Functional_model_language
the unified modeling language
the unified modeling language1. 引言1.1 概述统一建模语言（Unified Modeling Language，简称UML）是一种用于软件系统建模的标准化工具。
它提供了一种通用的图形化表示方法，帮助软件工程师和系统分析师更好地理解、设计和沟通软件系统的不同方面。
1.2 文章结构本文旨在对统一建模语言进行全面介绍，并探讨其在软件开发中的应用价值和挑战。
文章共包括以下几个部分：- 引言：介绍文章的背景和目的。
- 统一建模语言的概念与历史发展：阐述统一建模语言的定义、特点以及其起源和演变过程。
- UML基本概念与符号说明：解释UML中常用的类图、对象图和时序图等基本概念及其符号含义。
- UML各种图表的使用场景与实例分析：探讨使用UML绘制用例图、顺序图和类图等不同类型图表时所适合的场景，并通过实例分析说明其应用方法。
- 结论：总结UML及其应用价值，强调在软件开发中其作用和优势，并展望未来UML可能面临的挑战和发展方向。
1.3 目的本文的目的是介绍统一建模语言（UML）及其在软件工程中的应用。
通过深入研究和分析UML的概念、历史发展以及各种图表的使用场景，旨在帮助读者更好地理解UML，并认识到它对于软件开发过程中设计、沟通和协作的重要性。
此外，本文还会探讨UML未来可能面临的挑战和发展方向，为读者提供对未来软件工程趋势与发展做出合适决策的依据。
2. 统一建模语言的概念与历史发展2.1 UML的定义和特点统一建模语言（Unified Modeling Language，UML）是一种用于软件系统分析与设计的标准化建模语言。
它提供了一套图形化的符号和规则，用于描述、设计、构建和文档化软件系统的结构、行为和交互关系。
UML具有易理解、表达力强、可重用性高以及广泛适用于不同领域项目等特点。
2.2 UML的起源和演变UML最早源于布奇（Grady Booch）、雅各逊（James Rumbaugh）和松本兴良（Ivar Jacobson）三位软件工程师在1994年联合发布的Object Management Group（OMG）首版UML，然后经过多次修订和扩展，目前最新版本是UML 2.5。
语言学常用术语英汉对照表
语言学常用术语英汉对照表语言学常用术语英汉对照表Ｃhapter 1 Inｔｒodｕｃtion to Ling ｕistics语言学简介1、anthropoｌogical lingｕistics 人类语言学2、applied linguisｔics应用语言学3、arbitｒａrｉness任意性4、petence 语言能力５、putational ｌinguisｔics计算机语言学６、cultural tｒａnｓmｉssion 文化传递性7、dｅscrｉpｔivｅ(grammar) 描写(语法)８、dｅsｃriptive fｕｎctｉon描写功能9、deｓiｇn feａtuｒes识别特征１0、diａｃhronic linguistｉcs历时语言学11、dｕａlｉty二重性12、dｉｓplacｅment不受时空限制得特征13、emotive fuｎｃtiｏn表情功能１４、exｐrｅｓsivｅfuncｔioｎ表达功能1５、geneｒal linguisｉｔcs 普通语言学16、ｉdｅaｔioｎａl funｃtion概念功能1７、iｎtｅrｐｅｒｓoｎａl funｃtiｏn人际功能18、lanｇuｅ语言１9、ｌinguistiｃs [lｉ?'gwｉstｉks] 语言学２0、morphｏlｏgy 形态学２１、mａthemａtical lingｕistｉcs 数理语言学22、ｍetaliｎguistｉc fuｎcｔion23、neｕrologｉcaｌliｎｇｕｉsｔics 神经语言学24、ｐhonetｉcｓ语音学25、pｈonolｏgy 音系学2６、pragmaｔics 语用学2７、prｅscriptiｖｅ(grａmｍａｒ）规定(语法) 2８、ｐsychｏlｉnguｉsｔicｓ心理语言学２9、paｒole言语3０、ｐerformance语言运用31、pｒodｕctivｉty能产性32、pｏetic funｃtioｎ诗学功能3３、phatic mｕniｏn 交感性谈话34、reｆerentｉal fｕncｔion所指功能35、semanｔiｃs语义学3６、ｓｏciａl functiｏｎ社会功能37、socio-ｌiｎguistics 社会语言学３８、synchｒoniｃlingｕistiｃs共时语言学39、syntax句法学40、textｕal funcｔiｏn语篇功能41、Tｒaｄiｔional Gｒamｍar传统语法Chapｔer 2 Phoｎｏlｏｇy 音系学1、ａcouｓtｉcｐhonｅtics声学语音学2、ａrticｕlatｏｒy pｈonetｉｃs发音语音学３、affricate破擦音4、aｌlｏpｈonｅ音位变体5、aｌveolａr齿龈音6、aｕditoｒy pｈonetｉｃs听觉语音学7、ａsｐｉｒaｔiｏn送气８、assｉmｉlatioｎrules同化现象9、bａck vowel后元音１0、ｂilabｉal双唇音1１、broad tranｓcriptiｏn宽式音标１2、central voweｌ中元音13、clｏse vowel闭元音14、ｐlemeｎtaｒｙdｉstriｂｕtioｎ互补分布15、ｄｅlｅtｉon rｕles省略规则16、deｎtaｌ齿音17、diｐhthｏnｇ双元音１8、friｃative摩擦音1９、ｆront vowｅl前元音２0、gliｄe滑音21、glｏｔtal声门音22、hard palate硬腭２３、InteｒnａtionａlＰhonetｉcs Ａｌpｈabｅt国际音标24、intoｎation语调２5、labｉｏdenｔaｌ唇齿音26、liquid流音２7、mａnner oｆartｉｃｕｌａｔｉon发音方式28、ｍinｉmal pａir 最小对立体2９、mｉｎｉmaｌseｔ最小对立组３0、mｏnｏpｈtｈong单元音３1、narｒow trａnscription严式音标32、nasaｌ鼻音3３、nａsaｌcaｖity鼻腔3４、open ｖｏｗｅl开元音35、oral caｖｉty口腔３6、ｐalatal硬腭37、ｐｈａryngeaｌcａvity咽腔3８、plaｃe of artｉcｕlatiｏｎ发音部位39、phoｎｅ因素4０、phｏnｅｍe音素41、phｏnemic ｃoｎtｒast音位对立42、rounded vowel元唇元音43、seｍi－ｃlose vowel半闭元音4４、semi－ｏpenｖoｗel半开元音45、ｓｅquｅｎtial ｒuｌes序列规则４６、segment切分成分4７、ｓegmenｔation切分４8、soft paｌate软腭49、stop塞音50、stｒesｓ重音51、suprasegｍentａｌfeaｔuｒes超切分特征5２、teeth riｄgｅ齿龈5３、ｔoｎe声调5４、unrounｄed ｖoｗeｌ非圆唇元音５5、uｖuｌa小舌56、veｌaｒ软腭音５7、vｅｌｕｍ软腭58、ｖoicｉnｇ浊音化Ｃhａpter 3 Ｍoｒpｈology 形态学１、affiｘ词缀2、allomorpｈ语素变体3、ｂasｅ词基4、bound morphｅmｅ黏着语素5、ｌexｉcｏｎ词汇6、closed clａｓsｗoｒｄs封闭词类7、pound ｗords 合成词８、derivａtion派生;派生过程9、ｄerivationａl morphｅm派生语素１０、free moｒpｈeｍe自由语素11、inｆlectiｏnalｍorphemｅ屈折语素12、infinitｉｖe markｅr不定式标记１３、morph形素14、moｒpｈoｌｏgical rｕｌes形态规则15、open clasｓwｏrdｓ开放词类1６、root词根１7、sｔeｍ词干Chapter 4Synｔax 句法学１、ａuｘiliary助动词2、caｔegory范畴3、plement补足语;补充成分4、pｌｅment clause补足分句5、ｃｏordｉnaｔioｎruｌe并列规则6、cｏordinａｔe struｃtｕre并列结构7、deep stｒuctｕre深层结构8、deterｍiｎer限定词９、head中心词1０、head movemｅnt中心词移位11、insertion插入１2、inverｓｉon倒装1３、ｍajoｒlexiｃal categｏries主要词汇范畴14、matrｉx clａuse主句15、minor lｅxiｃａl categories次要词汇范畴16、phrase stｒuｃturｅ短语结构1７、mｏｄifier修饰成分18、ｑｕalifier后置修饰成分19、ｓpecifiｅr标志语20、sｕbcategoｒizａtion次范畴化21、surfaｃe struｃture表层结构２2、sｙnｔactic category句法范畴２３、trace语迹2４、trａnｓfoｒｍation转换Chapｔeｒ５Seｍａnｔiｃｓ语义学1、antonｙmy反义现象2、ａrgumenｔ谓元；变元3、behａｖiorism行为主义4、co－hypoｎym并列下义词5、colloｃationaｌｓynｏｎym搭配同义词6、ｐlｅmenｔａrｙaｎtoｎyｍ互补反义词7、ｐletｅhｏmｏnｙm完全同形异义词8、pｏｎentiａl analyｓｉs成分分析9、coｎceptualist ｖｉew概念论１０、ｃonｔexｔuａlism语境主义11、ｃontradiｔioｎ自相矛盾得说法1２、ｄｉalectal syｎｏｎym方言同义词1３、emoｔｉｖe ｍｅaｎing情感意义１4、entailｍeｎt蕴含15、eｖａluatｉve mｅaninｇ评价意义1６、graｄable antonym层级反义词１７、homogrａph同形异义词１8、ｈoｍonyｍy同音同形异义关系19、homophonｅ同音异义词20、ｈｙpｏnｙm下义词21、hｙｐonymｙ下义关系22、inｃoｎsｉsteｎcy自相矛盾２3、ｐolｙｓemy多义关系２４、polysymous word多义词25、ｐresuｐｐｏsitｉoｎ预设26、predicatｉｏn anａlysis述谓分析27、predicａtｅ谓词28、nａminｇtheｏry命名论２9、nｏ－plａce preｄicaitoｎ空位述谓解耦股３０、one－ｐlacｅprediｃａtiｏn一位述谓结构31、referencｅ（所指）语义32、referｅnt所指物;所指对象3３、ｒｅlａtiｏｎal opｐosｉｔe关系反义词34、semantic trｉanｇle语义三角35、sense意义３６、sｔyｌｉstic syｎonym语体同义词37、suｐｅｒorｄｉnatｅ上坐标词3８、sｙmboｌ符号3９、ｓynonyｍ同义词40、synonymy同义关系4１、ｔwo-plaｃe prｅdiｃaiton二位述谓结构42、tｈree-plａｃe predｉｃaｔion三位述谓结构Chaｐteｒ6 Prａgmａtics语用学１、mｉｓｓives承诺类２、CｏｏpｅrativeＰrinciple合作原则3、cｏnstatives述事话语４、conｔexｔ语境5、cｏnventioｎａl impｌicaturｅ规约含义６、ｄecｌaｒationｓ宣告类７、direｃｔives指令类8、ｅxpressｉves表情类9、ｉllocｕtｉoｎarｙacｔ言外功能10、illｏcｕｔiｏnary ｐoiｎt言外之得1１、impｌicature蕴含；含义;会话含义；言外之意１２、inｄirecｔsｐeech ａｃt间接言语行为１３、ｌocuｔioｎary act言内行为1４、maxiｍofｒｅlation关系准则1５、mａｘimｏf manner方式准则16、mａxim of quality质准则１7、maｘiｍoｆquantity量准则18、particｕlariｚed cｏｎveｒｓａtiｏｎal ｉmpｌicatuｒe特殊会话含义１9、pｅｒfomatives行事话语20、perｌｏcutiｏnarｙact言后行为21、ｐreｓupｐoｓｉｔiｏｎ前提2２、prｉmaｒｙspeecｈact 主要言语行为23、represenｔatiｖes表述类24、secondary speecｈacｔ次要言语行为25、sentｅnｃe ｍeａniｎg句子意义26、ｓpeｅcｈacｔtheorｙ言语行为理论27、ｕｔterance meanｉng话语意义Chaｐｔｅr 7 LangｕaｇｅChaｎｇe语言变化1、acronｙｍｓ词首字母缩略词2、back-formatiｏn 逆成法3、bleｎdｉng混成法4、borrowｉｎg借词5、cｌipped ｗoｒｄs截略词6、coiｎagｅ创新词7、functionaｌshift功能性变化8、histoｒical ｌinguistics历史语言学９、MｉdｄleＥnｇｌisｈ中世纪英语10、Modern English现代英语1１、mｏrpｈologiｃalｃhange形态变化１２、neｇation rule否定规则13、Ｏｌd Eｎglｉｓh古英语１4、pｈonｏlｏｇical ｃｈaｎｇｅ音位变化15、seｍantic cｈange语义变化16、semａntｉｃshift语义转移17、syntａcｔｉc cｈａngｅ句法变化Cｈapter 8 Languageａｎd socieｔy语言与社会1、bilｉngｕaliｓm双语制2、Bｌack Englｉsｈ黑人英语3、creolｅ克里奥尔语４、diｇloｓsia双语；双言制５、eｔhnｉc dｉalect种族变体６、fｉｅld of ｄｉｓcouｒｓe语场7、gｅndｅr性别8、ｉｄioleｃt个人变体９、mode oｆdｉscourse语式10、mulｔilinguａｌism多语制11、pidｇiｎ洋泾浜语12、rｅgiｏｎaｌｄiａｌect地域方言13、rｅgｉsｔer语域14、sociｏlｅｃt社会变体15、speecｈmunｉtｙ言语社团１６、sｐeｅch vaｒiety言语变体17、ｔeｎor of disｃoｕｒｓe语旨Chａpter ９Laｎｇuage ａnｄcultｕre语言与社会1、ａccｕｌturａtion 同化过程2、amａｌgamation混合3、ａssimｉｌatioｎ同化(现象);同化(作用)4、connoｔａtivｅｍｅaｎing内涵意义５、colｏur words颜色词6、culturaｌoverｌａｐ文化重叠7、culturaｌｉmｐerｉalisｍ文化帝国主义８、denotaｔiｖe meanｉnｇ外延意义9、ｌingｕｉsｔｉc ｒelatiｖity语言相对性１0、ｍeｔａｐhor隐喻1１、Sａｐir-Ｗhorf Hypoｔhesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假说12、ｓocｉalizatｉｏn社会化13、ｔabｏo禁忌语1４、inｔeｒｃulｔural municaｔioｎ跨文化交际15、linguisｔiｃｉmpｅrialiｓm语言学中得帝国主义16、ｌiｎguｉstｉcｎaｔionaliｓm语言学中得民族主义Chapter 10 Ｌangｕａge aｃquisiｔｉoｎ语言习得1、ａphasｉa失语症2、ｂeｈａviｏrｉst 行为主义者3、caretaｋer ｔalk保姆式语言4、cogniｔivｅｌiｎｇuｉsticｓ认知语言学５、ｃoｎｔeｎt worｄ实词6、Critical ＰｅrioｄＨypotｈｅsis临界期假说7、ｄｙｓｇrａphia书写困难８、dyslexｉa失读症9、ｆeｅdback反馈１０、fuｎｃtion eleｍent起功能作用成分1１、ｈｅaring impaｉｒment听力受损1２、innaｔist语法天生主义者１3、iｎterａctiｏnist互动主义者1４、LanguａgｅＡcquｉsｉｔiｏn Ｄｅviｃe语言习得机制15、lexicaｌcontrasｔ词汇对比16、mentａl retａrdation智障1７、mothｅreｓe保姆式语言18、over－extｅnsiｏn过度扩展19、ｐｒototｙpe theorｙ原型理论2０、recast修正性重复２1、stｕtterｉng口吃22、ｔeleｇｒaphｉc speecｈ电报式言语23、under-extensｉon扩展不足2４、Uｎｉｖeｒｓａl Grammar普遍语法Ｃhapter 1１Ｓecond ｌanguagｅacquiｓitｉon第二语言习得１、affｅct/ｓocial ｓtratｅgieｓ社会策略2、ａgｅｏｆacqｕiｓｉtion习得年龄3、cognｉｔivｅstｒaｔegｉｅs认知策略4、pｒehｅnsiblｅｉnｐｕt可理解性输入5、Consｔrａstive Aｎaｌｙsis对比分析6、cｒosｓ-aｓsociatioｎ互相联想7、Erｒor Aｎａlysiｓ错误分析8、foｒｅｉｇn laｎguage外语9、foreｉgner talk外国人谈话1０、ｆossiliｚａtion语言石化(现象)１1、Input Hｙｐothesiｓ输入假说12、ｉnstrumental moｔiｖatｉｏｎ工具动机１3、intａke 纳入14、inteｇratｉvｅmoｔivation综合动机15、inteｒference干扰１6、iｎterlaｎguａｇｅ中介语17、ｉｎterlinguａl ｅｒｒors语际错误;受母语影响得错误18、Ｉntraｌiｎguａl eｒror语内错误1９、ｉｎtrinsic motivaｔion内在动机２0、ｉnｔｕiｔion知觉;语感２1、learｎeｒｌaｎｇｕage学习者语言22、learｎing ｓtrategieｓ学习策略23、languａge aｐtitude语言能力２4、lanｇｕａgeｔransｆｅｒ语言迁移2５、meｔacogｎitiｖe strａtｅｇｉes元认知策略26、mｏtivatｉon动机２7、moｄifｉed iｎput修改后得输入２８、ｍodifiｅd ｉntｅｒaction变化性得互动2９、negatｉve traｎsfer消极迁移;负迁移３0、ｏveｒgeneralizaｔion概括过头31、personaｌitｙ人格;性格;个性3２、positｉve transfer积极迁移；正迁移33、ｒｅｓｕlｔaｔｉｖｅmoｔivation结果动机34、secoｎｄlanguage第二语言35、seconｄlanguage acｑｕiｓiｔioｎ第二语言习得36、teacher talk教师谈话37、target languａge目标语Ｃｈａpter 12Language and tｈe brain 语言与大脑１、aｃquired dysgrapｈia习得性书写障碍2、ａcqｕiｒｅd dｙｓｌexｉa习得性失读症3、angular gyrｕｓ隅骨4、auｔopsy stｕdies尸检研究5、braｉn stｅｍ脑干6、Ｂroｃa’s aphasia布罗卡失语症7、Ｂrｏca’s area布罗卡区8、ｂｏttom-ｕp prｏcｅssinｇ自下而上处理过程ｃerｅbruｍ大脑9、ｃentral ｓulcus中央沟10、ｃerebｅllｕm小脑脑向背侧突出得一个较大得部分,尤与肌肉得共济运动与维持身体平衡有关11、cerebrａl hemisｐhere大脑半球12、cohort modｅl交股模型１3、pｕtarized Ａxial Tomograｐhｙ计算机化轴向层面X射线摄影法1４、corpus(语言)素材15、ｃｏｒpｕｓcａｌlosuｍ胼胝体1６、cｏrｔex大脑皮层17、dｅep dｙslexiａ深层诵读困难18、Diｃhotｉc lｉsｔeniｎg studiｅs双耳分听实验19、eｖeｎt－ｒelaｔed potentｉａl ｅxperiｍent2０、eye movｅｍenｔｅxpｅriment眼动实验21、fissure裂缝;裂隙22、flueｎt apｈasia流利性失语症２3、frontａl lobｅ额叶(大脑半球得前部,其下部位于颅前窝,后界中央沟24、Funcｔiｏnal MＲI功能磁共振成像25、garden path sentence花园路径句26、global ａpｈasia整体性失语症２7、gyruｓ回2８、hieｒａｒｃhiｃal strｕｃtｕre层级结构29、late closure ｐrincｉpｌe后封闭原则;晚封闭原则30、lateral fisｓurｅ侧脑裂31、lａｔｅrａliｚａtiｏn侧化32、leｓion损害33、lexｉcaｌdｅciｓion词汇判断;词汇确定法3４、lｏbes叶,身体器官得由表面得沟裂分出得部分３５、lｏngiｔuｄinaｌfissurｅ纵裂36、MagnetｉｃResonａｎce Iｍａｇing磁共振成像37、neｕｒon神经细胞,神经元3８、mｉnimaｌａｔｔachment priｎｃiｐle最低限度结合原则３９、modｕle模块；组块40、non－flueｎt ａpｈasiａ失语症４1、oｃcipｉtal lobe枕叶大脑半球得后叶,呈三面得锥形, 与前方得顶叶与下方得颞叶没有明显得界限４2、ｐａrietal ｌobe顶叶Pｏsitron emiｓsｉon Toｍｏｇｒa ｐhy正电子发射X射线层析照相术;计算机辅助正电子发射断层扫描技术43、phoｌogicaｌdyｓｌeｘｉa拼音性失读症４4、primiｎg启动45、primiｎg eｆｆeｃt启动效应46、ｐｒiming eｘpeｒiment启动实验４7、right eaｒadvantａgｅ右耳优势;右耳听力强48、ｓelｅctional restｒictｉoｎ选择限制49、sentencｅａｍbiguiｔy句子歧义５０、“Sｏdｉｕm Ａmyｓtaｌ“Ｔest阿米妥纳实验Spoone ｒiｓｍ斯本内现象51、spliｔbrain ｓtudｉｅs裂脑研究52、sｕｌｃｕs沟53、suｒface dyｓlexia浅层诵读困难54、syntａｃtic pａrｓer句法处理器55、tｅｍpoｒａｌlobe颞叶56、ｔimed-ｒeａding ｅxｐeｒiment限时阅读实验57、top-dｏｗn ｐrocｅsｓinｇ自上而下处理过程58、Werniｃke’s apｈａsia韦尼克失语症。
一文详解general language model-概述说明以及解释
一文详解general language model-概述说明以及解释1.引言1.1 概述引言部分是一篇文章的开端，用来向读者介绍文章的主题和目的。
在本篇文章中的引言部分，我们将对general language model进行概述。
General language model是一种基于深度学习的自然语言处理模型，它具有广泛的应用领域和重要性。
它通过大规模的语料库进行训练，以学习语言的潜在结构、语义和上下文依赖关系。
具体而言，general language model使用概率模型来预测一个给定上下文下的下一个单词或字符，从而实现对语言的理解和生成。
在过去的几年中，general language model取得了令人瞩目的成果，并在各个领域展现出巨大的潜力。
它可以被广泛应用于机器翻译、语言生成、自动问答、语义分析、情感分析和文本分类等任务中。
通过将general language model应用于这些任务，我们可以提高自然语言处理系统的表现，并改善人机交互的体验。
本文将对general language model的原理、应用领域以及其未来的发展进行详细的讨论。
我们将探讨general language model在不同领域的成功案例，并分析其优势和局限性。
同时，我们也会展望general language model在未来的进一步发展，并对其可能的应用和挑战进行展望。
通过本文的阅读，读者将能够全面了解general language model的概念、原理和应用领域。
同时，我们也希望读者能够对general language model在未来的发展趋势有一定的了解，并认识到这一领域所面临的挑战和机遇。
请开始阅读正文，进一步了解general language model的精髓。
1.2文章结构1.2 文章结构本文将按照以下结构来展开对general language model的详细解析：引言部分将概述general language model的基本概念和应用场景，并介绍本文的目的。
功能模型格式语言FFL及FFL模型研究
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念 ，并 对 功 能 树 与 可 拓 功 能模 型 进 行 了相 关 研 究 。由此 ， 出了基 于ＸＭＬ￣的功 能模 型格式 语 提 ［］ ｏ
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功 能 的组合 ，寻求 恰 当 的设计 原理 分别 去满 足这 些 子功 能 ，然 后选 择合 适 的满足 总 功 能 的原理 组
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之 间的联 系和沟 通打 下 了基础 。
１ 可 拓功 能模 型
在可拓 学 中 ， 了形 式化描 述物 、 为 事和 关 系 ， 建立 了物 元 、 元与 关系 元 的概 念 ， 事 统称 为基 元 。 可拓 学基元 的概 念 为描述 事物 的质 与量 、事物 之 间 的相互 作用提 供 了强有 力 的形式 化工 具 ，它 与 功 能 的属 性 、属性 的量 值 以及 功能 间 的联 系具 有
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其次 ，提 出了基于 Ｆ Ｌ的可拓功能模型到功能树的转换 算法；最后 ，通过实例验证 了 Ｆ Ｌ Ｆ Ｆ 在 促 进功 能模 型之 间的联 系和 沟通 中的重要 作 用 关 键 词：概念设计；功能模型；功能模型格 式语 言；可拓 学；功能树 中图 分类 号 ：Ｔ ９ Ｐ３ １
Function model
Function modelA function model or functional model in systems engineering andsoftware engineering is a structured representation of the functions (activities ,actions ,processes ,operations )within the modeled system or sub-ject area.[1]Example of a function model of the process of “Maintain Repara-ble Spares”in IDEF0notation.A function model,similar with the activity model or process model ,is a graphical representation of an enterprise 's function within a defined scope.The pur-poses of the function model are to describe the functions and processes,assist with discovery of information needs,help identify opportunities,and establish a basis for de-termining product and service costs.[2]1HistoryThe function model in the field of systems engineeringand software engineering originates in the 1950s and1960s,but the origin of functional modelling of organi-zational activity goes back to the late 19th century.In the late 19th century the first diagrams appeared that pictured business activities,actions,processes,or oper-ations,and in the first half of the 20th century the firststructured methods for documenting business process ac-tivities emerged.One of those methods was the flow pro-cess chart ,introduced by Frank Gilbreth to members of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)in1921with the presentation,entitled “Process Charts—First Steps in Finding the One Best Way”.[3]Gilbreth’s tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula.The emerge of the field of systems engineering can be traced back to Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s.[4]The need to identify and manipulate the prop-erties of a system as a whole,which in complex en-gineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts’properties,motivated various industries to ap-ply the discipline.[5]One of the first to define the func-tion model in this field was the British engineer William Gosling .In his book The design of engineering systems (1962,p.25)he stated:A functional model must thus achieve two aims in order to be of use.It must furnish a through-put description mechanics capable of completely defining the first and last throughput states,and perhaps some of the intervening states.It must also offer some means by which any input,cor-rectly described in terms of this mechanics,can be used to generate an output which is an equally correct description of the output which the ac-tual system would have given for the input con-cerned.It may also be noted that there are two other things which a functional model may do,but which are not necessary to all functional models.Thus such a system may,but need not,describe the system throughputs other than at the input and output,and it may also contain a de-scription of the operation which each element carries out on the throughput,but once again this is not.[6]One of the first well defined function models,was the Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD)developed by the defense-related TRW Incorporated in the 1950s.[7]In the 1960s it was exploited by the NASA to visualizethe time sequence of events in a space systems and flightmissions.[8]It is further widely used in classical systemsengineering to show the order of execution of systemfunctions.[9]2Functional modeling topics 2.1Functional perspectiveIn systems engineering and software engineering a func-tion model is created with a functional modeling perspec-tive .The functional perspective is one of the perspec-tives possible in business process modelling ,other per-123FUNCTIONAL MODELING METHODSspectives are for example behavioural,organisational or informational.[10]A functional modeling perspective concentrates on de-scribing the dynamic process .The main concept in this modeling perspective is the process,this could be a func-tion,transformation,activity,action,task etc.A well-known example of a modeling language employing this perspective is data flow diagrams .The perspective uses four symbols to describe a process,these being:•Process:Illustrates transformation from input tooutput.•Store:Data-collection or some sort of material.•Flow:Movement of data or material in the process.•External Entity:External to the modeled system,but interacts with it.Now,with these symbols,a process can be represented as a network of these symbols.This decomposed process is a DFD,data flowdiagram.Example of functional decomposition in a systems analysis.In Dynamic Enterprise Modeling a division is made in the Control model ,Function Model,Process model andOrganizational model .2.2Functional decompositionFunctional decomposition refers broadly to the process of resolving a functional relationship into its constituent parts in such a way that the original function can be re-constructed from those parts by function composition .In general,this process of decomposition is undertaken ei-ther for the purpose of gaining insight into the identity of the constituent components,or for the purpose of obtain-ing a compressed representation of the global function,atask which is feasible only when the constituent processes possess a certain level of modularity .Functional decomposition has a prominent role in computer programming ,where a major goal is to modu-larize processes to the greatest extent possible.For exam-ple,a library management system may be broken up intoan inventory module,a patron information module,and afee assessment module.In the early decades of computerprogramming,this was manifested as the “art of subrou-tining,”as it was called by some prominent practitioners.Functional decomposition of engineering systems is a method for analyzing engineered systems.The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of the block diagram can be described without an “and”or “or”in the description.This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure function .When a system is composed of pure functions,they can be reused,or replaced.A usual side effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic.Since the interfaces usually become simple,it is easier to replace a pure function with a related,similar function.3Functional modeling methodsThe functional approach is extended in multiple diagram-mic techniques and modeling notations.This section gives an overview of the important techniques in chrono-logical order.3.1Function blockdiagramFunctional block diagram of the attitude control and maneuver-ing electronics system of the Gemini spacecraft .June 1962.A functional block diagram is a block diagram ,that de-scribes the functions and interrelationships of a system .The functional block diagram can picture:[11]3.3HIPO and IPO3•Functions of a system pictured by blocks•Input and output elements of a block pictured with lines,and•Relationships between the functions •Functional sequences and paths for matter and or signals[12]The block diagram can use additional schematic symbols to show particular properties.Specific function block diagram are the classic Functional Flow Block Diagram,and the Function Block Diagram (FBD)used in the design of programmable logic con-trollers.3.2Functional Flow Block DiagramFunctional Flow Block Diagram Format.[13]The Functionalflow block diagram(FFBD)is a multi-tier,time-sequenced,step-by-stepflow diagram of the system’s functionalflow.[14]The diagram is developed in the1950s and widely used in classical systems engineer-ing.The Functional Flow Block Diagram is also referred to as Functional Flow Diagram,functional block diagram, and functionalflow.[15]Functional Flow Block Diagrams(FFBD)usually de-fine the detailed,step-by-step operational and support se-quences for systems,but they are also used effectively to define processes in developing and producing systems. The software development processes also use FFBDs ex-tensively.In the system context,the functionalflow steps may include combinations of hardware,software, personnel,facilities,and/or procedures.In the FFBD method,the functions are organized and de-picted by their logical order of execution.Each function is shown with respect to its logical relationship to the ex-ecution and completion of other functions.A node la-beled with the function name depicts each function.Ar-rows from left to right show the order of execution of the functions.Logic symbols represent sequential or parallel execution of functions.[16]3.3HIPO and IPOAn expanded IPO Model.HIPO for hierarchical input process output is a popu-lar1970s systems analysis design aid and documentation technique[17]for representing the modules of a system as a hierarchy and for documenting each module.[18]It was used to develop requirements,construct the de-sign,and support implementation of an expert system to demonstrate automated rendezvous.Verification was then conducted systematically because of the method of design and implementation.[19]The overall design of the system is documented using HIPO charts or structure charts.The structure chart is similar in appearance to an organizational chart,but has been modified to show additional detail.Structure charts can be usedto display several types of information,but are used most commonly to diagram either data structures or code structures.[18]3.4N2ChartThe N2Chart is a diagram in the shape of a matrix,repre-senting functional or physical interfaces between system elements.It is used to systematically identify,define,tab-ulate,design,and analyze functional and physical inter-faces.It applies to system interfaces and hardware and/or software interfaces.[14]The N2diagram has been used extensively to develop data interfaces,primarily in the software areas.However, it can also be used to develop hardware interfaces.The basic N2chart is shown in Figure2.The system functions are placed on the diagonal;the remainder of the squares in the N x N matrix represent the interface inputs and outputs.[20]3.5Structured Analysis and Design Tech-niqueStructured Analysis and Design Technique(SADT)is a43FUNCTIONAL MODELINGMETHODSFigure2.N2chart definition.[20]SADT basis element.software engineering methodology for describing systems as a hierarchy of functions,a diagrammatic notation for constructing a sketch for a software application.It offers building blocks to represent entities and activities,and a variety of arrows to relate boxes.These boxes and arrows have an associated informal semantics.[21]SADT can be used as a functional analysis tool of a given process,us-ing successive levels of details.The SADT method al-lows to define user needs for IT developments,which is used in industrial Information Systems,but also to explain and to present an activity’s manufacturing pro-cesses,procedures.[22]The SADT supplies a specific functional view of any en-terprise by describing the functions and their relation-ships in a company.These functions fulfill the objec-tives of a company,such as sales,order planning,product design,part manufacturing,and human resource man-agement.The SADT can depict simple functional rela-tionships and can reflect data and controlflow relation-ships between different functions.The IDEF0formal-ism is based on SADT,developed by Douglas T.Ross in 1985.[23]3.6IDEF0IDEF0Diagram ExampleIDEF0is a function modeling methodology for de-scribing manufacturing functions,which offers a func-tional modeling language for the analysis,development, re-engineering,and integration of information systems; business processes;or software engineering analysis.[24] It is part of the IDEF family of modeling languages in thefield of software engineering,and is built on the func-tional modeling language building SADT.The IDEF0Functional Modeling method is designed to model the decisions,actions,and activities of an orga-nization or system.[25]It was derived from the estab-lished graphic modeling language Structured Analysis and Design Technique(SADT)developed by Douglas T. Ross and SofTech,Inc..In its original form,IDEF0in-cludes both a definition of a graphical modeling language (syntax and semantics)and a description of a comprehen-sive methodology for developing models.[1]The US Air Force commissioned the SADT developers to develop a function model method for analyzing and communicat-ing the functional perspective of a system.IDEF0should assist in organizing system analysis and promote effec-tive communication between the analyst and the customer through simplified graphical devices.[25]3.7Axiomatic DesignAxiomatic design is a top down hierarchical functional decomposition process used as a solution synthesis frame-work for the analysis,development,re-engineering,and integration of products,information systems,business processes or software engineering solutions.[26]Its struc-ture is suited mathematically to analyze coupling between4.3Business reference model5functions in order to optimize the architectural robustness of potential functional solution models.4Related types of modelsIn thefield of systems and software engineering numerous specific function and functional models and close related models have been defined.Here only a few general types will be explained.4.1Business function modelA Business Function Model(BFM)is a general description or category of operations performed routinely to carry out an organization’s mission.They“provide a concep-tual structure for the identification of general business functions”.[27]It can show the critical business processes in the context of the business area functions.The pro-cesses in the business function model must be consistent with the processes in the value chain models.Processes are a group of related business activities performed to produce an end product or to provide a service.Un-like business functions that are performed on a continual basis,processes are characterized by the fact that they have a specific beginning and an end point marked by the delivery of a desired output.Thefigure on the right depicts the relationship between the business processes, business functions,and the business area’s business ref-erence model.[28]4.2Business Process Model and NotationBusiness Process Modeling Notation Example.Business Process Model and Notation(BPMN)is a graphical representation for specifying business processes in a workflow.BPMN was developed by Business Process Management Initiative(BPMI),and is currently main-tained by the Object Management Group since the two organizations merged in2005.The current version of BPMN is2.0.[29]The Business Process Model and Notation(BPMN) specification provides a graphical notation for specify-ing business processes in a Business Process Diagram (BPD).[30]The objective of BPMN is to supportbusi-ness process management for both technical users and business users by providing a notation that is intuitive to business users yet able to represent complex process se-mantics.The BPMN specification also provides a map-ping between the graphics of the notation to the un-derlying constructs of execution languages,particularly BPEL4WS.[31]4.3Business reference modelThis FEA Business reference model depicts the relationship be-tween the business processes,business functions,and the business area’s business reference model.A Business reference model is a reference model,con-centrating on the functional and organizational aspects of the core business of an enterprise,service organization or government agency.In enterprise engineering a busi-ness reference model is part of an Enterprise Architec-ture Framework or Architecture Framework,which de-fines how to organize the structure and views associated with an Enterprise Architecture.A reference model in general is a model of something that embodies the basic goal or idea of something and can then be looked at as a reference for various purposes.A business reference model is a means to describe the business operations of an organization,independent of the organizational structure that perform them.Other types of business reference model can also depict the re-lationship between the business processes,business func-tions,and the business area’s business reference model. These reference model can be constructed in layers,and offer a foundation for the analysis of service components, technology,data,and performance.4.4Operator function modelThe Operator Function Model(OFM)is proposed as an alternative to traditional task analysis techniques used by human factors engineers.An operator function model attempts to represent in mathematical form how an op-erator might decompose a complex system into simpler parts and coordinate control actions and system configu-66REFERENCESrations so that acceptable overall system performance is achieved.The model represents basic issues of knowl-edge representation,informationflow,and decision mak-ing in complex ler(1985)suggests that the network structure can be thought of as a possible repre-sentation of an operator’s internal model of the system plus a control structure which specifies how the model is used to solve the decision problems that comprise opera-tor control functions.[32]>5See also•Bus Functional Model•Business process modeling•Data model•Enterprise modeling•Functional Software Architecture •Polynomial function model•Rational function model•Scientific modeling•Unified Modeling Language•View model6ReferencesThis article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Institute of Stan-dards and Technology.[1]FIPS Publication183released of IDEFØDecember1993by the Computer Systems Laboratory of the National In-stitute of Standards and Technology(NIST).[2]Reader’s Guide to IDEF0Function Models.Accessed27Nov2008.[3]Ben B.Graham(2002).Detail Process Charting.p.2.[4]Schlager,J.(July1956).“Systems engineering:key tomodern development”.IRE Transactions EM–3(3):64–66.doi:10.1109/IRET-EM.1956.5007383.[5]Arthur D.Hall(1962).A Methodology for Systems Engi-neering.Van Nostrand Reinhold.ISBN0-442-03046-0.[6]William Gosling(1962)The design of engineering systems.p.23[7]Tim Weilkiens(2008).Systems Engineering withSysML/UML:Modeling,Analysis,Design.Page287. [8]Harold Chestnut(1967).Systems Engineering Methods.Page254.[9]Thomas Dufresne&James Martin(2003).“ProcessModeling for E-Business”.INFS770Methods for Infor-mation Systems Engineering:Knowledge Management and E-Business.Spring2003[10]Process perspectives.In:Metamodeling and method engi-neering,Minna Koskinen,2000.[11]James Perozzo(1994)The complete guide to electronicstroubleshooting.p.72[12]William H.Von Alven(1964)Reliability engineering ex-plains:“Functional block diagrams show functional se-quences and signal paths,and items which are wired in parallel are drawn in parallel”(p.286)[13]Systems Engineering Fundamentals.Defense AcquisitionUniversity Press,2001[14]Thefirst version of this article is completely based on theNAS SYSTEM ENGINEERING MANUAL SECTION4.4VERSION3.106/06/06.[15]Task Analysis Tools Used Throughout Development.FAA2008.Retrieved25Sept2008.[16]FAA(2006).NAS SYSTEM ENGINEERING MAN-UAL SECTION4.4VERSION3.106/06/06.[17]IBM Corporation(1974).HIPO—A Design Aid and Doc-umentation Technique,Publication Number GC20-1851, IBM Corporation,White Plains,NY,1974.[18]Sandia National Laboratories(1992).Sandia SoftwareGuidelines Volume5Tools,Techniques,and Methodolo-gies SANDIA REPORTS85–2348qUC–32[19]Mary Ann Goodwin and Charles C.Robertson(1986).EXPERT SYSTEM VERIFICATION CONCERNS IN AN OPERATIONS ENVIRONMENT.NASA paper N88-17234.[20]NASA(1995).“Techniques of Functional Analysis”.In:NASA Systems Engineering Handbook June1995.p.142.[21]John Mylopoulos(2004).Conceptual Modelling III.Structured Analysis and Design Technique(SADT).Re-trieved21Sep2008.[22]SADT at .Retrieved21Sep2008.[23]Gavriel Salvendy(2001).Handbook of Industrial Engi-neering:Technology and Operations Management..p.508.[24]Systems Engineering Fundamentals.Defense AcquisitionUniversity Press,2001.[25]Varun Grover,William J.Kettinger(2000).ProcessThink:Winning Perspectives for Business Change in the Information Age.p.168.[26]Suh(2001).Axiomatic Design:Advances and Applica-tions,Oxford University Press,2001,ISBN0-19-513466-4[27]Paul Grefen(2010)Mastering e-Business.p.5-10[28]US Department of Interior(2000-08)Analyze the Businessand Define the Target Business Environment.Accessed27 Nov2008.7[29]“BPMN Information”.Retrieved2008-11-02.[30]Richard C.Simpson(2004).An XML Representation forCrew Procedures.Final Report NASA Faculty FellowshipProgram-2004.Johnson Space Center.[31]S.A.White,“Business Process Modeling Notation(BPMN),”In:Business Process Management Initiative(BPMI)3May2004.[32]Operator Function Model(OFM).Accessed27Nov2008.87TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES,CONTRIBUTORS,AND LICENSES 7Text and image sources,contributors,and licenses7.1Text•Function model Source:/wiki/Function%20model?oldid=632229658Contributors:TeunSpaans,Bender235,Mdd, Woohookitty,Vegaswikian,RussBot,Grafen,AGK,CmdrObot,Lamiot,Hazmat2,Mr pand,Pallaverm,EagleFan,R'n'B,Commons-Delinker,M-le-mot-dit,LittleHow,Banana Concoction,Rayhennessey,Niceguyedc,SchreiberBike,WikHead,Dekart,Jncraton,Yobot, J04n,Mark Renier,Topfix,Cpt2slow,John of Reading,Architectchao, ,ClueBot NG,Helpful Pixie Bot,KLBot2,Chatkan Bunnag, Mrt3366,Mogism,U2fanboi,Juca92and Anonymous:137.2Images•File:BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.svg Source:/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/ BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.svg License:Public domain Contributors:BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg<a href='///wiki/File:BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg'class='image'><img alt='BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg'src='///wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg/50px-BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg'width='50'height='28'srcset='///wikipedia/commons/thumb/ 3/36/BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg/75px-BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg 1.5x,///wikipedia/ commons/thumb/3/36/BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg/100px-BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg2x'data-file-width='556' data-file-height='306'/></a>Original artist:BPMN-AProcesswithNormalFlow.jpg:Tttt1234•File:Commons-logo.svg Source:/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License:?Contributors:?Original artist:?•File:FEA_BRM_Hierachy.JPG Source:/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/FEA_BRM_Hierachy.JPG License: Public domain Contributors:Analyze the Business and Define the Target Business Environment Original artist:•File:Fo2ufg823rhf832hfdorfg.JPG Source:/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Fo2ufg823rhf832hfdorfg.JPG Li-cense:Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist:DFD guru•File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source:/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License:Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:?Original artist:?•File:Functional_Flow_Block_Diagram_Format.jpg Source:/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Functional_Flow_ Block_Diagram_Format.jpg License:Public domain Contributors:Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist:Original uploader was Mdd at en.wikipedia•File:Functional_block_diagram_of_the_attitude_control_and_maneuvering_electronics_system.jpg Source:http: ///wikipedia/commons/6/65/Functional_block_diagram_of_the_attitude_control_and_maneuvering_electronics_ system.jpg License:Public domain Contributors:/SP-4002/images/fig18.jpg,see also Project Gemini Concept and Design January1962through December1962Original artist:McDonnell,“Project Gemini Familiarization Charts,”•File:IDEF_Diagram_Example.jpg Source:/wikipedia/commons/3/31/IDEF_Diagram_Example.jpg Li-cense:Public domain Contributors:<a data-x-rel='nofollow'class='external text'href='/pubs/pdf/SEFGuide%2001-01.pdf'>Systems Engineering Fundamentals.</a>Defense Acquisition University Press,2001Original artist:Defense Acquisition University •File:IPO-S_Model.gif Source:/wikipedia/en/8/80/IPO-S_Model.gif License:PD Contributors: Own workOriginal artist:Dante Xavier Bari based on the work of others.•File:N2_chart_definition.JPG Source:/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/N2_chart_definition.JPG License:Public domain Contributors:NASA(1995).“Techniques of Functional Analysis”.In:NASA Systems Engineering Handbook June1995.p.142.Original artist:NASA•File:SADT.svg Source:/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/SADT.svg License:Public domain Contributors:Own work Original artist:UlrichAAB7.3Content license•Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike3.0。
metafunctions-of-language-语言元功能
Verbal
Ask about
Sayer: the kids Receiver: Dufour Verbiage: their safety…
Verbal
Emphasize Sayer: Dufour
d
Verbiage: the importance…
Verbal
said
Sayer: he Verbiage: “we can’t…”
Behavioral processes refer to physiological and psychological behavior such as breathing, coughing, smiling, etc.
Existential processes represent that something exists or happens. In every existential process, there is an existent.
The editor says his best advice for those who want to talk about the attacks with their children is to begin the discussion by listening to their questions. The kids ask Dufour about their safety, the terrorists' motives, how it relates to the Charlie Hebdo attacks, why they attacked a rock concert and why the attackers killed themselves.
2022年考研专业二考试真题及答案86
2022年考研专业二考试真题及答案一、填空题每小题2分，共1题1、 By _____, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.2、The sound [d] can be described with “_____, alveolar stop/plosive”.3、 _____ is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.4、_____, the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership.5、 _____ is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.二、推断题每小题2分，共1题1、 As an interdisciplinary study of language and psychology, psycholinguistics has its roots in structural linguistics on the one hand, and in cognitive psychology on the other hand.2、 Root refers to the base form of a word that can be further analyzed without loss of identity.3、 Corpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study. It is a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech.4、 Speech act theory was first proposed by Brown.5、Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into same categories based on commonalities and differences. As a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, it allows us to relate present experiences to past ones.三、辨析题每小题2分，共1题1、 Tell the organs that are involved in speech production.2、 Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.a. voiceless labiodental fricativeb. high back rounded tense vowel3、 Give the antonyms of the following words, and point out in which aspect the two of each pair are opposite.a. darkb. boy4、 Tell the reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users.5、 Define and give an example of embedding.四、简答题每小题2分，共1题1、 Do body language and facial expression share or lack thedistinctive properties of human language? Why or Why not?2、 What is your definition of assimilation? How is it usually classified?3、 How do you understand emotive function of language?4、 What is resonance model? How is it used to explain text comprehension?5、What is the relation between systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar?参考答案：【一、填空题】1Creativity2voiced3inflection4hyponymy5locutionary act 【二、推断题】112错314051【三、辨析题】1对2对3对4对5对【四、简答题】1On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us, but in Arabian world, it is equal to saying “No”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they areinstinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.2A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with “coarticulation”. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called regressive “assimilation”; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive “assimilation”.3The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress. E.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases.4The resonance model is a model about text comprehension. In this model, information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. Semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions, do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In readinga narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text, analyzing events in terms of goals, actions, and reactions. A resonance process serves as a first stage in processing a text, and, reading objectives and details of text structure determine whether a reader goes further and searches for a coherent structure for the text.5Systemic Grammar and Functional Grammar are two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguistic theory. Systemic Grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, for meaning potential. This network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional Grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve. Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind Functional Grammar is systemic.。
具备function call的语言模型-概述说明以及解释
具备function call的语言模型-概述说明以及解释1.引言1.1 概述概述部分的内容：引言是一篇文章的开篇，旨在为读者提供整体的背景和概述。
本文将讨论具备function call的语言模型，探索其在计算机科学领域的重要性和应用价值。
具备function call的语言模型是指能够支持函数调用操作的编程语言模型。
函数调用是一种常见且关键的编程概念，它允许程序员将代码块封装成可复用的功能单元，并通过函数调用来执行这些功能单元。
具备function call的语言模型提供了一种组织和管理代码的方式，使得代码更易于维护、理解和复用。
随着计算机科学的不断发展，对于具备function call的语言模型的需求也越来越大。
这种语言模型不仅可以提高代码的复用性和可读性，还能够提高开发效率和代码的健壮性。
在大型软件项目中，合理使用函数调用可以极大地简化代码结构，减少代码的冗余度，使得程序更加模块化和可维护。
本文将以引言部分为开端，继续探讨具备function call的语言模型的优点和特点，并对其在软件开发中的实际应用进行详细的介绍。
接下来的章节将围绕第一个和第二个要点展开讨论，并在结论部分对所述内容进行总结和展望。
通过对具备function call的语言模型的研究，不仅可以加深对编程语言本质和设计原则的理解，还可以为软件开发人员提供更高效和便捷的工具和方法。
同时，对于学习编程的初学者来说，理解和掌握函数调用的概念也是逐步成为一个合格程序员的基础技能之一。
总之，具备function call的语言模型在计算机科学领域具有重要的地位和作用。
本文将深入探讨其优点和特点，并通过实际应用案例加以说明。
希望读者能够通过阅读本文，对于函数调用以及具备function call的语言模型有更加深入的了解和认识。
1.2 文章结构文章结构部分的内容应该包含对整篇文章的组织和安排的介绍。
具体来说，可以从以下几个方面进行描述：1. 引言部分：简要介绍文章的主题和背景，以及对具备function call 的语言模型进行简单概述，引起读者的兴趣。
2022年自然语言处理及计算语言学相关术语中英对译表二
自然语言处理及计算语言学相关术语中英对译表二自然语言处理及计算语言学相关术语中英对译表二 delimiter 定界符号 [定界符]denotation 外延denotic logic 符号逻辑dependency 依存关系dependency gram r 依存关系语法dependency relation 依存关系depth-first search 深度优先搜寻derivation 派生derivational bound morpheme 派生性附着语素descriptive gram r 描述型语法 [描写语法]descriptive linguistics 描述语言学 [描写语言学] desiderative 意愿的determiner 限定词deterministic algorithm 决定型算法 [确定性算法] deterministic finite state auto ton 决定型有限状态机deterministic parser 决定型语法剖析器 [确定性句法剖析程序] developmental psychology 开展心理学diachronic linguistics 历时语言学diacritic 附加符号dialectology 方言学dictionary database 辞典数据库 [词点数据库]dictionary entry 辞典条目digital pro ssing 数字处理 [数值处理] diglossia 双言digraph 二合字母diminutive 指小词diphone 双连音directed acyclic graph 有向非循环图disambiguation 消除歧义 [歧义消除] discourse 篇章discourse ysis 篇章分析 [言谈分析] discourse planning 篇章规划discourse representation theory 篇章表征理论 [言谈表示理论] discourse strategy 言谈策略discourse structure 言谈结构discrete 离散的disjunction 选言dissimilation 异化distributed 分布式的distributed cooperative reasoning 分布协调型推理distributed text parsing 分布式文本剖析disyllabic 双音节的ditransitive verb 双宾动词 [双宾语动词;双及物动词]divergen 扩散[分化]d-m (determiner-measure) construction 定量结构d-n (determiner-noun) construction 定名结构document retrieval system 文件检索系统 [文献检索系统] do in dependency 领域依存性 [领域依存关系]double insertion 交互中插double-base 双基downgrading 降级dummy 虚位duration 音长{ 学}/时段{语法学/语意学}dynamic programming 动态规划earley algorithm earley 算法echo 回声句egressive 呼气音ejective 紧喉音electronic dictionary 电子词典elementary string 根本字符串 [根本单词串] ellipsis 省略em algorithm em算法embedding 崁入emic 功能关系的empirici 经验论empty category principle 虚范畴原那么 [空范畴原理] empty word 虚词enclitics 后接成份end user 终端用户 [最终用户]endo ntric 同心的endophora 语境照应entailment 蕴涵entity 实体entropy 熵entry 条目episodic memory 情节性记忆epistemological work 认识论网络ergative verb 作格动词ergativity 作格性esperando 世界语etic 无功能关系etymology 词源学eventevent driven control 驱动型控制example-based chine translation 以例句为本的机器翻译excla tion 感慨exclusive disjunction 排它性逻辑“或”experien r case 经验者格expert system 专家系统extension 外延external argument 域外论元extraposition 移外变形 [外置转换]facility value 易度值feature 特征feature bundle 特征束feature co-ourren restriction 特征同现限制 [特性同现限制] feature instantiation 特征表达feature structure 特征结构 [特性结构]feature unification 特征连并 [特性合一]feedback 回馈felicity condition 妥适条件file structure 档案结构finite auto ton 有限状态机 [有限自动机]finite state 有限状态finite state morphology 有限状态构词法 [有限状态词法] finite-state auto ta 有限状态自动机finite-state language 有限状态语言finite-state chine 有限状态机finite-state transdu r 有限状态置换器flap 闪音flat 降音foreground infor tion 前景讯息 [前景信息]for l language theory 形式语言理论for l linguistics 形式语言学for l se ntics 形式语意学forward inferen 前向推理 [向前推理]forward-backward algorithm 前前后后算法frame 框架frame based knowledge representation 框架型知识表示frame theory 框架理论free morpheme 自由语素fregean principle fregean 原那么fricative 擦音f-structure 功能结构full text searching 全文检索function word 功能词functional gram r 功能语法functional programming 函数型程序设计 [函数型程序设计] functional senten perspective 功能句子观functional structure 功能结构functional unification 功能连并 [功能合一]functor 功能符fundamental frequency 基频garden path senten 花园路径句gb (gover ent and binding) 管辖约束geminate 重叠音gender 性generalized phrase structure gram r 概化词组结构语法 [广义短语结构语法]generative gram r 衍生语法generative linguistics 衍生语言学 [生成语言学]generic 泛指geic epistemology 发生认识论geive rker 属格标记genitive 属格gerund 动名词gover ent and binding theory 管辖约束理论gpsg (generalized phrase structure gram r) 概化词组结构语法[广义短语结构语法]gradability 可分级性gram r checker 文法检查器gram tical affix 语法词缀gram tical category 语法范畴gram tical function 语能gram tical inferen 文法推论gram tical relation 语法关系grapheme 字素haplology 类音删略head 中心语head driven phrase structure 中心语驱动词组结构 [中心词驱动词组结构]head feature convention 中心语特征继承原理 [中心词特性继承原理]head-driven phrase structure gram r 中心语驱动词组结构律heteronym 同形heuristic parsing 经验式句法剖析heuristics 经验知识hidden rkov model 隐式马可夫模型hierarchical structure 阶层结构 [层次结构]holophrase 单词句homograph 同形异义词homonym 同音异义词homophone 同音词homophony 同音异义homorganic 同部位音的horn clause horn 子句hpsg (head-driven phrase structure gram r) 中心语驱动词组结构语法hu n- chine inte 人机界面hypernym 上位词hypertext 超文件 [超文本]hyponym 下位词hypotactic 主从结构的ic (immediate constituent) 直接成份icg (infor tion-based case gram r) 讯息为本的格位语法idiom 成语 [熟语]idiosyncrasy 特异性illocutionary 施为性immediate constituent 直接成份imperative 祈使句implicative predicate 蕴含谓词implicature 含意indexical 标引的indirect object 间接宾语indirect speech act 间接言谈行动 [间接言语行为] indo-european language 印欧语言inductional inferen 归纳推理inferen chine 推理机器infinitive 不定词 [to 不定式]infix 中缀inflection/inflexion 屈折变化inflectional affix 屈折词缀infor tion extraction 信息撷取infor tion pro ssing 信息处理 [信息处理]infor tion retrieval 信息检索infor tion scien 信息科学 [信息科学; 情报科学] infor tion theory 信息论 [信息论]inherent feature 固有特征inherit 继承inheritan 继承inheritan hierarchy 继承阶层 [继承层次]inheritan of attribute 属性继承innateness position 语法天生假说insertion 中插inside-outside algorithm 里里外外算法instantiation 表达instrumental (case) 工具格integrated parser 集成句法剖析程序integrated theory of discourse ysis 篇章分析综合理论 [言谈分析综合理论]in igen intensive production 知识密集型生产intensifier 加强成分intensional logic 内含逻辑intensional se ntics 内涵语意学intensional type 内含类型interjection/excla tion 感慨词inter-level 中间成分interlingua 中介语言interlingual 中介语(的）interlocutor 对话者internalise 内化international phoic association (ipa) 国际学会inter 网际网络interpretive se ntics 诠释性语意学intonation 语调intonation unit (iu) 语调单位ipa (international phoic association) 国际学会ir (infor tion retrieval) 信息检索is-a relation is-a 关系isomorphi 同形现象iu (intonation unit) 语调单位junction 连接keyword in context 上下文中关键词[上下文内关键词] kinesics 体势学knowledge acquisition 知识习得knowledge base 知识库knowledge based chine translation 知识为本之机器翻译knowledge extraction 知识撷取 [知识题取]knowledge representation 知识表示kwic (keyword in context) 关键词前后文 [上下文内关键词] label 卷标labial 唇音labio-dental 唇齿音labio-velar 软颚唇音lad (language acquisition devi ) 语言习得装置lag 发声延迟language acquisition 语言习得language acquisition devi 语言习得装置language engineering 语言工程language generation 语言生成language intuition 语感language model 语言模型language technology 语言科技left-corner parsing 左角落剖析 [左角句法剖析] lem 词元lenis 弱辅音letter-to-phone 字转音lexeme 词汇单位lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义lexical category 词类lexical con ptual structure 词汇概念结构lexical entry 词项lexical entry selection standard 选词标准lexical integrity 词语完整性lexical se ntics 词汇语意学lexical-functional gram r 词汇功能语法lexicography 词典学lexicology 词汇学lexicon 词汇库 [词典;词库]lexis 词汇层lf (logical form) 逻辑形式lfg (lexical-functional gram r) 词汇功能语法liaison 连音linear bounded auto ton 线性有限自主机linear pre den 线性次序lingua franca 共通语linguistic decoding 语言译码linguistic unit 语言单位linked list 串行loan 外来语local 局部的locali 方位主义localizer 方位词locus model 轨迹模型locution 惯用语logic 逻辑logic array work 逻辑数组网络logic programming 逻辑程序设计 [逻辑程序设计] logical form 逻辑形式logical operator 逻辑算子 [逻辑算符]logic-based gram r 逻辑为本语法 [基于逻辑的语法] long term memory 记忆longest tch principle 最长匹配原那么 [最长一致法] lr (left-right) parsing lr 剖析chine dictionary 机器词典chine language 机器语言chine learning 机器学习chine translation 机器翻译chine-readable dictionary (mrd) 机读辞典crolinguistics 宏观语言学rkov chart 马可夫图the tical linguistics 数理语言学ximum entropy 最大熵m-d (modifier-head) construction 偏正结构mean length of utteran (mlu) 语句平均长度measure of infor tion 讯习测度 [信息测度] memory based 根据记忆的mental lexicon 心理词汇库mental model 心理模型mental pro ss 心理过程 [智力过程;智力处理] metalanguage 超语言metaphor 隐喻metaphorical extension 隐喻扩展metarule 律上律 [元规那么]metathesis 易位microlinguistics 微观语言学middle structure 中间式结构mini l pair 最小对mini list program 微言主义mlu (mean length of utteran ) 语句平均长度modal 情态词modal auxiliary 情态助动词modal logic 情态逻辑modifier 修饰语modular logic gram r 模块化逻辑语法modular parsing system 模块化句法剖析系统modularity 模块性(理论)module 模块monophthong 单元音monotonic 单调monotonicity 单调性montague gram r 蒙泰究语法 [蒙塔格语法] mood 语气morpheme 词素morphological affix 构词词缀morphological deposition 语素分解morphological pattern 词型morphological pro ssing 词素处理morphological rule 构词律 [词法规那么] morphological segmentation 语素切分morphology 构词学morphophonemics 词音学 [形态音位学;语素音位学] morphophonological rule 形态音位规那么morphosyntax 词句法motor theory 肌动理论movement 移位mrd ( chine-readable dictionary) 机读辞典模板,内容仅供参考。
systematic functional grammar
Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (often M.A.K. Halliday) developed the internationally influential systemic functional linguistic model of language. His grammatical descriptions go by the name of systemic functional grammar (SFG). (2002) Halliday(1985:192) describes language as a semiotic system, "not in the sense of a system of signs, but a systemic resource for meaning". For Halliday (1985:192), language is a "meaning potential"; by extension, he defines linguistics as the study of "how people exchange meanings by 'language'. Halliday (1985:193) has tried "to look at language from every possible vantage point", and has described his work as "wandering the highways and byways of language".However, he has claimed that "to the extent that I favored any one angle, it was the social: language as the creature and creator of human society" (Halliday, 2002).Halliday is notable for his grammatical theory and descriptions, outlined in his book An Introduction to Functional Grammar, first published in 1985. A revised edition was published in 1994, and then a third, in which he collaborated with Christian Matthiessen, in 2004. But Halliday’s conception o f grammar –or "lexico-grammar" is based on a more general theory of language as a social semiotic reso urce, or a ‘meaning potential’.Halliday follows Hjelmslev and Firth in distinguishing theoretical from descriptive categories in linguistics (Halliday, 2002:12) He argues that ‘theoretical categories, and their inter-relations, construe an abstract model of language...they are interlocking and mutually defining. The theoretical architecture derives from work on the description of natural discourse, and as such ‘no very clear line is drawn between ‘(theoretical) linguistics’ and ‘applied linguistics’.(Halliday,2002:7,14)Thus, the theory ‘is continually e volving as it is brought to bear on solving problems of a research or practical nature’. Halliday contrasts theoretical categories with descriptive categories, defined as "categories set up in the description of particular languages". (Halliday, 2002:12) His descriptive work has been focused on English and Chinese.Halliday rejects explicitly the claims about language associated with the generative tradition. Language, he argues, "cannot be equated with 'the set of all grammatical sentences', whether that set is conceived of as finite or infinite".(1985:192) He rejects the use of formal logic in linguistic theories as "irrelevant to the understanding of language" and the use of such approaches as "disastrous for linguistics".(1995:236) On Chomsky specifically, he writes that "imaginary problems were created by the whole series of dichotomies that Chomsky introduced, or took over unproblematized: not only syntax/semantics but also grammar/lexis, language/thought, competence/performance. Once these dichotomies had been set up, the problem arose of locating and maintaini ng the boundaries between them.”(1995:236)Studies of grammarFundamental categoriesHalliday's first major work on the subject of grammar was "Categories of the theory of grammar", published in the journal Word in 1961. In this paper, he argued for four "fundamental categories" for the theory of grammar: unit, structure, class, and system. These categories, he argued, are "of the highest order of abstraction", but he defended them as those necessary to "make possible a coherent account of what grammar is and of its place in language” (1961:41).In articulating the category unit, Halliday proposed the notion of a rank scale. The units of grammar formed a "hierarchy", a scale from "largest" to "smallest" which he proposed as: "sentence", "clause", "group/phrase", "word" and "morpheme".(1961,2002) Halliday defined structure as "likeness between events in successivity" and as "an arrangement of elements ordered in places'. (1961, 2002) Halliday (2005) rejects a view of structure as "strings of classes, such as nominal group + verbal group + nominal group", among which there is just a kind of mechanical solidarity" describing it instead as "configurations of functions, where the solidarity is organic".Grammar as systemicHalliday's early paper shows that the notion of "system" has been part of his theory from its origins. Halliday explains this preoccupation in the following way: "It seemed to me that explanations of linguistic phenomena needed to be sought in relationships among systems rather than among structures –in what I once called "deep paradigms" –since these were essentially where speakers made their choices".Halliday's "systemic grammar" is a semiotic account of grammar, because of this orientation to choice. Every linguistic act involves choice, and choices are made on many scales. Systemic grammars draw on system networks as their primary representation tool as a consequence. For instance, a major clause must display some structure that is the formal realization of a choice from the system of "voice", i.e. it must be either "middle" or "effective", where "effective" leads to the further choice of "operative" (otherwise known as 'active') or "receptive" (otherwise known as "passive").Grammar as functionalHalliday's grammar is not just systemic, but systemic functional. He argues that the explanation of how language works "needed to be grounded in a functional analysis, since language had evolved in the process of carrying out certain critical functions as human beings interacted with their ... 'eco-social' environment"Halliday's early grammatical descriptions of English, called "Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English – Parts 1–3” (1967,1968,2005) include reference to "four components in the grammar of English representing four functions that the language as a communication system is required to carry out: the experiential, the logical, the discoursal and the speech functional or interpersonal".(1968,2005) The "discoursal" function was renamed the "textual function". (1970, 2005) In this discussion of functions of language, Halliday draws on the work of Bühler and Malinowski. Halliday's notion of language functions, or "metafunctions", became part of his general linguistic theory.References:1.Halliday, M.A.K. 2002. On Grammar, V ol. 1 in The Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London: Continuum.2.Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. "Systemic Background". In Systemic Perspectives on Discourse, Vol. 1: Selected Theoretical Papers from the Ninth International Systemic Workshop, James D. Benson and William S. Greaves (eds). Ablex. V ol. 3 in The Collected Works, p. 192.3. Halliday, 1985. "Systemic Background". In Systemic Perspectives on Discourse, Vol. 1: Selected Theoretical Papers from the Ninth International Systemic Workshop, Benson and Greaves (eds). Vol. 3 in The Collected Works, p. 193.4.Halliday, 2002. "A Personal Perspective". On Grammar, V ol. 1 in The Collected Works, pp. 7, 14.5.Halliday, 2002. "A Personal Perspective". In On Grammar, V ol. 1 in The Collected Works, p.6.6. Halliday, "A Personal Perspective". In On Grammar, V ol. 1 in The Collected Works, p. 127.Halliday, 2002. "A Personal Perspective". In On Grammar; V ol. 1 in The Collected Works, pp. 7, 14.8. Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Systemic Background. In "Systemic Perspectives on Discourse, Vol. 1: Selected Theoretical Papers" from the Ninth International Systemic Workshop, Benson and Greaves (eds); Vol. 3 in The Collected Works, p. 192.9. Halliday, M.A.K. 1995. "A Recent View of 'Missteps' in Linguistic Theory".In Functions of Language 2.2. V ol. 3 of The Collected Works, p. 236.10. Halliday, 1961 "Categories of the theory of grammar". Word 17(3); in Halliday, 2002. On Grammar, Vol. 1 in The Collected Works, p. 41.11. Halliday, 1961, "Categories of the theory of grammar". Word 17(3); in Halliday, 2002. On Grammar. V ol. 1 in the Collected Works, p. 45.12. Halliday, M.A.K. 2005, Studies in English Language, Introduction. V ol. 7 in The Collected Works, p. xvii.13. M.A.K. Halliday, 1967/68. Journal of Linguistics, 3.1, 1967; 3.2, 1967; 4.2, 1968. In Halliday, 2005, Studies in English Language, Vol. 7 in The Collected Works.14. M.A.K. Halliday, 1968. Journal of Linguistics, 4.2, 1968; in Halliday, 2005, Studies in English Language, V ol. 7 in The Collected Works, p. 145.15. Halliday, M.A.K. 1970. "Functional Diversity in Language as seen from a Consideration of Modality and Mood in English. Foundations of Language",International Journal of Language and Philosophy, 6, pp. 322-61; in Halliday, 2005, Studies in English Language.。
cognitive-functional model
cognitive-functional model是一个认知心理学的模型，它探讨的是人的心理功能与认知过程的关系。
这个模型认为，人的认知过程是通过心理功能对信息进行加工和处理，从而实现对外部世界的感知、理解和反应。
在这个模型中，认知过程可以看作是一个黑箱系统，输入信息进入黑箱后，经过一系列的加工和处理，最终输出处理结果，这个过程是由认知系统完成的。
认知系统是由一系列的认知元素组成的，每个认知元素都有自己的功能和作用。
cognitive-functional model的一个重要特点是它强调认知过程的灵活性和适应性。
它认为，人的认知过程不是固定的，而是可以根据不同的任务和环境进行灵活的调整和改变。
这个模型也强调认知过程与环境的交互作用，认为人的认知过程是人在与外部环境的交互作用中不断发展和变化的。
此外，cognitive-functional model还强调认知过程的多层面性，认为人的认知过程不仅涉及到大脑的神经生理层面，还涉及到语言、思维、情感等高级认知层面。
这些层面之间相互作用、相互影响，共同构成了一个复杂的认知系统。
总之，cognitive-functional model是一个综合性的认知心理学模型，它探讨的是人的认知过程和心理功能的关系，为人们深入理解人的认知过程提供了重要的理论框架和方法指导。
教法Language Teaching Methodology
Language Teaching Methodology AbstractMethodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways. A more or less classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which links theory and practice. Language teaching has not profited much from more general views of educational design. The curriculum perspective comes from general education and views successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and Administrative considerations.I. IntroductionLanguage teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century. Central to this phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of "methods" of language teaching. The method concept in language teaching the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language learning is a powerful one, and the quest for better methods was a preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout the 20th century.Howatt's overview documents the history of changes of practice in language teaching throughout history, bringing the chronology up through the Direct Method in the 20th century. One of the most lasting legacies of the Direct Method has been the notion of "method" itself.II. Language Teaching MethodologyMethodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways. A more or less classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which links theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories of second language acquisition. Such theories are linked to various design features of language instruction. These design features might include stated objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners, materials, and so forth. Design features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning practices as observed in the environments where language teaching and learning take place. This whole complex of elements defines language teaching methodology.2.1 Schools of Language Teaching MethodologyWithin methodology a distinction is often made between methods and approaches, in which methods are held to be fixed teaching systems with prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches represent language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied in a variety of different ways in the classroom. This distinction is probably most usefully seen as defining a continuum of entities ranging from highly prescribed methods to loosely described approaches.The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as "The Age of Methods," during which a number of quite detailed prescriptions for language teaching were proposed. Situational Language Teaching evolved in the United Kingdom while a parallel method, Audio-Lingualism, emerged in the United States. In the middle-methods period, a variety of methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response. In the 1980s, these methods in turn came to be overshadowed by more interactive views of language teaching, which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Communicative Language Teaching advocates subscribed to a broad set of principles such as these:•Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.•Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities.•Fluency is an important dimension of communication.•Communication involves the integration of different language skills.•Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error.2.2 CLTHowever, CLT advocates avoided prescribing the set of practices through which these principles could best be realized, thus putting CLT clearly on the approach rather than the method end of the spectrum.Communicative Language Teaching has spawned a number of off-shoots that share the same basic set of principles, but which spell out philosophical details or envision instructional practices in somewhat diverse ways. These CLT spin-offapproaches include The Natural Approach, Cooperative Language Learning, Content-Based Teaching, and Task-Based Teaching.It is difficult to describe these various methods briefly and yet fairly, and such a task is well beyond the scope of this paper. However, several up-to-date texts are available that do detail differences and similarities among the many different approaches and methods that have been proposed. (See, e.g., Larsen-Freeman, 2000, and Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Perhaps it is possible to get a sense of the range of method proposals by looking at a synoptic view of the roles defined for teachers and learners within various methods. Such a synoptic (perhaps scanty) view can be seen in the following chart.As suggested, some schools of methodology see the teacher as ideal language model and commander of classroom activity (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Natural Approach, Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response) whereas others see the teacher as background facilitator and classroom colleague to the learners (e.g., Communicative Language Teaching, Cooperative Language Learning).2.3 Other Global IssuesThere are other global issues to which spokespersons for the various methods and approaches respond in alternative ways. For example, should second language learning by adults be modeled on first language learning by children? One set of schools (e.g., Total Physical Response, Natural Approach) notes that first language acquisition is the only universally successful model of language learning we have, and thus that second language pedagogy must necessarily model itself on first language acquisition. An opposed view (e.g., Silent Way, Suggestopedia) observes that adults have different brains, interests, timing constraints, and learning environments than do children, and that adult classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions how first languages are learned by children.Another key distinction turns on the role of perception versus production in early stages of language learning. One school of thought proposes that learners should begin to communicate, to use a new language actively, on first contact (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Silent Way, Community Language Learning), while the other school of thought states that an initial and prolonged period of reception (listening, reading) should precede any attempts at production (e.g., Natural Approach).III. The teaching methodology in the futureThe future is always uncertain, and this is no less true in anticipating methodological directions in second language teaching than in any other field. Some current predictions assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear a bit more science-fiction-like in their vision. Outlined below are 10 scenarios that are likely to shape the teaching of second languages in the next decades of the new millenium. Thesemethodological candidates are given identifying labels in a somewhat tongue-in-cheek style, perhaps a bit reminiscent of yesteryear's method labels.3.1 Teacher/Learner CollaboratesMatchmaking techniques will be developed which will link learners and teachers with similar styles and approaches to language learning. Looking at the Teacher and Learner roles sketched in Figure 2, one can anticipate development of a system in which the preferential ways in which teachers teach and learners learn can be matched in instructional settings, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological resources. Renewed interest in some type of "Focus on Form" has provided a major impetus for recent second language acquisition (SLA) research."Focus on Form" proposals, variously labeled as consciousness-raising, noticing, attending, and enhancing input, are founded on the assumption that students will learn only what they are aware of. Whole Language proponents have claimed that one way to increase learner awareness of how language works is through a course of study that incorporates broader engagement with language, including literary study, process writing, authentic content, and learner collaboration.3.2 Curriculum DevelopmentalismLanguage teaching has not profited much from more general views of educational design. The curriculum perspective comes from general education and views successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and Administrative considerations. From this perspective, methodology is viewed as only one of several instructional considerations that are necessarily thought out and realized in conjunction with all other curricular considerations. Content-based instruction assumes that language learning is a by-product of focus on meaning--on acquiring some specific topical content--and that content topics to support languagelearning should be chosen to best match learner needs and interests and to promote optimal development of second language competence. A critical question for language educators is "what content" and "how much content" best supports language learning. The natural content for language educators is literature and language itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in literature and in the topic of "language: the basic human technology" as sources of content in language teaching.3.3 Total Functional ResponseCommunicative Language Teaching was founded (and floundered) on earlier notional/functional proposals for the description of languages. Now new leads in discourse and genre analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and systemic/functional grammar are rekindling an interest in functionally based approaches to language teaching. One pedagogical proposal has led to a widespread reconsideration of the first and second language program in Australian schools where instruction turns on five basic text genres identified as Report, Procedure, Explanation, Exposition, and Recount. Refinement of functional models will lead to increased attention to genre and text types in both first and second language instruction.The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of human talents proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model is one of a variety of learning style models that have been proposed in general education with follow-up inquiry by language educators. The chart below shows Gardner's proposed eight native intelligences and indicates classroom language-rich task types that play to each of these particular intelligences. The challenge here is to identify these intelligences in individuallearners and then to determine appropriate and realistic instructional tasks in response.IV. Conclusion"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on language learning strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks, and that such application does produce significant gains in language learning. Simple and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learnersremember and access new second language vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional interest in Strategopedia.We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents only a small fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible." Despite these cautions, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic component of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging.In a word, the curriculum perspective comes from general education and views successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and Administrative considerations.V. Bibliography[1]Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.[2]Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.[3]Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching.Oxford: Oxford University Press.[4]Pawley, A., & Syder, F. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native-likeselection and native-like fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. London: Longman.[5] Christison, M. (1998). Applying multiple intelligences theory in preserviceand inservice TEFL education programs. English Teaching Forum, 36 (2), 2-13.。
Chapter 1Introduction 练习题
Chapter One IntroducitonI. Multiple Choices.Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question to complete the sentence.1. __________ function constructs a model of experience and logical relations.A. InterpersonalB. TextualC. MetalingualD. Ideational2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ____________,A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of Language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. The ___________ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. performativeB. phaticC. recreationalD. emotive6. The term __________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative7.__________ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology8.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as __________.A. paroleB. languageC. systemD. langue9.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by _________.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Austin10. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.11. ___________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax12. The founder of modern linguistics is ___________.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Saussure13. Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A. sociologicalB.synchronicC. diachronicD. Psychological14. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission15.We can refer to Chairman Mao. This feature of language is called _________.A.dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement16.The sentence "Don't say X." is ___________.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. obligatoryD. Narrative17.Which of the following functions are NOT the functions put forward by Halliday?A. The Ideational FunctionB. The Interpersonal FunctionC. The Generative FunctionD. The Textual Function20. __________ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. WordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules21. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed _________ from a functional language’s view.A. linguistic potentialB. communicative competenceC. competenceD. langue22. Traditional grammar regards the __________ form of language as primary, not the spoken from.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the __________ nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmissionnguage is __________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. productive25.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechII. Complete each of the following statements.1.When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact ratherthan exchanging information or ideas, its function is ____________ function.2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ___________.3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be___________; it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be __________. 4.In modern linguistics, ___________ study seems to enjoy priority over ___________ study.The reason is that successful studies of various sates of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This famous quotation from Shakespeareillustrates that language has the design feature of _______________.6.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are notmutually intelligible, which show that language is culturally ____________.7.The features that define our human languages can be called ____________ features.8.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ___________.9.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______________ and performance.10.___________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the otherhand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.III. Answer the following questions.1. A distinction can be drawn between competence and performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsky draw such a distinction?2. Explain the following statements with examples: Our language can be used to talk about itself.3.How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?1.phatic2. displacement3. descriptive, prescriptive4. synchronic, diachronic5. arbitrariness6. transmitted7. design8. morphology9. competence 10.Pragmatics。
《语言教学的流派》课程教案
《语言教学的流派》课程教案教材介绍：20世纪外语教学蓬勃发展，教学法的研究也发展很快。
一方面，19世纪一些传统的教学法传承下来；另一方面，20世纪有许多创新的教学法。
Jack C. Richard 和Theodore S. Rodgers 所著的Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching 一书对20世纪出现的几个具有代表性的教学法进行描述和分析，有助于我们了解历史，承前启后。
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching1、Approach and method2、Language teaching --- second language teaching or foreign language teachingThis book is a book on the history of language teaching, but it’s more than that. According to the authors, the aim of this b ook is to present an objective and comprehensive picture of a particular approach or method. The authors have avoided personal evaluation, preferring to let the method or approach speak for itself and allows readers to make their own appraisals. So this book is not intended to popularize or promote particular approaches or methods described. It is designed to give the teacher or teacher trainee a straightforward introduction to commonly used an less commonly used methods, and a set of criteria by which to critically read, question, and observe methods. The goal is to enable teachers to become better informed about the nature, strengths, and weaknesses of methods and so they can better arrive at their judgments and decisions.第一章 A brief history of language teaching 外语教学简史本章主要介绍20世纪以前的外语教学简史, 通过此章的学习，我们将会发现20世纪出现的教学法都是历史的延续和发展。
languagemodeling-语言模型
Markov Assump1on
• Simplifying assump*on:
Andrei Markov
P (the | its water is so transparent that) " P (the | that)
• Or maybe
• because language has long-‐distance dependencies:
“The computer which I had just put into the machine room on the fiIh floor crashed.”
• Be_er: the grammar But language model or LM is standard
Dan Jurafsky
How to compute P(W)
Dan Jurafsky
How to es1mate these probabili1es
• Could we just count and divide?
P (the | its water is so transparent that) = Count (its water is so transparent that the) Count (its water is so transparent that)
• But we can oIen get away with N-‐gram models
Language Modeling
Introduc*on to N-‐grams
Language Modeling
• How to compute this joint probability:
metafunction(元功能)教学文稿
• Halliday views language development in children as "the mastery of linguistic function",and "learning a language is learninf how to mean ". So he proposes seven functions in children's model of language:(1)the instrumental function （工具功能） ;(2)the regulatory function（控制功能）;(3)the interactional function（交互功能）;(4)the personal function（自指性功能）;(5)the heuristic function（探 索功能）;(6)the imaginative function（想象功能） ;(7)the informative function（信息功能）.
• 纯理功能思想是系统功能语法核心思想之一韩礼德认为语言的性质决定人 们对语言的要求,在语言所必须完成的众多功能中,尽管这些功能千变万化， 我们可以把它们归纳为若干个有限的最为抽象，最具概括性的功能，即纯 理功能（元功能）它们是语言所固有的，具有语言的普遍特征。
Origin
• Halliday's systemic Grammar contains a functional component，that is ,"the interpretation of grammatical patterns in terms of configurations of functions".Since he sees these functions as particularly relevant to te analysis of text(by which he means "everything that is said or written "), Halliday defines a functional grammar as "essentially a nature grammar,in the sense that every thing in it can be explained,ultimately , by reference to how language is used".Halliday believes that language is what it is because it has to serve certain functions. In other words,social demand on language has helped to shapeits stucture.He interprets language from a functional point of view and formulates a functonal theory of language.
Functional linguistic 语篇功能
Summary
★The teaching steps: Fast reading → Read the article again → Explain the points→ Discussion
★Teachers
should pay attention to cultivate students` these abilities: summary ability(概括能力) ,logical analysis ability, deduction capabilities(推断能力) imagination and so on.
• Reading discourse is aim to cultivate students` reading skill not just grammar. Therefore, when we teach language knowledge ,our teaching content are required to be brief and to the point. • We should make a point of improving students` ability of comprehensive, such as summary ability(概括能力) and logical analysis ability. • The training of summary ability can ask students to search for ①topic sentence , ②state the main general idea, ③ restate the article , ④compress the article and so on. • Meanwhile ,teachers should pay attention to cultivate students` deduction capabilities(推断能力)and imagination, including motivation , reasons ,attitude and so on.
【VIP专享】Genre-based approach
Genre-based Approach to Language TeachingBackgroundThe notion of genre derives from a series of action research projects implemented by teachers and functional linguists in Australia during the past three decades. It was originally defined as a staged goal-oriented social process, emphasizing a series of phases of meaning making that are designed to accomplish something through interactions with others. This notion of genre was later given much emphasize as a crucial layer within the functional model of language and this function of genre helps to lay a foundation for the oncoming genre-based literacy practices. According to the functional model of language, genre reveals the way in which a particular culture manages to coordinate different and recurrent language resources to construct particular meanings that are valued within the specific cultural context. This idea implies the complex processes we have to undertake before concrete social purposes are realized. And these complex processes, to a great extend, entails large amount of texts and conversational interactions. In recent years this concept of genre has been expanded to include all purposeful uses of language. Many researchers working within different genre approaches have come out with a consensus that genres are social practices that have evolved to enable us achieve our goals (Martin, 1985; Painter, 2001, as cited in Derewianka, 2003). In the field of genre study, there are several theoretical trends and they can be put along a continuum. At one end of this continuum lie those who express major interests in such contexts as social, culture andhistory (Hyon, 1996; Flowerdew, 2002; Hyland, 2002; Johns, 2002). There are other researchers positioning themselves within the New Rhetorical School (Miller, 1984; Bazerman, 1994; Freedman & Medway, 1994), focus their studies on the way genres either realize certain social cultural purposes or form particular frameworks through involvement into varied contexts. At the other end of this continuum is the group dealing with discourse analysis, focusing on pedagogical exploration on enhancing students’ communicative competence in their future professional and academic areas. In line with them are those who are doing English for Specific Purposes (Swales, 1990; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998), specifically, probing into varied genres like literature review, job applications, business letters, governmental documents, and so on. What’s worth special mention is those who are located at the middle of this continuum and find a place connecting the social cultural context with specific linguistic features, that is, the school of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). This group and the central concepts have greatly influenced the design of school curriculum and syllabus and have become the mostly probed area regarding genre study and genre-based English language teaching.Approach: Theory of language and learningIn the tradition of genre theory, language is granted with practical connotations. In general, language symbolizes a series of rhetorical choices regarding the particular social cultural context within with it is used for communicative purposes. Choices, therefore, are results of varied social aims competing with each other. Theparticularity of the dealing with language in genre theory lies in its combination of grammatical features with contextual factors. For example, when we make specific grammatical choices, we tend to take into consideration three relevant notions, namely, the themes of texts (field), interaction between participants (tenor), function of language (mode). Hylliday (1975) initiated this system of grammatical features of language in terms of early childhood language acquisition. Later he put forward a model of language in order to argue the constructive role of language in people’s life, which is termed as social semiotic (Halliday, 1978). This model stresses three facets of role that language plays in social interactions. Accordingly, language serves a systemic function in that it provides systems of linguistic resources to realize meanings. This systemic function is mostly reflected in the system of mood, where people find rich sources for making both imperative and indicative statements. Users involved in varied roles and interactions with their counterparts make different linguistic choices so as to construct varied meanings. Thus language is deemed to be polysystemic because of these many linguistic systems engaged at the same time. (Christie, 1999). Language serves a functional role in that it indicates the social cultural purpose for which it comes into being undoubtedly. The school of systemic functional linguistics further categorized the function of language into three metafunctions, they are, “the ideational, to do with the experiences represented or constructed within language; the interpersonal, to do with the nature of the relationships of persons in using language; and the textual, to do with the organization of language as coherent messages.” (Christie, 1999, p. 759) This symbolizes thesimultaneous linguistic choices as well as the three metafunctions realized when people use language. Finally, language is taken as text that bears meaningful social cultural purpose. Therefore, text can never be understood without looking at the particular context. In other words, “text is known only because of the context that gives it life; conversely, context is known only because of the text that realizes it.” (Christie, 1999, p. 760) As Malinowski (1923) contended, the nature of a text is decided by the context of situation.Theory of learning genres originated from Bakhtin (1986) who attached learning of genres with the acquisition of a first language. In other words, language acquisition starts from the acquisition of a particular genre, where we obtain necessary ability to process a communicative activity within the generic context. Genre theory of L2 learning has been fundamentally laid out by Melrose (1995) and Lock (1996), who related L2 acquisition to learning the ability to process systemic choices and make effective meanings in using a language that is different from one’s first language. Therefore, it is a progressive journey from handling limited choices regarding lexis, structures, and so on to constructing meanings with a larger number of options that are preferable to varied contexts. Vygotskian learning theory put language learning within a context of shared understanding. Pedagogically, teachers retrieve to a scaffolding position during classroom instructions and guide learners gradually to the linguistic resources that are deemed most necessary for them to take part in communicative social activities.Design: Objectives, syllabus, learning activities, role of learners, teachers, and materialsThe primary rationale for genre-based approach in English language teaching is its strengths in teaching writings especially to ESL (English as Second Language) students. Instead of emphasizing merely on the meaning of language, genre-based approach combines text meaning with the practical operation of language at the text level. It is also a development of the former phonemic perspective on language whereby language meaning is separated from the social cultural context and confined within the lexical and sentence level. In this sense, genre-based approach is embraced as a promising methodology in cultivating learners’ communicative language ability in the real social community. The general principle for practicing genre-based approach lies in that learners are expected to be involved into various classroom activities that can naturally guide students to make use of the genre knowledge they have been exposed to. Therefore, one crucial role for the language teachers is to select and create a particular context during the planning process so that students may be encouraged to take conscious effort to learn the target genre.The objective of the genre-based approach, in line with the concept of scaffolding (Bruner, 1978), is to project ESL teachers and learners into a classroom environment featuring shared responsibility between teachers and learners through varied language teaching processes. Concretely, teachers initiate classroom activities with a role of introducing necessary knowledge and backgrounds, while students are positioned at the beginning more in a knowledge receiver’s role. However, with theteaching/learning process moves on, when students get more and more in control of the target knowledge, teachers retrieve to the scaffolding role and at the same time shift controlling power gradually to students so as to nurture students’ autonomous learning.In regard with the choice of materials, it is inevitably that teachers and learners both bring with them rich and complicated prior resources of their own into the classroom, yet effective genre-based instruction entails more systemic and engaging materials that can provide students opportunities to develop contextual and linguistic knowledge. Grabe and Kaplan (1996) classified such materials into “texts, media, student generated resources, activities and discussions” (p.256). This classification was later further summarized by Hyland (2003) as “input, content focus, language focus, and task focus” (p. 101). For example, input, for a writing course, is mostly a text, or it could also be a video, audio, picture, or others. The content focus will be such concrete issues as a topic, a story, a piece of information or else, which helps to trigger students’ mutual interaction. The language focus displays a text to students for them to analyze and so to produce their own texts based on the analysis. The task focus creates a ground where classroom activities can be implemented.ProcedureAmong the various forms of genre-based approach implementations, the teaching-learning cycle originated by Feez (1998), which is based on several renowned genre-based approaches to writing instruction (Tribble, 1996; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). Thepopular teaching-learning cycle has been cited by a good number of researchers and it consists of the following phases:-building the context;-modeling and deconstructing the text;-joint construction of the text;-independent construction of the text;-linking related texts.In Australia, however, the most significant model is the curriculum cycle put forward by Rothery and Macken based on the concept of scaffolding (Bruner, 1978). Similarly, the curriculum cycle includes the following stages:-developing an understanding of the field;-familiarizing with the genre;-developing control over the genre;-independent construction;-extending and critiquing;-creative exploitation of the genre. (Derewianka, 2003, p. 146) According to Derewianka (2003), during the phase of developing an understanding of the field, activities are organized with the purpose of setting knowledge background, activating students’ schema, relating to target vocabulary as well as introducing different culture. This phase is said to be particularly important for L2 students. The phase of familiarizing with the genre is also named as modeling the genre, during which learners are displayed with the model text and several reflectivequestions will be given to them too. This will be followed by teachers’ explanation of the genre structure and students’ exploration on linguistic features under teachers’ instruction. For students with lower level of proficiency, joint construction seems necessary as a learning support before they set out producing their own drafts. When students get more familiar with and controlling upon the genre through rounds of guidance and input activities, students are motivated to make use of their newly gained knowledge to write independently, which devotes to the process of independent construction. The extending and critiquing phase as well as the final creative exploration of the genre are those phases when learners become convenient enough with the genre and have gradually grown into autonomous learners.In line with the above mentioned genre-based approaches, there are other similarly practical, feasible and theoretically formed ones proposed by more recent researchers (Paltridge, 2002; Johns, 2002). These approaches together provide insightful suggestions for the genre-based pedagogy.ConclusionGenre-based pedagogy is being firmly established in various international contexts in terms of syllabuses and curricula (Derewianka, 2003) due to its significances in English language teaching classrooms. Specifically, it permits a ground where social context and language mingle together and offer students repeated exposes to the English-speaking culture and community, illuminating methods with which they can construct meaningful relationships within a potential social area thatstudents are going to seek an identity.Noteworthily, the pedagogical models provided by various scholars within the same field is designed for guidance rather than constraints for classroom instructions. Therefore, this genre-based approach values a flexible pedagogy that grants teachers more freedom to decide which stage they should focus on (Martin, 1992).Bibliography and further readingBakhtin, M. (1986). The problem of speech genres, In C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Eds.), Speech genres and other late essays. (pp. 60-102). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Bazerman, C. (1994). Systems of genres and the enactment of social intentions. In Freedman and Medway (Eds.), Genre and the new rhetoric. (pp. 79-101).London: Taylor & Francis.Bruner, J. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R.Jarvella and W.J.M.Levelt (Eds.), The child’s conception of language. (pp. 241-256). New York: Springer-Verlag.Cope, W., & Kalantzis, M. (Eds.). (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching literacy. London: Falmer.Derewianka, B. (2003). Trends and issues in genre-based approaches. RELC, 34(2), 133-154.Dudley-Evans, T., & M. St John (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Feez, S. 1998. Text-based syllabus design. Sydney; AMES; Macquarie University: NCELTR.Feez, S., & H.Joyce (1998). Writing skills: Narrative and non-fiction text-types.Melbourne: Phoenix Education.Flowerdew, J. (2002). Genre in the classroom: A linguistic process. In A. Johns (Ed.), Genre in the classroom. (PP. 91-102). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Halliday, M.A.K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Explorations in the development of language. London: Arnold.Hyland, K. (2002). Genre: Language, context and literacy. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 22. 113-135.Hyland, K. (2003). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hyon, S. (1996). Genres in three traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 30(4). 693-722.Lock, G. (1996). Functional English grammar: An introduction for second languageteachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Malinowski, B. (1923). The problem of meaning in primitive languages. In C. K.Ogden & I. A. Richards (Eds), The meaning of meaning (pp. 146-152). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Martin, J.R. (1985). Process and text: Two aspects of human semiosis. In J.D. Benson and W.S. Greaves (Eds.), Systemic perspectives on discourse. (pp. 248-274).Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Martin, J.R. (1992). English text: System and structure. Amsterdam: Banjamins. Melrose, R. (1995). The communicative syllabus: A systemic-functional approach to language teaching. London: Pinter.Miller, C. (1984). Genre as social action. Quarterly Journal of Speech. 70, 151-167. Painter, C. (2001). Understanding genre and register: Implications for language teaching. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analyzing English in a global context.(pp. 167-180). London: Routledge.Paltridge, B. (2002). Genre, text type and the EAP classroom. In A. Johns (Ed.), Genre in the classroom. (pp. 73-90). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Tribble, C. (1996). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.。
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3 main kinds of meaning simultaneously: 1.Experiential: information (field) 2.Interpersonal: relationships (tenor) 3.Textual: relation to mode (mode)
Mode
Mode continuum most spoken-like………....… most written-like
A representation of the model of language
CULTURE
SITUATION
tenor field
modeΒιβλιοθήκη LANGUAGE REGISTER GENRE
What’s the context of the text? What accompanies the language? What kind of a text is it? (genre) What are the stages of the text? What is it about? (field) Who is involved? (tenor) Mode of communication? (mode)
functional Word level but usually with large chunks Spoken, written, multimodal Correctness related to context Grammar within study of genre - how contributes to meaning
References:
Eggins (1994) An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics, Pinter Love, Pigdon, Baker Built (Building Understandings in Literacy and Teaching) CDROM 2nd Edition, University of Melbourne
Mode
A: Yes Please B: Can I have those two?
What’s the context of the text? What accompanies the language?
A: Yes. One’s forty five. One’s twenty five. What kind of a text is it? (genre) B: And have you got ………………….. What are the stages of A: Yes. How many would you like? the text? B: I’ll take two A: Right. That’s four dollars twenty altogether. B: Here you are. A: Thankyou. B: Thankyou. What is it about? (field) Who is involved? (tenor) Mode of communication? (mode)
What choices are possible? What’s the implication of the choice?
What is implied about what a language system has to encapsulate?
Culture Genre Topic Relationships What is the broad and specific context? How does that impact on the text? What is the specific purpose of the text? How is it organised to achieve this? What is being discussed / written about? Who is taking part? What is the nature of their relationship? What are their statuses and roles? Is it spoken, written or multimodal?
SEMIOTIC SYSTEM
(SYMBOLIC MEANING MAKING SYSTEM)
meaning (discourse / semantics) words and structures (lexico – grammar) sounds / letters (phonology / graphology)
KEY RESEARCHERS Development of systemic linguistics: Sydney systemists: Michael Halliday (from 1970s); Hasan; Martin; Matthiesson Links with other systemists: Gregory; Sinclair and Coulthard Language Education: Christie; Macken and Rothery Visual art: O’Toole; Kress and van Leeuwen; Unsworth Psychotherapy: Eggins; MacKinnon Artificial Intelligence: Bateman Speech Pathology: Armstrong
Data reveals that the greatest consumer spending traditionally occurs during the pre Christmas period. A consequence of this spending is debt. The publicity and expectation of a gift laden Christmas has lead some families to incur debts beyond their means of immediate repayment, leading to the additional and spiralling cost of interest fees. A substantial education program is required to reverse this trend.
1. Language system – Texts 2. Key Researchers
What do they mean? Why can we make meaning from them? Do they mean the same to everyone?
When I got home last night, I could not believe what ………….. had done.
Field Field continuum everyday ………..specialised ………highly fields fields technical fields
Tenor Tenor continuum
equal status….………great difference in status familiar …….…………..………...….very distant great deal of …………………………………little emotional expression emotional expression
Introduction to functional grammar
Systemic Functional Approach Systemic Approach Systemic Linguistics Functional Semantic Approach
Introduction to functional grammar
Differences between traditional and functional grammar
traditional Sentence Word level Written language Correctness not consider context Discrete grammar exercises Text