= 667Q C= 500Q F= 1,333 - 2/3 ⨯ 500 = 1,000Chapter 5 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model 25f. Prior to the expansion of the capital stock, the economy was producing 750 units of cloth and500 units of food. After the expansion, cloth production fell to 500, while food productionincreased to 1,000. This is precisely what the Rybczynski effect predicts will happen.2.Abundance is defined in terms of a ratio not in terms of the absolute quantities. E.g. If the total amountof capital in Australia is three times that of New Zealand, but New Zealand would still be considered a capital abundant country since the Australia has more than three times the labour that of New Zealand.The definition of abundance is in relative terms by comparing the ratio of labour to capital in two countries. This means, if a country is abundant in labour in comparison to other country, then it cannot be abundant in capital in comparison to the same country. Hence, no country is abundant in both labour and Capital.a.Capital labour ratio in Australia is =90000/45 = 2000 Capital labour ratio in Malaysia is=75000/30 = 2500Malaysia has more capital per labour. The greater capital labour ratio of Malaysia shows this is the capital abundant country.b.Australia has the comparative advantage in the production of cloth. The opportunity cost ofproducing the cloth by Australia is lower than that of Malaysia. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem, Australia has the comparative advantage in the production of cloth because they are relatively well endowed than Malaysia. Australia would export cloth to Malaysia.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter4. What matters is not the absolute abundance of factors but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries. For example, consider a large, rich country like the United States and a small, poor country like Guatemala. Though the United States has more land, natural resources, capital, and labor than Guatemala, what matters for trade is the relative abundance of these factors. The ratio of labor to capital is likely to be much higher in Guatemala than in the United States, reflecting a relative scarcity of capital in Guatemala and abundance in the United States. This makes labor relatively cheaper and capital more expensive in Guatemala than in the United States. Notice that this difference in factor prices is not driven by how much labor Guatemala has compared to the United States, but by the proportion of labor to other factors within each country.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution effects by considering how trade impacts the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade because this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. This is a rational policy as labor unions representing unskilled workers are hurt directly by trade that favors the export of skill-intensive goods (and import of low-skill goods). However, the unions may be better served lobbying for resources to increase skill levels among its membership, given that the gains from trade overall will exceed the losses to a particular sector.26 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goods overall.In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector-specific skills who will face transition costs.There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the United States, making the entire country better off on average. Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade that is making the nation as a whole better off.In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the United States blocked theprogramming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer, and Sveikauskas found, for the world as a whole, the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ exports and imports reflect th e relative endowments of factors.7. The factor price equalization is based on the fact that free trade would lead to the convergence of wages between these countries. The theory says that when trade between two countries resumes, the relative prices of the goods converge, this converge in turn, causes the convergence of the relative prices of capital and labor. This says that when two countries are engaged in trading the goods, in an indirect way these two countries are in effect trading the factors of production. In other words, a country in abundant in labor is trading the goods produced in high ratio of labor to capital for goods produced with a low labor capital ratio. That means the country is exporting the labor and importing the capital. This says that the trade leads to the equalization of two countries factor prices.But practically, in the real world, factor prices are not equalized. Mainly, the wage rates in the developing countries are substantially lower than that of the developed countries. This may be due to the following reasons. First, the difference is may be due to the difference in the quality of labor. Second, the countries operate in different technologies of production even for the same products. Third, in the real world the prices are not fully equalized by the international trade. Fourth, many countries do not involve sufficiently in the production which relatively involve more abundant factors. Some countries even with higher labor to capital ratio involve more in the capital intensive technology. The factor price equalization does not occur if the countries involved in trading of their relative scarce resource used products. In the real world situation one or more of these factors mentioned above arises in international trade, hence the difference in wages across countries.。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题03-04
解答 3
世界相对供给和相对需求
苹果的相对价格, Pa/Pb
a*La/a*Lb =5
RS
aLa/aLb =3/2
• 单一要素模型中不存在利润，每小时工资率等于1个工人在1小时内创造 的价值P/L
• 当Pa/aLa>Pb/aLb，即Pa/Pb>aLa/aLb时，苹果部门的工资率高于香蕉部门， 工人会专业化生产苹果，否则专业化生产香蕉，只有当Pa/Pb=aLa/aLb时， 即苹果相对价格等于苹果的机会成本时，一国才会同时生产两种产品
Q 400 苹果的相对产量, Qa + Q*a
800
Qb + Q*b
2 特定要素与 收入分配
问题一：题目描述
一个国家用劳动和资本生产产品1，用劳动和土地生产产品2， 总劳动供给量是100个单位.在资本供给量给定时,两种产品随劳 动投入产出的变化和边际生产量的变化如下表所示:
投入产品 产品1的 产品2的 的劳动 产出Q1 产出Q2
0
0.0
0.0
部门1
MPL P* MPL
(P=10)
部门2
MPL
P* MPL
(P=20) (P=13)
10
25.1
39.8
1.51 15.1 1.59 31.8 20.67
20
38.1
52.4
1.14 11.4 1.05 21
13.65
30
48.6
61.8
1.00 10.0 0.82 16.4 10.66
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点
《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案HUA system office room 【HUA16H-TTMS2A-HUAS8Q8-HUAH1688】Problems and Answers to Chapter 2Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canada’s is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australia’s. Why should this be the case加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相当（加拿大多60%），但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume oftrade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Consideringthe distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than that ofCanada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to theUSA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy,making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky.GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题05-06
第五页
解答 b-c
• 1单位布用2单位资本和2单位劳动力来生产，1单位食品用3单位资本和1单位劳动力来生产。在竞争市场，每种
商品的单位成本必须等于产出价格。 QC = 2K + 2L → PC = 2r + 2w QF = 3K + L → PF = 3r + w
• 这得出了两个方程和两个未知数（r 和 w）。解出要素价格：
w = PF - 3r PC = 2r + 2(PF - 3r) = 2r + 2PF - 6r = 2PF - 4r r = (2PF - PC)/4 w = (3PC - 2PF)/4 • 观察(b)的两种表达，我们看到布的价格增长会造成资本的租金率下降，劳动者的工资率上升。这很容易理解，因为布
• 此外，没有贸易政策存在于真空中，如果美国禁止编程服务进口，它也会导致别的国家也实行 更加限制贸易的政策。
第十七页
问题六：题目描述
分析说明为什么里昂惕夫悖论以及最近的鲍恩、利默和斯维考斯卡斯 的研究结果会与要素比例理论相矛盾。
第十八页
解答
• 根据要素比例理论，美国相比其他国家具有较高的资本—劳 动比率，应该出口密集使用资本的产品进口密集使用劳动的 产品，但一系列研究发现情况并非如此。解释：
• 自然资源。要素比例理论只考虑了资本和劳动两种要素，忽视了土地、矿产等自 然资源，自然资源与资本之间有一定的替代性
• 人力资本。要素比例理论中，各国各类要素是同质的，现实情况是美国相对与国 外具有更高的劳动效率，这来源于大量的人力资本投资，如果将人力资本投资折 算进去，美国出口的产品就属于资本密集型产品
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解答
• 对于一个参与国际贸易的国家来说，重要的不是要素的绝对丰裕程度 而是它们的相对丰裕程度。当与大多数发达国家相比，穷国有着比资 本丰裕的劳动力。
• 以美国和危地马拉为例，尽管美国比危地马拉有更多的土地、自然资 源、资本和劳动力，但危地马拉的劳动力比资本的比率似乎远高于美 国，这也反应出危地马拉相对资本稀缺，美国的资本丰裕。而贸易中 重要的正是这些要素的相对丰裕程度。
• 只要布的相对价格在2/3和2单位食品之间，经济体将会同时生产两种商品。如 果布的价格降到2/3以下，经济体应该彻底专门生产食品（生产布的报酬太 低）。如果布的价格涨到2以上，将专门生产布（生产食品的报酬太低）
解答 b-c
• 1单位布用2单位资本和2单位劳动力来生产，1单位食品用3单位资本和1单位劳动力来生产。在竞争 市场，每种商品的单位成本必须等于产出价格。 QC = 2K + 2L → PC = 2r + 2w QF = 3K + L → PF = 3r + w
解答 e
• 如果假定经济体在所有的资源都会被 使用的一点（图5-1的点3）进行生 产，两种资源约束需同时满足，有：
资本供给增加后的PPF
QF
2QC + 3QF = 4,000
2000
2QC + QF = 2,000 2QF = 2,000
1333
(500,1000)
QF = 1,000
QC= 500
下的变化一致吗？
解答 a
• 因为有：
• aKC =2 aKF =3 L = 2000
aLC =2 aLF = 1 K = 3000
• 这样PPF有两个资源限制线two resource constraints
2QC + 3QF ≦ 3,000 2QC + QF ≦ 2,000
（资本约束） （劳动约束）
• 这就造成了危地马拉比美国的劳动力相对更便宜，资本更昂贵。这种 要素价格的差异不是因为危地马拉相对于美国有多少劳动力，而是因 得出了两个方程和两个未知数（r 和 w）。解出要素价格： w = PF - 3r PC = 2r + 2(PF - 3r) = 2r + 2PF - 6r = 2PF - 4r r = (2PF - PC)/4 w = (3PC - 2PF)/4
• 观察(b)的两种表达，我们看到布的价格增长会造成资本的租金率下降，劳动者的工资率上升。这很 容易理解，因为布是劳动密集型商品。它价格的上涨会使布的产量变得更大，它所需的密集型要素— —劳动力的需求上升
• 其他国家如果养牛使用的土地与劳动比率超过了该国小麦生产中使用 的土地—劳动比率，那么在这个国家养牛就同样是土地密集型产业。
• 而在美国与其他国家之间进行两个产业的对比是没有意义的。
问题三：题目描述
“世界上一些最贫穷的国家找不到什么产品来出口。在这些国家 里，没有一种资源是充裕的。不用谈资本，也不用说土地，在一 些又小又穷的国家，甚至连劳动也不充裕。”分析上面这段话。
1000
2000 QC
解答 f
• 总资本扩张之前，经济体生产750单位布和500单位食品。 扩张之后，布的产量下降到500，食品的产量增加到1000。 这时恰好是罗勃津斯基效应预测的情况发生
• 罗伯津斯基定理：在商品相对价格不变的前提下，某一要 素的增加会导致密集使用该要素部门的生产增加，而另一 部门的生产则下降
问题二：题目描述
在土地便宜的美国，用来养牛的人均土地要高于用于种植小麦所 用的人均土地。但是在那些比较拥挤的国家里，土地昂贵而劳动 力便宜，人们用于养牛的人均土地通常比美国用于种植小麦的人 均土地更少，我们是否仍然可以认为，与种植小麦相比，养牛业 是土地密集型产业？为什么？
解答
• 将养牛定义为土地密集型产业，这是通过比较其生产中所使用土地与 所使用劳动的比率得到的结论，而不是看养牛产业中投入的土地的绝 对数量或者该国土地与人口的总体比例。我们认为养牛在美国相对于 小麦种植是土地密集型产业，是因为养牛产业中投入的的土地—劳动 比率大于小麦生产中投入的土地—劳动比率。
解答 d
资本供给增加后的PPF
QF 2000
1333
1000
2000 QC
• 总资本增加到4000。劳动力约束不变，保持布 的最高价格在2单元食品。
• 新的资本约束由以下式子得出：
• 2QC + 3QF=4,000
• 解出 QF 得到:
• QF=1,333 - 2/3QC
• 因此，布的最小价格没变，还是2/3单位食品。 唯一改变的是生产可能性边界将有一个更大的水 平截距（如果布在横轴上）。对比图5-1，新的 生产可能性边界在X轴上的截距是2000，而不是 1500。
c.如果棉布价格提高，上述要素价格会如何变化？棉布价格的这一变化会使谁受益，谁 受损？为什么？上述变化与要素可替代情形下的变化一致吗？
d.先假设该国的机时供给即资本供给从3000增加至4000，推导出新的生产可能性边界 e.资本供给以上述幅度增加之后，该国会生产多少棉布，多少粮食？ f.分析机时和工时在棉布和粮食两个部门之间配置的变化，上述变化在要素可替代情形
习题课 2
1 资源与贸易： H-O模型
问题一：题目描述
回顾本章要素不可替代的例子，其生产可能性边界如下图:
问题
a. 如果一国既生产棉布又生产粮食，那么棉布相对价格的变化范围是什么？如果相对价 格超出这一范围，生产哪一种产品？
b.将生产1码棉布和1卡路里粮食的单位成本写成1机时的价格r和1工时的价格w的函数， 在竞争市场中，上述单位成本就等于棉布和粮食的价格，解出要素价格r和w。
• 解出这两个约束，得出生产食品的数量:
QF 2,000 - 2QC QF 1,000 - 2/3QC
解答 a
• 观察PPF可以看到：
• 当布的相对价格在布的两种机会成本之间时，食品和布都会生产。布的机会成 本由生产可能性边界之上两个部分组成的的斜率为2/3和2得出。当布的产量很 低时，经济体会用相对更多的劳动力去生产布，布的机会成本是2/3单位食品。 然而，当布的产量上升，经济体的劳动力变得稀缺，必须从食品生产中抽走资 本，这将布的机会成本提高到了2单位食品