Degradationproce_省略_dgesinlife_cycle_田浩

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Families of rationally simply connected varieties over surfaces and torsors for semisimple

Let Y be a smooth projective rationally connected variety. When do we call Y rationally simply connected? One of the main obstacles is that the space of rational curves on Y has many irreducible and even connected components; simply because there are many curve classes β ∈ H2(Y, Z) which can be represented by rational curves. Here is a partial list of conditions that we have considered using as a deﬁnition:
(1) The Ind-scheme parametrizing maps A1 → Y is birationally rationally connected.
(2) For any pair of rational curves C1, C2 ⊂ Y there exists a rational surface S ⊂ Y containing C1 and C2.
2
There is a subtle interplay between the formulation of the property, the problem of proving a suitable variety Y has the property and the problem of proving the principle (P) holds for families of varieties having the property. For example, trying to use a property such as (1) above to prove (P) one runs into the problem of not having a result like [GHS03] for families of ind-schemes.

九年级地理环境保护英语阅读理解20题

九年级地理环境保护英语阅读理解20题1<背景文章>Global warming is one of the most serious environmental issues facing our planet. It refers to the long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system. The phenomenon of global warming is caused by a variety of factors. One of the main causes is the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere and cause the Earth's temperature to rise.The effects of global warming are far-reaching. Rising sea levels threaten coastal areas and low-lying islands. More frequent and intense extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, and droughts, can cause significant damage to human lives and property. Changes in precipitation patterns can also affect agriculture and water resources.To address global warming, we need to take action on multiple fronts. We can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by using renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power. We can also improve energy efficiency in buildings, transportation, and industry. In addition, we can protect and restore forests, which absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.1. What is global warming?A. A short-term increase in temperature.B. A long-term increase in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system.C. A decrease in temperature.D. No change in temperature.答案：B。

Animprovedexponential_省略_gneticresonance

An improved exponential ﬁlter for fast nonlinear registrationof brain magnetic resonance imagesZhiying Long a ,Li Yao a,b,*,Kewei Chen c ,Danling Peng aaState Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning,Beijing Normal University,Beijing 100875,ChinabSchool of Information Science and Technology,Beijing Normal University,Beijing 100875,ChinacBanner Alzheimer Institute (BAI)&Samaritan PET Center,Phoenix,AZ,USAReceived 18April 2008;received in revised form 10June 2008;accepted 13June 2008AbstractA linear elastic convolution ﬁlter was derived from the eigenfunctions of the Navier–Stokes diﬀerential operator by Bro-Nielsen in order to match images with large deformations.Due to the complexity of constructing the elastic convolution ﬁlter,the algorithm’s eﬃ-ciency reduces rapidly with the increase in the image’s size.In our previous work,a simple two-sided exponential ﬁlter with high eﬃciency was proposed to approximate an elastic ﬁlter.However,its poor smoothness may degenerate the performance.In this paper,a new expo-nential ﬁlter was constructed by utilizing a modiﬁed nonlinear curve ﬁtting method to approximate the elastic ﬁlter.The new ﬁlter’s good smoothness makes its performance comparable to an elastic ﬁlter.Its simple and separable form makes the algorithm’s speed faster than the elastic ﬁlter.Furthermore,our experiments demonstrated that the new ﬁlter was suitable for both the elastic and ﬂuid models.Ó2009National Natural Science Foundation of China and Chinese Academy of Sciences.Published by Elsevier Limited and Science in China Press.All rights reserved.Keywords:Exponential ﬁlter;Nonlinear;Registration;Magnetic resonance imaging1.IntroductionImage registration in neuroimaging studies,which aims at matching an image onto another with optimal spatial transformation,has a variety of applications.In a medical imaging study,for example,functional or structural changes in images of an individual subject over time need to be examined,or images of a patient group and a normal control group need to be compared.Because of the inter-subject neuroanatomy variation,it is necessary to perform image registration before these statistical comparisons.The registration algorithms can be categorized as linear or non-linear.The simple linear registration,such as rigid or aﬃne transformation,only removes global diﬀerences in brain shape and size.In contrast,nonlinear registrationeliminates local diﬀerences of the two images.In many cases,both algorithms are used,linear alignment prior to nonlinear registration.Nonlinear registration usually transforms images in higher-dimensional anatomical mapping in order to match local variability across diﬀerent anatomies [1,2].Nonlinear registration approaches can be divided into intensity-based and model-based types [3].The intensity-driven algorithm matches the regional intensity of each image based on mathematical or statistical criteria [4],whereas the model-driven algorithm needs to build geometric models including functionally important surfaces,curves and point marks [5].For the intensity-driven algorithm,automated image registration [6]and statistical parametric mapping algo-rithms [7]can measure anatomical diﬀerences eﬃciently by using global basis functions to approximate deforma-tion ﬁelds in lower-dimensional anatomical mappings.The transformation’s degree of freedom is generally not1002-0071/$-see front matter Ó2009National Natural Science Foundation of China and Chinese Academy of Sciences.Published by Elsevier Limited and Science in China Press.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.06.028*Corresponding author.Tel.:+861058807727.E-mail address:yaoli@ (L.Yao)./locate/pnscAvailable online at Progress in Natural Science 19(2009)759–767beyond the order of basis functions.Due to lower-dimen-sional mapping,the limited basis functions fail to approx-imate the deformation totally.However,in higher-dimensional anatomical mappings,physical continuum models allow extremelyﬂexible deformations,and the degrees of freedom can be as many as the number of voxels in the images.Various numerical algorithms and mathematical models in theﬁeld of physics have been adopted to the nonlinearly register image of one subject to that of another[8–11].Rel-evant to our current eﬀorts,a brief review of the two approaches based on the elastic solid model and the viscous ﬂuid model,respectively,is in demand and provided here. Physical continuum models were introduced for use in non-linear registration because they allow for extremelyﬂexible deformations and their degrees of freedom can be as many as the number of voxels in images[3].Bajcsy and Kovacic et al.[12],based on the physical continuum model,were the ﬁrst to construct the deforming image as a3D elastic solid and to derive the body force from the gradient of the inten-sity correlation.Continuing their eﬀorts and recognizing the limitation of small deformation assumptions for the lin-ear elastic model,Christensen[13,14]proposed a viscous ﬂuid model to estimate large image deformations for main-taining the continuity of structures.This model overcomes two pitfalls of the elastic model:linear elastic penalties and small deformation approximations.Therefore,theﬂuid model can perform large-magnitude displacement.How-ever,because the viscousﬂuid partial diﬀerential equation (PDE)has to be solved on a discrete lattice,the speed of the algorithm is too slow to be implemented on the PC[15].Based on the work of Christensen[13],Bro-Nielsen and Gramkow[15]derived a convolutionﬁlter for linear elas-ticity from the eigenfunctions of the Navier–Stokes diﬀer-ential operator L¼l r2þðkþlÞrðr TÞ.Thisﬁlter increased the algorithm speed in theﬂuid model by several orders of magnitude.Unfortunately,the computation time for constructing theﬁlter and performing the convolution operation increased exponentially with the size of the image.Therefore,it is desirable to derive alternative com-putationally eﬃcientﬁlters.In fact,Bro-Nielsen and Gram-kow[15]demonstrated that the‘demon’-based registration method[9,16]is actually equivalent to the use of a Gauss-ianﬁlter as an approximation of the elasticﬁlter.The increased computing eﬃciency associated with the Gauss-ianﬁlter is due to the fact that a2D or3D Gaussianﬁlter is the product of two or three one-dimensional Gaussian ﬁlters,which can be referred to as separatability.Due to the notable diﬀerences between the Gaussian and elasticﬁl-ters,however,one should not expect the same or similar performance with the use of these twoﬁlters[15,17].Balancing the increased eﬃciency and better perfor-mance than the Gaussianﬁlter,we previously proposed a simple two-sided exponentialﬁlter and demonstrated, indeed,that its performance is superior to the Gaussianﬁl-ter and its computational eﬃciency is higher than both the elasticﬁlter and the Gaussianﬁlter[18].Nevertheless,there are some limitations to the two-sided exponentialﬁlter.For example,its smoothness is poor.Consequently,it may not be as robust as an elasticﬁlter.Continuing our eﬀorts,the current study proposes(i)to use a new curveﬁtting method to produce a new exponentialﬁlter that has much higher computational eﬃciency than an elasticﬁlter,but has almost the same performance and robustness as an elastic ﬁlter;(ii)to generalize its use from viciousﬂuid model to also elastic model.This generalization is possible as the two models can be uniﬁed under the framework of the Navier–Stokes equilibrium equations.Excellent matching results are obtained by using the new exponentialﬁlter in both models.2.The uniﬁcation of elastic andﬂuid models2.1.Image registration based on elastic andﬂuid modelsThe general theory will be illustrated for the2D case, but it is applicable to3D as well.We assume that the two images,an object image(O)and a template image (T),are to be registered.This registration is via an opti-mized smooth deformationﬁeld u(x,t)mapping the coordi-nate space of O to that of T.2.1.1.The elastic modelIn elastic media,the2D displacementﬁeld u(x,t)result-ing from internal deformation forces F(x,t),which is called body force,obeys the Navier–Stokes equilibrium equation for linear elasticity[1]:l r2uðx;tÞþðkþlÞrðr TÁuðx;tÞÞþFðx;tÞ¼08x2R2ð1Þwhere r TÁuðx;tÞ¼P@u j=@x j;r2¼r T r is the Laplacian operation,and Lame´’s coeﬃcients,k and l,refer to the elastic properties of the medium.Eq.(1)describes the dis-placement of a particle at location x when time is t assum-ing that the particle is of extremely small size.Moreover,in the study of medical image registration,body force is de-rived from the gradient of a cost function,such as intensity correlation.In order to use this model,the displacement of each par-ticle is assumed to be small.So the model is more suitable for image registration with small deformation on a region-by-region basis(not global position diﬀerence).2.1.2.Theﬂuid modelChristensen[13]introduced theﬂuid model to describe large distance deformations.Under the external body force F(x,u(x,t)),the particles of theﬂuid move with the instan-taneous velocity v(x,t)determined by the deformationﬁeld u(x,t).The body force and velocity also satisfy the Navier–Stokes equilibrium equation.l r2mðx;tÞþðkþlÞrðr TÁmðx;tÞÞþFðx;uðx;tÞÞ¼0ð2Þ760Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767Comparing Eq.(1)with Eq.(2),it is obvious that the two models obey the same Navier–Stokes equilibrium equation noting the major diﬀerence between them is that u(x)in Eq.(1)is replaced with v(x,t)in Eq.(2).2.2.Convolutionﬁlter in the solution of the Navier–Stokes equationRegardless of the models,PDE must be solved in order to obtain the deformationﬁeld.It is a computationally expensive process if the algorithm of Christensen is used. Bro-Nielsen proposed the convolutionﬁlter approach to solve the linear PDE[15].Comparing Eq.(1)with Eq.(2),the common Navier–Stokes diﬀerential operator L is L¼l r2þðkþlÞrðr TÞ:ð3ÞUnder the linear operator L,the elastic andﬂuid models are expressed asL uðx;tÞþFðx;tÞ¼0L mðx;tÞþFðx;uðx;tÞÞ¼0ð4ÞEq.(4)suggests that the two models can be described using a uniform system with an external body force as the input F.The output is u(x)for the elastic model and v(x,t)for the ﬂuid model,respectively(Fig.1(a)).As shown in Fig.1(a),with the availability of the convo-lutionﬁlter,H,the solution of Eq.(1)or Eq.(3)is simply F convolved with H.Based on the eigenfunctions of the lin-ear operator L,Bro-Nielsen derived theﬁlter H as an approximation to the impulse response of an applied unit force in the middle of the square with a unit area(deﬁned as[01]Â[01]).To make it applicable to images with a ﬁnite number of voxels,theﬁlter is discretized.Assume that the image size is DÂD,and let the lattice be addressed byx=[x1,x2]T,where x r2½ÀDÀ12;DÀ12;r¼1;2:Theﬁlter implementing the2D linear elastic operator L for the unit force in the x1direction applied in x c is then[15]H1ðxÞ¼4p2lð2lþkÞX DÀ1i;j¼0pðx cÞði2þj2Þ2C ijÀði2lþð2lþkÞj2ÞpðxÞðlþkÞijqðxÞ!ð5ÞpðxÞ¼sinði p x1Þcosðj p x2ÞqðxÞ¼cosði p x1Þsinðj p x2Þð6ÞC ij¼1if none of i;j are zeros2for one of i;j is zeros&ð7ÞApparently,the computational cost increases dramati-cally as a function of the image size.The linear elasticﬁlterfor the3D case is very complex.And the detailed deriva-tion of the3Dﬁlter can be referred to[19].Note that,H2(x),theﬁlter with unit force applied to thex2direction can be obtained from H1(x)by switching x1and x2positions.Then theﬁlter with a unit force of(f x,f y)is obtained as f x H1(x)+f y H2(x),where is the con-volution operation.2.3.Properties of the linear elasticﬁlterWith the linearity and symmetry of H1and H2,we onlyneed to discuss H1here.Appropriate values of viscositycoeﬃcients k and l depend upon the particular imagingmodality.Here we take k=11.5and l=1.As H1(x)is avectorﬁeld,it has one component,H x11ðxÞalong the x1direction and another component H x21ðxÞalong the x2direction(Fig.1(b)).Because H1(x)is associated with aunit force acting in the x1direction,H x11ðxÞhas a much lar-ger magnitude than H x21ðxÞthat is often ignored for simplic-ity.A scalarﬁeld H x11ðxÞsymmetrical along the x1and x2directions is depicted in Fig.1(c).Because a unit force acts in the center of the image,thedisplacement of the center is much larger than that of theperipheral areas.For the image size128Â128,the middlecolumn curve H x11ð0:5;x2Þwith x1=0.5can be extractedfrom H x11ðxÞ.The same is for the middle row curveH x11ðx1;0:5Þwhen x2=0.5.These two curves almost domi-nate the whole scalarﬁeld(Fig.2(a)).Curves of similarshapes,but with reduced magnitudes,are observed movingtoward the edges of images from its center.3.New exponentialﬁlter3.1.Curveﬁtting methodObviously,it is computationally expensive to construct alinear elasticﬁlter based on Eq.(9),especially for theimages with a high number of voxels.Motivated by theexponential-like shapes of the curves as shown inFig.2(a)simpler exponentialﬁlters could be utilized toapproximate the complex elasticﬁlter with an additionalassumption that the convolutionﬁlter can be expressedasFig.1.(a)The uniform system model.H is the system function referred to as the linear convolutionﬁlter;(b)displacement vectorﬁeld H1(x)with size15Â15;(c)the scalarﬁeld H x11ðxÞof H1(x)shown in3D space with size128Â128.Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767761a production of a function of x1and a function of x2(i.e., theﬁlter is x1–x2separable).Let R1(x1)represent the row curve with D data points (x i1,x i2),we wish toﬁnd a function of x1and parameter p that gives the‘‘bestﬁt”to the data by the function F(x1,p).Here F(x1,p)is assumed to have an exponential form.Fðx1;pÞ¼e gðx1;pÞgðx1;pÞ¼p1x21þp2j x1jþp3ð8ÞThe exponent g(x1,p)is a quadratic polynomial.The data-ﬁtting can be transformed into the linear relation by taking the logarithm on both sides of Eq.(8).ln Fðx1;pÞ¼gðx1;pÞð9ÞIn order to assure that F(x1,p)is larger than zero,R1(x1)is ﬁrst normalized by making the maximum equal to1and then a constant is added to it.R0 1ðx1Þ¼R1ðx1ÞmaxðR1ðx1ÞÞþC R01ðx1Þ>0ð10ÞThe nonlinear data-ﬁtting method is toﬁnd the functiong(x1,p)that bestﬁts the transformed data points ln R01ðx1Þin the least squares sense.min x1X Di¼1ðln R01ðx1iÞÀgðx1i;pÞÞð11ÞIf we deﬁne a matrix A with A¼½x21j x1j1 and vector bwith components b i¼ln R01ðx1iÞ,then the data-ﬁtting prob-lem takes the formApﬃbð12ÞThe least squares estimate of Eq.(12)is~p¼ðA T AÞÀ1A T b.The normalized data can be expressed as~R01ðx1Þ¼R01ðx1ÞÀC¼e gðx1~pÞÀC¼e~p1x21þ~p2x1þ~p3ÀCð13ÞUsing the same method described above,the column curvecan also beﬁtted.~R01ðx2Þ¼R01ðx2ÞÀC0¼e gðx2;~p0ÞÀC0¼e~p4x22þ~p5x2þ~p6ÀC0ð14ÞThe new2Dﬁlter for the x1direction can be derived bycombining Eq.(13)with Eq.(14).H x11ðx1;x2Þﬃk~R01ðx1Þ~R01ðx2Þ0<k61ð15Þk¼maxðH x11ðx1;x2ÞÞmaxð~R01ðx1ÞÞmaxð~R01ðx2ÞÞð16ÞThe impulse response for the x2direction is determinedby the simple rotation of that for the x1direction.Fig.2.(a)Two curves of H x11ð0:5;x2Þ(solid line)and H x11ðx1;0:5Þ(dotted line);(b)a new2D exponentialﬁlter H x11ðx1;x2Þin a3D space;(c)the originalcurve(dotted line)and theﬁtted curve(solid lines)of the normalized curve of H x11ð0:5;x2Þ;(d)the original curve(dotted line)and theﬁtted curve(solidlines)of the normalized curve of H x11ðx1;0:5Þ.762Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767H x22ðx1;x2Þﬃk~R02ðx1Þ~R02ðx2Þ0<k61ð17Þ~R02ðx1Þ¼e~p4x21þ~p5x1þ~p6ÀC0ð18Þ~R02ðx2Þ¼e~p1x22þ~p2x2þ~p3ÀCð19ÞHere,the subscripts1and2of H(x1,x2)denote that the center unit force comes from the x1and x2directions, respectively.k is an amplitude coeﬃcient.3.2.The coeﬃcients of a new exponentialﬁlterApplying the method in Section3.1to the elasticﬁlter with128Â128size,the newﬁlter’s coeﬃcients can bederived.For R01ðx1Þ,the x1coordinate is set to between0and 1.The coeﬃcients are~p¼½0:0003À0:04040:0092 .For R02ðx2Þ,the coeﬃcients are~p0¼½0:0005À0:0575À0:0290 .Fig.2(c)and(d)shows theﬁtted curves.The new2D exponentialﬁlter H x11ðx1;x2Þis derived sim-ply from Eq.(15),and is shown in Fig.2(b).Here k=0.6538.3.3.Variation of the parameters with the image sizeTo see how image size aﬀects the values of the estimated parameters,we plotted each of the six estimated parameter values vs.the number of voxels varying from32to200with an increment of4(see Fig.3).Furthermore,we investi-gated their relationship by constructing each of the six parameters as a function of the image size using the least squareﬁt.The expressions of all functions are in the fol-lowing.Here p1,p2and p3are the parameters of Eq.(13), while p4,p5and p6correspond to those of Eq.(14).p1ðx1Þ¼10:2145x21þ1:3856x1þ252:5768p2ðx1Þ¼À10:1912x1þ0:4223ð20Þp3ðx1Þ¼Àlgð0:008x1À0:084Þ3p4ðx2Þ¼10:1378x22À2:7417x2þ73:0772ð21Þp5ðx2Þ¼1À0:1542x2þ2:1662p6ðx2Þ¼Àlgð0:0126x2À0:3871Þ3ð22ÞFig.3suggests that all functions of Eqs.(20)–(22) describe the variation of parameters with image size very well.To further validate the use of theseﬁtted functions, we compared the calculated parameter values based on these functions and those directly estimated from the image size of256Â256.The six parameters calculated from the above functions were p1=6.8191e-005,p2=À0.0203, p3=À0.0977,p4=1.1902e-004,p5=À0.0268and p6=À0.1510.The parameters estimated directly were p1=0.0001,p2=À0.0199,p3=À0.1000,p4=0.0001, p5=À0.0260and p6=À0.1501.We found that they were comparable.3.4.Algorithms of elastic andﬂuid registration based on the newﬁlterThe complete elastic registration algorithm procedure consists of the followingsteps:Fig.3.Plots of parameters vs.the number of voxels in each direction.The*markers represent original data points,and the solid lines are the curves of ﬁtted functions.Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767763(1)Produce a newﬁlter H(x)including H x11ðx1;x2ÞandH x22ðx1;x2Þusing Eq.(15)and Eq.(17);(2)Let t=0and u(x,t)=0;(3)Calculate the body force F(x,u(x,t))using Eq.(5);(4)If F(x,u(x,t))is below a threshold for all x,thenstop;(5)Convolveﬁlter H(x)with F(x,u(x,t))to obtain thedisplacementﬁeld u(x,t);(6)t=t+1,go to3.Theﬂuid registration algorithm is more complex than the elastic registration because we must apply Euler inte-gration over time using a forwardﬁnite diﬀerence estimate of the time derivative in Eq.(4)in order to calculate the displacement u(x,t):uðx;tþDÞ¼uðx;tÞþD mðx;tÞX3i¼1m iðx;tÞ@uðx;tÞ=@x ið23Þ(1)Produce the H(x)including H x11ðx1;x2Þand H x22ðx1;x2Þusing Eq.(15)and Eq.(17);(2)let i=0and u(x,0)=0;(3)calculate the body force F(x,u(x,t i))using Eq.(5);(4)if F(x,u(x,t i))is below a threshold for all x,then stop;(5)convolveﬁlter H(x)with F(x,u(x,t i))to get theinstantaneous velocity v(x,t i);(6)calculate the perturbation of the displacementﬁeld.RðxÞ¼mðx;t iÞÀX3i¼1m iðx;t iÞ@uðx;t iÞ=@x ið24Þ(7)choose a time step D max(||R(x)||)<du max,wheredu max is the maximalﬂow allowed in one iteration and D¼t iþ1Àt i;(8)if the Jacobian J=|xÀu(x,t i+1)|<0.5,then regridthe object image and let u(x,t i+1)=0.Otherwise cal-culate u(x,t i+1)using Eq.(23);(9)let i=i+1and go to3.4.ExperimentSimulated imaging data and real MRI data were used to demonstrate how the newﬁlter accommodates both the elastic andﬂuid models and how its performance fared against the elasticﬁlter.Two sets of simulated data using the binary image with a size of128Â128were used in2D elastic andﬂuid registration[13,15].Real MRI data were used to compare the performance between elastic andﬂuid registration through two sorts ofﬁlters.Among these data,it was assumed that the object and the template images were consistent on topology and that each constituent structure had roughly the same gray-level values.4.1.2D elastic image registrationThe object image is a square and the template is a rect-angle.The dimension of these images is128Â128pixels. The square is34Â34and the rectangle is34Â58.In [15],an elasticﬁlter was used to match the square with the rectangle based on theﬂuid model.Because the diﬀer-ence between the two images was not large,the elastic model is also suitable for matching these two images.Both the newﬁlter and the elasticﬁlter were applied to transform the square.Results in Fig.4(a)show that the performance of the newﬁlter is almost the same as the elasticﬁlter,and the newﬁlter can maintain the topology of the deformed image as well as the elasticﬁlter.For the sake of the con-vergence speed comparison,the mean square error between the template image and the deformed object image was cal-culated at each iteration.Fig.4(b)shows that the iterative convergence speed of the newﬁlter is a little bit faster than the elasticﬁlter during theﬁrst50iterations.4.2.2Dﬂuid image registrationThe simulated data used here are similar to that of Chris-tensen[13].The template is a‘‘C”-shaped image with 128Â128pixels,and the object is a wedge-shaped image. The two images wereﬁrst linearly aligned so that they over-lapped.Then both the elastic andﬂuid models were used to register the images.The result shows that the elastic model is no longer suitable in the large deformation.On the other hand,the newﬁlter performed equally well on the vicious ﬂuid model(Fig.5(a)).The convergence speed of the twoﬁl-ters based on theﬂuid model is almost the same(Fig.5(b)).4.3.2D MRI data registrationWe applied elastic andﬂuid models to real2D MRI data of the human brain by using both the new and the elastic ﬁlters.Both object and template images were from one slice of each two3D MRI data.The3D template image was a single-subject T1template in SPM software(http://www.ﬁ/spm/)with91Â109Â91voxels at 2Â2Â2mm3.The3D object was a T1image of a single subject with77Â220Â220voxels at2Â1Â1mm3. First,the3D object image was resampled into the dimen-sion of the template and aligned with the template in a global shape by a simple linear aﬃne transformation.The axial slices48of both T1images in transverse view were selected.The range of intensity in the2D object image was preprocessed by histogram-matching it to the template image.Theﬁnal results are shown in Fig.6(a).Great diﬀerences can be found in the ventricles of the object and template image.A mask of ventricle is con-structed to compare the diﬀerences in ventricle area between template and deformed image.For the elastic model,the mean square error of the ventricle area was 0.0162with the newﬁlter and0.0248with the elasticﬁlter.764Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767Fig.4.Results of the2D elastic image registration.(a)The left column corresponds to the object(top)and template images(bottom).The middle column shows the deformed object images(top)and rectangular grids(bottom)after the elastic transformation with the newﬁlter.The right column shows the deformed object images(top)and rectangular grids(bottom)with the elasticﬁlter.(b)Mean squared error vs.iterative times(before100times).The solid line represents the convergence curve of the newﬁlter,and the dotted line represents that of the elasticﬁlter.Fig.5.Results of the2Dﬂuid image registration.(a)The leftmost column shows the object(top)and template image(bottom).The left center column shows the deformed object image(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after the elastic transformation with the newﬁlter.The right center column shows the deformed object image(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after aﬂuid transformation with the newﬁlter.The rightmost column shows the deformed object image(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after aﬂuid transformation with the elasticﬁlter.(b)Mean squared error vs.iterative timesbased on theﬂuid model.The solid line represents the convergence curve of the newﬁlter,and the dotted line represents that of the elasticﬁlter.Fig.6.Results of the2D MRI data registration.(a)Theﬁrst column shows the object(top)and template image(bottom).The second column shows the deformed object images(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after the elastic transformation with the newﬁlter.The third column shows the deformed object images(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after theﬂuid transformation with the newﬁlter.The fourth column shows the deformed object images (top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after the elastic transformation with the elasticﬁlter.Theﬁfth column shows the deformed object images(top)and a rectangular grid(bottom)after theﬂuid transformation with the elasticﬁlter.(b)Mean squared error vs.iterative times(before100times).The solid line represents the convergence curve of theﬂuid transformation with the newﬁlter,the dashed line represents that of theﬂuid transformation with the elastic ﬁlter,the dotted line represents that of the elastic transformation with the newﬁlter and the dash dotted line represents that of elastic transformation with the elasticﬁlter.Z.Long et al./Progress in Natural Science19(2009)759–767765。

GRE填空总结4转折因果

1. A war, even if fought for individual liberty and democratic rights, usually requiresthat these principles be (i) _B_, for they are (ii) _D_ the regimentation anddiscipline necessary for military efficiency.Blank (i) Blank (ii)A. espoused D. fulfilled throughB. suspended E. incompatible withC. followed F. inherent in重点词: regiment, espouse, suspendespouse 支持regimentation 纪律化region地区2 In Germany her startling powers as a novelist are widely (i) _B_, but she is almost unknown in the English-speaking world because of the difficulties of (ii) _E_ her eccentric prose.Blank (i) Blank (ii)A. ignored D. revealingB. admired E. translat ingC. obscured F. editing重点词: eccentric, startling, obscurestartling 令人吃惊的startle stark 荒凉的obscured 遮蔽的，掩盖eccentric 古怪的prose 散文；单调的translate 翻译，转换3 As is often the case with collections of lectures by (i) _A_ authors, the book asa whole is (ii) _D_, although the individual contributions are outstanding inthemselves.Blank (i) Blank (ii)A. different D. disconnectedB. incompetent E. unexcitingC. mediocre F. coherent重点词: incompetent, mediocre, coherentis often the case with 通常情况下mediocre 普通的，平凡的4 Eric was frustrated because, although he was adept at making lies sound(i) _A_, when telling the truth, he (ii) _D_ the power to make himselfbelieved.Blank (i) Blank (ii)A. plausible D. lackedB. impractical E. heldC. deceptive F. acquired重点词: adept, deceptive, acquiredeceptive 欺诈的，虚伪的5. Although the film is rightly judged imperfect by most of today’s critics, the filmsbeing created today are _AB_ it, since its release in 1940 provoke d sufficient critical discussion to enhance the intellectual respectability of cinemaconsiderably.A. beholden toB. indebted toC. derivative ofD. based onE. distinguishable fromF. biased against重点词: beholden, indebted, biascritical thinking 批判思维+ criticize -beholden to 受惠于indebted to 感激的，受惠于indebted负债的；受贿的debt负债derivative of 衍生品based on 建立distinguishable from 区别biased against 有偏见6 Because the painter Albert Pinkham Ryder was obsessed with his (i)_B_ perfection, he was rarely (ii)_F_ a painting, creating endless variations of a scene on one canvas, one on top of another.Blank (i) Blank (ii)A. contempt for D. disconcerted byB. quest for E. immersed inC. alienation from F. satisfied with重点词: obsess, contempt, disconcertwas obsessed with 沉迷于追求完美contempt 轻视，蔑视alienation from 疏远；异化immersed in 全神贯注于disconcerted by 不安的，使困惑anxious；concert音乐会，协调一致。

雅思ILETS小作文常用句型汇总_老顾

动态图表作文的6个必备句式必备句式1：分词结构1. 电力供应差不多增长两倍（double），从50 涨到100。

正确的答案：Electricity supply nearly doubled, rising from 50 to 100.学生答案：Electricity supply was nearly doubled, rised from 50 to 100.错误1：doubled不及物动词，没有被动错误2：rise的过去时是rose错误3：doubled和rose两个动词，没有连词，而且不并列，最好rose改成分词2. 开荒（land clearance）是土地退化（degradation）的主要原因，占据了10%。

正确的答案：Land clearance was the main reason for degradation, accounting for 10%.学生答案：The percentage of land clearance was the main reason for degradation, accounts for 10%.错误1：accounts for一般现在时，时态不对错误2：“percentage…accounted for”永远是错的3. 人口上升到61亿在2005，在2006年轻微下降到60亿之前。

正确的答案：The population rose to 6.1 billion in 2005, before declining slightly to 6 billion in 2006.学生答案：The population rose to 6.1 billions in 2005, before being declined slightly to 6 billion in 2006.错误1：billion, million, thousand, hundred 等都不应该加s错误2：increased, declined这些词都是不及物动词，没有被动必备句式2：用while, 或者although引导的状语从句，或者是but引导的并列句4. 结婚的数字上升，而离婚的数字下降。

Generalized Quantifiers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences

Few referees read every short abstract Few referees read every excellent short abstract420Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences(a)[Three>Few](b)[Few>Three]Three good referees read few abstractsThree good Dutch referees read few abstracts where(a)would be logically correct in the interpretation[Three>Few]and(b) in the wide scope reading[Few>Three].However,while(a)is a correct natural reasoning inference,(b)is not.This diﬀerence at the reasoning level is a side eﬀect of some diﬀerent properties proper of the quantiﬁer phrases few referees and every abstract[3].The example shows that natural language structures contribute to natural reasoning and illustrates the need to account for this information when aiming to model natural reasoning.Moreover,it sheds light on the importance of some diﬀerences holding among items of the same semantic type,e.g.within the class of quantiﬁers,which are irrelevant for the meaning assembly,but eﬀect the form composition.In this paper, we focus on this preliminary task to be carried out by a formal system employed to account for natural reasoning inferences.Lambek calculi[15]are well known for being able to properly account for natural language syntactic-semantic interface by means of the Curry-Howard correspondence between proofs and lambda-terms[11,4].Thanks to this relation,proofs of the gram-maticality of a string correspond to lambda terms.The form/meaning assembly is carried out in parallel by means of function application and abstraction.However, the example above shows that expressions with the same meaning can have diﬀer-ent syntactic distribution.This diﬀerence between the syntactic and semantic levels cannot be expressed by a system in a one-to-one correspondence with the lambda calculus.Syntactic types must encode some features which are non visible in the semantic types.In[12],Kurtonina and Moortgat extended the logical language of the Lambek calculi with unary operators,obtaining Multimodal Categorial Logics(MMCL).In this paper,we show how the latter have the right expressivity to encodeﬁne-grained distinctions among expressions of the same semantic type.The paper is divided into two main parts:In Section2and Section3we give a brief presentation of the linguistic data concerning scope ambiguity phenomena and we introduce MMCL showing how it can be used to account for these linguistic data.When building the lexicon in this part,we concentrate on the type language of the system,hiding the corresponding semantic representation since the constraints are purely syntactic.Finally,in Section4we show how the results at the syntactic level contribute to giving deﬁnitions for the semantic representations for polarity and constituent questions.2Scope AmbiguityQuantiﬁers oﬀer interesting challenges for the treatment of the syntax/semantic in-terface.First of all,they can take scope wider than where they occur overtly as illustrated by the object wide scope reading assigned to Few referees read every short abstract.Moreover,quantiﬁers diﬀer with respect to the ways of scope taking as shown by the non-validity of the inference derived from the object wide scope reading of Three good referees read few abstracts.3.QUANTIFIER SCOPE IN MULTIMODAL CATEGORIAL LOGIC421 For quite a long time,linguists have concentrated only on theﬁrst problem exhibited by GQs.In the generative tradition since the pioneer work of May[16],all GQs have been treated as having the same scope possibilities.We can refer to this approach as the Uniformity of Quantiﬁer Scope Assignment.Beghelli and Stowell[3]present evidence against this approach and propose a move to a moreﬂexible theory which explains how and why diﬀerent types of GQs can have diﬀerent scoping possibilities. In[3]scope is seen as the by-product of agreement processes,and mismatches in agreement give rise to ungrammatical sentences.Beghelli and Stowell distinguishﬁve classes of GQs.Membership in any of the GQ types is indicated by some syntactic properties which are morphologically encoded in the determiner position.They claim that for certain combinations of quantiﬁer types the grammar simply excludes certain logically possible scope construals.We refer the reader interested in the linguistic details of the theory to[3],we just summarise their data in Table1on page421.Sentence Scope?∀(b)∗How didn’t every actor behave?¬∃(b)Coppola didn’t direct a movie.∃¬3.(a)∗Any actor didn’t like Kubrick.∃¬and¬∃(c)Some actor didn’t like Kubrick.422Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences exhibiting diﬀerent distributional behaviour.A detailed comparison of the categorial logic approach introduced here with the minimalist analysis proposed by Beghelli and Stowell is given in[5].In our system,diﬀerent scope possibilities of a sentence correspond to diﬀerent proofs of the parsed string.Syntactic and semantic information is stored in the lex-icon and propagated through the proof by means of logical rules.We will use these characteristics of the system to account for scope ambiguity phenomena,and the unary operators of MMCL to account for the diﬀerent ways of scope taking identiﬁed by Beghelli and Stowell.In this section weﬁrst brieﬂy present the system,and then we show how we can infer the linguistic data given in Table1from the rules of the system starting from the lexical assignments.Derivable objects in MMCL are of the formΓ:A whereΓis a structure(typically a tree representation of a sentence)and A is a formula indicating the syntactic type of this structure.Deﬁnition3.1(Formulas)Over aﬁnite set of atomic formulas A,we deﬁne the set of formulas F as follows:F::=A|3F|2↓F|F/F|F•F|F\FDeﬁnition3.2(Structures)Over a countably inﬁnite set of structural variables V, we deﬁne the set of structure terms as follows:S::=V| S |(S◦S)To make our proofs a bit more readable,we will typically use lexical word as structural variables.A structure term is then a tree of words.The natural deduction calculus for MMCL tells us how to combine proofs from an initial set of lexical assignments to produce phrases of diﬀerent types.See[21]for a more detailed explanation and many linguistic applications of the Fitch-style natural deduction calculus presented below.In the logical rules below X,Y,Z range over structure terms,A,B,C range over for-mulas and x,y are structural variables not occurring elsewhere in the proof.Finally, Z[X]denotes a structure term Z with a distinguished subterm occurrence X. Tables2on page423and3on page424list the logical rules of type-logical grammar. The[/E]rule tells us that whenever rule n of our proof shows structure X to be of type A/B and line m of this same proof shows structure Y to be of type B,then the combined structure(X◦Y)is of type A.The[/I]rule indicates that,once we hypothesise a B formula with a fresh structural variable x,we can discharge this formula once we derive a formula A with structure(X◦x)to produce a formula A/B with structure X.Note that we mark the scope of a hypothesis with a vertical bar and that all hypotheses should be discharged at the end of the proof.According to the Curry-Howard interpretation,natural deduction proofs correspond to typed lambda terms.For our current applications,we are only interested in the semantics of the implications.When we want to compute the meaning of a syntactic expression,it is often convenient to add semantic labels to the proof steps.Derivable objects are then of theΓ:A−t,whereΓis a structure,A is a formula and t is the semantics of the expression.Table4lists the semantically annotated rules for the implications;the other connectives have their own Curry-Howard interpretations,but3.QUANTIFIER SCOPE IN MULTIMODAL CATEGORIAL LOGIC423 Lexiconn x:A LexHypothesisnx:B Hypmx:B Hypmx:A Hypm+1Z[(x◦y)]:CZ[X]:C•E(n,m,m+1,p)n X:Am Y:B(X◦Y):A•B•I(n,m)Table2.The logical rules of type-logical grammarthey are not relevant for our current applications.The semantically annotated[/E]rule now tells us that whenever we combine an A/B formula with semantics t with a B formula with semantics u the resulting A formula has the term(t u)as its semantics.For the[/I]rule,the hypothesis B is initially assigned a fresh variable x as its semantics,then we continue our proof until we derive a formula A with some semantics t.We can now withdraw our B hypothesis by abstracting over its variable,producingλx.t as the semantics of the expression A/B.Note that without the structural labelling these are just the logical rules of implication in intuitionistic logic.Also note that on the semantics level,we are not interested in the diﬀerence between the two implications:both have the same semantic content.The reader may wonder about the complexity of this system and about how proof search would proceed.Natural deduction proofs have the pleasant property that for424Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences Unary Rulesn X:3AmZ[ x ]:CZ[X]:C3E(n,m,p)n X:AX :3A3I(n)n X:2↓AX :A2↓E(n)n X :AX:2↓A2↓I(n)Table3.The logical rules for the unary connectivesImplicationsn X:A/B−tm Y:B−u(X◦Y):A−(t u)/E(n,m)n(X◦x):A−tX:A/B−λx.t/I(n,m)n Y:B−um X:B\A−t(Y◦X):A−(t u)\E(n,m)n(x◦X):A−tX:B\A−λx.t\I(n,m)Table4.The logical rules for the implications with semanticsﬁnding proofs of a given logical statement we only need to consider the subformulas of this logical statement,thereby bounding the search space for proof search.With respect to the complexity,de Groote[8]presents a polynomial algorithm for the system as described above,but adding more complex structural possibilities,like we need for our treatment of generalised quantiﬁers will increase the complexity and can make the system PSPACE complete in the worst case[20].We illustrate how the logical system can be used to reason with linguistic signs by showing a simple proof consisting only of elimination rules.Example3.3Given the lexicon below we have speciﬁed that tarantino and pulp ﬁction are lexical expressions of type np,that oscar and movie are of type n and that directed and won are of type(np\s)/np.The latter complex type means that it3.QUANTIFIER SCOPE IN MULTIMODAL CATEGORIAL LOGIC425 combinesﬁrst with an np to the immediate right then with an np to the immediate left to produce an s,which is the atomic type assigned to sentences.We will discuss the correct type assignments to determiners like a and some after this example.Lexiconpulpﬁction:np−pulp tarantino:np−tarantinooscar:n−oscar won:(np\s)/np−λxy.((win x)y)movie:n−movie directed:(np\s)/np−λxy.((direct x)y)Using this lexicon,together with the logical rules above,we can prove that tarantino directed pulpﬁction is a well-formed expression of type s and its meaning representa-tion is(direct pulp)tarantino.For the sake of simplicity,we replace the structural formulas with their corresponding linguistic expressions.1.tarantino:np−tarantino Lex2.directed:(np\s)/np−λxu.((direct x)y)Lex3.pulpﬁction:np−pulp Lex4.(directed◦pulpﬁction):np\s−λx.(direct pulp)x/E(2,3)5.(tarantino◦(directed◦pulpﬁction)):s−(direct pulp)tarantino\E(1,4) The proof starts from the lexical assumptions.The elimination of the main con-nective of the complex type assigned to the transitive verb,namely/E is applied to the premises2and3,yielding a structure of type np\s.Similarly,the connective\ is eliminated,composing theﬁnal structure which is proved to be of type s.Further-more,the example shows that the elimination rules of\,/correspond to functional applications.Note that steps4and5hide the application ofβ-reduction.According to the Montegovian tradition GQs are denoted by functions which take scope at the sentence level[2].A type suitable for a subject generalised quantiﬁer would be s/(np\s),that is a type which produces a sentence when itﬁnds to its right a sentence missing an np to its left.Similarly,an object generalised quantiﬁer would be assigned the type(s/np)\s.The reader might complain that there are no good motivations for such a duplicate type assignment.A solution to this problem is given in[17,18],where it is shown how MMCL can be extended in such a way that a single type assignment suﬃces for each quantiﬁer,regardless of its position in the sentence.However,for the sake of simplicity,we will abstract over this issue and adopt the general notation(np→s)→s.Doing so we can focus on the problem we are interested in,namely the diﬀerent scope possibilities of quantiﬁers.The use of a uniform logical type assignment(np→s)→s for all GQs could be seen as a deductive version of May’s[16]Scope Uniformity thesis,and would fail in accounting for the diﬀerent scope possibilities of GQs discussed in the previous section.In order to diversify the way GQs scope on sentences,we reﬁne this type assignment further,distinguishing three diﬀerent sentential levels,s1,s2and s3to which three logically related types are assigned.We consider the standard sentential type s to be the type of the medium sentential level s2and we derive the other two types as shown below.Suppose that we have a proof that a structure X is of type s,then we can prove it is of type2↓3s as follows.426Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences1.X:s2. X :3s3I(1)3.X:2↓3s2↓I(2)similarly,we can prove that32↓s derives(⇒)s,as follows.1.X:32↓s2.x :s2↓E(2)4.X:s3E(1,2,3)The converse derivability relations do not hold.The reader can verify this by trying all possible proofs using only subformulas of the logical types.Summing up,the logical derivability relation connecting the three types is:sentential levelslogical types3.QUANTIFIER SCOPE IN MULTIMODAL CATEGORIAL LOGIC427 Moreover,to get the desired interaction between negation and generalised quan-tiﬁers,we follow Carpenter’s raising strategy[6].Instead of considering didn’t as a standard verb phrase modiﬁer vp/vp–where vp=np\s,we lift its goal formula to ((s/vp)\s)/vp,i.e.a type which takes an s incomplete for an np to produce an s in-complete for a GQ.We enrich this type with the information on the sentential levels while abstracting over the directionality of the implication operators,resulting in the following lexical entry.didn’t:(np→s2)→(((np→s2)→s2)→s2)Example3.4Given the lexicon belowLexiconcoppola:npthe godfather:nposcar:nmovie:ndirected:(np\s1)/npwon:(np\s1)/npany:((np→s1)→s1)/na:((np→s2)→s2)/nsome:((np→s3)→s3)/ndidn’t:(np→s2)→(((np→s2)→s2)→s2)sentences2-3of Table1can be correctly parsed.We simplify the logical types us-ing the sentential levels instead of their corresponding types,while we abbreviate subproofs of the relations between the sentence level by(derived)rules we name s i,j. We can see in Figure1on page428that directﬁrst combines with didn’t and then the result combines with a movie.Besides the application of the elimination rules which as seen before correspond to functional application,the proof contains applications of the introduction rules of the functional connectives.As marked by the label of the steps2and6,these rules correspond to hypothetical reasoning.For instance,the hypothesis v of type np→s2assumed in2,is discharged at the step4by means of →I lifting the noun phrase type of Coppola to the GQ type.This order composition produces the reading where the existential quantiﬁer has wide scope(∃¬):it takes the built structure(Coppola◦(didn’t◦direct))in its scope.In order to understand the way the diﬀerent lexical type assignments of the GQs properly account for their diﬀerent scope possibilities,attention has to be drawn on the step14in the proof,where we have a structure of type s2.For the case at hand, with a movie in object position,the proof proceeds simply by means of the logical rules of the binary operators.On the other hand,if we consider the sentence2c where a is replaced by some,weﬁrst have to lift s2to s3and then proceed as before.Finally, since we cannot derive the type s1from s2,the reading(∃¬)is disallowed in case a is replaced by any as in2a.An alternative proof exists for sentence2b,as shown in Figure2on page429,giving the second reading.Here,instead,direct combinesﬁrst with a movie and then with didn’t.In other words,in this reading the negation has wide scope(¬∃).Now,in order to get the required argument np→s2at step16it is essential we428Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences 1.Coppola:np Lex2.(Coppola◦v):s2→E(1,2)4.Coppola:(np→s2)→s2→I(2,3)5.direct:(np\s1)/np Lex6.(direct◦y):np\s1/E(5,6)8.x:np Hyp9.(x◦(direct◦y)):s1\E(7,8)10.(x◦(direct◦y)):s2s1,2(9)11.didn’t:(np→s2)→(((np→s2)→s2)→s2)Lex13.(Coppola◦(didn’t◦(direct◦y))):s2→E(4,13)15.(Coppola◦(didn’t◦direct)):np→s2→I(6,14)16.a:((np→s2)→s2)/n Lex17.movie:n Lex18.(a◦movie):(np→s2)→s2/E(16,17)19.((Coppola◦(didn’t◦direct))◦(a◦movie)):s2→E(15,18)20.((Coppola◦(didn’t◦direct))◦(a◦movie)):s3s2,3(19)Fig.1.Coppola didn’t direct a movie,∃¬reading.have an s1or s2result at step15,which we can only have when the quantiﬁer is any or a.The failure to derive s3⇒s2blocks this derivation for the quantiﬁer some. Before considering the interrogatives,we give some comments on how the small frag-ment we have given can be extended.For example,when a generalised quantiﬁer like every actor combines with other GQs,we have to account for multiple readings.In other words,we need to assign to every a type which will allow for more scope possibilities than any of the assignments we have seen so far.A proper type for this kind of GQ is(np→s3)→s1,which will allow every to have both wide and narrow scope with respect of a second GQ.So using heterogeneous combinations of sentential types,we can account for GQs with more complex behaviour than some and a.Another interesting example is given by the negative polarity items(NPIs),as any: items which require to be in the scope of a negative operator[14].The type assigned to any above,will satisfy the request that when the negation occurs the only possible reading will be the one where the negation has wide scope.However,using this type any can still occur in positive contexts,contrary to linguistic reality.We refer the reader to[5]for a solution to this problem and for the discussion of a larger English fragment with GQs.4InterrogativesNow that the three types of GQs have been introduced and the criteria for diﬀerenti-ating them have been explained,we can discuss the last type of GQ we are interested4.INTERROGATIVES429 1.Coppola:np Lex2.(Coppola◦v):s2→E(1,2)4.Coppola:(np→s2)→s2→I(2,3)5.direct:(np\s1)/np Lex6.(x◦direct):np→s2→I(7,10)12.movie:n Lex14.((x◦direct)◦(a◦movie)):s2→E(11,14)16.(direct◦(a◦movie)):np→s2→I(6,15)17.didn’t:(np→s2)→(((np→s2)→s2)→s2)Lex18.(didn’t◦(direct◦(a◦movie))):((np→s2)→s2)→s2→E(16,17)19.(Coppola◦(didn’t◦(direct◦(a◦movie)))):s2→E(4,18)20.(Coppola◦(didn’t◦(direct◦(a◦movie)))):s3s2,3(19)Fig.2.Coppola didn’t direct a movie,¬∃reading.in,namely wh-phrases.This brings us to move from a syntactical approach dealing with sentential inference,to a more semantical one,which involves the discourse level. Therefore,instead of considering only the syntactic types of our lexical items,we will discuss their semantic representation as well.In natural language we can distinguish two basic categories of questions:polarity questions(also known as yes/no questions)and constituent questions(also known as wh-questions).We willﬁrst discuss theﬁrst type,then we will present the second one.In our framework we will consider a string of words which form a question to be of a diﬀerent category and to have a diﬀerent meaning than a declarative sentence. However,their type and denotation will be a logical consequence of the one attributed to sentences.The distinction of levels described above will therefore reappear.In particular,we will distinguish two levels of questions,q1and q2,deriving their types from the one assigned to sentences in s1and s2.For reasons which will become clear later,we also need a third question level q3derivable from the types of both q1and q2.The logical relations among the types in these three question levels and in the sentential ones are as shown below.For the sake of simplicity we abbreviate the logical types using their corresponding sentential/question level:s1⇒s2⇒s3⇓⇓q1q2⇒⇒q3430Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative Sentences where the relation between types of diﬀerent levels is the logical derivability relation discussed above;and the one between sentences and questions is the lifting theorem [19].Hence,q1stands for s1/(s1\s1)which in turn abbreviates32↓s/(32↓s\32↓s) and q2stands for s2/(s2\s2),viz.s/(s\s).Reading out this logical types,a yes/no question is seen as a function which takes a sentential modiﬁer and yields a sentence. As might be clear,the two categories q1,q2are at the level of positive and negative yes/no questions,respectively.Their type arePositive:32↓s/(32↓s\32↓s)Negative:s/(s\s)A question to investigate further is whether the type obtained from lifting the type in s3,i.e.23s,can also play a role in a type logical approach to questions.In the logical,philosophical and linguistic literature several frameworks have been proposed for the meaning of questions[7].The logical type we have assigned to the yes/no questionsﬁnds its semantic motivation in the structured meaning approach (also called“categorial”),which traces back to Ajdukiewicz[1],as noticed in[10],and has been developed in[23,13].The basic idea which characterizes this approach is that:Question meanings are functions that,when applied to the meaning of the answer,yield a proposition.Yes/no questions expect answers like yes,no.In[13]it is suggested that no can be considered as a propositional operator that reverses the truth value,λp.¬p,and yes as a propositional operator that retains the truth value,i.e.the identity function:λp.p.Before going to discuss some examples,it is worth to notice the contribution the proof theoretical approach here assumed gives to the semantic investigation on ques-tions.The results we describe bring evidence to the correctness of the categorial approach and complete the framework with the syntatical conterpart.As pointed out in the beginning of the paper,at the heart of any categorial grammar analysis there is the Curry-Howard isomorphism between lambda terms and types.The former are used as semantic representation of the natural language expressions,and the latter as their sytactic type.Since the studies on questions are mostely related with their interpretation in this section we discuss the lambda term representation of the lexical items as well as their type assignments.We start from theﬁnal semantic representa-tion of yes-no questions and we then build the lexicon behind it.Let usﬁrst present the theory intuitively by means of an example with a polarity question.Example4.1Q Did Tarantino direct Titanic?λY.(Y((direct titanic)tarantino))A No.λp.¬pQ(A)By twice beta-reduction.¬((direct titanic)tarantino)Translating into the type language what we have treated so far,an auxiliary as did or didn’t will be a function which takes a sentence and yields a question.More speciﬁcally,did yields a question of theﬁrst level,whereas didn’t of the second one.4.INTERROGATIVES431 Now that the theory is clear,we can present the lambda terms formally.Weﬁrst show the desired lambda terms representing a wh-question,and then we give the lex-icon displaying both types and lambda terms for the items involved.Additionally,we introduce wh-phrases which give rise to the second type of questions when combined with theﬁrst one.As is explained in[24]wh-phrases diﬀer in the way they behave with respect to negation.This fact can be easily accounted for in our framework,thanks to the distinction between the two levels q1,q2for positive and negative questions.Following the criterion given in[13]and quoted above,we consider wh-questions to be functions taking an answer to yield a sentence.The type of the question therefore depends on the type of its possible answer.Let us consider what as an example.Example4.2Q What did Cameron direct?λY.(Yλx.((direct x)cameron))A TitanicλP.P(titanic)Q(A)By twice beta-reduction.((direct titanic)cameron)Translating this into the type language,we have that a wh-question is a function which takes a GQ and yields a sentence.We abbreviate this category with wh, knowing that wh=s/GQ,and add the following lexical entries to our lexicon:LexiconTarantino:np−tarantinoCameron:np−cameronTitanic:np−titanicno:s2→s2−λp.¬pdirect:(np\s)/np−λx.λy.((direct x)y)did:GQ→((np→s1)→q1)−λP.λQ.λR.(R(P Q))didn’t:GQ→((np→s1)→q2)−λP.λQ.λR.(R¬(P Q))what:wh/(np→q?)−λZ.λP.(Pλx.((Z x)(λU.U)))Notice that the lexical type of the auxiliary selects for a generalized quantiﬁer and a vp to produce a question.The GQ can be any of the three diﬀerent types we treated before.Therefore,the type selected by the auxiliary has to be general enough to satisfy this request.In other words,GQ is such that GQ1⇒GQ,GQ2⇒GQ and GQ3⇒GQ are all derivable.These logical properties are assured by GQ=(np→s1)→s3.The type assigned to what simply means that wh-phrases combined with a yes/no question missing an np result into a wh-question.In our language we have two diﬀerent types of yes/no questions.Before discussing which of them is requested by a wh-phrase we show a derivation of a wh-question.Notice that the type assigned to wh-phrases can account for cases where the answer is a simple proper name(e.g. Titanic),a set of proper names(e.g.Terminator,Aliens,Titanic)or a GQ(e.g.Several famous movies).432Generalized Quantiﬁers in Declarative and Interrogative SentencesExample4.3We give a proof of‘What did Cameron direct?’in Figure3on page432 1.Cameron:np−cameron Lex2.(Cameron◦v):s1−(V cameron)→E(1,2)4.z:np−z Hyp11.(direct◦z):np\s1−λy.((direct z)y)β(11)13.−(λQ.λR.(R(Q cameron))λy.((direct z)y))→E(8,12)14.−λR.(R((direct z)cameron))β(13)15.−λR.(R((direct z)cameron))q1,3(14)16.((did◦Cameron)◦direct):np→q3−λz.λR.(R((direct z)cameron))→I(10,15)17.what:wh/(np→q?)−λZ.λP.(Pλx.((Zx)(λU.U)))Lex18.(what◦((did◦Cameron)◦direct)):wh−(λZ.λP.(Pλx.((Z x)(λU.U)))λz.λR.(R((direct z)cameron)))/E(16,17)19.(what◦((did◦Cameron)◦direct)):wh−λP.(Pλx.((λz.λR.(R((direct z)cameron)))x)(λU.U))β(18)20.(what◦((did◦Cameron)◦direct)):wh−λP.(Pλx.((λR.(R((direct x)cameron)))(λU.U))β(19)21.(what◦((did◦Cameron)◦direct)):wh−λP.(Pλx.((λU.U)((direct x)cameron)))β(20)22.(what◦((did◦Cameron)◦direct)):wh−λP.(Pλx.((direct x)cameron))β(21)Fig.3.Derivation of what did Cameron directAs shown in the proof the type assigned to Cameron,viz.np has to be lifted to the one of GQ.Having chosen the type GQ derivable from GQ1,2,3,allows‘did’to be combined with either an arbitrary generalized quantiﬁer or a simple noun phrase. We are now ready to answer the open question of the previous paragraph:what is the type of the question taken as an argument by a wh-phrase?In[24]it is shown that wh-phrases diﬀer from each-other in the way they behave with respect to nega-tion.Szabolcsi and Zwart give algebraic motivations for this linguistic phenomenon whichﬁts naturally into our framework.Having distinguished positive and negative questions enables us to deal with contrasting pairs like what and how presented in Section2and repeated here.。

【必刷题】2024高一英语上册完形填空逻辑推理专项专题训练(含答案)

【必刷题】2024高一英语上册完形填空逻辑推理专项专题训练（含答案）试题部分一、选择题：1. In the first paragraph, the author mainly wants totell us that ______.A. logic reasoning is important in daily lifeB. logic reasoning is widely used in various fieldsC. logic reasoning can help us solve plex problemsD. logic reasoning is a skill that everyone should master2. According to the passage, which of the following is NOT a type of logic reasoning?A. Deductive reasoningB. Inductive reasoningC. Abductive reasoningD. Emotional reasoning3. When it es to solving a math problem, which type of reasoning is usually used?A. Deductive reasoningB. Inductive reasoningC. Abductive reasoningD. Analogical reasoning4. The passage mainly discusses ______.A. the importance of logic reasoningB. the types of logic reasoningC. how to apply logic reasoning in daily lifeD. the benefits of logic reasoning5. Which of the following sentences best describes the author's attitude towards logic reasoning?A. PraisefulB. CriticalC. IndifferentD. Objective6. In the second paragraph, the author mentions "For example, if all cats have four legs and Whiskers has four legs, then Whiskers is a cat." This is an example of ______.A. deductive reasoningB. inductive reasoningC. abductive reasoningD. analogical reasoning7. When using logic reasoning, which of the following is the most important?A. Making assumptionsB. Gathering evidenceC. Analyzing dataD. Drawing conclusions8. According to the passage, logic reasoning can help us ______.A. make better decisionsB. improve our memoryC. bee more imaginativeD. municate more effectively9. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a benefit of logic reasoning in the passage?A. Improving critical thinking skillsB. Enhancing problemsolving abilitiesC. Boosting creativityD. Developing munication skills10. In the last paragraph, the author suggests that we should ______.A. learn different types of logic reasoningB. practice logic reasoning in daily lifeC. read more books about logic reasoningD. attend logic reasoning training courses二、判断题：1. Logic reasoning is only used in academic fields. ( )2. Deductive reasoning always starts with specific information and leads to general conclusions. ( )3. Inductive reasoning is based on patterns and observations. ( )4. Abductive reasoning is a bination of deductive and inductive reasoning. ( )5. Emotional reasoning is a type of logic reasoning. ( )三、填空题：1. Logic reasoning is a process of ________ that involves the use of rational thought to deduce a conclusion from a set of premises.2. The two main types of reasoning are ________ reasoning and ________ reasoning.3. In a syllogism, the "major premise" is the statement that ________, while the "minor premise" is the statementthat ________.4. An example of inductive reasoning is when we observe specific instances and ________ a general principle.5. A logical fallacy occurs when the argument's logic is ________ and leads to a false or incorrect conclusion.6. The process of using known facts to reach a specific conclusion is known as ________ reasoning.7. When we use analogical reasoning, we pare two ________ to infer something about the ________.8. To strengthen a logical argument, it is important to provide ________ and ________ evidence.9. Critical thinking is a skill that involves analyzing, evaluating, and ________ information.10. One of the benefits of logic reasoning is that ithelps improve our ________ thinking skills.11. In a logical argument, the "conclusion" is the statement that is ________ to be true based on the premises.12. A valid argument is one where if the premises are true, then the ________ must also be true.13. The structure of a logical argument includes premises, ________, and logical ________.14. ________ reasoning is often used in mathematics and formal logic to prove theorems.15. An example of circular reasoning is when theconclusion is ________ in one of the premises.16. ________ reasoning is used to make predictions based on limited data or observations.17. The process of elimination is a strategy often usedin ________ reasoning to narrow down possible answers.18. A counterargument can be used to ________ thevalidity of an opposing viewpoint.19. ________ reasoning is based on the idea that if two things are similar in some respects, they will be similar in other respects as well.20. To avoid logical fallacies, it is important to________ assumptions and biases that could weaken the argument.四、简答题：1. Explain the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning.2. How does critical thinking relate to logic reasoning?3. What is a logical fallacy, and how can it affect an argument?4. Describe the steps involved in constructing a valid deductive argument.5. Give an example of how inductive reasoning is used in everyday life.6. What is the role of evidence in logic reasoning?7. How can analogical reasoning be used to solve problems?8. Explain the concept of a syllogism and provide an example.9. Why is it important to avoid emotional reasoning in logical discussions?10. Discuss the importance of logic reasoning in academic and professional settings.本套试题答案如下一、选择题：1. B2. D3. A4. A5. D6. A7. D8. A9. C10. B二、判断题：1. ×2. ×3. √4. ×5. ×三、填空题：1. inference2. deductive, inductive3. makes a general statement, makes a specific statement4. infer5. flawed6. deductive7. cases, case in question8. relevant, sufficient9. synthesizing10. critical11. claimed12. conclusion13. conclusion, connectors14. Deductive15. restated16. Inductive17. deductive18. challenge19. Analogical20. identify and eliminate四、简答题：1. Deductive reasoning starts with a general principle and moves to a specific conclusion, while inductive reasoning starts with specific observations and moves to a general conclusion.2. Critical thinking involves the evaluation and analysis of arguments, which is essential in logic reasoning to ensure that the conclusions are valid.3. A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that undermines the argument's validity; it can lead to false conclusions and weaken the argument's persuasive power.4. Identifying the major premise, stating the minor premise, and drawing the conclusion based on the relationship between the two premises.5. Observing that the sky is clear and predicting that it will not rain, based on past experiences.6. Evidence supports the premises and makes the argument more convincing and reliable.7. By identifying a known similarity between two situations and using that similarity to infer a similarity in another respect.8. A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning that consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Example: All mammals are warmblooded (major premise), a whale is a mammal (minor premise), therefore a whale is warmblooded (conclusion).9. Emotional reasoning can cloud judgment and lead to biased or illogical conclusions.10. Logic reasoning is essential for making wellreasoned decisions, solving plex problems, and effectively municating ideas in academic and professional contexts.。

专八英语阅读

英语专业八级考试TEM-8阅读理解练习册（1）(英语专业2012级)UNIT 1Text AEvery minute of every day, what ecologist生态学家James Carlton calls a global ―conveyor belt‖, redistributes ocean organisms生物.It’s planetwide biological disruption生物的破坏that scientists have barely begun to understand.Dr. Carlton —an oceanographer at Williams College in Williamstown,Mass.—explains that, at any given moment, ―There are several thousand marine species traveling… in the ballast water of ships.‖ These creatures move from coastal waters where they fit into the local web of life to places where some of them could tear that web apart. This is the larger dimension of the infamous无耻的，邪恶的invasion of fish-destroying, pipe-clogging zebra mussels有斑马纹的贻贝.Such voracious贪婪的invaders at least make their presence known. What concerns Carlton and his fellow marine ecologists is the lack of knowledge about the hundreds of alien invaders that quietly enter coastal waters around the world every day. Many of them probably just die out. Some benignly亲切地，仁慈地—or even beneficially — join the local scene. But some will make trouble.In one sense, this is an old story. Organisms have ridden ships for centuries. They have clung to hulls and come along with cargo. What’s new is the scale and speed of the migrations made possible by the massive volume of ship-ballast water压载水— taken in to provide ship stability—continuously moving around the world…Ships load up with ballast water and its inhabitants in coastal waters of one port and dump the ballast in another port that may be thousands of kilometers away. A single load can run to hundreds of gallons. Some larger ships take on as much as 40 million gallons. The creatures that come along tend to be in their larva free-floating stage. When discharged排出in alien waters they can mature into crabs, jellyfish水母, slugs鼻涕虫，蛞蝓, and many other forms.Since the problem involves coastal species, simply banning ballast dumps in coastal waters would, in theory, solve it. Coastal organisms in ballast water that is flushed into midocean would not survive. Such a ban has worked for North American Inland Waterway. But it would be hard to enforce it worldwide. Heating ballast water or straining it should also halt the species spread. But before any such worldwide regulations were imposed, scientists would need a clearer view of what is going on.The continuous shuffling洗牌of marine organisms has changed the biology of the sea on a global scale. It can have devastating effects as in the case of the American comb jellyfish that recently invaded the Black Sea. It has destroyed that sea’s anchovy鳀鱼fishery by eating anchovy eggs. It may soon spread to western and northern European waters.The maritime nations that created the biological ―conveyor belt‖ should support a coordinated international effort to find out what is going on and what should be done about it. (456 words)1.According to Dr. Carlton, ocean organism‟s are_______.A.being moved to new environmentsB.destroying the planetC.succumbing to the zebra musselD.developing alien characteristics2.Oceanographers海洋学家are concerned because_________.A.their knowledge of this phenomenon is limitedB.they believe the oceans are dyingC.they fear an invasion from outer-spaceD.they have identified thousands of alien webs3.According to marine ecologists, transplanted marinespecies____________.A.may upset the ecosystems of coastal watersB.are all compatible with one anotherC.can only survive in their home watersD.sometimes disrupt shipping lanes4.The identified cause of the problem is_______.A.the rapidity with which larvae matureB. a common practice of the shipping industryC. a centuries old speciesD.the world wide movement of ocean currents5.The article suggests that a solution to the problem__________.A.is unlikely to be identifiedB.must precede further researchC.is hypothetically假设地，假想地easyD.will limit global shippingText BNew …Endangered‟ List Targets Many US RiversIt is hard to think of a major natural resource or pollution issue in North America today that does not affect rivers.Farm chemical runoff残渣, industrial waste, urban storm sewers, sewage treatment, mining, logging, grazing放牧,military bases, residential and business development, hydropower水力发电,loss of wetlands. The list goes on.Legislation like the Clean Water Act and Wild and Scenic Rivers Act have provided some protection, but threats continue.The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported yesterday that an assessment of 642,000 miles of rivers and streams showed 34 percent in less than good condition. In a major study of the Clean Water Act, the Natural Resources Defense Council last fall reported that poison runoff impairs损害more than 125,000 miles of rivers.More recently, the NRDC and Izaak Walton League warned that pollution and loss of wetlands—made worse by last year’s flooding—is degrading恶化the Mississippi River ecosystem.On Tuesday, the conservation group保护组织American Rivers issued its annual list of 10 ―endangered‖ and 20 ―threatened‖ rivers in 32 states, the District of Colombia, and Canada.At the top of the list is the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River, whereCanadian mining firms plan to build a 74-acre英亩reservoir水库，蓄水池as part of a gold mine less than three miles from Yellowstone National Park. The reservoir would hold the runoff from the sulfuric acid 硫酸used to extract gold from crushed rock.―In the event this tailings pond failed, the impact to th e greater Yellowstone ecosystem would be cataclysmic大变动的，灾难性的and the damage irreversible不可逆转的.‖ Sen. Max Baucus of Montana, chairman of the Environment and Public Works Committee, wrote to Noranda Minerals Inc., an owner of the ― New World Mine‖.Last fall, an EPA official expressed concern about the mine and its potential impact, especially the plastic-lined storage reservoir. ― I am unaware of any studies evaluating how a tailings pond尾矿池，残渣池could be maintained to ensure its structural integrity forev er,‖ said Stephen Hoffman, chief of the EPA’s Mining Waste Section. ―It is my opinion that underwater disposal of tailings at New World may present a potentially significant threat to human health and the environment.‖The results of an environmental-impact statement, now being drafted by the Forest Service and Montana Department of State Lands, could determine the mine’s future…In its recent proposal to reauthorize the Clean Water Act, the Clinton administration noted ―dramatically improved water quality since 1972,‖ when the act was passed. But it also reported that 30 percent of riverscontinue to be degraded, mainly by silt泥沙and nutrients from farm and urban runoff, combined sewer overflows, and municipal sewage城市污水. Bottom sediments沉积物are contaminated污染in more than 1,000 waterways, the administration reported in releasing its proposal in January. Between 60 and 80 percent of riparian corridors (riverbank lands) have been degraded.As with endangered species and their habitats in forests and deserts, the complexity of ecosystems is seen in rivers and the effects of development----beyond the obvious threats of industrial pollution, municipal waste, and in-stream diversions改道to slake消除the thirst of new communities in dry regions like the Southwes t…While there are many political hurdles障碍ahead, reauthorization of the Clean Water Act this year holds promise for US rivers. Rep. Norm Mineta of California, who chairs the House Committee overseeing the bill, calls it ―probably the most important env ironmental legislation this Congress will enact.‖ (553 words)6.According to the passage, the Clean Water Act______.A.has been ineffectiveB.will definitely be renewedC.has never been evaluatedD.was enacted some 30 years ago7.“Endangered” rivers are _________.A.catalogued annuallyB.less polluted than ―threatened rivers‖C.caused by floodingD.adjacent to large cities8.The “cataclysmic” event referred to in paragraph eight would be__________.A. fortuitous偶然的，意外的B. adventitious外加的，偶然的C. catastrophicD. precarious不稳定的，危险的9. The owners of the New World Mine appear to be______.A. ecologically aware of the impact of miningB. determined to construct a safe tailings pondC. indifferent to the concerns voiced by the EPAD. willing to relocate operations10. The passage conveys the impression that_______.A. Canadians are disinterested in natural resourcesB. private and public environmental groups aboundC. river banks are erodingD. the majority of US rivers are in poor conditionText CA classic series of experiments to determine the effects ofoverpopulation on communities of rats was reported in February of 1962 in an article in Scientific American. The experiments were conducted by a psychologist, John B. Calhoun and his associates. In each of these experiments, an equal number of male and female adult rats were placed in an enclosure and given an adequate supply of food, water, and other necessities. The rat populations were allowed to increase. Calhoun knew from experience approximately how many rats could live in the enclosures without experiencing stress due to overcrowding. He allowed the population to increase to approximately twice this number. Then he stabilized the population by removing offspring that were not dependent on their mothers. He and his associates then carefully observed and recorded behavior in these overpopulated communities. At the end of their experiments, Calhoun and his associates were able to conclude that overcrowding causes a breakdown in the normal social relationships among rats, a kind of social disease. The rats in the experiments did not follow the same patterns of behavior as rats would in a community without overcrowding.The females in the rat population were the most seriously affected by the high population density: They showed deviant异常的maternal behavior; they did not behave as mother rats normally do. In fact, many of the pups幼兽，幼崽, as rat babies are called, died as a result of poor maternal care. For example, mothers sometimes abandoned their pups,and, without their mothers' care, the pups died. Under normal conditions, a mother rat would not leave her pups alone to die. However, the experiments verified that in overpopulated communities, mother rats do not behave normally. Their behavior may be considered pathologically 病理上，病理学地diseased.The dominant males in the rat population were the least affected by overpopulation. Each of these strong males claimed an area of the enclosure as his own. Therefore, these individuals did not experience the overcrowding in the same way as the other rats did. The fact that the dominant males had adequate space in which to live may explain why they were not as seriously affected by overpopulation as the other rats. However, dominant males did behave pathologically at times. Their antisocial behavior consisted of attacks on weaker male,female, and immature rats. This deviant behavior showed that even though the dominant males had enough living space, they too were affected by the general overcrowding in the enclosure.Non-dominant males in the experimental rat communities also exhibited deviant social behavior. Some withdrew completely; they moved very little and ate and drank at times when the other rats were sleeping in order to avoid contact with them. Other non-dominant males were hyperactive; they were much more active than is normal, chasing other rats and fighting each other. This segment of the rat population, likeall the other parts, was affected by the overpopulation.The behavior of the non-dominant males and of the other components of the rat population has parallels in human behavior. People in densely populated areas exhibit deviant behavior similar to that of the rats in Calhoun's experiments. In large urban areas such as New York City, London, Mexican City, and Cairo, there are abandoned children. There are cruel, powerful individuals, both men and women. There are also people who withdraw and people who become hyperactive. The quantity of other forms of social pathology such as murder, rape, and robbery also frequently occur in densely populated human communities. Is the principal cause of these disorders overpopulation? Calhoun’s experiments suggest that it might be. In any case, social scientists and city planners have been influenced by the results of this series of experiments.11. Paragraph l is organized according to__________.A. reasonsB. descriptionC. examplesD. definition12．Calhoun stabilized the rat population_________.A. when it was double the number that could live in the enclosure without stressB. by removing young ratsC. at a constant number of adult rats in the enclosureD. all of the above are correct13.W hich of the following inferences CANNOT be made from theinformation inPara. 1?A. Calhoun's experiment is still considered important today.B. Overpopulation causes pathological behavior in rat populations.C. Stress does not occur in rat communities unless there is overcrowding.D. Calhoun had experimented with rats before.14. Which of the following behavior didn‟t happen in this experiment?A. All the male rats exhibited pathological behavior.B. Mother rats abandoned their pups.C. Female rats showed deviant maternal behavior.D. Mother rats left their rat babies alone.15. The main idea of the paragraph three is that __________.A. dominant males had adequate living spaceB. dominant males were not as seriously affected by overcrowding as the otherratsC. dominant males attacked weaker ratsD. the strongest males are always able to adapt to bad conditionsText DThe first mention of slavery in the statutes法令，法规of the English colonies of North America does not occur until after 1660—some forty years after the importation of the first Black people. Lest we think that existed in fact before it did in law, Oscar and Mary Handlin assure us, that the status of B lack people down to the 1660’s was that of servants. A critique批判of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660’s suggests that assumptions about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanation for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.The Handlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that, during the 1660’s, the position of white servants was improving relative to that of black servants. Thus, the Handlins contend, Black and White servants, heretofore treated alike, each attained a different status. There are, however, important objections to this argument. First, the Handlins cannot adequately demonstrate that t he White servant’s position was improving, during and after the 1660’s; several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures indicate otherwise. Another flaw in the Handlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against Black people. It is true that before the 1660’s Black people were rarely called slaves. But this shouldnot overshadow evidence from the 1630’s on that points to racial discrimination without using the term slavery. Such discrimination sometimes stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status—the two attributes of true slavery—yet in other cases it included both. The Handlins’ argument excludes the real possibility that Black people in the English colonies were never treated as the equals of White people.The possibility has important ramifications后果，影响.If from the outset Black people were discriminated against, then legal slavery should be viewed as a reflection and an extension of racial prejudice rather than, as many historians including the Handlins have argued, the cause of prejudice. In addition, the existence of discrimination before the advent of legal slavery offers a further explanation for the harsher treatment of Black slaves in North than in South America. Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality— explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. But this cannot be the whole explanation since it is merely negative, based only on a lack of something. A more compelling令人信服的explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed. (462 words)16. Which of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage about the effects of “several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures” (Para.2) passed during and after the 1660‟s?A. The acts negatively affected the pre-1660’s position of Black as wellas of White servants.B. The acts had the effect of impairing rather than improving theposition of White servants relative to what it had been before the 1660’s.C. The acts had a different effect on the position of white servants thandid many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.D. The acts, at the very least, caused the position of White servants toremain no better than it had been before the 1660’s.17. With which of the following statements regarding the status ofBlack people in the English colonies of North America before the 1660‟s would the author be LEAST likely to agree?A. Although black people were not legally considered to be slaves,they were often called slaves.B. Although subject to some discrimination, black people had a higherlegal status than they did after the 1660’s.C. Although sometimes subject to lifetime servitude, black peoplewere not legally considered to be slaves.D. Although often not treated the same as White people, black people,like many white people, possessed the legal status of servants.18. According to the passage, the Handlins have argued which of thefollowing about the relationship between racial prejudice and the institution of legal slavery in the English colonies of North America?A. Racial prejudice and the institution of slavery arose simultaneously.B. Racial prejudice most often the form of the imposition of inheritedstatus, one of the attributes of slavery.C. The source of racial prejudice was the institution of slavery.D. Because of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, racialprejudice sometimes did not result in slavery.19. The passage suggests that the existence of a Roman conception ofslavery in Spanish and Portuguese colonies had the effect of _________.A. extending rather than causing racial prejudice in these coloniesB. hastening the legalization of slavery in these colonies.C. mitigating some of the conditions of slavery for black people in these coloniesD. delaying the introduction of slavery into the English colonies20. The author considers the explanation put forward by Freyre andTannenbaum for the treatment accorded B lack slaves in the English colonies of North America to be _____________.A. ambitious but misguidedB. valid有根据的but limitedC. popular but suspectD. anachronistic过时的，时代错误的and controversialUNIT 2Text AThe sea lay like an unbroken mirror all around the pine-girt, lonely shores of Orr’s Island. Tall, kingly spruce s wore their regal王室的crowns of cones high in air, sparkling with diamonds of clear exuded gum流出的树胶; vast old hemlocks铁杉of primeval原始的growth stood darkling in their forest shadows, their branches hung with long hoary moss久远的青苔;while feathery larches羽毛般的落叶松,turned to brilliant gold by autumn frosts, lighted up the darker shadows of the evergreens. It was one of those hazy朦胧的, calm, dissolving days of Indian summer, when everything is so quiet that the fainest kiss of the wave on the beach can be heard, and white clouds seem to faint into the blue of the sky, and soft swathing一长条bands of violet vapor make all earth look dreamy, and give to the sharp, clear-cut outlines of the northern landscape all those mysteries of light and shade which impart such tenderness to Italian scenery.The funeral was over,--- the tread鞋底的花纹/ 踏of many feet, bearing the heavy burden of two broken lives, had been to the lonely graveyard, and had come back again,--- each footstep lighter and more unconstrained不受拘束的as each one went his way from the great old tragedy of Death to the common cheerful of Life.The solemn black clock stood swaying with its eternal ―tick-tock, tick-tock,‖ in the kitchen of the brown house on Orr’s Island. There was there that sense of a stillness that can be felt,---such as settles down on a dwelling住处when any of its inmates have passed through its doors for the last time, to go whence they shall not return. The best room was shut up and darkened, with only so much light as could fall through a little heart-shaped hole in the window-shutter,---for except on solemn visits, or prayer-meetings or weddings, or funerals, that room formed no part of the daily family scenery.The kitchen was clean and ample, hearth灶台, and oven on one side, and rows of old-fashioned splint-bottomed chairs against the wall. A table scoured to snowy whiteness, and a little work-stand whereon lay the Bible, the Missionary Herald, and the Weekly Christian Mirror, before named, formed the principal furniture. One feature, however, must not be forgotten, ---a great sea-chest水手用的储物箱,which had been the companion of Zephaniah through all the countries of the earth. Old, and battered破旧的，磨损的, and unsightly难看的it looked, yet report said that there was good store within which men for the most part respect more than anything else; and, indeed it proved often when a deed of grace was to be done--- when a woman was suddenly made a widow in a coast gale大风，狂风, or a fishing-smack小渔船was run down in the fogs off the banks, leaving in some neighboring cottage a family of orphans,---in all such cases, the opening of this sea-chest was an event of good omen 预兆to the bereaved丧亲者;for Zephaniah had a large heart and a large hand, and was apt有…的倾向to take it out full of silver dollars when once it went in. So the ark of the covenant约柜could not have been looked on with more reverence崇敬than the neighbours usually showed to Captain Pennel’s sea-chest.1. The author describes Orr‟s Island in a(n)______way.A.emotionally appealing, imaginativeB.rational, logically preciseC.factually detailed, objectiveD.vague, uncertain2.According to the passage, the “best room”_____.A.has its many windows boarded upB.has had the furniture removedC.is used only on formal and ceremonious occasionsD.is the busiest room in the house3.From the description of the kitchen we can infer that thehouse belongs to people who_____.A.never have guestsB.like modern appliancesC.are probably religiousD.dislike housework4.The passage implies that_______.A.few people attended the funeralB.fishing is a secure vocationC.the island is densely populatedD.the house belonged to the deceased5.From the description of Zephaniah we can see thathe_________.A.was physically a very big manB.preferred the lonely life of a sailorC.always stayed at homeD.was frugal and saved a lotText BBasic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country' s impressive population growth. For every three Canadians in 1945, there were over five in 1966. In September 1966 Canada's population passed the 20 million mark. Most of this surging growth came from natural increase. The depression of the 1930s and the war had held back marriages, and the catching-up process began after 1945. The baby boom continued through the decade of the 1950s, producing a population increase of nearly fifteen percent in the five years from 1951 to 1956. This rate of increase had been exceeded only once before in Canada's history, in the decade before 1911 when the prairies were being settled. Undoubtedly, the good economic conditions of the 1950s supported a growth in the population, but the expansion also derived from a trend toward earlier marriages and an increase in the average size of families; In 1957 the Canadian birth rate stood at 28 per thousand, one of the highest in the world. After the peak year of 1957, thebirth rate in Canada began to decline. It continued falling until in 1966 it stood at the lowest level in 25 years. Partly this decline reflected the low level of births during the depression and the war, but it was also caused by changes in Canadian society. Young people were staying at school longer, more women were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families. It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through theWestern world since the time of the Industrial Revolution. Although the growth in Canada’s population had slowed down by 1966 (the cent), another increase in the first half of the 1960s was only nine percent), another large population wave was coming over the horizon. It would be composed of the children of the children who were born during the period of the high birth rate prior to 1957.6. What does the passage mainly discuss?A. Educational changes in Canadian society.B. Canada during the Second World War.C. Population trends in postwar Canada.D. Standards of living in Canada.7. According to the passage, when did Canada's baby boom begin?A. In the decade after 1911.B. After 1945.C. During the depression of the 1930s.D. In 1966.8. The author suggests that in Canada during the 1950s____________.A. the urban population decreased rapidlyB. fewer people marriedC. economic conditions were poorD. the birth rate was very high9. When was the birth rate in Canada at its lowest postwar level?A. 1966.B. 1957.C. 1956.D. 1951.10. The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines inpopulation growth after 1957 EXCEPT_________________.A. people being better educatedB. people getting married earlierC. better standards of livingD. couples buying houses11.I t can be inferred from the passage that before the IndustrialRevolution_______________.A. families were largerB. population statistics were unreliableC. the population grew steadilyD. economic conditions were badText CI was just a boy when my father brought me to Harlem for the first time, almost 50 years ago. We stayed at the hotel Theresa, a grand brick structure at 125th Street and Seventh avenue. Once, in the hotel restaurant, my father pointed out Joe Louis. He even got Mr. Brown, the hotel manager, to introduce me to him, a bit punchy强力的but still champ焦急as fast as I was concerned.Much has changed since then. Business and real estate are booming. Some say a new renaissance is under way. Others decry责难what they see as outside forces running roughshod肆意践踏over the old Harlem. New York meant Harlem to me, and as a young man I visited it whenever I could. But many of my old haunts are gone. The Theresa shut down in 1966. National chains that once ignored Harlem now anticipate yuppie money and want pieces of this prime Manhattan real estate. So here I am on a hot August afternoon, sitting in a Starbucks that two years ago opened a block away from the Theresa, snatching抓取，攫取at memories between sips of high-priced coffee. I am about to open up a piece of the old Harlem---the New York Amsterdam News---when a tourist。

Managing regulatory expectations throughout the product life cycle

Managing regulatory expectations throughout the product lifecycleTom Sam PhD MBMtoms@mpharma.euICH reform (2015) leads toenhanced expectations forglobal harmonizationName change: International Council for Harmonisation of technical requirements for pharmaceuticals for human useVirtual inauguration took place on October 23rd, 2015.ICH Assembly took place in Jacksonville Florida, Dec. 5-10, 2015, and in Lisbon, Portugal, June 11-16, 2016.Governance and transparency: Improve transparency and openness of ICH and its processesStructure: ICH Assembly – overarching bodyManagement Committee – is in charge of administrative mattersMembership: Assembly – includes drug regulatory authorities and international pharmaceutical industryassociations, who apply to become an ICH Member and meet the eligibility criteria ◦Observers – includes authorities and organizations that are not (or not yet) eligible foror interested in becoming ICH MembersInternational outreach: Increase participation of other regulators and affected global industry sectorsPermanent members: Founding members: US FDA, EU, PMDA/MHLW, PhRMA, EFPIA, JPMA◦ Standing members: Health Canada, Swiss MedicOther members: Standing observers: WHO, IFPMAFirst observers under the new rule: SADC, GCC, ANVISA, PANDRH, APECSource: ICH Public Meeting, May 6, 2016ICH Quality GuidelinesEnabler Quality Risk Management (ICH Q9)Common Technical Document (CTD)(ICH M4Q, eCTD: ICH M8)Systems- Pharmaceutical Quality System (ICH Q10) - GMP for APIs (ICH Q7)- Analytical Validation (ICH Q2) - Life Cycle Management (ICH Q12)Process- Development & Manuf. of APIs (ICH Q11) - Pharmaceutical Development (ICH Q8) - Biotechnological Products (ICH Q5A-E)Product- Specifications (ICH Q6A-B) - Pharmacopoeias (ICH Q4)- Impurities (ICH Q3A-D & ICH M7) - Stability (ICH Q1A-F) Patient 3Courtesy: S. RoenningerQuality by DesignCurrent ICH “Q” ActivitiesQ3C – Guideline for Residual Solvents Q3D – Guideline on Elemental Impurities Q11 – Q&As: Selection andJustification for Starting Materials for the Manufacture of Drug Substances Q12 – Technical and Regulatory Considerations for Pharmaceutical Product Lifecycle Management M4Q – Addressing CTD-Q Related Questions/Change Requests Raised by eCTD-------------------------------------------------ICH-M: BCS-based Biowaivers ICH-M: Bioanalytical method validationPharmaceutical Quality Enabler: Knowledge Management as part ofSystem (ICH Q10) Quality Risk Management (ICH Q9)Development of Drug (medicinal)product(P2 part of CTD) ICH Q8(R2)-Part IDevelopmentofAnalytical methodsbased on ICH Q6a/bLife Cycle ManagementICH Q12Framework ofPharmaceutical developmentICH Q8(R2)-Part II: AnnexDevelopment and Manufacture of Drug substances(S2 part of CTD)ICH Q11Courtesy: S. RoenningerIndustrial Product Life Cycle Management has many dimensions and aspects- Environment – see e.g. carbon footprint and ISO 14040- Analytics- Manufacturing- Supply and Logistics- Cost and profit- Therapeutic value added to the patient- RegulatoryIn this presentation we focus on the regulatory aspects ofLifecycle Management of Product Quality, on product quality life cycle management.Product quality lifecycle management encompasses1. the regulatory dossier and regulatory commitments for manufacture and control2. the pharmaceutical quality system and its risk/change/knowledge management components3. the use of post-approval change management plans and protocolsRegulatory quality expectations for the pharmaceutical product:1. Developed with the patient in mind2. Manufactured with appropriate apparatus and robust processes with adequate control3. Manufactured under GMP and distributed under GDPHow can this be achieved?Lifecycle: All phases in the life of a product from the initial developmentthrough marketing until the product’s discontinuation. (ICH-Q8)Pharmaceutical Development Modern pharmaceuticaldevelopment employsQuality by Design conceptsas described in ICH-Q8:o starting by defining theQuality Target ProductProfile ando using science and riskbased approaches ando knowledge management.9drug substanceexcipientspackagingA.P . Sam, Optimising the therapeutic trinity of active ingredient, delivery system and functional packaging, J Controlled Release 87 (2003) 153-157Patient @ center employs the therapeutic trinity to optimize value for the patientPatient stratification:o Age groups e.g. pediatric patients, elderlyo Disease groups with specificimpairments e.g. arthrose patients o Individual patients with need for personalized medicineUse benefit/risk approaches to select the most appropriatepharmaceutical dosage form for the targeted patient populationTom Sam, Terry B. Ernest, Jennifer Walsh, Julie L. Williams, A benefit/risk approach towards selecting appropriate pharmaceutical dosage forms – An application for paediatric dosage form selection. Int. J. Pharm. 435, 2, 5 October 2012, 115–123Select appropriate mfg processes and adequate control over all Quality Systems during the entire lifecyleLayers of manufacturing processes to be governed by good manufacturing practices:1.Processing of API,excipients and packaging into a Drug Product (PQS,ICH-Q10)2.Processing of starting materials into API (ICH-Q7),excipients, and packaging3.Processing of API starting materials (ICH-Q11 Q&A),excipient starting materials and packaging starting materialsRegulatory EnvironmentThe ICH Q7 document is intended to be read in its entirety regardless of the nature of the manufacturing activities being conducted to fully understand the linkages between certain sections and successfully implement appropriate GMPs at all stages of the API supply chain, includingdistribution.GMP for APIsICH Q7, 2001ICH Q7 Q&A,2015ICH Q7 Q&A, Introduction, 201513Knowledge Management Quality Risk ManagementPQS enablersProcess Performance & Product Quality Monitoring SystemCorrective Action / Preventive Action / CAPA System Change Management SystemManagement Review PQS elements Management ResponsibilitiesPharmaceutical DevelopmentTechnology TransferCommercial ManufacturingProduct DiscontinuationInvestigational productsPharmaceutical Quality SystemGMPSource: ICH Q10The Pharmaceutical Quality System encompasses all stages of the Product Lifecycle including all changesChange managementChange Control (WHO, EU GMP)A formal system by which qualified representatives ofappropriate disciplines review proposed or actual changesthat might affect the validated status of facilities, systems,equipment or processes. The intent is to determine the needfor action that would ensure and document that the systemis maintained in a validated state.Change Management (ICH Q10)A systematic approach to proposing, evaluating, approving,implementing and reviewing changes.Variation (EU) (regulatory change)An amendment to the contents of the marketingauthorisation for a medicinal product.ICH-Q9Keeping a process in its validated state requires a Lifecycle ApproachTraditional:Based largely univariant and empirical approach to developmentThree validation lotsNot a lot of emphasis on material variabilityUtilizes proactive process monitoring/PAT for trending/continuous verificationContinuous proactive improvement (we are always learning) Process Validation Lifecycle Approach:A holistic QbD lifecycle approach to developmentsupports a robust validation.Uni/multi variantUse of modeling toolsUse of prior knowledgeLeverages control strategy implementationUtilizes proactive process monitoring/PAT for trending/ continuous verificationRegulatory agencies are emphasizing the need for a more thorough understanding of product and process prior to validation.Process Validation requires Lifecycle Management due to accommodate process changesGrace E. McNally, FDAProcess Design Process Qualification Continued VerificationStage 1 Process DesignProcess Performance Qualification (PPQ)Design of Facilities & Qualification of Equipment and UtilitiesStage 2Process Qualification (PQ)Evaluate / ConfirmStage 3Continued Process VerificationDistributeChange during the Product Lifecycle Pharmaceutical DevelopmentInvestigational ProductsChange is an inherent part of the development process and its documention is good scientific practiceChanges could be incorporated in and tracked through the development planThe formality of application of the change management process should be consistentwith the stage of pharmaceutical development: clin phase III > clin phase II > clin phase I Investigational products are subject to formal change management - adapt EU Product Specification File and Investigational Medicinal Product Dossier (IMPD)Changes can potentially impact on INDs/CTAs– notification of competent authorities(if applicable)Change during the Product Lifecycle Technology TransferTechnology Transfer may take place at different points in the lifecycle e.g.- prior to phase III clinical manufacture,- post-approval to additional or alternative manufacturing site, and- to contract manufacturing partners.Technology Transfer forms the basis for commercial manufacturing and supply and stronglybenefits from QbD practice.GMP standards for Technology Transfer when close to or equal to commercial manufacture requiers full application of the change management systemChanges could be part of the Technology Transfer planNeed to consider impact on emerging or approved regulatory filings since Technology Transfer may trigger the need for many changes in the registration file.Impact on existing facilities (if not new build or dedicated)Utilization of QbD ensures a robust Technology TransferForm a diverse/skilled and collaborative development teamReview the process flow diagram for key inputs/outputs that could impact quality (QRM)Uni/multi variant experiments should have been completed to study relationships and gain information on potential sources of variability. (need to know where quality could be impacted) Make sure you understand your measurement capability (i.e. repeatability, precision)Critical Process Parameters (CPPs), Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) and other important parameters are identifiedDesign space should be defined and understood consisting of a set of input ranges (CPPs) that provide high probability that CQAs will meet specification.A control strategy needs to be in place to assure focus on critical pointsTech Transfer between sitesTech Transfer risk assessment Richard Dennett, Modern Technology Transfer Strategies for Biopharmaceutical Companies, BioProcess Int. 2015Change during the Product Lifecycle Commercial ManufactureFull GMP standards apply as is full application of change managementExtent of markets supplied and different GMP requirements need to beconsidered during change management to evaluate the impact on regulatory filings.Impact of change on upstream activities e.g. component and raw materialsuppliesImpact of change on on downstream activities e.g. subsequent manufacturing packaging and distribution stepsImpact on Control StrategyControl Strategy is thequintessential element of QbDA planned set of controls,derived from current product and process understanding,that assures process performance and product quality.The controls can include- parameters and attributes related todrug substance and drug product materials and components,- facility and equipment operating conditions,- in-process controls,- finished product specifications, and the associated methods and frequency of monitoring and control.Control over the Control Strategy must be managed during the entire product lifecycle Pre-approval phase Approval phase Post-approval phaseJ. Piriou et al, Control Strategy as the Keystone of the Product Lifecycle, from Product/ Process Understanding to Continuous Process Veri •cation and Improvement, Pharm. Eng, 2012CHANGESWhere are we inthe Life Cycle ofthe concept of Quality by Design?Quality life cycle element, as defined in thefollowing:1. Adoption: the implementation stage of a newquality initiative.2. Regeneration: when a new quality initiative isused in conjunction with an existing one togenerate new energy and impact.3. Energizing: when an existing quality initiativeis refocused and given new resources.4. Maturation: when quality is strategicallyaligned and deployed across the organization.5. Limitation or stagnation: when quality hasnot been strategically driven or aligned.6. Decline: When a quality management system(QMS) has had a limited impact, initiatives arefailing and the QMS is awaiting termination.Denis Leonard and Rodney McAdam, Quality’sSix Life Cycle Stages, AUGUST 2003 I QbD Life CycleThe science and risk-based QbD approach needs energizing to provide Health Authorities, the pharmaceutical industry and patients with the benefits.Despite ICH Q8 – Q11,in daily practice QbD did notdeliver regulatory flexibility andcontinual product and process improvement. ICH-Q9ICH-Q10 ICH-Q8 / ICH-Q11 Pre-approval phase Approval phase Post-approval phaseChange during the Product LifecycleChange management often is a major hurdle to achieve continual improvements during the latter parts of the product lifecycle:- non-harmonized between ICH-regions and beyond !- assessment of impact of change varies both in risk and in time- no agreement on use of comparability protocol- no agreement how to define regulatory change in registration file- differences in task division between assessors and inspectorsGlobal Change Management is complex The inefficient, non-harmonized changemanagement process spills regulatorycapacity both from the side of HAs andcompanies, obstructs continualimprovement and, most seriously,let patients suffer.ICH members EUEFPIAFDAPhRMAMHLW/PMDA JPMAHealth Canada Swissmedic Observers WHOAPICBIOANVISADoH of Chinese TaipeiIGPADRA of Singapore WSMIICH Q12 Expert WGWhere are we inthe Life Cycle ofthe concept of Quality by Design?Quality life cycle element, as defined in thefollowing:1. Adoption: the implementation stage of a newquality initiative.2. Regeneration: when a new quality initiative isused in conjunction with an existing one togenerate new energy and impact.3. Energizing: when an existing quality initiativeis refocused and given new resources.4. Maturation: when quality is strategicallyaligned and deployed across the organization.5. Limitation or stagnation: when quality hasnot been strategically driven or aligned.6. Decline: When a quality management system(QMS) has had a limited impact, initiatives arefailing and the QMS is awaiting termination.Denis Leonard and Rodney McAdam, Quality’sSix Life Cycle Stages, AUGUST 2003 I QbD Life CycleThe science and risk-based QbD approach needs energizing to provideHealth Authorities, the pharmaceutical industry and patients with the benefits. Energizing is achieved at least partially by expanding the ICH communityand involve organizations like ANVISA, and by introducing new standards like ICH Q12.Regarding the Regulatory Dossier the ICH-Q12 IWG willo Explore the development of a harmonised approach to “regulatorycommitments” for inclusion in the guideline.Such approaches could enable post approval changes that facilitatecontinual improvement and encourage the adoption of innovative technologies. o Delineate the appropriate level of detail and information necessary for regulatory assessment and inspection in the dossier,in order to create a more enabling post approval change management system. Concept Paper ICH Q12, dated 28 July 2014Regarding Pharmaceutical Quality System aspects the ICH-Q12 IWG willo Establish criteria for a harmonised risk-based change management system based on product, process and/or clinical knowledgethat effectively evaluates the impact of change on quality, and, as applicable to safety and efficacy.o Clarify expectations and reinforce the need to maintain aknowledge management system that ensurescontinuity of product and process information over the product lifecycle.Concept Paper ICH Q12, dated 28 July 2014Regarding Post-Approval Change Management Plans and Protocols the ICH-Q12 IWG willo Introducea) the concept of a post-approval management plan that can be usedto proactively identify post-approval changes andb) the mechanism to submit and assess these changes by regulatoryauthorities (Assessors and Inspectors)o Establish criteria for post-approval change management protocolsthat can be adopted by the ICH regions(enabling a harmonised proactive approach for lifecycle management)o Encourage enhanced product development and control strategy approaches(Quality by Design (QbD))providing opportunities for scientific and risk based foundations for post-approvalchange management plans.Concept Paper ICH Q12, dated 28 July 2014Figure: Lifecycle Management workshop EMA, London, 28-29 October 2015underdiscussionDealing with changesaccording to ICH Q12 1. Established and non-establishedconditions ?2. Pre-approval changemanagement plan?Product Development and Lifecycle Strategy PDLS is summary of:- product development- control strategy- proposed established conditions - proposed regulatory regulatory filing for future changes (optional?)Can also be used to develop and use PACMPs, which will provide manufacturers the opportunity to propose how to manage future mfg changes, rather then wait, submit and discuss with HAs. under discussionChange is beautiful …. a strong need to adapt the current state of immobility!In the current regulatory climate everybody hates to change:o companies try to avoid change because of the immense regulatory burden it creates o regulators because of uncertainty and lack of trusto the registration file is considered a locked down contract at the time of approval To avoid current hick-ups for patients such as drug shortages and inefficienciesfor companies we have to realize thato change is fundamental to quality improvemento the registration file is no end product, but a document that should facilitate change o the registration process should support making changesIf change is crucial for the patient, the health system and the companies …..Let companies take full responsibility to handle changes within their Quality System including change management and CAPALet companies be monitored and inspected for adequacy of their Quality System, their Quality Culture and Processing Capability (metrics)Enable the registration file to be equipped for changeLet Health Authorities align using risk based principles for regulatory change managementMy conclusionsThe ICH organization is reinventing itself and the new ICH process deserves to be owned by all global pharmaceutical organizations, including ANVISA.In the CMC area Quality by Design is the way forward, since it is based on science and risk, rather then ‘case by case’ and it enables continual improvement.Continual improvement is needed to maintain and increase quality of products and processes; change therefore needs to be facilitated e.g. by introducing Pre-Approval Change Management Protocols, and by dealing with changes more in a ‘Do first and Tell later’ mode.Lifecycle approaches are needed to ‘close the loop’ and ‘avoid loose ends’. Solutions should work throughout all stages from development till discontinuation.It is important that pharmaceutical industry is given full responsibility for quality over the entire lifecycle, including changes of product design, manufacturing process including control strategy, and analytics, be it with adequate oversight from health authorities.Moving to Do and tell, where possible ….Let’s use the ICH QbD standardization process to bring even better quality medicines to our patients !!Quality by DesignMedicines withimprovedQuality。

历年配比词汇

托福考试历年词汇真题1995.8Inaccessible 难以接近的：unreachableExtracting 提取，提炼：removingStrength 基础：basisSurging 激增，迅速上升：acceleratingTrend 倾向，趋势：tendencyPeak 最高点，最高峰：maximumPrior to 在前，局先：precedingAdvocates 提倡者，赞成者：proponents Unsubstantiated 无确实根据的，未经证实的：unverifiedMaintain 维持：preserveConsiderable 极其，相当，大量：substantial Enactment 制定，执行：performanceStaggering 令人惊愕的：overwhelmingDevastated 毁坏：ruinedDemonstrate 证明，示威：showedExtend 延伸，扩展：stretchVast 巨大的，辽阔的：largeSparked 发动，鼓舞：brought aboutPotential 潜在的，可能的：possibleOutstanding 突出的，显著的：excellentAccount for 解释，说明：explainPicking up 沿着：followingA supremacy至高，霸权：a dominanceSupplanted代替：replacedMyriad无数:manySupreme最高的：most outstandingSettle解决，决定：decideAscending 上升，攀登：climbingSolemn 严肃的：seriousComposed创作，作曲：createdScores 乐谱：music compositionComprises 包含，由，构成：consists ofIntense 剧烈的：extremeMargins 空白：edgesSupport 支撑：holdAppreciation 感激，评价，欣赏：recognition Bias 偏见：prejudicePrevailing 流行的：most frequentAccumulated 积聚，堆积：collectedRelated 有关系得：connectedSupported 支撑：upheldForward-looking 向前看的：progressive 进步的Rudimentary 不发达的，未发展的：undevelopedSole 唯一的：onlySubsidizes 资助：financeRotates 旋转：alternatesImplements 玩具：toolsClues 线索：informationHemispheres 半球：sidesSubject to 遭受：susceptible toPuncture 刺穿：pierceDramatic 戏剧性的，显著的：striking Characterized 不同，区别于其他：distinguishedBizarre 古怪的：oddCasts off 抛弃：gets rid ofHomogeneous 一致的，同一的：uniform Largely renounces 基本上拒绝：generally rejectsPrevail 流行，支配控制：dominatesSubtle 轻微的，精细的：slightCompile 收集，积累：put togetherRaw 未加工的，为处理的：unprocessed Prospect 前景，可能性：possibility Roughly 大约地：approximatelyMagnify 增加，扩大：increaseDistinction 不同，区别：differencesFused 结合：combinedLure 吸引：attractPlaced 放置：depositedDiscrete 分泌：separateOvertaxed 负担沉重的：heavily burdened Inadequate 不充足的：deficientInevitable 不可避免地：unavoidably Lamented 不满，抱怨：complaint about First rank 最高水平：highest qualityFaded from 消失于：disappeared from Novel 创新的，新颖的：innovative Stationary 固定的：fixedVessel 船只：craftSmothering 窒息的：eliminatedCoined 组成，创造：createdIntervention 干预：influenceEmerged 出现：appearedOutlining 概括，总结：summarizing Deliberate 仔细地：carefulDemanded 需要：requiredImitate 模仿：copyComparably 相似地：similarly Inclinations 偏好，喜好: preferences Varied 不同：differedCumbersome 笨重地：burdensome Confined 局限：limitedFramed 构造，制定：posedSupposedly 可能地，推测地：seemingly Sanitation 卫生：healthConflicting 对立的：apposingGive way to 让位于：turns into Speculate 假设：hypothesizeAlternative 选择：optionImposing 要求高的，费力的：demanding Penetrate 穿过：go throughExtended 增加，延长：increase Preferred 喜欢; favoredBarren 贫瘠的：infertileHard 坚硬的：firmDivergence 不同，区别：difference Durable 耐久地：long-lastingDwelling 住所：housesElaborately 精心地：done in a great detail Bounds 限制：limitsChance 偶然的：unplannedIntegral 必要的，基本的：an essential Carry 承担：supportConcentrated 集中：clusteredEffect 影响：influenceDistinct 区别，不同：separateSetting 建立：establishingEnds 目标：goalsDrastic 激进的：radicalExtracted 提取：removedInstances 例子:casesEntombed 陷入：trappedMarked 明显的:pronouncedUshering 开始，引入：beginning Execute 执行，创造：createDomains 领域：fieldsFundamental 基本的：basicSkilled 专业的：expertPresided over 管理控制：managed Celestial 天文学的：astronomicalEntities 物体：objectsMotifs 母题，图案：designsRare 罕见的:infrequentMaintaining 维持：preservingTolerate 忍耐：endure Obtain 获得getRoll back 减少reduceStimulating 刺激encouragingDepressed 降低，使沮丧loweredStringent 严厉的strictDictates 决定determinesWitnessed 看到observedA break with 分开 a departure from Conserve 维持，保留retainMagnified 加强，加剧intensifiedForage 觅食feedCounteracted 否定，抵消negatedIn season 应季 a particular time of year Fixture 寻常物品commonplace object Nevertheless 但是howeverRotates 转动，改变turnsReadily 容易地，欣然地easily Constituting 组成making upPits 洞，坑holesDisputes 争论argumentsUnrestricted 不受限制的unlimitedSnap 折断breakFed 吃/放入putExposed to 易受影响的，受支配subjected to Exert 引起，导致causeDiffuses 穿过，扩散travelsRapture 破裂burstMiniscule 微小的tinyEnables 使能够allowsAesthetically 美学的，艺术的artistically Refreshing 非同寻常的，耳目一新的unusualDevote 奉献dedicateBound 系，绑tiedAssembling 聚集gatheringAdorned 装修decoratedAttire 服装clothingUnravel 揭露discoverMundane 平凡的ordinaryGap 空隙openingDiscards 抛弃gets rid ofDeft 灵巧的skilledRobust 强壮的strongHeralded 宣布announcedPosition 职位jobMajor 主要的principalSymmetrical 比例平衡的,对称的proportionally balancedObvious 明显的apparentDominated 占支配地位的were prevalent in Supplements 补充extensionsCrisscross 交叉move back and forth Skepticism 怀疑主义doubtSubsidy 资助financingConjectural 猜测的based on guessing Employing 采用usingAssortment 种类varietyExalted 高级的superiorIngots 银锭/块blocks of silver mixed with copperCame of age 出现了，成名了established itselfTrace 痕迹imprintsExposed 暴露uncoveredAdversely 逆向/反的negativelyAltered 改变changedNoxious 有毒的，有害的harmful Detectable 可以探测的measurableAcute 敏锐的，剧烈的intenseExceeded 超越surpassedAstounding 惊讶的surprisingDurable 耐久的lastingCustomarily 通常usuallyInduced 导致causedRemarkable 异常的extraordinaryExerted 运用appliedRestricted 限制limitedIntricate 错综复杂的complexVary 区别，不同differInitially 首先at firstCohesion 凝聚力unityConsciously 有意识地，故意地purposely Unadorned 未装饰的，平凡的plain Consumption 消费，吃eating Constituents 组成部分components Calculated 计算，决定determinedCeased 停止stopProminent 著名的distinguishedApply to 应用于used forCoarser 粗糙的rougherDense 浓密的thickThanks to 由于because ofEagerly anticipated 渴望，期待looked forward toProperties 特征，特点characteristics Ascribed to 归功于，认为assumed to be true ofRevolutionized 巨变，革命dramatically changedAppeal 吸引attractionSpawned 产生，产卵createdCore 核心centerEmbedded 镶嵌encasedSpotting 识别identifyingDogma 信仰，教条beliefDetect 发现discovered the presence of Shied away from 避免avoidedMilestone 里程significant development Critical 关键的essentialJolting 震动shockingMagnitude 成都/大小extentAttachment to 倾向于preference for Protruding 凸出的projectingShield 保护protectDaring 大胆boldBoosted 鼓舞raisedInhibited 阻碍hinderedCounterpart 版本，对应物version Detectable 明显的，可探测的apparent Sumptuous 奢侈的luxuriousYield 供应provideAdhere 坚持stickInitiate 启动，开始beginModifying 改变，限制changingRapidity 迅速swiftnessEfficiency 效率effectivenessRear 抚养raiseScale 攀登climbImmunity 免疫，保护protection Conspicuous 明显的noticeableBias 偏见prejudiceExorbitant 丰富的expensiveUndergone 经历experiencedConsorted 交往associatedSufficient 充足adequateAnnihilate 消灭，征服conquerAptly 恰当的appropriatelyFashion 制造createArticle 物品objectStaples 基本产品basic elementsInvade 侵入move intoContemporary 当代的existingFinely 微小的minutelyAttendant 伴随的accompanyingExponential leaps 迅速上升rapid increases Virtually 几乎完全，实际上almost completely Pertinent 相关的relevantSuccinct 简明conciseRevise 改变changeMonopolized 垄断dominatedFactions 部分sidesFlattering 赞美complimentaryDisseminated 分散spreadAccelerated 加速increasedGiven way to 替代been replaced byReliance 依赖dependencePicture 想象imagineEmit 发出give offGlowing 发光的shiningInflux 流入，到达arrivalExtraordinary 异常的exceptionalEra 时代period of timeIntriguing 吸引人的attractiveConclusive 总结性的definitivePreoccupation 卷入involvementPrimary 基本的fundamentalEntire 整个wholeBring about 引起causeTemping 吸引人的attractiveReckless 不负责任的irresponsible Concomitant with 同时发生的，与之伴随的in conjunction withSkyrocketing 迅速上升increasing rapidlyExtolling 高度赞扬praisingRoughly 大约harshlyReaped 获得gainedInterchangeable 互换的，等同于equivalent Classified 分类categorizedIncinerated itself 燃烧burn upSecuring 获得acquiringImplications 意义significantHinterland 腹地，内地贸易区regionPersisted 坚持，持续continuedUndergoing 经历，遭受experiencing Suspend 悬挂，延迟hangFatal 致命的deadlySecure 安全的safeSorted out 分类，挑练separatedDampened 使潮湿moistenedFine 细微的tinyDerived 起源，得自obtainedDrastically 激烈的，彻底的severely Coincided with 一致，符合happened at the same timeTypify 作为…的典型characterize Supplement 补充add toContemporary 当代的，同时代的written at the same timePrized 珍视valuedOvertaken 超越，胜出surpassedIntervals 间隔periodsFreeing 释放releasingPlunge 投入，跳进dropCollective 集体的groupResolve 解决find a solution forNoticed 注意到observedTangled缠结的，紊乱的twisted together Concealed 隐藏coveredAvail themselves 利用make use Accordingly 因此for that reasonCrucial至关重要的importantPonderous 笨重的heavyAttained 达到，获得achievedAbundant 丰富的，充裕的plentiful Peculiar 独特的，奇异的strange Meticulously小心翼翼的carefully Durability 经久，耐久力enduranceIncised雕刻的carvedConsumed消耗，吃eatenInnovative 创新的newExtract 提取，提炼removeScorched烧焦burnedConsequence 结果resultExceed超越，胜出go beyondGenerated 产生causeNorm 标准standardHenceforth 今后from that time on Mandated委托统治的recommended Immutable 不可变的unchangeable Revered 尊敬respectedConsist 一致的，协调的constantIntent 目的，意向goalAdministered 管理managedPeriphery 外围outer edgeInception 起初beginningFabricating 构成，虚构constructingResort to 采取usingIngenuity 机灵，灵巧resourcefulness Functional 有功能的，有用的usable Significant 有意义的meaningfulAttained 获得reachedFlamed 燃烧burnedEncompass包围，环绕includeCame to the forefront 来到最前线/变得很重要became importantHinged on 依赖depended onLured 引诱attractedExpendable消费品，可以牺牲的nonessential Notwithstanding 尽管despiteIntricate 错综复杂的complexRandom 任意的unpredictableOptimal 最佳的，最理想的bestUrged 催促encouragedConvergence 集合，汇聚gatheringCarried on 继续continuedDiverse 不同的variedEnsures确保guaranteesSuitable 合适的，适宜的appropriately Affectional tie 情感依附emotional attachmentScares 稀有rareResemble 类似look likeCoarse 粗糙的crudeBrittle易碎的，脆弱的easily broken Appreciated赏识，意识到recognized Merely 仅仅onlyEmitting 发出producingSpanning 跨越coverPursue追赶catch chaseAltogether 完全的completelyIntensive 集中的，透彻的concentrated Assumption 假定，设想beliefPrevailed 流行，盛行dominatedDepicted 描述describedForemost 首要的leadingMeteoric流星的，迅速的rapidApace with 快速的，急速的as fast asWider 宽广的more extensiveThereby 因此，在那方面by that means Unique 唯一的，独特的singularRotting 腐烂的decayingKey 关键的importantBound 受约束的heldConverted修改changedAntecedent 先行的的，先辈predecessor Appealing吸引人的attractiveLocal 场所placeBoosted推进raised Scope 范围extentProlific多产的，丰富的productiveEager 热心的，渴望的enthusiastic Engaged使用，雇佣hireSubsequent后来的laterSums 总数amountsIdentical同样的exactly alikeGraphic生动的，鲜明的vivid Undoubtedly 毫无疑问的certainly Components 组成部分partsBesides 除此之外in addition toFlourished繁荣，昌盛thrivedGrumbled 抱怨，牢骚complainedServe服务，适合functionSole 唯一的onlyDetecting 发现findingSedentary久坐的，不活动的inactive Subjected 受影响的exposedEssence 本质，精华basic natureDiverse 不同的differentNoted 注意到observedEmphasize 强调stressAccessible易接近的，可靠近的available Account for 解释，说明explainSmooth operation 顺利进行effective functioningCluster 成群groupAlert 警惕wareScurrying 急跑，匆忙走rushing Formidable 艰难地，令人敬畏的difficult Intent 目的，意向purposeRegardless of 不管，不顾no matter what Marked 显著地noticeableConfine 限制restrictPresumably 推测，大概probablySustain 支撑，持续supportInsignificant 无关紧要的unimportant Ultimately 最后，最终eventuallyDemise 死亡deathConvert 转变changePrimarily 主要地，根本上chiefly Prevailing 流行的dominantUndergone 经历experiencedVast 巨大的greatPrecarious 不稳定的uncertainSettled 固定的stableChronicle 记载，记录，编年史describe Ornate 装饰的，华丽的elaborateDerived from 起源based onVarious 不同的，多样的differentAccount for 解释explainSubjugated 征服conqueredSynonymous with 同义的equivalent to Excavating 挖掘diggingAgents 动因，代理人causesAided 帮助的helpedEstimated 评估judgedPry off 翘起removeLittered 杂乱堆满，乱丢covered Preserved 保持，保存protected from destructionConstant 持续的，一致的consistent Attained 达到，获得achievedResumed 再继续，重新开始began again Attests to 证明give evidence ofDrab 单调的dullProminent 显著的，突出的noticeableYet 仍，至今so farRudimentary 根本的，未发展的basic Biting 尖锐的sharpHeightened 提高，提升increased Meticulous 小心翼翼的careful Accumulated 积聚，积累built up Tantamount to 与……相等的practically the same asRemarkable 非凡的，显著的extraordinary Link 连结，联合connectionSurge 汹涌，激增sharp increase Unprecedented 空前的，前所未闻的not seen beforeObscure 模糊的，朦胧的unclearDisplay 陈列展示exhibitLoad 负荷，重担weightPrecise 精确的accurateExercise 训练，使用utilizeElicit 得出，引出bring outProbe 探查exploreProlific 多产的，丰富的fruitfulIdeal 理想的perfectStandard 标准customaryStrain 疲劳，紧张stressAccordingly 因此，从而consequently Teeming with 充满了，丰富的full of Resemble 类似，模仿appear similar to Postulated 假定，假设suggested Depended 依靠reliedSubscribed 订阅，赞成agreed withStunning 极好的impressive 感人的，印象深刻的Spawn 产生，制造createPartitioning 分割，划分divisionEnhances 增强，提高increasedTransition 转换，过渡changeIgnited 点燃set on fireEvolution 发展，演化developmentMomentarily 即刻brieflyDepict 描述representAdvent 出现，到来arrivalAffront 侮辱，冒犯insultIntriguing 迷人的fascinatingEndless 无止境的continuous连续的Adequate 充分的，足够的sufficientRather than 胜于instead of 而不是Forage 觅食search for foodIntermittently 间歇地periodically周期性的Furnish 供应，提供provideOscillating 震荡，摇摆swingingUltimately 最终in the endCompelling 强迫地，又说服力的forcefulExceptional 异常地，意外地remarkable 不平常地，显著地Enhancement 增加/进improvementRevitalize 新生bring new life toExecuting 执行，制造producingAllay 减轻，减少reducePermeated 弥漫，渗透spread throughTestimony to 证词/明evidence ofHardiest 坚硬most vigorousFramework 框架，结构structureProlonged 延长的extendedEncounter 遭遇meetFortuitous 偶然的，幸运的luckyThwarted 阻挠，挫败frustrated失败的，落空的Scattered 分散的irregularly distributedBy virtue of 由于because ofCircumscribed 限制restrictedIndeterminate 不确定的uncertainEnveloped 包围着surrounded 环绕地Gradually 逐渐地by degreesAt any rate 无论如何regardless 不管2004.5Tend 照料，照顾care forProvisioning 提供supplyingEdge 优势advantageShielded 保护protectedPrime 主要的principalIncised 切，刻cutDistinctive 与众不同的，独特的uniqueYield 生产produceBartering 交换exchangingSupplanted 取代，替换replacedCharged with 指定到assigned toPrimitive 原始的，简单的undevelopedOn the threshold 在…的开端of at the start of Imitation 模仿，仿造copyingExert 运用，发挥putDurable 耐用的，持久的strongShattered 打碎broken apartDominant 支配的，显性的most common 2004.8Oversaw 监督supervisedDelivered 递送presentedBoasted 以有…而自豪took pride in having Intriguing 迷人的，有趣的fascinatingEndless 无止境的，连续的continuousVersions 版本，译本formsCustomary 通常的，习惯的usualAccording to 根据，取决于depending on Significance 重要性importanceCounter 反对，反击overcomeTransform 改变，转换change Unprecedented 空前的，无前历的not existing beforeHaul 搬运，拖拉loadStrip 剥去，剥夺removeProbe 探查，探测explore2004.10Frown on 不赞成disapproved ofDisseminated 散布，传播spreadSource 来源basisUnchronicled 未记录的unrecordedClues 线索indicationsGave rise to 导致，引起brought about Strikingly 显著地，突出的noticeablyCarried on 实施，执行conducted Necessitated 需要，迫使requiredHence 因此for these reasonsSweep 伸展，延伸extendTechnically 技术上，正式地officially Contemporary 当代的currentFacilitate 促进，帮助，使容易enable Realization 领悟recognitionInaccessible 难接近的，难到达的unreachable Thriving 兴旺的flourishing2005.1Invariably 不变地，总是without exception Superseded 作废的，被取代的replaced Seldom 很少，不常rarelyAdept 熟练的，擅长的skilledDual 双的，双重的doublePrincipal 首要的，最重要的mainStocked 备有suppliedEnsure 保证，确保guaranteeEventually 最后，终于ultimatelyTrapped 捕获，抓到caughtConstituent 成分componentBland 乏味的dullContingent on 视…而定，取决于dependent on Perpetuated 保持continuedWitnessed 目击observed2005. 5Grappled（with）努力，尽力解决struggled Proxy 代理，替代substituteVital 至关重要的，非常必要的necessary Essentially 本质上，实质上basically Complement 补足物replacementNothing more than 不过是，无非是simply Captures 捕获，记录registersOnce 一次，一旦，曾经afterTask 任务，工作jobFostered 培养encouragedNotable 显著的，著名的remarkable Receptive to 善于接受的，能容纳的ready for Emerged 出现developedDeplorable 悲惨的，杂乱的awfulHampered 限制，阻碍restrained2005.8Scarce 缺乏的，稀有的uncommon Lamented 哀悼，控诉，抱怨complained Champion 冠军，拥护者supporterRetain 保持，保留keepGrievances 抱怨，不满complaintsEvidence 证据referenceSchemes 方案，计划systemsSignificant 重要的importantEnhance 增加，加强increaseAlarmed 受惊的，惊恐的frightenedIn particular 尤其，特别especiallyAccurate 精确地，准确的correctExpedition 远征，探险voyage Devised 计划，设计developed。

环境退化英语

环境退化英语Environmental DegradationThe world we live in is a delicate and interconnected ecosystem, where the balance between human activities and natural processes is crucial for our survival. However, in recent decades, we have witnessed a concerning trend of environmental degradation, which threatens the very foundations of our existence. This essay will explore the various facets of environmental degradation, its causes, and the urgent need for action to address this pressing issue.One of the primary drivers of environmental degradation is the relentless pursuit of economic growth and development at the expense of environmental protection. The industrialization and urbanization that have characterized the modern era have led to a significant increase in the consumption of natural resources, the generation of waste, and the release of harmful pollutants into the air, water, and soil. The burning of fossil fuels for energy production, the deforestation of vast swathes of land for agriculture and infrastructure, and the improper disposal of hazardous materials have all contributed to the deterioration of our environment.Another major contributor to environmental degradation is the unsustainable practices of modern agriculture. The intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the overexploitation of water resources, and the loss of biodiversity due to monoculture farming have all taken a toll on the delicate balance of natural ecosystems. The expansion of industrial livestock production has also led to the generation of vast amounts of waste, the release of greenhouse gases, and the depletion of land and water resources.The impact of environmental degradation is far-reaching and multifaceted. The pollution of air, water, and soil has had devastating consequences on human health, leading to an increase in respiratory diseases, waterborne illnesses, and the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain. The loss of biodiversity, a result of habitat destruction and the introduction of invasive species, has disrupted the intricate web of life that sustains our planet, threatening the survival of countless species and the resilience of entire ecosystems.Climate change, driven by the emission of greenhouse gases, is perhaps the most pressing and far-reaching consequence of environmental degradation. The warming of the planet, the melting of glaciers and ice caps, the rise in sea levels, and the increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events have already begun to disrupt the lives of millions of people around the world.The impact of climate change is particularly severe on vulnerable communities, who often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt to these changes.The solution to the problem of environmental degradation lies in a comprehensive and coordinated effort to address the root causes of the issue. This will require a fundamental shift in our approach to economic development, agriculture, and energy production, as well as a concerted effort to protect and restore natural ecosystems.One crucial step is the transition to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, which can significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and the associated greenhouse gas emissions. This transition will also create new economic opportunities and jobs in the growing clean energy sector, helping to drive sustainable development.Another key strategy is the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic farming, agroforestry, and regenerative agriculture, which prioritize the health of the soil, the preservation of biodiversity, and the efficient use of water resources. These practices can not only reduce the environmental impact of food production but also improve the livelihoods of farmers and ensure food security for generations to come.The protection and restoration of natural ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and coral reefs, are also essential for addressing environmental degradation. These ecosystems play a vital role in regulating the climate, maintaining biodiversity, and providing essential services to human communities, such as flood control, water filtration, and carbon sequestration.Ultimately, the solution to environmental degradation will require a collaborative effort involving governments, businesses, civil society, and individual citizens. This will require a shift in mindsets, policies, and practices, as well as a renewed commitment to the principles of sustainability and environmental stewardship.By taking action now to address the pressing issue of environmental degradation, we can not only safeguard the health of our planet but also ensure a better future for generations to come. The time to act is now, and the stakes have never been higher.。

degradative词根

degradative词根"degradative"一词的词根是"degrade"。

"degrade"源自拉丁语中的 "de-"（向下）和 "gradus"（步骤、等级），意为"降级、贬低"。

因此，"degradative"表示某种使事物降级或贬低的特性或过程。

从多个角度来看，"degradative"可以涉及不同领域和概念。

以下是一些可能的角度：1. 化学角度，在化学领域，"degradative"可以指代化合物或材料的降解过程。

例如，生物降解是有机物在生物体内经过生物化学反应而分解为较简单的化合物的过程。

2. 环境角度，在环境科学中，"degradative"可以指代环境中的降解过程，特别是指有害物质的降解。

例如，土壤中的微生物可以通过生物降解将有机污染物转化为无害的物质。

3. 生物学角度，在生物学中，"degradative"可以指代生物体内的降解过程。

例如，细胞内的溶酶体通过酶的作用将细胞内的废物和损坏的细胞组分降解和清除。

4. 社会学角度，在社会学中，"degradative"可以指代社会或个人的贬低行为或言论。

例如，恶意的言辞或行为可能会导致他人的声誉或地位受到贬低。

5. 心理学角度，在心理学中，"degradative"可以指代自我价值感的降低。

例如，自卑感和负面自我评价可能导致个人对自己的价值感降低。

总之，"degradative"一词的词根是"degrade"，涵盖了化学、环境、生物学、社会学和心理学等多个领域的概念。

这些角度可以帮助我们更全面地理解和解释"degradative"一词的含义。

毕业去向英语作文

Graduation is a significant milestone in every students life,marking the end of a chapter and the beginning of a new journey.As students prepare to step into the world beyond their academic walls,they are faced with various options for their future.Here are some common paths that graduates may choose to pursue:1.Higher Education:Many students opt to continue their education by enrolling in postgraduate programs.This could be to specialize in a particular field,gain advanced knowledge,or to enhance their career prospects.2.Employment:Some graduates may choose to enter the job market directly.This could involve applying for entrylevel positions in their field of study,internships,or even starting their own businesses.3.Gap Year:Taking a gap year is a popular choice among graduates.It allows them to travel,volunteer,or gain work experience before committing to a specific career path.4.Professional Certifications:Some graduates may decide to pursue professional certifications relevant to their field.This can help them stand out in the job market and increase their employability.5.Public Service:A career in public service,such as joining the civil service,military,or nonprofit organizations,is another avenue that some graduates may explore.6.Research:For those with a passion for academia,engaging in research work can be a fulfilling career choice.This could involve working in a university,research institute,or a corporate research and development department.7.Entrepreneurship:Starting a business or becoming an entrepreneur is an ambitious path for graduates who have innovative ideas and the drive to bring them to life.8.Freelancing:The rise of the gig economy has opened up opportunities for graduates to work as freelancers,offering their skills and expertise on a projectbyproject basis.9.Teaching:Some graduates may choose to become educators,imparting knowledge to the next generation and making a difference in their communities.10.International Opportunities:With globalization,many graduates are looking beyond their home countries for opportunities to work or study abroad.Each of these paths has its own set of challenges and rewards.Graduates must considertheir interests,skills,and longterm goals when making their decisions.Its also important for them to be flexible and open to change,as the bestlaid plans can sometimes be altered by unexpected opportunities or circumstances.。

高中英语植物主题单选题30题

高中英语植物主题单选题30题1. The leaves of the rose plant are ______ and shiny.A. softB. hardC. roughD. smooth答案：D。

选项A“soft”意为“柔软的”；选项B“hard”意为“坚硬的”；选项C“rough”意为“粗糙的”；选项D“smooth”意为“光滑的”。

根据玫瑰叶子的特征，通常是光滑的，所以选D。

2. The ______ of the lotus flower is very beautiful.A. petalB. stemC. rootD. leaf答案：A。

选项A“petal”意为“花瓣”；选项B“stem”意为“茎”；选项C“root”意为“根”；选项D“leaf”意为“叶子”。

莲花最美丽的部分是花瓣，故选A。

3. The cactus can ______ in the desert.A. growB. plantC. keepD. hold答案：A。

选项A“grow”意为“生长”；选项B“plant”意为“种植”；选项C“keep”意为“保持”；选项D“hold”意为“握住”。

仙人掌能在沙漠中生长，所以用grow，选A。

4. The ______ of the bamboo is straight and tall.A. branchB. trunkC. shootD. flower答案：B。

选项A“branch”意为“树枝”；选项B“trunk”意为“树干”；选项C“shoot”意为“嫩枝”；选项D“flower”意为“花”。

竹子的树干是直且高的，故选B。

5. The ______ of the sunflower follows the sun.A. headB. leafC. rootD. stem答案：A。

选项A“head”意为“花盘”；选项B“leaf”意为“叶子”；选项C“root”意为“根”；选项D“stem”意为“茎”。

2022年考研考博-考博英语-西北工业大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷(带答案)第85期

2022年考研考博-考博英语-西北工业大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题Turning cultivated land back into forests or pasture is a fundamental way to stem soil （）and desertification in the long run.问题1选项A.erosionB.depletionC.violationD.delusion【答案】A【解析】考查名词词义辨析。

erosion “侵蚀，腐蚀”；depletion “消耗，损耗”；violation “违反”；delusion “欺骗，迷惑”。

句意：将耕地退耕为森林或者草原是阻止土壤侵蚀和荒漠化的根本方法。

选项A符合题意。

2.写作题Write a short summary (about 60-80 words) of the following article. The summary restates the main idea without adding any comments that express personal feeling or responses to the details presented. Keep in mind that the purpose of a summary of concise restatement of the author’s ideas in your own words is to test your understanding of the article. Please write your summary on the Answer SheetWhat the U.S. and Chinese School Systems Have in Common02/22/2012 By Sarah CarrAmericans who visit Chinese schools quickly realize that many of our beliefs and assumptions about education hold little water in China: In the United States, our urban public schools perform relatively poorly, but in China the urban systems rate among the nation’s best. Here we often regard private schools as a cut above public ones (though the truth is far murkier), but most Chinese consider public schools to be superior. Americans view public education as a crucial equalizer for a democratic society, in theory at least---but the Chinese see it partly as a means to sort their massive population in a distinctly undemocratic fashion. Despite these differences of conceit, the American and Chinese education systems share one common, defining characteristic: they are both plagued by gross inequalities and rampant segregation. In the United States, these injustices fall largely along racial and class lines: poor, minority students are more likely to attend highly segregated schools; their schools are more likely to suffer from a lack of resources; and their teachers are more likely to be inexperienced.The Chinese education system, too, features ethnic and class inequities. But even more so than in the United States, geography and birthplace equal educational destiny. As Sarah Butrymowicz of The Hechinger Report documented in a recent article, millions of schoolchildren have migrated to cities in recent years with their job-hunting parents. Once there, they often find themselves ineligible to attend government-run schools, particularly the best ones. An unknown number wind up in sub-par, pseudo-private school catering to the migrant population. Henan Chang, an assistant professor in Loyola University Chicago's School of Education who has studied the outcomes of migrant schoolchildren in Kunming, said most of them “have no interaction whatsoever with the local residents. They live in their own bubbles. Their playmates, their schoolmates--- they're all migrants themselves.”Butrymowicz notes that these disparities tainted China's recent domineering performance on international assessments in reading, math and science because many public schools do not admit migrant students. When Shanghai 15-year-olds outperformed the rest of the world in 2010, observers wondered if their success stemmed at least in part from exclusionary, segregationist practices. After I told a friend of mine who grew up in China about the international rankings, he quipped that public-school students in Shanghai are comparable to private-school students on Manhattan's Upper East Side in terms of their wealth and privilege. Shaking his head, he noted that no one would take Dalton or Brearley — two of the Big Apple's most elite private schools—as representative of the whole United States.In 2006, I spent several weeks in China repotting on the country’s schools, focusing in particular on the education of migrant children living in Beijing. In America, everyone asked me if Chinese schools had left us in the dust, while in China everyone asked me if American schools had left them in the dust. Americans revered the Chinese mastery of basic subjects such as math and geography, while the Chinese extolled the American emphasis on creativity and nurturing individual talent.Americans talked about the striking discipline of Chinese students, while the Chinese wondered why they had not yet won more Noble prizes. Nobody in either country framed their fears about international competitiveness in terms of inequality, however.Both nations do well by their most privileged and fortunate students. In China, they attend well-resources, state-of-the-art government schools that employ some of the country’s best teachers. In America, their families possess the money and freedom to move to regions where public schools excel, or to enroll in any number of wealthy private schools.For either country, winning the global competition will depend less on changes made for the elites---t he children of the 1 percent. Ultimately, success will depend on their leaders’ interest and fortitude in addressing the opportunity gaps that persist throughout their schools. When it comes to education, that’s the single, indelible trait that both countr ieshave long shared.【答案】【参考范文】Americans and Chinese hold different views on education system. In America, people think private schools is the best choice, while Chinese have a different opinion. Despite the differences, the American and Chinese education systems have something in common—unfair of education. In America, these injustices is reflected in racial and class; in China, it shows more in regional difference. The high-quality education can only benefit the minority in both countries.In order to win the global competition, their leaders should pay more attention to close the opportunity gaps.3.单选题Based on the（）that every business is now free to formulate its own strategy in light of the changing market, I would predict a market improvement in the efficiency of Chinas economy.问题1选项A.guidanceB.instructionC.premiseD.eminence【答案】C【解析】考查名词词义辨析。

EvolutionaryTrajector_省略_gforanIndustria

International Journal of Automation and Computing
7(2), May 2010, 190-198 DOI: 10.1007/s11633-010-0190-8
Evolutionary Trajectory Planning for an Industrial Robot
Department of Mechanical Engineering, J. J. College of Engineering and Technology, Thiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu 620009, India Department of Production Engineering, J. J. College of Engineering and Technology, Thiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu 620009, India
R. Saravanan1
1 2
S. Ramabalan2
C. Balamurugan3
A. Subash2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bannariamman Institute of Technology, Sathiamangalam, Tamil Nadu 638401, India
1
Introduction
Many real-world design tasks involve complex multiobjective optimization problems of various competing design speciﬁcations and constraints. For such problems, it is highly improbable that all the conﬂicting criteria would be extremized by a single design, and hence, a trade-oﬀ among the conﬂicting design objectives is often inevitable. In mathematics, multi-objective optimisation seeks to optimise a vector of non-commensurable and often competing objectives, cost functions or performance functions within a feasible decision variable space. Intelligent robot system design is one of the complex design problems. The ultimate requirement of robotics is to create intelligent robotic systems that can operate autonomously. At present, robots are used to perform programmed, repetitious tasks or tasks where a human operator has to constantly specify motions. In case of autonomous robots, the robot is provided with only descriptions of tasks on an abstract level and will carry out those tasks without human intervention or explicit teaching. In order to reach that goal, more development should take place in technologies of perception, which involves automated reasoning, planning, manipulation, and learning. One of the main planning problems is the trajectory planning, where the autonomous robot has to plan its own motions, and, by virtue of this motion, only the robot accomplishes its tasks. The classic trajectory-planning problem is described as follows: given an initial conﬁguration and a ﬁnal conﬁguration of the robot, it has to ﬁnd a path connecting both conﬁgurations that avoids collision with obstacles. Assumptions are that the geometry and the position of obstacles are known in advance, and obstacles are stationary. In order to maximize speed of operation, which aﬀects the productivity in industrial situations, it is necessary to minimize the total travelling time of the robot. Therefore,

曼昆宏观经济学英语课后题答案之欧阳与创编

CHAPTER 23: MEASURING A NATION’S INCOMETrue/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false.1. T he circular flow diagram describes all transactions between households andfirms in a simple economy and shows the equality of expenditures and income.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 12. G ross domestic product includes most items produced and sold illicitly.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 13. N et national product is the total income of a nation’s residents minus losses fromdepreciation.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 14. D isposable personal income is the income that households and unincorporatedbusiness have left after satisfying all their obligations to the government. Itequals personal income minus personal taxes and certain non-tax payments togovernment.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 15. T he purchase of new houses by households is included in the calculation ofpersonal consumption expenditures of GDP.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 1Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.1. W hen GDP falls,a. income and expenditure must both fall.b. income and expenditure can both rise.c. income must fall, but expenditure may rise or fall.d. expenditure must fall, but income may rise or fall.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 12. I ncome equals expenditure becausea. firms always pay out all their revenue as income to someone.b. each time a sale is made, there is a buyer and a seller.c. households own the factors of production used to generate incomes.d. All of the above are correct.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 13. I f a province makes the production and sale of illicit drugs legal, then GDPa. must increase.b. must decrease.c. wouldn't change.d. may increase or decrease.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 14. W hen a government provides subsidies to encourage growth of smallbusinesses, the subsidies woulda. be included in GDP because they are invested by businesses.b. be included in GDP because they are a form of government spending.c. not be included in GDP because they are transfer payments.d. may or may not be included in GDP, depending on how the funds areused.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 15. D iesel fuel isa. always considered a final good.b. counted as an intermediate good if a company uses it to providetransportation services.c. counted as a final good if a farmer uses it to run a tractor to grow crops.d. Both b and c are correct.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 16. G ross domestic producta. is the market value of all final goods and services produced within acountry in a given period (usually a year)b. is the income in the hands of individuals after deducting income taxes;income available to households to spend and savec. is the value of goods and services purchased by all levels ofgovernment— federal, provincial, and local—in a given periodd. is the market value of all final goods and services produced by permanentresidents of a nation in a given time periodANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 17. M acroeconomics is that branch of economics that studiesa. the conditions of individual marketsb. the influence of governments on individual marketsc. economy-wide phenomenad. only the private sector of the economyANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 18. S uppose that nominal GDP is $6,000 billion and real GDP is $3,000. What is theGDP price deflator?a. 125b. 150c. 200d. 250ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 19. T he purchase of final goods and services by households is calleda. investmentb. public sector expenditurec. consumptiond. net exportsANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 110. I nvestment is the purchase of capital equipment, inventories, anda. structuresb. non-durable goodsc. depreciationd. import investmentANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 111. T ransfer paymentsa. are included in GDP because they are forms of incomeb. are included in GDP because goods and services have been produced inthe transferc. are NOT included in the GDP because goods and services have not beenproduced in the transferd. are included in GDP because they represent the production of transfers ofgoods and services to foreign countriesANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 112. W hich of the following would be considered consumption expenditure?a. The Smiths buy a home built in 1990.b. The federal government pays the salary of a captain in the Armed Forces.c. The Hostlers buy a new car that was manufactured in Germany.d. The government buys food for its armed forces.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 113. T he method that measures GDP in relationship to the size of the population iscalleda. GNPb. worker GDPc. GDP per persond. capital GDPANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 114. T he components of GDP area. C + I + Gb. NX + G + Cc. C + G + NXd. C + I + G + NXANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 115. S uppose nominal GDP is $7700 and the GDP deflator is 110. Real GDP isa. $7700b. $7000c. $847,000d. $8470ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 1Short Answer1. W hat are the components of gross domestic product (GDP)?RESPONSE:ANSWER: The components of GDP are: (1) consumption spending byhouseholds on goods and services, with the exception ofpurchases of new housing; (2) Investment spending on capitalequipment, inventories, and structures, including householdpurchases of new housing; (3) government purchases or spendingon goods and services by the local, provincial, and federal levelsgovernments; and (4) net exports which is spending ondomestically produced goods and services by foreigners (exports)minus spending on foreign goods and services by domesticresident (imports).POINTS: -- / 12. D ifferentiate between gross domestic product (GDP) and gross national product(GNP).RESPONSE:ANSWER: GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced within acountry in a given year; while GNP is the total income earned by anation’s permanent residents or nationals (that is, Canadians).GNP differs from GDP by including income that citizens of thenation (Canada) earned aboard, and excluding income thatforeigners earn in the particular country (E.g. in Canada).POINTS: -- / 13. D ifferentiate between real GDP and nominal GDP.RESPONSE:ANSWER: Nominal GDP is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a year and valued at current prices; and realGDP is the GDP valued at constant base year prices. Real GDPis not affected by changes in the level of prices, so it reflects onlychanges in the amounts being produced.POINTS: -- / 14. E xplain why GDP is not considered a perfect measure of well- being?RESPONSE:ANSWER: GDP is not considered a perfect measure of well-being becausesome of the factors that contribute to a good life areomitted. These would include: leisure time, the quality of theenvironment, the distribution of income, and the production ofgoods and services that did not pas through the market (forexample, housework done by the homemaker, and volunteer work) POINTS: -- / 15. H ow do economists measure economic growth?RESPONSE:ANSWER: Economists measure economic growth as the percentage changein real GDP from one period to another. This is because changesin real GDP reflect only changes in the amounts being produced.POINTS: -- / 1CHAPTER 24: MEASURING THE COST OF LIVINGTrue/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false.1. T he GDP deflator reflects the prices of goods and services bought byconsumers, and the consumer price index reflects the price of all final goods and services produced domestically.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 12. T he consumer price index compares the price of a fixed basket of goods andservices to the price of the basket in the base year. On the other hand, the GDP deflator compares the price of currently produced goods and services to the price of the same goods and services in the base years.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 13. I ndexation refers to the automatic correction of a dollar amount for the effects ofinflation by law or contract.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 14. L ong term contracts between firms and unions will sometimes include partial orcomplete indexation of the wage to the consumer price index. This is called a cost-of-living allowance clause.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 15. T he core inflation rate is the consumer price index with the exclusion of the mostvolatile components such as energy and food.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 1Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.1. I n the CPI, goods and services are weighted according toa. how much a typical consumer buys of each item.b. whether the items are necessities or luxuries.c. how much of each item is produced in the domestic economy.d. how much is spent on them in the national income accounts.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 12. B y not taking into account the possibility of consumer substitution, the CPIa. understates the standard of living.b. overstates the cost of living.c. neither overstates nor understates the cost of living.d. doesn't accurately reflect the cost of living, but it is unclear if it overstates orunderstates the cost of living.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 13. I f the prices of Brazilian-made shoes imported into Canada increases, thena. both Canada’s GDP deflator and it’s consumer price index will increase.b. neither Canada’s GDP deflator nor it’s consumer price index will increase.c. Canada’s GDP deflator will increase but its CPI will not increase.d. Canada’s consumer price index will increase, but its GDP deflator won’tchange.ANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 14. I f increases in the prices of Canadian car insurance causes the CPI to increase by3 percent, the GDP deflator will likely increase bya. more than 3 percent.b. 3 percent.c. less than 3 percent.d. All of the above are correct.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 15. T he real interest rate tells youa. how quickly your savings account will grow.b. how quickly the purchasing power of your savings account will grow.c. the size of your savings account.d. the purchasing power of your savings account.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 16. I nflation refers toa. a temporary increase in the price level due to higher tax ratesb. a large increase in food and gasoline pricesc. a situation in which the economy's overall price level is risingd. an increase in the purchasing power of the dollarANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 17. I f nominal interest rates increase from 8 percent to 10 percent while inflationincreases from 3 percent to 12 percenta. the real interest rate falls from 5 percent to –2 percentb. the real interest rate rises from –2 percent to 5 percentc. the real interest rate falls from 8 percent to 12 percentd. the real interest rate rises from 8 percent to 12 percentANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 18. I f the nominal rate of interest is 10 percent and the rate of inflation is 3 percent,what is the real rate of interest?a. 13 percentb. 7 percentc. 3 percentd. –7 percentANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 19. T he consumer price index:a. measures price changes of raw materialsb. adjusts all prices of goods and services for five-year periodsc. measures the cost of goods and services bought by a typical consumerd. cannot measure price changes of intangible production such as servicesANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 110. I f the consumer price index (CPI) at the end of 1996 was 125 and the CPI at theend of 1997 was 131, then the rate of inflation during 1997 wasa. zero – prices were stable during 1997b. 4.8 percentc. 6.0 percentd. 125 percentANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 111. F rank's nominal income in 1998 is $45,000. Suppose the CPI in 1998 is 150. Whatis Frank's real income?a. $51,750b. $45,000c. $38,250d. $30,000ANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 112. A change in the price of imports bought by consumers will bea. reflected in the GDP deflatorb. reflected in GDPc. reflected in the CPId. reflected in net national incomeANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 113. A ll of the following but one are problems associated with the CPIa. substitution biasb. the introduction of new goods and servicesc. unmeasured quality changesd. The CPI is not based on a fixed basket of goods and servicesANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 114. W hich of the following is correct?a. The CPI is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services.b. The GDP deflator reflects the prices of all domestically produced goods andservices.c. The GDP deflator is based on a fixed basket of goods and services.d. The GDP deflator is subject to substitution bias.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 115. T he inflation ratea. is a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firmsb. is the absolute change in prices between yearsc. is the percentage change in the price index from the preceding periodd. measures changes in incomes from one year to the nextANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 1Short Answer1. W hat is the consumer price index (CPI)? What are the three major items included inthe CPI?RESPONSE:ANSWER: The CPI is a measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer. The three major items included in theCPI are shelter, transportation and food.POINTS: -- / 12. H ow is the CPI computed?RESPONSE:ANSWER: First the basket of goods and services must be determined and also the relative importance of the various items to be included in thebasket. Then the prices of the various items in the basket aredetermined. The cost of the basket is then determined using the dataon prices and quantity. The base year is chosen, and the index forthe base year is computed using the quantities in the basket and thebase year prices. The index is calculated by taking the price of thebasket in the each year and dividing this by the price of the basket inthe base year. This ratio is then multiplied by 100.POINTS: -- / 13. D ifferentiate between the nominal rate of interest and the real rate of interest.RESPONSE:ANSWER: The nominal interest rate is the interest rate as usually reportedwithout a correction for the effects of inflation. The real interest rate isthe interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation. The real interestrate = nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate.POINTS: -- / 14. W hat is meant by the inflation rate? If the CPI in 1996 was 107.6 and in 1995 was105.9, calculate the inflation rate for 1996.RESPONSE:ANSWER: The inflation rate is the percentage change in the price index from the preceding period. The inflation rate for 1996 would be:POINTS: -- / 15. W hat are the problems associated with using the consumer price index to measurethe cost of living?RESPONSE:ANSWER: The problems are: (1) Prices do not change proportionately.Consumers respond by buying less of the goods whose prices haverisen by large amounts and by buying more of the goods whose pricehave risen by less, or even fallen. The index is computed using afixed basket of items, so theses changes in quantity would not bereflected in the basket. This is referred to as the substitution bias. (2)The CPI is developed using a fixed basket of goods and services,when new products are introduced during the time period that aparticular fixed basket is being used, these new products will not beincluded in calculation of the index. (3) The CPI does not measurequality changes. If the quality of a good deteriorates from one year tothe next, the value of the dollar falls, even if the price of the goodstays the same. Likewise, if the quality of the good increases fromone year to the next, the value of a dollar also rises. StatisticsCanada will try to adjust the price of the good to account for thequality change, but it is very difficult to measure quality.POINTS: -- / 1CHAPTER 25: PRODUCTION AND GROWTHTrue/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false.1. O ne way to raise future productivity is to invest less current resources in theproduction of capital.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 12. D iminishing returns occur when the benefits from an extra unit of output declinesas the quantity of output declines.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 13. M althusian theory states that an ever-increasing population would continuallystrain society’s ability to provide for itself. This doomed human beings to forever live in poverty.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 14. P roductivity growth is measured by real output per worker.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 15. T he primary reason that living standards are higher today than they were acentury ago is that technological knowledge has advanced.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 1Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.1. O f the following countries, which grew the slowest over the last 100 years?a. Brazil.b. Mexico.c. Singapore.d. United States.ANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 12. O n average, each year of schooling raises a person's wage in Canada by abouta. 3 percent.b. 10 percent.c. 15 percent.d. 25 percent.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 13. T he primary reason that Canadian living standards are higher today than theywere a century ago is thata. more productive natural resources have been discovered.b. physical capital per worker has increased.c. technological knowledge has increased.d. human capital has increased.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 14. M any countries in Africa have low growth rates. This is partly due toa. few natural resourcesb. high trade barriers.c. low incomes, making it very difficult for them to grow.d. All of the above are correct.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 15. A government can encourage growth and, in the long run, raise the economy’sstandard of living by encouraginga. population growth.b. consumption spending.c. saving and investment.d. trade restrictions.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 16. D iminishing returns is the notion thata. as the stock of capital ages, the extra output produced decreasesb. as the stock of capital is increased, the extra output produced from anadditional unit of capital fallsc. as resources are used to produce capital goods, fewer additional capitalgoods can be producedd. you always get what you pay forANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 17. C ompared with richer countries, poorer countries are generally characterized bya. high real GDP per personb. political stabilityc. rapid population growthd. strongly enforced property rightsANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 18. W hich one of the following countries would most likely be considered a poorernation, using real GDP/person?a. Canadab. Germanyc. Japand. IndiaANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 19. W hich of the following factors would be most likely to encourage capitalformation in a poorer nation?a. the expectation of sustained high rates of inflation in the futureb. the expectation that property rights will remain securec. the expectation that a struggle between capitalist and socialist forces willlead to major structural change in the economyd. an increase in corporate taxes in order to finance an expandedgovernment welfare programANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 110. W hich of the following is most likely to cause the productivity of labour toincrease?a. higher money wage ratesb. a higher rate of investment in human and physical capitalc. more flexible working hours and improved retirement plansd. none of the aboveANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 111. S uppose that factory output rose from 50,000 units to 55,000 units while labourhours rose from 1100 to 1200. Which of the following is true?a. Labour productivity remained unchanged.b. Labour productivity increased slightly.c. Labour productivity decreased slightly.d. Labour productivity increased sharply.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 112. W hich of the following would be most likely to cause the real income per personof poorer countries to rise?a. a more rapid population growthb. a rapid rate of inflationc. an international minimum-wage lawd. an increase in foreign investment that enhanced the productivity of thelabour forceANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 113. I f a production function has constant returns to scale, then:a. doubling inputs will double output.b. doubling inputs will triple output.c. doubling inputs will cause output to increase, but the increase in outputwill be less than the increase in inputs.d. doubling inputs will decrease output.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 114. T he most important source of rising living standards over time is:a. the increase in the size of the labour force.b. the increase in the labour force participation rate.c. the increase in productivity.d. the increase in human capital—the skills embodied in the work force.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 1Short Answer1. W hat is productivity and why is it important?RESPONSE:ANSWER: Productivity is the amount of goods and services produced fromeach hour of a worker’s time. It is the major determinant of thestandard of living of a country.POINTS: -- / 12. H ow is productivity determined?RESPONSE:ANSWER: Productivity is determined by a country’s physical capital, humancapital, natural resources and technological knowledge.POINTS: -- / 13. W hat is the World Bank and what are its functions?RESPONSE:ANSWER: The World Bank is an international organization that among otherthings encourages the flow of capital to poor countries. It obtainsfunds from the world’s advance counties and loans them to lessdeveloped countries so that they can invest in capitalinfrastructure. The World Bank offers advice to developingcountries on how the funds might best be used.POINTS: -- / 14. W hat are property rights? What role does property rights play in economicgrowth?RESPONSE:ANSWER: Property rights refer to the ability of people to exercise authorityover the resources they own. There must be an economy-widerespect for property rights for the price system or the free marketto work. Lack of respect for property rights or the enforcement ofproperty rights would not only cause political instability but wouldalso discourage savings and investment. These are necessary foreconomic growth.POINTS: -- / 15. D ifferentiate between inward-oriented policies and outward-oriented policies.RESPONSE:ANSWER: Inward-oriented policies are aimed at raising productivity and living standards within a county by avoiding interaction with the rest ofthe world. This approach involves the protection of domesticindustries to allow them to develop and grow without competitionfrom foreign firms. Outward-oriented policies are designed tointegrate countries into the world economy as international trade isconsidered to be a factor in generating economic growth.POINTS: -- / 1CHAPTER 26: SAVING, INVESTMENT, AND THE FINANCIAL SYSTEMTrue/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false.1. P rivate savings are the tax revenue that the government has left after paying forits spending; and public savings is the income that households have left afterpaying for taxes and consumption.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 12. A budget deficit is an excess of tax revenue over government spending; and abudget surplus is a shortfall of tax revenue from government spending.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 13. A budget surplus decreases the supply of loanable funds, increases theinterest rate, and stimulates investment.ANSWER: FPOINTS: 0 / 14. T he financial system is the group of institutions in the economy that help to matchone person’s savings with another person’s investment.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 15. A mutual fund is an institution that sells shares to the public and uses theproceeds to buy a selection, or portfolio, of various types of stocks, bonds, or both stocks and bonds.ANSWER: TPOINTS: 0 / 1Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.1. W hich of the following is correct?a. Lenders buy bonds and borrowers sell them.b. Long-term bonds usually pay a lower interest rate than do short-term bondsbecause long-term bonds are riskier.c. Junk bonds refer to bonds that have been resold many times.d. None of the above are correct.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 12. I n a closed economy, national saving equalsa. investment.b. income minus the sum of consumption and government expenditures.c. private saving plus public saving.d. All of the above are correct.ANSWER: DPOINTS: 0 / 13. I f the current market interest rate for loanable funds is below the equilibrium level,then there is aa. shortage of loanable funds and the interest rate will rise.b. surplus of loanable funds and the interest rate will rise.c. shortage of loanable funds and the interest rate will fall.d. surplus of loanable funds and the interest rate will fall.ANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 14. S uppose that Parliament were to introduce a new investment tax credit. Whatwould happen in the market for loanable funds?a. The demand for loanable funds would shift left and interest rates fall.b. The demand for loanable funds would shift right and interest rates rise.c. The supply of loanable funds would shift left and interest rates rise.d. The supply of loanable funds would shift right and interest rates fall.ANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 15. I f Canada increases its budget deficit, it will reducea. private saving and so shift the supply of loanable funds left.b. investment and so shift the demand for loanable funds left.c. public saving and so shift the supply of loanable funds left.d. None of the above are correct.ANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 16. C rowding out refers toa. the increase in national saving that occurs when government runs a deficitb. the decrease in the real interest rates due to government borrowingc. a reduction in investment spending resulting from government borrowingd. a decrease in consumption spending resulting from government borrowingANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 17. F or a bank to be profitable, the loans it makes must _____ than the _____obtaining funds.a. cost more; price ofb. pay less interest; total revenue fromc. make more interest; total cost ofd. be less profitable; total revenue fromANSWER: CPOINTS: 0 / 18. L arge budget deficits will likelya. increase the nation's pool of savingb. decrease the nation's pool of savingc. have no impact on the nation's pool of savingd. improve the nation's trade balanceANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 19. T he supply curve of loanable funds isa. upward-sloping, reflecting the fact that savers need a higher rate of interestto coax them into lending moreb. downward-sloping, reflecting the fact that savers will increase their supplyfor loanable funds at lower rates of interestc. upward-sloping, reflecting the fact that savers will increase their saving atlower rates of interestd. None of the aboveANSWER: APOINTS: 0 / 110. L oanable funds area. the money in banks and other financial institutionsb. the amount of credit availablec. equal to the total value of capital in the economyd. available only to businessesANSWER: BPOINTS: 0 / 111. I f the market for loanable funds is not in equilibrium, which of the following factors。

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J. Cent. South Univ. (2012) 19: 1411−1418 DOI: 10.1007/s11771-012-1157-4
Degradation process assessment of prestressed concrete continuous bridges in life-cycle
2 Existing methods to access degradation process
The existing methods for evaluating the degradation process can be classified as three groups: the empirical method, the checking method and the finite element method.
To overcome the above-mentioned shortcomings, a finite element-based approach for assessing the degradation process of concrete bridges is proposed in this work. The existing assessment methods are firstly introduced and compared. Some essential mechanics problems involved in the degradation process, such as the deterioration of materials properties, the reduction of sectional areas and the variation of overall structural performance caused by the first two factors, are described and solved. A computer program named CBDAS (Concrete Bridge Durability Analysis System) is written to perform the approach. Finally, the degradation process of a prestressed concrete continuous bridge under chloride penetration is presented and investigated.
Abstract: To accurately evaluate the degradation process of prestressed concrete continuous bridges exposed to aggressive environments in life-cycle, a finite element-based approach with respect to the lifetime performance assessment of concrete bridges was proposed. The existing assessment methods were firstly introduced and compared. Some essential mechanics problems involved in the degradation process, such as the deterioration of materials properties, the reduction of sectional areas and the variation of overall structural performance caused by the first two problems, were investigated and solved. A computer program named CBDAS (Concrete Bridge Durability Analysis System) was written to perform the above-metioned approach. Finally, the degradation process of a prestressed concrete continuous bridge under chloride penetration was discussed. The results show that the concrete normal stress for serviceability limit state exceeds the threshold value after 60 a, but the various performance indicators at ultimate limit state are consistently in the allowable level during service life. Therefore, in the case of prestressed concrete bridges, the serviceability limit state is more possible to have durability problems in life-cycle; however, the performance indicators at ultimate limit state can satisfy the requirements. Key words: prestressed concrete continuous bridges; life-cycle; degradation process; finite element; chloride penetration; serviceability limit state; ultimate limit state
Foundation item: Project(2006.318.223.02-01) supported by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications through the Scientific and Technological Funds of China; Project(2007AA11Z104) supported by the High Technology Research and Development of China; Project(20090072110045) supported by the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China Received date: 2011−03−11; Accepted date: 2011−06−30 Corresponding author: TIAN Hao, PhD; Tel: +86−571−81954829; E-mail: tongjith@
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J. Cent. South Univ. (2012) 19: 1411−1418
2.1 empirical methods are used to evaluate and predict the lifetime performance of deteriorating concrete structures according to the structural importance degree, the environmental condition, the deteriorating degree and the prescribed service life. The environmental index evaluation approach [3] is a typical empirical method, which was firstly proposed by the Concrete Committee of Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE) in 1989. In this approach, the safety condition is defined that the durability index TP of any component in the concrete structure should be greater than or at least equal to the environmental index SP, that is [3]
TIAN Hao(田浩)1, 2, LI Guo-ping(李国平)1, CHEN Ai-rong(陈艾荣)1 1. College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; 2. Zhejiang Scientific Research Institute of Communication, Hangzhou 310006, China © Central South University Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
1 Introduction
During the last three decades, the deterioration of concrete bridges has become one of the widely concerned issues [1−2]. The basic method for solving the durability deficiency of concrete bridges is to perform durability design, in which one of the essential problems is to present an efficient method to evaluate the degradation process of concrete bridges under aggressive environment. The main shortcomings involved in the existing assessment approaches are: 1) The accuracy of obtained results may not be guaranteed due to many qualitative considerations and human causes; 2) The existing methods focus on the ultimate limit state, but the serviceability limit state is rarely investigated and analyzed; 3) Most of the research objectives are simple structure systems such as the simply supported girder bridges; however, the complex structure systems such as the continuous girder bridges are seldom discussed.