语言学Chapter 4_phonology(精选)
语言学+chapter+4
AP (Deg程度) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near thier
X Head
Complement
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.
X’ Theory
heads
More…
Phrase elements
Specifier Head complement
Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;
syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
Phrase structure: a representation of the set of constituents that an expression contains.
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理chapter4phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanin gs in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sou nd system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a streamof speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
语言学chapter 4 Lexicology
E. Sapir (1921: 32) tells us that the word may be anything from the expression of
a single concept—concrete or abstract, or purely relational(e.g. of, by, and ), to the
The inclusion in this definition of the word free removes bound morphemes which cannot stand independently as words, such as un-, -ism. This definition does not seem to admit words that are compounds of other words: it would admit fire and man but not fireman. But elsewhere Bloomfield says that a free form which is not a phrase is a word, which would admit fireman.
Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.
1.3.2 Grammatical words and lexical words
1.1 Some definitions of word
1.1.1 Leonard Bloomfield(1933: 178):
Lecture 4 Phonology
4.What is minimal pairs
Minimal pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds combinations are said to form a minimal pair. pit/bit; rapid/rabid; Cap/cab/
Pool, leaf Peak, speak
Allophones: The phones that can represent a phoneme are called allophones. (一个音位所代表 的两个或几个不同的音素,也就是同一个音位的各个音 称为该音位的音位变体.)e.g. “pill” and “spill”, in the word “pill” [p]需要吐气,因为这个音位在元
How many phones are there in the following words? feel ; like; pit; spit
A phoneme is a phonological unit . It is a unit of distinctive value. Look at the two words: ―pat‖ and ―bat‖, What is the difference between the two words? So in English the sounds (phones) that possess the distinctive value are called phonemes.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.
chapter 4 phonology
Rule 3: deletion rule(省略规则) A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. eg.(1) signature, designation, paradigmatic • (2) sign, design, paradigm deleted • In the second group, /g/ is _______.
• 音位有时还可能有free variants
互补分布
当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体 不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位 置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。 [p]/[pʰ]是两个不同的音子，即音位/p/的变化 形式。[p]只出现在[s]之后，而[pʰ]只出现在其 他位置。 /p/→[p]/[s]͟ [pʰ]剩余位置 注：——是/p/出现的位置
phonetics and phonology
Phonetics General (concerned with speech sounds as such without reference to their function in a particular language). Descriptive Classificatory Particular (having a particular language or languages in view) Functional (concerned with the working or functioning of speech sounds in a language or languages) Functional phonetics p137
自由变体
04 Phonology
Anticipatory/ perseverative coarticulation
The fact that the vowel [a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.
phoneme phonological unit
not distinctive of meaning
physical as heard or produced
marked with [ ]
distinctive of meaning abstract, not physical marked with / /
phonetics – Phone音素
phone: the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech
i) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]
1.2 Relation between Phonetics and Phonology: Similarity: both studying sounds; Dissimilarity: Phonetics --- sounds’ classification & description; Phonology --- rules of sound system.
Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in usinglanguage, i.e. to tell people what they should day and what they should not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is saidto be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning.There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Dobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce andunderstand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and socialfactors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [❖]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English.Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by the boldtype:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents Surface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produceand receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has onlya linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence,seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents.But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences inparticular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context. Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context. Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g.[+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same,one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed.The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinatesense and reference.Illocutuonary act:the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle theCooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows: "make yourconversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable tothe listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why andhow he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CooperativePrinciple (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin” is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door” is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’will be cancelled.11。
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
Lecture 4 Phonology
[-velar]→[+velar]/_ [+velar]
Assimilation同化
Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
For example: the distinctive feature which distinguishes /p/ from /b/ is VOICE. /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop, /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop.
Syllable
补分布
互
When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
IV. Some important terms
Minimal pairs Free variants Distinctive features Syllable stress
Free variants （自由变体）
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form,
Typical phonological processes
语言学练习
Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?2.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Chapter 2 Phonetics1. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?2. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;Chapter 3 Phonology1. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle2.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by thebold type:a) John wanted to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted todo this today.Chapter 4 Morphology1. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relat ionship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?2. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.Chapter 5 Syntax1. Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic and paradigmatic relations?2.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?3.What are the problems in IC analysis?4.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.Chapter 6 Semantics1. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, oneof them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?2. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runChapter 7 Pragmantics1. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?2. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.3. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?”he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.。
胡壮麟语言学讲义第四章(复习)Chapter Four Morphology
Chapter 4 MorphologyT eaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methodsFocal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methodsTeaching procedure：The outline of the chapter:1 Morphology1.1 concept p521.2 word1.2.1 concept1.2.2 identification P571.2.3 classification2 Morpheme2.1 Concept: P52.2.2 Types of Morpheme2.2.1 Free morphemes and Bound morphemes:2.2.2 Root, affix and stem(P 53)2.2.3 Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme(P63)3 Internal structure of words3.1 mono-morphemic words3.2 poly- morphemic words3.3 compounds4 Word formation4.1 Major ways to create new words:4.2 Minor ways to create new words:1 Morphology1.1 concept p521.2 word571.2.1 concept1) wordWord is a typical grammatical unit between morpheme and word group. e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou. Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.2)lexical items see p571.2.2 identification P57(how to recognize words?)1）stability2) relative uninterruptibility3) a minimum free form1.2.3 classification1.2.3.1 words1) Variable vs. invariable words(1) criterion: whether they have inflective changes(2) classification: variable vs. invariable words2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words(1) criterion: whether they work for constructinggroup,phrase…, or referring to substance…(2) classification: grammatical words vs. lexical words3)Content words vs. function words(1) criterion: whether they carry the main content(2) classification: content words vs. function words4) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(1) criterion: whether their membership is limited or unlimited(2) classification: Closed-class words vs. open-class words1.2.3.2 word class(1) criterion: classify words by grouping them into classesaccording to their formal similarities(2) classification: 2 classes; 9 classes; 13 classes2 Morpheme2.1 Concept: P61.2.2 Types of Morpheme2.2.1 Free morphemes and Bound morphemes1) criterion: whether they may ocurr alone2) types(1) Free morphemes : morphemes which may constitute wordsby themselves(2) Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used bythemselves, but must be combined with other morphemes toform words2.2.2 Root, affix and stem(P 62)1) root2) affix3) stem2.2.3 Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme(P63)3 Internal structure of words3.1 mono-morphemic words3.2 poly- morphemic words3.3 compounds4 Word formation4.1 Major ways to create new words:1) Compounding: a process of combining two or more words intoone lexical unit.blackboard godfather baby-sit cross-cultural2)Derivation: the process by which new words are formed by theaddition of affixes to the roots or words. e.g.finalize widen hospitalize clockwise (顺时针)3)Conversion( Class shift)4.2 Minor ways to create new words:1) invention2)Blending : a process of forming a new word by combiningparts of other words.smog(smoke+fog); brunch smaze(smog+haze);telecast(television+ broadcast); motel (motor +hotel)3)Clipping: a shortened form of a word or phrase which representsthe complete form.e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour) ft(foot or feet)clipping: a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrasese.g. telephone---phone memorandum---memoelectronic mail---e-mail high fidelity---hi-fi4)Acronym: a word created by combining the initial letters of anumber of words.e.g. UNESCO APEC Sars CD laser radar (radio detectingand ranging) Initialism: VOA BBC WTO5)Back-formation: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm)6)Borrowing: the taking over of words from other languages。
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis
(Bloomfield: 直接成分分析法)
Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
Definition: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
语言学复习2,4,5章
第二章1.Phonetics（语音学）：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the descriptionand classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.注意研究研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成、传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接的是语音学phonetics。
而不是phonology(音系学)，morphology（形态学），syntax （句法学），semantics (语义学)或pragmatics （语用学）。
2.phoneme （音位）：（1）定义：simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”, 最小的语音对立单位。
就是我们平时所见的最小的语音。
（2）minimal pairs：最小对比对The group of similar sounds to that phoneme is called minimal pairs. 而和那个音位类似的音叫做最小对比对。
（3）书写时，放在//里面：“By convention, a phoneme is placed between slant lines(/ /) while a phone i s placed between square brackets ([ ]).”（P39书上39页）“一般来说，音位放在双斜线（//）内，而语音放在方括号内”。
如：/i:/, /i/, /ai/都是音位，而[help],[pli:]等等都是整个单词的语音。
3.Places of articulation （发音位置）(1). 关于发音位置，我们需要掌握以下几种，以及包括的音，会出选择题比较，哪个和另外三个不属于一类。
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版(总5页)-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除Chapter 4syntactic （句法的） relationspositional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential （有序的） arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointlysubstitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的） relations or in Hjemslev ’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.grammatical construction and its constituentsGrammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:SNP VPDe t N V NPDe t NThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分A Word-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:. Syntactic（句法） FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in（范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voiceNumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.(or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SVA Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列（嵌入）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。
chapter 4 phonology
4.3.2 Complementary distribution
Sounds in complementary distribution occur in nonoverlapping environments, that is, never occur in the same environments. Speech sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.
3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs:
coast/ghost boast/most ghost/boast most/mist
4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features they all share:
Allophone:
one of a set of non-distinctive realizations of the same phoneme the variant forms of the same phoneme corresponds to something physical produced by a speaker E.g., [th] is an allophone of /t/. an allophone of a phoneme is a predictable phonetic realization of that phoneme
dentalized alveolars: when /l, n, t, d/ are followed by dentals, they become dental
英语语言学概论 Chapter4 Phonology(音位学)
Phonology(音位学)Phonetics is a study of the production,transmission and perception of speech sounds, and their physical properties.Phonemes音位are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. Allophones 音位变体are the different realizations of a particular phoneme in a language. Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment in a stream of speech.Minimal pair最小对立体：a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.3 conditions: 1 the two forms are different in meaning; 2 the two forms are different in one segment; 3 the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words: teach---cheat, read—dearIf two or more sounds never appear in the same enviornment, that is, each sound only appears in the enviornment where the other never occurs, they are in complementary distribution.互补分布pen—pet, pat—spat—tap, lead—realIf two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.Will—till 对比分布When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, they are in free variation. 自由变体A distinctive feature区别性特征is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,like /nasal/,/voiced/. put forward by Jakobson.The assimilation rule同化原则the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.Deletion rule删除: delete a sound although it is orthographically represented Sequential rules顺序:state the possible combination of phonemes and the constraints over such a combination for a language.suprasegmental features(超切分特征) features that have effect on more than one segment, which also known as prosody(韵律语音特征): stress, tone, intonation and juncture.stress(重音,重读) some nouns are stressed on the first syllables while the verbs are stressed on the second syllables:Tone(声调): the level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive ways.Tone language: ma ma ma ma(妈,麻马骂)Intonation(语调) 5 intonations: the falling tones: certainty; the rising tones: uncertainty, the level tones: undecided yet whether known or unknown,juncture(连音): the boundary features that may demarcate grammatical units:A name an aimnarrow transcription(严式音标):symbolizes all the possible speech sounds, broad transcription(宽式音标): transcribes or indicates only the only those speech sounds that distinguish one word from another in a language . It is phonemic.。
语言学Phonology
.
音位是一种语言中能够区别两个 2.1.2 Phoneme & Allophones 词意义的语音单位。
Examples: Definitions: 音位变体是一个音位的变体音子，这些音子之 [l] in [laik] A Phoneme is the smallest unit in the sound 间具有共同的语音特征而各自又由不同的语音条 /l/ system of a language, which can distinguish [l] in ['æ pl] 件所决定。 meaning. It is abstract. It can not be
Function: Way to identify whether two phones belong to different phonemes or not.
Minimal Set:最小音差组 More than two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme that occurs in the same place. E.g. Said [sed], set [set], says[sez], sell [sel] The similarity in minimal pairs or minimal sets refers to the similarity of the sounds but not to the similarity of spellings of the words. That to the similarity of phonemes, not to that of the letters.