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西安电子科技大学研究生【专业英语】(科技英语)教材参考答案
V、练习参考答案练习1I、1、the（各项均为负。
)2、the; a （功率额定值是电阻器不会引起温度太大的上升而能安全地耗散的最大功率。
）3、an（这是均方根值伏特计。
）4、The; a（该设备的成功设计需要详细地了解性能指标。
）5、the; a; a（在氢原子的布尔模型中，一个电子绕一个质子以半径为R的圆周运转。
）6、the（电阻的单位是欧姆。
）7、an （这是一个h参数。
）8、/; /（图5－1画出了Oersted的实验。
）9、A; a; a（机器是能够传递力来完成某一确定目的的一种设备。
）10、/（水压机将在第14章加以考虑。
）11、the; the [/]（我们容易确定参数μ的值。
）12、/; the（根据式（2－1），我们得到以下的关系式。
）13、the; /（作者工作在位于阿林顿的得克萨斯大学。
）14、an（甚至当积分区间并不是无穷时，能够恰当地显示一个时函数的傅氏变换的仪器是多么重要啊！）II、1.Dr. Emmet graduated from Harvard University in 2001.2.Professor Li earned his Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering Xi’an University ofTechnology in 1988.3.Now we shall turn to the discussion of local area networks.4.5.或is its mass per unit volume.6.An increase in pressure always causes a decrease in volume.7.Fig. (2-5) shows what is expressed by Eq. (2-2).8.III、1.2.Finally, a broad stepped impedance transformer is designed by this method.3.4.5.练习21. This circuit consists of a battery, an inductor and a capacitor.2. Compute the electric fields at points a, b, and c.3. This satellite is used for communications between the United States and Great Britain, France and Italy.5. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 deal with transmission lines.II、1. Its error is six parts in 1012.2. This computer stores four times more information than that one (does).3. The demand for this kind of equipment in the near future will be 20 times what it is.4. The voltage across this component is a few tenths of a volt.5. Now its internal pressure is one third what it was.III、2. Unless otherwise stated, it is assumed that silicon transistors are used I CBO can be neglected.4. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show this process in detail.练习3I、1. This new type of computer has many advantages over the general type.2. It is not difficult to solve this differential equation for the unknown quantity.3. Of these five new chapters, the first one deals with the basic principles of negative feedback.4. At this point/time, current differs in phase from voltage by 90o.5. By analyzing [By the analysis of] the parameters of the instrument, we can understand its performance.6. We will find out its average velocity over this distance.7. The science of electronics is too important in the world today.8. They solved this problem with great difficulty.II、1. For x＞1, there is no solution to this equation [this equation has no solution].2. Upon [On] substituting [substitution of] these values into [in] theequation, we obtained the following expression..3. This circuit is similar in operation to that of Fig. 1-10.4. This computer is very good in performance.5. These waves travel only in one direction.th of October.4. V6. Unless otherwise stated, it is assumed that silicon transistors are used I CBO can be neglected.7.练习4I、1. The force acts perpendicular to the surface of the table.2. The three coefficients here remains to be determined.3. The two equations below will be often (frequently) used in later chapters/in the chapters which follow.4. Here we use two metal balls 10 cm apart.5. The output remains/stays constant/unchanged/fixed/unaltered/the same.6. All the textbooks available discuss this problem.7. Accurate in operation and high in speed, computers have found wide applications.8. The answer to this problem looks correct.9. Two parallel wires a distance (of)δapart carry the current i.10. The problem now is how to measure the voltage across this component.11. These data will be sent to the computing center 2 kilometers away.12. Upon rearranging the equation above, we have [get, obtain] the following expression.13. These charges can interact with other charges present.14. Forces can be transmitted without contact, contrary to the common belief.15. This coefficient is typically 0.35.II、1. In this case, the input does not fall; nor [neither] does the output. […; the output does not fall, either.]but also on the size and temperature of the conductor.练习5I、k has the same unit as work (does).II、electrical engineering.III、R o.6. We must take the effect of temperature on [upon] semiconductors intoaccount.7. In this case, the variation of output with input is very small.8. This curve shows the dependence of distance on/upon speed.IV、练习6I、1. This image, it will be noticed, is a real image.2. This technical problem, we hope, will be solved soon.3. 210 is approximately 1000, a fact that we think is very useful in the study of digital electronics.4. A resistor of say 100 ohms should be used here.II、radars.III、1. In Section 1-2, the concept of force was introduced.2. As early as the 1940s, it was found that semiconductors are very useful.3. This result can also be arrived at in another way.4. At that time no use was made of this phenomenon/…, thisphenomenon was made no use of.5. This point will be dealt with in the next section.IV、1. This computer works than that one (does)/This computer is much better in performance than that one (is)..4. The greater the resistance, the longer time it takes for the capacitor to reach its maximum voltage/…, the longer time is required for the capacitor to reach its maximum voltage.)5. The current as small as 0.1 A cannot produce enough heat.V、或：We can determine the weight of the body easily.6. The results obtained values. […are in agreement with the experimental values.]练习7I、1. It will take a few months to design this kind of aircraft with the help of a computer.2. It is left as a problem to [for] the reader to show that this expression holds.3. The program to be executed is stored in this unit.4. This valley acts as the foundation on which to build the dam.5. In this laboratory there are many kinds of instrument for students to choose from.6. Let t0 equal/be equal to zero.7. The farther away the target (is), the longer time it takes for the echo to return.8. For the series to converge, x must be less than 1.9. We find this concept very difficult to understand.10. This method makes it much easier to detect targets.11. This factor will affect the ability of a computer to store information.12. We have to find out how large to make r so as for the series to converge.13. This is a pen to draw pictures with.14. Elasticity is the tendency of a body to return to its original condition after being deformed.15. Ordinary matter is said to be electrically neutral.16.This property makes it possible for metals to be made into any shape.17. This table is unfit for a student to do experiments on.18. Now we consider what path of integration to take.II、of impurities to练习8I、1. The amplifier amplifies the received signals.2. Moving molecules have kinetic energy.3. Speed equals distance divided by time.4. V oltage equals/is equal to current multiplied by resistance.5. The resistance of air increases with the increased/increasing/an increase in speed.8. This book, properly used, will be of great help to the reader.9. Flowing through a circuit, the current will lose part of its energy.10. Given/Knowing time and speed, we/one can find out distance.11. Having studied this chapter, the student will understand/will have understood the principle of a computer.12. The speed of light being extremely great, we cannot measure it by ordinary methods.13. Several comsats were launched, all of them (being) high-altitude satellites.14. Called “the mother of all networks,” the Internet is a widely used international network.15. This force can be resolved into two components, one (being) horizontal and the other vertical.II、1.Let us construct/draw a circle with the origin as the center and ofradius R.2.This parameter should be measured with E grounded.3. With no resistance in the circuit, the current will increase indefinitely.4. With this in view, we have written this book.5. This paper introduces a new design method/technique, with emphasis on its principle.III、1.Let us consider designing a computer.2.We refer to these components as being passive.3.This involves taking the Fourier transform.4.On/Upon rearranging the above equations, we obtain the following setof equations.5.In using this equation, it does not matter which plane is considered asIV、1.2.3.4.5.练习9I、1. The problem was not solved until a completely different method was introduced.2. Nearly 100 years passed before the existence/presence of subatomic particles was confirmed by experiment/experimentally.3. The year this device was invented, World War II broke out.4. Small as they are, atoms are made up of still smaller particles.II、1. The relation that voltage is the product of current and resistance applies to all the dc circuits.2. The discovery that magnetism can produce current is extremely important in the field of electricity.3. An equation is an algebraic statement that two algebraic expressions are equal.4. There is evidence that no life exists on the moon.5. The question now arises whether the algorithm is of practical use.6. In this case there is no guarantee that the series is convergent.7. There is a growing/increasing awareness that these techniques/methods are very useful.8. One of/Among the most noteworthy achievements at that time was the realization that light consists of electromagnetic waves.10. Besides/In addition that the properties of the material should be included in the analytical model, we must take other factors into account.III、1.These features make it difficult for electronic counter-measure systemsto intercept, analyze and jam this kind of signals.2. The existence of and the ability to control these phenomena make those devices possible.3. The variation of/in the number of the filter’s teeth has a greater effect on the performance of its passband than the variation of/in its dimensions.4. Scalar detection will result in the loss of some phase information.5. Fig. 6 shows the schematic diagram of measuring scatter parameters by the natural parameter transformation method.练习10I、1. Now it remains to be determined when the series converges.2. It is clear from Dubamel’s Theorem that this limit exists.3. It follows from Maxwell’s hypothesis that whenever there is a change in an electric field, a magnetic field is produced.4. It does not matter whether the magnet is moved in this case.5. Temperature determines in what direction the transfer of heat will take place.6. It is now a well-known fact that all matter consists of tiny particles.II、1. What a generator does is (to) change mechanical energy into electrical energy.2. What this chapter describes/What is described in this chapter is of great importance.3. Matter is what can occupy space.6. Magnitude, direction, and place of application are what we call the three elements of a force.7. These numbers constitute what is known as the real number system.8. In what follows, we shall acquaint ourselves with some basic concepts.III、1. An x-band wave-guide test system is shown in Fig.7. [或：Fig. 7 shows …].2. This method lowers the requirement for the hardware of a samplenetwork.3. On the basis of the above analysis of the decomposition of the polynomial, a novel configuration results. [或：The above analysis of the decomposition of the polynomial results in a novel configuration.]4. Finally, an analysis of packet loss probability is made by computer simulation.5. The sparse ratio of the resulting impedance matrix is as high as 40%.练习11I、1. The meter (that/which) we use to measure the voltage across a resistor is called a voltmeter.2. Computers are the most efficient assistants (that) man has ever had.3. Now this disease is no longer the serious problem (that) it once was.4. Radar can measure the time (that) it takes for the radio echo to return.5. We must calculate the distance (that/through which) the body is lifted.6. The direction (that/in which) a body moves is also very important.7. The number of times (that/by which) this particle vibrates per/a second is called/termed/named/known as/spoken of as/referred to as frequency.8. We equate these two ratios, from which the simplest formula follows/results.9. It is necessary to determine the time when/that/at which the y-component has decreased to zero.10.. The curve the y-coordinate of each point on which is zero is just the x-axis.II、1. The point at which the circle cuts the axis of reals is where α= ω.2. The force of gravity means the force with which the earth attracts a body.3. The surface of a picture tube upon which the electrons produce the picture is called the screen.4. The author would like to express thanks to the editors of the series of which this book is a part/to which this book belongs.5. This is a parallelogram of which the two given vectors are/form sides.6. The pressure is equal to the total force divided by the area over which it is exerted.7. The two elements of which water consists are hydrogen and oxygen.8. This depends on the efficiency with which electrons are produced.III、1. As the title indicates, this chapter will discuss nonlinear equations.2. As the name shows, a fluid is a substance which flows readily.3. This single force produces the same effect as is produced by those forces together.4. Now we are able to solve such differential equations as occur in physics.5. This function can be accomplished by using the full adder as was described in the previous section.6. These concepts enable us to understand a wide range of phenomena in electrostatics, or “static electricity,” as it is called.7. This current is, as predicted, very small,8. First let us consider the simplest circuit as shown on page 2.IV、1. This is a slightly higher value than we predicted.2. This reactor can produce more fuel than it consumes.3. Let us consider the case when the torque is zero.4. We must determine the values of currents and voltages after the switch closes.5. During the ten years since this book was first published, significant changes have taken place/have been seen in metal-making.V、of voice service.2. This paper presents a an 8098 microcontroller to series-communicate with a 386 personal computer.analysis is made of the effect of equalization parameters on equalization performance.]4. Each receiver channel in Fig. 1 contains an RF a an IF amplifier, an A/Detc.”的黑点重合在一起了）5. The larger the abnormal extent (is), the larger is the residual mismatch, with the curve going up.练习12I、1. be grounded;2. be carried;3. be raised;4. be;5. not try;6. be; be satisfied;7. be;8. be; was; have;10. were concentrated; 11. had been; 12. were moving; 13. is going to rain; 14. be; 15. leakII、1. Should anything abnormal happen, switch/turn off the power supply at once/immediately.2. Had electronic computers not been used, it would have taken them a long time to solve this problem.3. It is very important that all solutions (should) be checked in the original equation.6. We could also have used Theorem (6) to derive the result.7. The requirement that energy (should) be conserved must be satisfied.8. Everything here, be it a component or a device, is home-made.III、1. It was this scientist who/that discovered this phenomenon a century ago.medium.4. It is not clear yet under what conditions it is that this formula can be used.5. This property we call inertia.IV、1. The author is engaged in the teachingand recognition.2. Let P and Q be two Boolean permutations of the same order, and then their composition is a new Boolean permutation.3. Three algorithms are presented, which can remarkably reduce the time to raise the pen, thus raising the drawing efficiency.4. What this paper describes is of great interest to communications engineers.5. The minimum entropy technique for estimating the Doppler frequency rate is presented, which has the advantages over the classical techniques of high accuracy and a small amount of computation.练习13II、1. By electromagnetic force is meant the potential difference across the battery when there is no flow of current.2. In the table below/which follows are listed various parameters of familiar computers.3. An element cannot be decomposed, nor can it be broken up by chemical methods.4. Only when x = 8, does this equation hold/apply.5. Of particular importance/Especially important are the two concepts which follow.6. Such a set we call the mathematical system.7. Rarely does one know this function with precision.8. This interrelationship between electric and magnetic fields makes possible such things as the electromagnet and the electric motor.9. Not until 1818 was the diffraction of light interpreted/explained.10. By no means do electrons move from the positive terminal to the negative terminal in a wire.II、1. The effect of air resistance is discussed in Chapter 15, and the decrease in acceleration with altitude in Chapter 17.2. It is necessary to determine the charge on and the voltage across this capacitor.3. In this case, no standard is needed, but only a numerical convention.4. This voltage is greater than or equal to 0.4 volts.5. The cathode, when heated, emits electrons.6. Every body, whether accelerated or not, is considered (to be) in equilibrium.7. If necessary, the wire will be covered with some insulation.8. The transistor has its materials arranged p-n-p, hence the name pnp transistor.III、1. An initial analysis is made of the performance of the device.2. The magnetic field is the space around a magnet occupied by the magnetic lines of force.3. This leads to the battery voltage in the model of 500 mV.4. This graph shows the variation with frequency of the resistance of the resistor.5. This is responsible for the direct return to the atmosphere of more than half the water that falls on the land.6. The question now arises how these unknowns can be determined.7. It is necessary to determine the effect on the device of changing the ambient temperature.8. The assumption has been made that the pressure always remains constant during the test.IV、1. The simulation results show that both the schemes are easy to implement.2. The model and algorithm proposed in this paper are to a certain degree/extent superior in performance to the conventional BP algorithm.3. A new technique for estimating the frequency deviation is proposed which gives a high accuracy and requires a small amount of computation.4. Improvement of the accuracy of range alignment in ISAR imaging (by) using the super resolution technique5. Research on and the realization of DTMF in a Cipher Coder6. Analysis of the ability of a quartz flexibility accelerometer to resist bad environment练习14I、1.then; Next2.while3.of course4.However5.In general; while6.Hence7.In fact8.For instance9.but; However; namely [that is]10.InsteadII、It has been observed that bodies do not change their state of rest or motion until some other body forces them to do it. It is known form experiment that a body at rest tends to stay at rest unless a force is applied to make it move. A book lying on a table stays there unless a force is applied to move it. It is also known that any body, once (it is) in motion, will continue to move because of its inertia. To stop it a force must be applied by any other body.III、1. An analysis of the EMI spectrum at the input of the SMPS and its suppression2. Also, a quantitative expression for the effect of all these factors on the performance of the system3. This device can detect whether an IC functions properly or not/can detect the quality of an IC and4. In this way, the area of an antenna site may be reduced to one-third that of the conventional one.5. H and H’练习15I、Semiconductors are a substance whose conductivity lies/comes/is between that of conductors and that of non-conductors. Common examples are silicon and germanium./Silicon and germanium are intheir conductivity. Therefore/Thus/So/As a result, semiconductors are widely used for automaticallyII、ξ1 andη3.3. The features of this new algorithm are simplicity and objectivity.4. It deserves to be further studied which nonlinear function should be selected.5. The test of the system was conducted at a factory in Hong Kong with satisfactory results.练习16I、1．This paper presents a new temperature-measuring method, with emphasis on its basic principles.2. This point remains to be further studied.3. In the previous section, we dealt with the composition of a computer.4. It follows from this experiment that volume is inversely proportional to pressure.5. This statement has been verified.II、1. This new method has many advantages over those available/over the existing ones.2. The variation of pressure with temperature is obvious.3. We can determine the response of the device to frequency.4. This paper deals with the effect/influence/impact of EM waves on/upon human bodies.5. This paper presents initial researches on fluids.III、1. Two other parameters are also very important.2. This section introduces four additional/added kinds of instrument.3. A robot is a special kind of electronic device.4. We shall adopt a new set of parameters here.5. This technology has reached the advanced world level.6. Major theoretical developments in the 20th century are presented in this paper.IV、1. This cable has an approximate length of 20 meters/a length of approximately 20 meters.2. These pipes have an average length of slightly/a little/a bit under/less than 5 meters.3. Light has a speed through water of 224 million meters per second.4. Any other sea does not have as high a salt content as the Dead Sea (does).5. This force has a torque arm of zero.6. These forms have the advantage that it is easy to see how the results are affected by changing the angles.V、1. some distilled water2. the unknown substances3. man-made satellites4. amplitude-modulated signals5. chromium-plated steel6. the new racing cars7. freely falling bodies8. blue-lined paper9. an acute-angled triangle10. a wide-toothed sawVI、1. This method requires a much smaller amount of computation than that one (does).2. This device consumes much less energy that that one (does).3. We should use as simple a structure as possible.4. We have obtained satisfactory/satisfying results.5. Body A possesses more potential energy than body B.6. This fluorescent screen displays clearer pictures than that one.VII、1. …… because of fairly low conductivity of the skin.2. At temperatures greater than 80o C, …….3. At/For/With constant pressure, …….4. At/On/After the completion of all tests on the unit, …….5. For/With small values of ω, ……VIII、1. Operation beyond this hyperbola will result in diode power dissipation in excess of its maximum rating of 1W.2. Inclusion of the meter circuit in the feedback path minimizes the effects of diode nonlinearities on circuit performance.3. Differentiation of this equation gives the following expression.4. A temperature rise of 50o C/A rise in/of temperature by 50o C would damage the device.5. The large size of the resistor makes it possible to neglect it.6. Limited space allows only a brief discussion of quartz-crystal technology.IX、1. This fraction is rationalized by multiplying the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate.2. The addition of two complex numbers is accomplished by separately adding the real and imaginary parts.3. The/Its solution is accomplished by first finding out I1.4. These three parameters are related by the following equation.5. V is related to t by Eq. (1–1).X、This paper presents a new design method, with emphasis on the guidelines of thought for its derivation. It has many advantages over those available [the existing ones]. Finally [Lastly], Its application is illustrated with an example.XI、1. Fig. 3 shows a transmission line with a length of I and a characteristic impedance of 500 Ω.2. Although there are many ways to produce random numbers, the procedure for producing them is quite complicated.3. As is known, when one reads a Chinese character, he or she does not consider every detail in it.4. The Hash algorithm is a scheme by which data of any length can be compressed into data of a fixed length.5. The number of times this value occurs in the observations is given in the first column.练习17I、1. （略）2. David J. Minot attended the University of California, Berkeley, CA. from 1994 – 1998. He earned the BS degree in botany there in 1998, and the M. Eng. Degree in electrical engineering from the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 2000. Since 2004 he has been working towards the Ph.D. degree in computer science at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.In 1998 he served as a teaching assistant at the University of California. From 2000 to 2001 he was with the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania. His research interests concentrate on the development of software.II、This device can identify whether an IC functions properly or not and it can determine the type of an unknown chip. It can test as many as more than 700 kinds of IC. It is characterized by easy operation, high testing speed and great portability. Its price is only about one-third that of the imported product of its kind/the same kind.III、1. It is important how the transmitting antenna pattern is determined./What is important is how to determine the transmitting antenna pattern.2. δandδe can be obtained from Eqs. (3) and (4).3. There are two factors controlling the diffusive signal process: (1) the diffusive signal, which can bea brightness signal or a motion-matching signal; (2) the position of the diffusive signal, which determines where the diffusive process starts.4. The following concept is one of the basic principles on which the neural system is based.5. A method to increase the accuracy of range alignment by applying the forward-backward linear prediction is presented.练习18I、1. Frequency is defined as the rate at which something occurs./By frequency is meant the rate at which something happens.2. A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature.3. Elasticity is defined as the tendency of an object to return to its original state after being deformed./By elasticity is meant the tendency ….4. An isosceles triangle is a triangle/one having two equal sides/having two sides equal in length/with two sides equal in length.5. An electron is a particle with a mass of 9.107×10– 18 gram.II、The wavelet theory has so unique an advantage that it has found wide applications in many fields of engineering. Since this is the development and improvement of the Fourier analysis, it can, in principle, be used [A development and improvement of the Fourier analysis, this theory can, in principle, be used] where the traditional Fourier analysis is applicable. What is more, better results may be obtained on account of the fact that this theory overcomes the shortcomings of the Fourier analysis.III、1. This method imposes few limitations on the kinds of engineering drawings.2. Because of the great difference in characteristic between these symbols, they are processed in different ways.3. For these reasons, it is desirable for a computer to separate the text from the image.4. These variations are so small that they can be neglected/so small as to be neglected.。
乐易突破英语第二级教案
《乐易突破英语》第二册教案Lesson One教学任务：1、俩俩对话练习（老师与学生，学生与学生，并记录成绩）2、听力训练（星级考听力试卷一套）3、复习26个英文字母歌，听写，及书写格式4、复习48个音素（音形对接）5、背诵开闭音节口诀及单词拼读规则6、学习第一课英文歌曲Are you sleeping?并教会学生舞蹈动作7、按照读音规则学习57页a , ay ,ei ,ai ,ey 发音及新单词8、学习语法要点：正在进行时的意义，句型结构，现在分词的变化规则等9、学习课文第一部分单词并把它们变成现在分词形式10、新句型的导入及训练11、学习课文第四部分练习3，对语法知识进行训练和巩固12、学习课文第三部分说唱（活跃气氛）学生们可以进行说唱比赛13、学习说唱歌曲：What are you doing now ? / What’s he/she doing now ? / Whatare they doing now ? 对所学语法要点再次做个复习巩固。
14、学生用正在进行时写一段话（五句话以上）15、教师布置适量作业教学难点：语法要点的导入及学习，按照读音规则教学新单词难点处理方法：通过图片，卡片，肢体动作，实物，歌曲说唱等来处理教学活动：积分比赛，说唱比赛，打卡比赛，学习英文歌曲，肢体动作表演，画画表演，造句比赛等。
教学道具：实物，图片，卡片，歌曲，肢体表演等教学步骤I 复习巩固1、俩俩对话练习（老师与老师，学生与学生, 并记录成绩）2、听力训练（星级考听力试卷一套）3、复习26个英文字母歌及书写格式4、复习48个音素（音形对接）5、背诵开闭音节口诀及单词拼读规则6、学习第一课英文歌曲并教会舞蹈动作Are you sleeping ?II 授新课1、新单词教学步骤（1）先教读音规则（2）按照读音规则学生尝试拼写单词（3）标序号学生听音辨词（4）编词串联想记忆（5）打卡片练习词形与中文对接2、语法知识教学步骤1）语法知识的导入：叫学生到讲台上做动作，其他学生猜他正在干什么引出句型：What’s he/she doing now ? She/He is…或者通过图片导入也行！2）语法知识的讲解：（1）正在进行时的意义（2）正在进行时的句子结构：主语+be动词+动词的现在分词（3）动词现在分词的变化规则有三：在动词后直接加-ing.以不发音e结尾的动词去掉e再加-ing .重读闭音节词先双写末尾的辅音再加-ing.3）语法知识的训练（1）学习课文第一部分的动词，学生把这些动词变换成动词的现在分词形式get-getting,go-going,write-writing）（2）根据所变换的动词现在分词造句比赛，一个接一个。
xx小学语文16雷雨课件
课后作业
➢ 有感情地朗读并背诵这篇课文。 ➢ 课后观察下雨的时候是先看到闪电还是先
听到雷声。
相信梦想是价值的源泉，相信眼光决定未来的一 切，相信成功的信念比成功本身更重要，相信人 生有挫折没有失败，相信生命的质量来自决不妥 协的信念。
谢谢观看
层次梳理
雷雨前—— 乌云→大风→闪电、雷声
热
爱
雷雨
雷雨中——
雨下起来→越下越大→渐 渐小了
大 自
然
雷雨后—— 空气→太阳→彩虹→池塘
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本文用精练的文字， 为我们描绘了雷雨前、雷 雨中、雷雨后的自然景象， 抒发了作者对大自然的热 爱之情。
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有关雷雨的谚语
雷公先唱歌，有雨也不多。 风静又闷热，雷雨必强烈。 雷声连成片，雨下沟河漫。 处暑雷唱歌，阴雨天气多。 先雷后雨雨必小，先雨后雷雨必大。
1.朗读课文。说说雷雨前、雷雨中和雷雨后景色的变化。 背诵课文。
朗读指导：读第1、2自然段时，语调低沉，语速缓慢， 要读出雷雨前压抑、沉闷的气氛；读第பைடு நூலகம்自然段时，语调稍 高，第二个“越来越”比第一个读得重些，要读出闪电和雷 声的来势凶猛；读第4～7自然段时，语速稍快，语调高昂， 读出雷雨之大；第8自然段要带着轻快、舒缓的语气来读， 要读出雨过天晴后景物的美和动物们的悠闲。
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4
我会认
yā
压
2021/4/2
压力
chán
蝉
5
chuí
hù
垂
户
pū
扑
多音字
看 kàn（看见）
kān（看守）
例：1.小鹿看（ kàn）见狮子来了，吓得四处逃窜。 2.多年来，爷爷一直为村里看（ kān）守山林。
乐易突破英语第二级教案
《乐易突破英语》第二册教案Lesson One教学任务：1、俩俩对话练习（老师与学生，学生与学生，并记录成绩）2、听力训练（星级考听力试卷一套）3、复习26个英文字母歌，听写，及书写格式4、复习48个音素（音形对接）5、背诵开闭音节口诀及单词拼读规则6、学习第一课英文歌曲Are you sleeping?并教会学生舞蹈动作7、按照读音规则学习57页a , ay ,ei ,ai ,ey 发音及新单词8、学习语法要点：正在进行时的意义，句型结构，现在分词的变化规则等9、学习课文第一部分单词并把它们变成现在分词形式10、新句型的导入及训练11、学习课文第四部分练习3，对语法知识进行训练和巩固12、学习课文第三部分说唱（活跃气氛）学生们可以进行说唱比赛13、学习说唱歌曲：What are you doing now ? / What’s he/she doing now ? / What are they doingnow ?对所学语法要点再次做个复习巩固。
14、学生用正在进行时写一段话（五句话以上）15、教师布置适量作业教学难点：语法要点的导入及学习，按照读音规则教学新单词难点处理方法：通过图片，卡片，肢体动作，实物，歌曲说唱等来处理教学活动：积分比赛，说唱比赛，打卡比赛，学习英文歌曲，肢体动作表演，画画表演，造句比赛等。
教学道具：实物，图片，卡片，歌曲，肢体表演等教学步骤I 复习巩固1、俩俩对话练习（老师与老师，学生与学生, 并记录成绩）2、听力训练（星级考听力试卷一套）3、复习26个英文字母歌及书写格式4、复习48个音素（音形对接）5、背诵开闭音节口诀及单词拼读规则6、学习第一课英文歌曲并教会舞蹈动作Are you sleeping ?II 授新课1、新单词教学步骤（1）先教读音规则（2）按照读音规则学生尝试拼写单词（3）标序号学生听音辨词（4）编词串联想记忆（5）打卡片练习词形与中文对接2、语法知识教学步骤1）语法知识的导入：叫学生到讲台上做动作，其他学生猜他正在干什么引出句型：What’s he/she doing now ? She/He is…或者通过图片导入也行！2）语法知识的讲解：（1）正在进行时的意义（2）正在进行时的句子结构：主语+be动词+动词的现在分词（3）动词现在分词的变化规则有三：在动词后直接加-ing.以不发音e结尾的动词去掉e再加-ing .重读闭音节词先双写末尾的辅音再加-ing.3）语法知识的训练（1）学习课文第一部分的动词，学生把这些动词变换成动词的现在分词形式get-getting,go-going,write-writing）（2）根据所变换的动词现在分词造句比赛，一个接一个。
recent initiaatives by the basel-based r_qt0806
BIS Quarterly ReviewJune 2008 International banking and financial market developmentsBIS Quarterly ReviewMonetary and Economic DepartmentEditorial Committee:Claudio Borio Frank Packer Paul Van den BerghWhite Már Gudmundsson Eli Remolona William Robert McCauley Philip TurnerGeneral queries concerning this commentary should be addressed to Frank Packer(tel +41 61 280 8449, e-mail: frank.packer@), queries concerning specific parts to theauthors, whose details appear at the head of each section, and queries concerning the statisticsto Philippe Mesny (tel +41 61 280 8425, e-mail: philippe.mesny@).Requests for copies of publications, or for additions/changes to the mailing list, should be sent to:Bank for International SettlementsPress & CommunicationsCH-4002 Basel, SwitzerlandE-mail: publications@Fax: +41 61 280 9100 and +41 61 280 8100This publication is available on the BIS website ().©Bank for International Settlements 2008. All rights reserved. Brief excerpts may be reproduced or translated provided the source is cited.ISSN 1683-0121 (print)ISSN 1683-013X (online)BIS Quarterly ReviewJune 2008International banking and financial market developmentsOverview : a cautious return of risk tolerance (1)Credit market turmoil gives way to fragile recovery (1)Box: Estimating valuation losses on subprime MBS with theABX HE index – some potential pitfalls (6)Bond yields recover as markets stabilise (8)A turning point for equity prices? (11)Emerging market investors discount growth risks (12)Tensions in interbank markets remain high (13)Highlights of international banking and financial market activity (17)The international banking market (17)The international debt securities market (23)Derivatives markets (24)Box: An update on local currency debt securities marketsin emerging market economies (28)Special featuresInternational banking activity amidst the turmoil (31)Patrick McGuire and Goetz von PeterThe build-up of international bank balance sheets (32)Developments in the second half of 2007 (36)Bilateral exposures of national banking systems (39)Concluding remarks (42)Managing international reserves: how does diversification affect financial costs? 45 Srichander RamaswamyFramework of the analysis (46)Risk-return trade-offs (48)Financial cost of acquiring reserves through FX intervention (49)Box: Methodology for computing estimates of financial cost (51)Central bank objectives and FX reserve allocation (53)Conclusions (54)Credit derivatives and structured credit: the nascent markets of Asiaand the Pacific (57)Eli M Remolona and Ilhyock ShimCredit default swaps (58)Traded CDS indices (60)Collaterised debt obligations (61)How the region’s markets have fared in the global turmoil (63)Conclusion (65)Asian banks and the international interbank market (67)Robert N McCauley and Jens ZukunftAsian banks’ international interbank liquidity: where do we stand? (68)Foreign banks and the local funding gap (73)Box: The Asian financial crisis: international liquidity lessons (76)Conclusions (78)BIS Quarterly Review, June 2008 iiiRecent initiatives by Basel-based committees and groupsBasel Committee on Banking Supervision (81)Joint Forum (84)Financial Stability Forum (87)Statistical Annex ........................................................................................ A1 Special features in the BIS Quarterly Review ................................ B1 List of recent BIS publications .............................................................. B2Notations used in this Reviewe estimatedlhs, rhs left-hand scale, right-hand scalemillionbillion thousand… notavailableapplicable. not– nil0 negligible$ US dollar unless specified otherwiseDifferences in totals are due to rounding.iv BIS Quarterly Review, June 2008BIS Quarterly Review, June 20081Ingo Fender +41 61 280 8415ingo.fender@Peter Hördahl+41 61 280 8434peter.hoerdahl@Overview: a cautious return of risk toleranceFollowing deepening turmoil and rising concerns about systemic risks in the first two weeks of March, financial markets witnessed a cautious return of investor risk tolerance over the remainder of the period to end-May 2008. The process of disorderly deleveraging which had started in 2007 intensified from end-February, with asset markets becoming increasingly illiquid and valuations plunging to levels implying severe stress. However, markets subsequently rebounded in the wake of repeated central bank action and the Federal Reserve-facilitated takeover of a large US investment bank. In sharp contrast to these favourable developments, interbank money markets failed to recover, as liquidity demand remained elevated.Mid-March was a turning point for many asset classes. Amid signs of short covering, credit spreads rallied back to their mid-January values before fluctuating around these levels throughout May. Market liquidity improved, allowing for better price differentiation across instruments. The stabilisation of financial markets and the emergence of a somewhat less pessimistic economic outlook also contributed to a turnaround in equity markets. In this environment, government bond yields bottomed out and subsequently rose considerably. A reduction in the demand for safe government securities contributed to this, as did growing perceptions among investors that the impact from the financial turmoil on real economic activity might turn out to be less severe than had been anticipated. Emerging market assets, in turn, performed broadly in line with assets in the industrialised economies, as the balance of risk shifted from concerns about economic growth to those about inflation.Credit market turmoil gives way to fragile recoveryFollowing two weeks of increasingly unstable conditions in early March, credit markets were buoyed by a cautious return of risk tolerance, with spreads recovering from the very wide levels reached during the first quarter of 2008. Sentiment turned in mid-March, following repeated interventions by the Federal Reserve to improve market functioning and to help avert the collapse of a major US investment bank. As these actions alleviated earlier concerns about risks to the financial system, previously dysfunctional markets resumed trading and prices rallied across a variety of risky assets.2BIS Quarterly Review, June 2008Between end-February and end-May, the US five-year CDX high-yield index spread tightened by about 144 basis points to 573, while corresponding investment grade spreads fell by 63 basis points to 102. European and Japanese spreads broadly mirrored the performance of the major US indices, declining by between 25 and 153 basis points overall. Between 10 and 17 March, all five major indices had been pushed out to or near the widest levels seen since their inception. They then rallied back and seemed to stabilise around their mid-January values, remaining significantly above the levels prevailing before the start of the market turmoil in mid-2007 (Graph 1).business lines, tightening repo haircuts caused a number of hedge funds and other leveraged investors to unwind existing positions. As a result, concerns underlying exposures are almost entirely protected by federal guarantees, as summer of 2007 (Graph 3, right-hand panel).BIS Quarterly Review, June 20083Fears about collapsing financial markets reached a peak in the week March, triggering repeated policy actions by the US authorities. investment grade credit default swap (CDS) indices underperforming lower-quality benchmarks (Graph 4, left-hand and centre panels). Spreads were temporarily arrested when, on 11 March, the Federal Reserve announced an expansion of its securities lending activities targeting the large US dealer banks (see section on money markets and Table 1 below). European CDS indices tightened by more than 10 basis points on the news, while the two key basis points down, respectively (Graph 1). allowing it to make secured advance payments to the troubled investment These developments appeared to herald a turning point in the market, funds target down to 2.25%. Earnings announcements by major investment banks on 18 and 19 March that were better than anticipated provided further support, with investors increasingly adopting the view that various central bank initiatives aimed at reliquifying previously dysfunctional markets were gradually gaining traction. Consistent with perceptions of a considerable reduction in systemic risk, spreads, and particularly those for financial sector and other investment grade firms, tightened from the peaks reached in early March(Graph 4). Movements were partially driven by the unwinding of speculative short positions, as suggested by changes in pricing differentials across products with similar exposures, according to the ease with which such positions can be opened or closed. For example, spreads on CDS contracts referencing the major credit indices moved more strongly than those on the same indices’ constituent names (Graph 1, centre and right-hand panels). Similarly, CDS markets outperformed those for comparable cash bonds, as market participants adjusted their synthetic trades.risks (Graph 1, centre and right-hand panels). Similarly, implied volatilities from CDS index options eased into the second quarter, indicating a somewhat reduced uncertainty about shorter-run credit spread movements (Graph 3, centre and right-hand panels).losses based on ABX prices (see box). This was despite the lack of a recovery for the index series with lower original ratings, whose prices continued to4 BIS Quarterly Review, June 2008BIS Quarterly Review, June 20085suggest expectations of complete writedowns of all underlying bonds by mid-2009 (Graph 2, centre panel). At these low levels, and with none of the ABX indices having experienced any principal writedowns so far, investors appeared to be pricing in the possibility of legislation writing down mortgage principal. Against this background, issuance of private-label mortgage-backed securities remained depressed, with volume growth coming mainly from US agency-Supported by optimism about banks’ recapitalisation efforts, spreads pace of capital replenishment. Following news of a rights issue on 31 March, CDS spreads referencing debt issued by Lehman Brothers tightened. UBS announced large first quarter losses and a fully underwritten capital increase on 1 April, and other institutions followed over the rest of the month. Globally, banks managed to raise more than $100 billion of new capital in April alone, stemming the deterioration in capital ratios. Financial CDS spreads, the monoline segment excluded, outperformed corresponding equity prices in the process (Graph 4, right-hand panel), reflecting diminishing concerns about imminent financial sector risk as well as the dilutory effects of equity financing. Markets retraced some of these gains in early May, partially driven by strong supply flows from corporate issuers that included, at $9 billion, the largest US dollar deal by a non-US borrower in seven years. Volumes were dominated by6 BIS Quarterly Review, June 2008Pitfalls in using the ABX. Estimated mark to market losses and actual writedowns made by banks and other investors can differ for a variety of reasons. Analysts, depending on their objective, thus have to be mindful of potential sources of bias. At least three such sources can be identified, of which two are specific to the ABX index:•Accounting treatment. Subprime MBS are held by a variety of investors and for different purposes. While large amounts of outstanding subprime MBS are known to reside inbanks’ trading books, banks and other investors may also hold these securities tomaturity. This can result in different accounting treatments, which would tend to deflateactual writedowns and impairment charges relative to estimates of mark to market losseson the basis of market indices, such as the ABX. The size of this effect, however, isdifficult to determine. Further complexities are added once securities cease to be tradedin active markets, implying the use of valuation techniques, which may differ acrossinvestors, in establishing fair value.5•Market coverage. ABX prices may not be representative of the total subprime universe, due to limited index coverage of the overall market. Original balance across all four serieshas averaged about $31 billion. This compares to average monthly MBS issuance ofsome $36 billion over the 10 quarters up to mid-2007, ie almost a month’s worth ofsubprime MBS supply per index series. Similarly, with 2004–07 vintage subprime MBSvolumes estimated at around $600 billion in outstanding amounts, each series representssome 5% of the overall universe on average. At the same time, ABX deal composition isknown to be quite similar in terms of collateral attributes (such as FICO scores and loan-to-value ratios) to the overall market (by vintage).6 Therefore, despite somewhat limitedcoverage, this particular source of bias may not be large.•Deal-level coverage. Similarly, ABX prices may not be representative because each index series covers only part of the capital structure of the 20 deals included in the index(see Graph A, right-hand panel, for an illustration).7 In particular, tranches referenced bythe AAA indices are not the most senior pieces in the capital structure, but those with thelongest duration (expected average life) – the so-called “last cash flow bonds”. Theseclaims will receive any cash flow allocations sequentially after all other AAA trancheshave been paid; and tend to switch to pro rata pay only when the highest mezzaninebond has been written down. It follows that AAA ABX index prices are going to reflectdurations that are longer, and effective subordinations that are lower, than those of theremaining AAA subprime MBS universe. As a result, using newly available data for MBStranches with shorter durations, the $119 billion of losses implied by the ABX AAA indicesas of end-May would be some 62% larger than those implied under more realisticassumptions.8_________________________________1 See, for example, International Monetary Fund, Global Financial Stability Report, April 2008, pp 46–52, and Box 1 in Bank of England, Financial Stability Report, April 2008.2 Supplementary indices, called ABX HE PENAAA, were introduced in May 2008 to provide additional pricing information for all four existing vintages.3 An alternative approach, likely to lead to very different results, would estimate future default-related cash flow shortfalls on the basis of deal-level or aggregate data for subprime securities. To obtain these estimates, such methodologies rely on information about collateral performance and require the analyst to make assumptions about structural relationships and model parameters. Typical subprime loss projections, for example, use delinquency data and assumptions about factors such as delinquency-to-default transitions, default timing, and losses-given-default. See Box 1 in the Overview section of the December 2007 BIS Quarterly Review for an example on the basis of an approach devised by UBS. 4Mark to market losses (relative to par) are calculated assuming that unrated tranches are written down completely; ABX prices for the BBB– indices are used to mark BB collateral; rated tranches from the 2004 vintage are assumed unimpaired; outstanding amounts remain static.5 For details, see Global Public Policy Committee, Determining fair value of financial instruments under IFRS in current market conditions, December 2007.6 See, for example, UBS, Mortgage Strategist, 17 October 2006. 7 Incomplete coverage at the deal level further reduces effective market coverage: typical subprime MBS structures have some 15 tranches per deal, of which only five were originally included in the ABX indices. As a result, each series references less than 15% of the underlying deal volume at issuance.8 Duration effects at the AAA level are bound to be significant for overall loss estimates as the AAA classes account for the lion’s share of MBS capital structures. Using prices for the newly instituted PENAAA indices, which reference “second to last” AAA bonds, to calculate AAA mark to market losses generates an estimate of $73 billion. This, in turn, translates into an overall valuation loss of $205 billion (ie some 18% below the unadjusted estimate of $250 billion).capitalisation had recovered, while remaining weaker than before the crisis. At the same time, still-elevated implied volatilities suggested ongoing investor uncertainty over the future trajectory of credit markets. With the credit cycle continuing to deteriorate and related losses on exposures outside the residential mortgage sector looming, it was thus unclear whether liquidity supply and risk tolerance had recovered to an extent that would help maintain this improved environment on a sustained basis.Bond yields recover as markets stabiliseFrom its low point on 17 March, the 10-year US Treasury bond yield rose by 75 basis points to reach 4.05% at the end of May. During this period, 10-year yields in the euro area and Japan climbed by around 70 and 50 basis points, respectively, to 4.40% and 1.75% (Graph 5, left-hand panel). In US and euro area bond markets, the increase in yields was particularly pronounced for short maturities, with two-year yields rising by 130 basis points in the United States and by almost 120 basis points in the euro area (Graph 5, centre panel). Two-year yields went up in Japan too, but by a more modest 35 basis points. In addition to reduced safe haven demand for government securities, the rise in short-term yields reflected a reassessment among investors of the need for monetary easing, following the stabilisation of financial markets.In the first two weeks of March, as the financial turmoil deepened and forward rates dropping (Graph 6, right-hand panel). While flight to safety and other effects relating to the volatility in financial markets may have influenced consistent with the observed fall at the short end of the forward break-evencurve. At the same time, these same concerns led investors to increasinglyexpect the Federal Reserve to maintain a more accommodative policy stancethan normal in an effort to contain the fallout on economic growth. Insofar asthis was seen as likely to lead to higher prices down the road, it could explainthe rise in distant forward break-even rates at the time.As the situation in financial markets stabilised after the rescue of BearStearns in mid-March, and perceptions of the economic outlook improvedsomewhat, the US forward break-even curve shifted in the opposite directionand flattened considerably. To a large extent, this shift in the forward curve islikely to have reflected a reversal of the same influences that had been at playin the first two weeks of March: the dampening effect on prices coming from theturmoil was perceived to be weaker after mid-March, while the Federal Reservewas seen to be less likely to deliver further sharp rate cuts. Moreover, upwardprice pressures appeared to intensify in the short to medium term, with foodprices rising continuously and oil prices reaching new all-time highs during thisperiod (Graph 5, right-hand panel), pushing near-term forward break-evenrates further upwards.real yields reflected a combination of expectations of higher average realinterest rates in coming years and a reversal of flight to safety pressures. Theformer component, in turn, was due to perceptions among investors that thereal economic fallout from the financial turmoil was likely to be less severe thanhad previously been anticipated. This was despite indications of deterioratingconsumer confidence amid tighter bank lending standards and continuedweakness in US housing markets. The revival in investor confidence seemedinstead to follow from the stabilisation in markets and from a number ofrelatively upbeat macroeconomic announcements. These included better thangovernment securities.In line with perceptions that the stabilisation of markets had reduced therisks to economic growth somewhat, prices of short-term interest rateindicating expectations of a period of stable rates, followed by rising rates inthe first half of 2009 (Graph 7, left-hand panel). In the euro area, EONIA swapprices at the beginning of March had signalled expectations of sizeable ECBrate cuts, but by end-May prices had shifted to reflect expectations of graduallyincreasing policy rates (Graph 7, centre panel). Meanwhile in Japan,expectations of mildly falling policy rates in March had by May been revised toindicate rising rates (Graph 7, right-hand panel).A turning point for equity prices?to end-2007 levels, gained almost 10% between 17 March and end-May. Equity markets in Europe and Japan, which had seen losses in excess of 20% between the turn of the year and 17 March, subsequently also displayed a strong recovery, with the EURO STOXX gaining 11% and the Nikkei 225 rising Reflecting the improved situation in financial markets during this period, by almost 20% and 34%, respectively. These gains occurred despiteannouncements by several banks of record losses during the first quarter amidcontinued credit-related write-offs. Investors obviously took solace from the factthat losses – although big – were no worse than expected, and that a numberof banks had been successful in their recapitalisation efforts (see credit marketsection above).surprises remained well above that of negative surprises, provided somesupport for equity prices. In addition, as fears failed to materialise that economic growth might slow dramatically in the first few months of the year,investors increasingly began to see equity valuations as attractive following thesharp price declines in late 2007 and early 2008. markets recovered after a sharp dip in March (Graph 8, right-hand panel).Emerging market investors discount growth risksequities fell up to mid-March, before rebounding in the wake of the change inmarket sentiment following the Bear Stearns rescue in the United States.Between end-February and end-May, the MSCI emerging market indexgained about 4% in local currency terms, and was up more than 14% from thelows established in mid-March. Latin American markets, which had seen ahigh trading volumes in commodity derivatives (see the Highlights section inthis issue) and speculative demand as a source of part of that strength, otherspointed to low supply elasticities and expectations of sustained rates ofindustrialisation throughout the emerging markets. With the region being amajor net commodities importer and natural disaster contributing to weakerequity prices in China, Asian markets were broadly flat over the period.Emerging Europe, in turn, remained exposed to the risk of a reversal in privatecapital flows, owing to large current account deficits and associated financingneeds in a number of countries. Nevertheless, strong gains in Russia and thebetter than expected growth performance of major European economies in thefirst quarter seemed to aid equity markets in May.Emerging market credit spreads, as measured by the EMBIG index,accounting for most of the spread tightening, the EMBIG remained almost flatin return terms, gaining about 1.1% between end-February and end-May(Graph 9, left-hand panel). Large stocks of foreign reserves and favourablemacroeconomic performance in key emerging market economies continued toprovide support, aiding the market recovery. Spread dispersion remained high,pointing to ongoing price differentiation according to credit quality (Graph 10,centre panel). At the same time, with inflation running well above target in anumber of major emerging market economies, policy credibility appeared tobecome more of a concern, putting pressure on local bond markets. Risinginflation expectations, combined with increasing US Treasury yields andrelatively resilient markets during the earlier stages of the recent marketturmoil, may thus have contributed to a somewhat more muted performancefrom emerging market bonds relative to other asset markets over the periodsince mid-March.Tensions in interbank markets remain highas high at the end of May as three months earlier, across most horizons and inall three major markets (Graph 10). This appeared to imply expectations thatinterbank strains were likely to remain severe well into the future.After a relatively smooth turn of the year, interbank market tensions hadappeared to ease somewhat until early March 2008, and Libor-OIS spreadshad shown some signs of stabilising. However, as the financial turmoilsuddenly deepened in the second week of March, following an acceleration inmargin calls and rapid unwinding of trades (see the credit section above),interbank market pressures quickly increased. With market rumoursproliferating about imminent liquidity problems in one or more large investmentbanks, banks became increasingly wary of lending to others. At the same time,their own demand for funds jumped as they sought to avoid being perceived ashaving a shortage of liquidity.Selected central bank liquidity measures during the period under review7 March The Federal Reserve increases the size of its Term Auction Facility (TAF) to $100 billion andextends the maturity of its repos to up to one month.11 March The Federal Reserve introduces the Term Securities Lending Facility (TSLF), which allowsprimary dealers to borrow up to $200 billion of Treasury securities against collateral. Theexisting dollar swap arrangements between the Federal Reserve and the ECB and the SNB areincreased from a total of $24 billion to $36 billion.16 March The Federal Reserve introduces the Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF), which providesovernight funding for primary dealers in exchange for collateral. The Federal Reserve alsolowers the spread between the discount rate and the federal funds rate from 50 to 25 basispoints, and lengthens the maximum maturity from 30 to 90 days.28 March The ECB announces that the maturity of its longer-term refinancing operations (LTROs) wouldbe extended from up to three months to a maximum of six months.21 April The Bank of England introduces the Special Liquidity Scheme, under which banks can swapilliquid assets for Treasury bills.2 May The Federal Reserve boosts the size of its TAF programme to $150 billion, and announces abroadening of the collateral eligible for the TSLF auctions. The dollar swap arrangements withthe ECB and the SNB are increased further, from $36 billion to $62 billion.Source: Central bank press releases. Table 1The near collapse and subsequent takeover of Bear Stearns onMarch highlighted the risks that banks face in such situations. On the would not be allowed to fail, and this helped restore order in other markets. On the other hand, the speed with which Bear Stearns’ access to market liquidity had collapsed underscored the vulnerability of other banks in this regard, which kept Libor-OIS spreads high even as CDS spreads on banks and brokerages Throughout the period, central banks maintained and even stepped up activity from central banks seemed to have limited immediate impact oninterbank rates. To some extent, this may have reflected the fact that while thesums involved in central bank liquidity schemes were large in absolute terms,they were still rather limited compared to banks’ assessment of their overallliquidity needs against the background of a sharp decline in traditional sourcesof funding. One significant source of short-term funding for banks in the pasthas been money market mutual funds. Such funds have seen substantialinflows since the outbreak of the financial turmoil (Graph 11, left-hand panel),reflecting a noticeable reduction in investors’ appetite for risk. However, thisloss of risk appetite also resulted in money market funds shifting theirinvestments increasingly into treasury bills and other safe short-term securities,hence depriving banks of a key funding source (Graph 11, centre panel). Thissuggests that determining how persistent the interbank tensions will be maydepend significantly, among other things, on how long the risk appetite ofmoney market fund managers, and investors more broadly, will continue to bedepressed.。
brooks
L EGAL U NCERTAINTY,E CONOMICE FFICIENCY, AND THE P RELIMINARYI NJUNCTION D OCTRINERichard R.W. Brooks* and Warren F. Schwartz**I NTRODUCTION (382)I.A RTICULATED S TANDARDS FOR P RELIMINARY I NJUNCTIONS (388)A. Traditional Approaches (389)B. The Error-Minimizing Leubsdorf-Posner Formulation (390)C. Our Alternative Formulation (393)II.M ODEL AND A NALYSIS (394)A. The Leubsdorf-Posner Formulation of the Traditional BalancingRule (396)B. If Preliminary Injunctions Were Never Available (397)1. Incentives when compensation is provided for nonobligatoryperformance (398)2. Incentives when there is no compensation for nonobligatoryperformance (399)C. If Preliminary Injunctions Were Always Available (399)1. Incentives when compensation is provided for nonobligatoryperformance (400)2. Incentives when there is no compensation for nonobligatoryperformance (401)D. Implications: An Asymmetry in Substantive Law (401)III.W HICH R ULE S HOULD B E E MPLOYED? (402)A. Interim-Efficiency Rule (403)B. Preliminary Injunction Liability Rule (405)C. Error-Minimizing Rule in Practice (407)C ONCLUSION (409)*Associate Professor, Yale Law School.**Professor Emeritus of Law, Georgetown University Law Center. We thank Bruce Ackerman, Ian Ayres, Bill Eskridge, Owen Fiss, John Langbein, Eric Posner, Judith Resnik, Alan Sykes, and participants at Georgetown and Northwestern workshops. Sabrina Charles and Albert Wang provided outstanding research assistance.38158:381382 STANFORD LAW REVIEW [Vol.I NTRODUCTIONIn this Article, we consider preliminary injunctions from a radically different perspective than that articulated in judicial opinions and prior legal scholarship. By conventional accounts, when confronted with uncertain legal entitlements, courts should consider preliminary awards only if adequate compensatory remedies are unavailable. The trouble with this “compensatory”view is that it is unresponsive to the ex ante behavioral consequences of legal uncertainty. When rights are uncertain, parties appreciate the full benefits oftheir conduct, but they discount harm to others of this conduct by the likelihoodthat they possess a legal entitlement to so act. Hence, individual incentives to behave efficiently are distorted by uncertain legal entitlements. Preliminary injunctions correct this distortion by wielding a stick and providing a carrot fora defendant who would otherwise discount damages given some positive probability that she may not have to pay them. The powerful stick in this example is the in terrorem damages that defendant will be required to pay if an injunction is granted and she violates it. The carrot is the reimbursement of compliance costs if defendant prevails at the end of the litigation. These penalties and rewards come into play only if the plaintiff decides to pursue the injunction, which is to say that the preliminary injunction doctrine takes the conduct decision out of the hands of the biased defendant and places it in the hands of plaintiff who, by design, faces the proper marginal costs and benefitsof the decision. Interestingly, although courts do not claim that they are promoting efficient behavior when granting preliminary injunctions, that characterization represents a good account for much of what courts are doing.Preliminary injunctions are broadly used. Parties seek injunctions to enjoin patent, copyright, and trademark infringement,1 corporate mergers,2 breaches1.See, e.g., SunTrust Bank v. Houghton Mifflin Co., 268 F.3d 1257 (11th Cir. 2001) (vacating an order granting a preliminary injunction to the owners of copyright in the novelGone with the Wind,which had enjoined the publication and distribution of The Wind Done Gone); Ty, Inc. v. Jones Group, Inc., 237 F.3d 891 (7th Cir. 2001) (affirming grant of preliminary injunction in trademark infringement case relating to Ty’s Beanie Babies toys);CNB Fin. Corp. v. CNB Cmty. Bank, No. CIV.A.03-6945(PBT), 2004 WL 2434878 (E.D.Pa. Sept. 30, 2004) (enjoining defendant from trademark infringement); Best Cellars, Inc. v.Grape Finds at Dupont, Inc., 90 F. Supp. 2d 431 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (enjoining defendants fromtrade dress infringement and copyright infringement); Progressive Games, Inc. v. Shuffle Master, Inc., 69 F. Supp. 2d 1276 (D. Nev. 1999) (granting preliminary injunction in gambling machine patent infringement case).2.See, e.g., Mony Group, Inc. v. Highfields Capital Mgmt., L.P., 368 F.3d 138 (2d Cir. 2004) (enjoining dissenting shareholders from mailing proxy cards); Bernard v. Air LinePilots Ass’n, Int’l, 873 F.2d 213 (9th Cir. 1989) (granting injunction to set aside labor agreement); United States v. UPM-Kymmene Oyj, 2003-2 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 74,101 (N.D.Ill. 2003) (enjoining merger as violative of the Clayton Act, 15 U.S.C. § 12 (2000)); In rePure Res., Inc., S’holder Litig., 808 A.2d 421 (Del. Ch. 2002) (enjoining exchange offer pending alteration of terms); Solar Cells, Inc. v. True N. Partners, L.L.C., C.A. No. 19477,2002 LEXIS 38 (Del. Ch. Apr. 25, 2002) (enjoining merger).November 2005] THE PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION DOCTRINE 383 of contract,3 nuisances,4 marriages,5entertainment,6 and even manner of dress.7 In fact, almost any activity one can imagine is potentially subject to legal restraint through preliminary proceedings.8 However, remarkably little attention has been paid to whether these proceedings tend to promote or discourage desirable activities. The neglect of this issue among law and economics scholars is particularly difficult to explain.9 The doctrine specifying when a court will grant a preliminary injunction is cast in terms with obvious economic content. The preliminary injunction is only to be granted if plaintiff will suffer significant harm and stands to recover inadequate damages if she prevails at the conclusion of the case. Moreover, the right to a preliminary injunction depends in large part (under all versions of the controlling rule) on3.See, e.g.,Arch Pers. Care Prods., L.P. v. Malmstrom, 90 Fed. Appx. 17 (3d Cir. 2003) (affirming order enforcing a noncompetition agreement); Northwest Bakery Distribs., Inc. v. George Weston Bakeries Distribution, Inc., No. 04-C8233, 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 385 (N.D. Ill. Jan. 11, 2005) (allowing injunction to stop termination of bakery distribution agreement); Hillard v. Guidant Corp., 37 F. Supp. 2d 379 (M.D. Pa. 1999) (enjoining defendant from breaking exclusive sales contract); V.I. Taxi Ass’n v. V.I. Port Auth., 36 V.I.43 (1997) (enjoining defendants from violating a taxi-franchise agreement).4.See, e.g., City of S. Pasadena v. Slater, 56 F. Supp. 2d 1106 (C.D. Cal. 1999) (enjoining freeway extension); Bragg v. Robertson, 54 F. Supp. 2d 635 (S.D. W. Va. 1999) (enjoining issuance of mining permits); United States v. Power Eng’g Co., 10 F. Supp. 2d 1145 (D. Colo. 1998) (directing defendant to comply with state regulations for hazardous-waste facilities); Maloof v. State Dep’t of Env’t, 136 Md. App. 682 (Ct. Spec. App. 2001) (affirming circuit court’s issuance of preliminary injunction enjoining operation of landfill).5.See, e.g., Largess v. Supreme Judicial Court, 317 F. Supp. 2d 77 (D. Mass. 2004).6.See, e.g., Elvis Presley Enters. v. Passport Video, 349 F.3d 622 (9th Cir. 2003) (enjoining use of video clips); Video Pipeline, Inc. v. Buena Vista Home Entm’t, Inc., 342 F.3d 191 (3d Cir. 2003) (enjoining use of movie clip previews on the Internet); A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc., 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001) (challenging sharing and copying of music MP3 files); ABKCO Music, Inc. v. Stellar Records, Inc., 96 F.3d 60 (2d Cir. 1996) (enjoining copyright infringement by karaoke company); EMI Latin v. Bautista, No. 03 Civ. 0947 (WHP), 2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2612 (S.D.N.Y. Feb. 24, 2003) (enjoining defendant from interfering with plaintiff’s rights to manufacture and distribute music album).7.See, e.g., Newsom v. Albemarle County Sch. Bd., 354 F.3d 249 (4th Cir. 2003) (using injunction to prevent the enforcement of a high school dress code); Luckette v. Lewis, 883 F. Supp. 471 (D. Ariz. 1995) (seeking preliminary injunction against a prison policy that prohibited the plaintiff from wearing colors thought to be associated with particular gangs).8.Preliminary injunctions have recently been sought in other areas, including preventing executions. In Germany v. United States, 526 U.S. 111 (1999), Germany sought a preliminary injunction to prevent the scheduled execution of one of its citizens in Arizona. See also Ozmint v. Hill, 541 U.S. 929 (2004) (granting application to vacate preliminary injunction of execution). Preliminary injunctions have also been used to prevent religious celebrations, Chabad of S. Ohio v. City of Cincinnati, 363 F.3d 427 (6th Cir. 2004), and to challenge courthouse and classroom postings of the Ten Commandments. ACLU of Ky. v. McCreary County, 354 F.3d 438 (6th Cir. 2003), aff’d, 125 S. Ct. 2722 (2005).9.There have been some efficiency considerations of preliminary injunctions in the context of intellectual property cases, but these works have not explored the efficiency of the standard per se. See, e.g., Jean O. Lanjouw & Josh Lerner, Tilting the Table? The Use of Preliminary Injunctions, 44 J.L.&E CON. 573 (2001); Mark A. Lemley & Eugene Volokh, Freedom of Speech and Injunctions in Intellectual Property Cases, 48 D UKE L.J. 147 (1998).58:381384 STANFORD LAW REVIEW [Vol. the probability that plaintiff will prevail if the case is litigated to a conclusion. These requirements seem, unmistakably, to represent an attempt to adapt efficiently to the uncertainty of the final outcome. In commonsense terms, thereis a prevailing awareness that the requisite tasks to achieve the objectives of the controlling legal rule cannot be deferred until the conclusion of the litigation.Preliminary injunction doctrine recognizes that the task of protecting legal entitlements cannot be postponed until the conclusion of the litigation concerning the assignment of those entitlements. This fact is at odds with the usual law and economics understanding that the assignment and protection of entitlements can be separated and handled sequentially so long as damages atthe conclusion of the case are adequate.10 Accordingly, proponents of the current preliminary injunction doctrine cite the oft-mentioned claim that adequate damages at the conclusion of the case make the entitlement holder whole while encouraging efficient allocation of resources. The most prominent expression of this claim is the so-called “efficient breach hypothesis.”11 This10.Building on Guido Calabresi and A. Douglas Melamed’s framework for analyzinghow legal entitlements are assigned and protected, scholars often look at entitlement protectionin isolation from the assignment of rights. Guido Calabresi & A. Douglas Melamed, Property Rules, Liability Rules, and Inalienability: One View of the Cathedral, 85 H ARV.L.R EV. 1089 (1972). Theories of efficient liability rules begin with certainty over some initial entitlement: Thecourt has already determined to whom the entitlement belongs (or the parties know how thecourt will rule). The parties also know the remedies. Armed with this information, efficient tradeoffs can be made. Unfortunately, parties frequently do not know to whom the court willgrant an entitlement. Preliminary injunctive actions make this indeterminacy quite apparent; yet,the indeterminacy is present in numerous other contexts.11.The efficient breach hypothesis has its origins in seventeenth-century British common law. See Bromage v. Genning,(1616) 81 Eng. Rep. 540 (K.B.). Oliver Wendell Holmes cites Lord Coke in Bromage for support of the fundamental premise of the efficient breach hypothesis: “The duty to keep a contract at common law means . . . you must pay damages if you do not keep it,—and nothing else.” Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Path of theLaw, 10 H ARV.L.R EV. 457, 462 (1897). Departing from this premise, the Holmesian “bad man”—knowing the costs and the benefits of contract completion—is in a good position to determine the efficient remedy. It appears that the term “efficient breach” may have been coined, at least in print, by Charles J. Goetz and Robert E. Scott. See Charles J. Goetz & Robert E. Scott, Liquidated Damages, Penalties and the Just Compensation Principle: SomeNotes on an Enforcement Model and a Theory of Efficient Breach, 77 C OLUM.L.R EV. 554 (1977). Earlier formal treatments of the efficient breach hypothesis were offered by Robert Birmingham, John Barton, and Richard Posner. See R ICHARD A.P OSNER,E CONOMICA NALYSIS OF L AW § 3.8 (1972); John H. Barton, The Economic Basis of Damages for Breach of Contract, 1 J.L EGAL S TUD. 277 (1972); Robert L. Birmingham, Breach of Contract, Damage Measures, and Economic Efficiency, 24 R UTGERS L.R EV. 273 (1970); Robert L. Birmingham, Damage Measures and Economic Rationality: The Geometry of Contract Law, 1969 D UKE L.J. 49. Calabresi and Melamed generalized the insight beyond contracts using liability rules, and this work was expanded and further formalized by Louis Kaplow and Steven Shavell. See Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 10; Louis Kaplow & Steven Shavell, Property Rules Versus Liability Rules: An Economic Analysis, 109 H ARV.L.R EV.713, 725 (1996) (arguing that liability rules (with appropriate court-determined damages) allow infringers, who know whether their own valuations exceed the court’s damages, to make an allocationally efficient choice from their more informed perspective).November 2005] THE PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION DOCTRINE 385 hypothesis maintains that court-ordered expectation damages (a liability rule) lead parties to maintain or abandon prior agreements efficiently. Although this argument was initially focused on contracts, similar efficiency-based arguments have also been made to promote the use of liability rules within the context of tort, property, corporate, and constitutional law.12The basic idea is that if a party is required to compensate anyone harmed by particular conduct, the party, in deciding whether, and with what frequency, to engage in the conduct, will internalize the costs imposed on others and engage in the conduct only to the point at which the benefits of doing so exceed the aggregate costs. Liability rules encourage parties to weigh the costs of avoiding liability—through performance (e.g., completing a contract) or nonperformance (e.g., not causing a nuisance or otherwise interfering with another’s entitlement)—against the costs of facing liability (e.g., breaching the contract and paying the damage remedy or causing a nuisance and paying compensation). Thus, when properly employed, the liability rule remedy, we are constantly reminded, maximizes social welfare. The starting point of our analysis is that such efficiency claims often are wrong.When the assignment of entitlements (and, hence, liability for interference with entitlements) is uncertain, parties rationally discount harms when selecting their course of conduct. Uncertainty biases the estimates that are required under the efficient breach and other efficient “takings” hypotheses. This kind of uncertainty is virtually always present in preliminary proceedings. Yet leading commentators see “no occasion to grant immediate protection” when a “final judgment can remedy the plaintiff’s injuries.”13 We show, however, that the availability of an adequate final remedy is not a sufficient justification for denying preliminary injunctions: adequate compensation at the conclusion of the case does not provide parties with sufficient incentive to engage in efficient conduct before and during the case.14 This point has been obscured by the static Thus, liability rules are able to harness the private information held by the relatively more informed infringers. But cf.Ian Ayres & Paul M. Goldbart, A Critique of “Tangibility” as the Basis of Probability Rules(Yale Law School, Program for Studies in Law, Economics, and Public Policy, Working Paper No. 251, 2002).12.See Ashutosh Bhagwat, Hard Cases and the (D)Evolution of Constitutional Doctrine, 30 C ONN.L.R EV. 961, 1008 (1998) (arguing that liability rules can protect constitutional rights more effectively than property rules in some cases); Calabresi & Melamed, supra note 10; Kaplow & Shavell, supra note 11; Eugene Konotorovich, Liability Rules for Constitutional Rights: The Case of Mass Detentions, 56 S TAN.L.R EV. 755 (2004). But cf. A KHIL R EED A MAR,T HE C ONSTITUTION AND C RIMINAL P ROCEDURE:F IRST P RINCIPLES 115(1997);Jules L. Coleman & Jody Kraus, Rethinking the Theory of Legal Rights, 95 Y ALE L.J. 1335, 1339-40 (1996).13.John Leubsdorf, The Standard for Preliminary Injunctions, 91 H ARV.L.R EV. 525, 541 (1978). Even efficiency-minded judges have echoed this view. See Am. Hosp. Supply Corp. v. Hosp. Prods., 780 F.2d 589, 594 (7th Cir. 1986).mentators have emphasized the incommensurability of damages for certain temporary losses of entitlements: “The right to speak or vote or worship after trial does not replace the right to speak or vote or worship pending trial, and damages for temporary loss58:381386 STANFORD LAW REVIEW [Vol. treatment of preliminary injunctions in the existing academic literature.15 However, it is clear that the preliminary injunctive proceeding is a dynamic process—a process that compels consideration of ex ante motivations and strategic behaviors.16 Viewed from this light, preliminary injunction doctrinecan clearly be seen as an adaptive response to the impairment of parties’ incentives resulting from the uncertainty of entitlement assignments.For concreteness, consider the following hypothetical involving a contractfor the provision of a well-specified good by a seller to a buyer who has paid afixed amount up front.17 If we set the seller’s cost to 70 and the buyer’s valueto 100, performance of the contract would increase social welfare by placingthe good in the hands of the higher-valuing party (the buyer, in this case). The possibility of expectation damages makes it in the personal interest of the sellerto do what is socially desirable. If she does not perform, the seller saves 70 in terms of performance costs but must pay 100 in the form of expectation damages to the buyer. The remedy thus aligns the seller’s incentives with that which is socially desirable. However, this simple implication does not hold when liability is uncertain—a state of the world which, we again emphasize, is reasonably presumed in the context of preliminary injunction hearings.Uncertainty over entitlements changes the efficient breach calculation. For example, imagine that the seller believes there is a 50% chance that her obligation to perform, under the prevailing circumstances, will be legally excused. Under these circumstances, she will not perform (though performance results in the most efficient result), even when expectation damages are perfectly estimated and fully compensatory. When deciding whether to perform, the seller still compares the expected cost of performance (70) to the expected damages for breaching. In this case, however, her expected damagesare now 50, reflecting the expectation damages (100) discounted by the likelihood that the seller will not be held liable for breach (50%).18 So the rational, risk-neutral seller will not perform even though she may be required to make the buyer whole ex post. This is not an efficient result. Liability rules generally (and expectation damages specifically) do not preserve parties’of such rights are not even approximate compensation.” D OUGLAS L AYCOCK,T HE D EATH OFTHE I RREPARABLE I NJURY R ULE 122 (1991). While this point has merit, it is not the one we advance here. Our claim is that even when damages provide approximate and adequate compensation for individual harm, avoidable efficiency losses still accrue.15.Cf. Lanjouw & Lerner, supra note 9.16.Strategic use of preliminary injunctions by plaintiffs is not uncommon. Partiesoften pursue preliminary actions, knowing that they are likely to get the same judge at thefinal stage (especially in state courts) and that judge is unlikely to switch her views of themerits subsequently. This may improve a party’s bargaining power in settlement negotiationsor may offer some other strategic advantage over competitors. See id.17.The upfront payment simplifies our example by allowing us to focus exclusively onthe seller’s breach decision.18.The expected cost of breaching is now a 50% chance of owing 100 and a 50% chance of owing 0 (i.e., (100 × 50%) + (0 × 50%) = 50).November 2005] THE PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION DOCTRINE 387 incentives to behave efficiently in the context of legal uncertainty19—the quintessential context of preliminary hearings.20The preliminary injunction restores efficiency to liability rules by taking the breach decision out of the hands of the compromised seller. At the point where the seller announces that she is going to breach, the buyer (if she does nothing) expects a 50% chance of receiving 100 and nothing otherwise, leaving her with an expected value of 50. If, however, the buyer seeks a preliminary injunction, she will receive a value of 100 through performance, which represents a net expected increase in value of 50 (i.e., 50% × 100) at an expected cost of only 35 (i.e., 50% × 70, representing the 50% chance that she will have to reimburse the seller’s compliance cost if her injunction was granted improperly). As a general matter, it is easy to show that the buyer will compel performance through a preliminary injunction if, and only if, performance is efficient.21 Thus in the presence of legal uncertainty, a key (but largely unappreciated) function of preliminary injunctions is to promote efficiency.Of course, indeterminacy of entitlement is not limited to cases involving preliminary injunctions; it is not uncommon for parties to be unsure of their future liabilities at the stage at which the efficient breach (or taking) hypothesis requires them to calculate the expected costs and benefits of their planned conduct. In these situations, in which the rights to be determined by the proceedings are uncertain, the promised efficiency of liability rules cannot be assured. Therefore, the implications of our analysis reach beyond preliminary injunctions. As a point of departure into our analysis, we now briefly consider the various legal rules which are, or might be, used in deciding whether to granta preliminary injunction.19.Often, with liability rules, defendant-infringer is well positioned to weigh the costs and benefits of her conduct. But uncertainty over entitlements biases her view of the benefits because she is liable for compensating unrealized benefits in only some cases when she infringes, while she faces the costs in all cases when she does not infringe. Preliminary injunctions respond to infringers’ discounting of damages by providing compensation to defendants who are compelled to engage in conduct that is later determined not to be legally required.20.It is also important to emphasize that our results do not rest on an assumption of symmetric perfect information among the parties. In fact, the most significant implication of our model comes from an asymmetric information framework. That is, awarding a preliminary injunction in essence converts a property rule into a temporary liability rule: the party seeking the injunction has a limited call option, wherein she will have to pay court-determined damages if it turns out that the entitlement belongs to the other party. Knowing her private value and the distribution of harms to the other party from complying with the injunction, the liability-rule-like preliminary injunction harnesses the party’s private information. See, e.g., Kaplow & Shavell, supra note 11.21.More generally, if the probability that the court will ultimately award the entitlement to defendant is equal to (1 – P), lπ is plaintiff’s value, and l∆ is defendant’s value, then plaintiff will only seek a preliminary injunction if (1 – P) × lπ > (1 – P) × l∆. See discussion in Part III for a more formal and complete statement of this inequality.388 STANFORD LAW REVIEW [Vol.58:381I.A RTICULATED S TANDARDS FOR P RELIMINARY I NJUNCTIONSAs parties compete to prohibit or permit legally uncertain activities, courtsare asked to allocate consequential legal entitlements in preliminary proceedings without the benefit of a full hearing. In his now-classic study, The Standard for Preliminary Injunctions, John Leubsdorf describes numerous, often inconsistent, articulated bases for preliminary relief: “Irreparable injurymay or may not be mentioned. Sometimes the injunction must not disserve the public interest, sometimes it must serve the public interest, and sometimes onlythe equities of the parties count.”22 Sometimes the decision turns on maintaining the status quo, and other times facilitating change is key.23 Articulated constraints on the merits of plaintiffs’ claims indicate a similar lackof consistency: “One line of cases requires plaintiffs to show a fair question onthe merits, another a substantial probability of success, another a reasonable certainty, and another a clear right.”24Professor Leubsdorf suggests a coherent rationale that underlies this apparent confusion in the judicial opinions. The objective, according to this rationale, is to prevent irreparable injury to the parties’ legal rights.25 Historically, courts of chancery issued injunctions to prevent actions at law aswell as to preserve them. Leubsdorf argues that this latter concern (i.e., preserving and protecting rights at law) was the precursor to contemporary preliminary injunction analysis.26 From this historical line, it is not difficult tosee how one could arrive at a standard based on the prevention of irreparable injury to legal rights.Yet, equitable courts sometimes issued preliminary injunctions that werenot contingent on actions at law or actions in other courts. “In some instances, plaintiffs in suits properly instituted in Chancery needed immediate relief pending the Chancellor’s decision on the merits. They might seek, for example,to stop equitable waste or to secure interim enforcement of a contract.”27 Departing from this historical line of cases might lead one to emphasize a different standard for preliminary relief—a standard, for example, based on the avoidance of waste or efficient enforcement of contracts.2822.Leubsdorf, supra note 13, at 526 (footnotes omitted).23.See Thomas R. Lee, Preliminary Injunctions and the Status Quo, 58 W ASH.&L EEL.R EV. 109, 111 n.4 (2001).24.Leubsdorf, supra note 13, at 526 (footnotes omitted).25.Clearly visible traces of this objective were observable in eighteenth-century English common law courts, where the separation of legal and equitable proceedings frequently prompted judges to issue preliminary relief to protect rights at equity and law. Id.at 527-32.26.Id. at 528 (“Only [this class of cases] raised problems calling for the kind of analysis we now apply, and the particularities of that class have shaped later learning on the standard for preliminary injunctions.”).27.Id. at 529.28.Indeed, as Professor Leubsdorf notes, “[o]wing in part to Jeremy Bentham . . . . theNovember 2005] THE PRELIMINARY INJUNCTION DOCTRINE 389 In his essay, Leubsdorf himself was quite hostile to the notion of judges making utilitarian calculations when considering the issuance of preliminary injunctions:29 “The court’s function is to protect rights, not to increase the gross national product.”30 However, when rights are uncertain, as they are in preliminary hearings, why shouldn’t courts consider whether granting the injunction will increase social welfare or avoid waste? This, admittedly, is not among the stated justifications for preliminary injunctions advanced in judicial opinions. These opinions, for the most part, take an ex post view, in which the articulated concern is that damages awarded at the conclusion of the case may be inadequate to compensate plaintiff for harm suffered during the pendency of the case.31A. Traditional ApproachesDespite the rhetorical variation in the case law, there is a widely shared view that the purposes served by preliminary injunctions are maintaining the status quo between the parties, preserving the court’s ability to consider the case fully, and minimizing the harm caused by erroneous preliminary decisions. There is less apparent consensus on the best way to achieve these ends through the use of preliminary injunctions. Most courts, when deciding whether to grant an injunction, rely on a four-part standard that (to varying degrees) considers (1) plaintiff’s likelihood of success on the merits, (2) the amount of irreparable utilitarian tide [that swept] away the division between law and equity [also] shaped thought on preliminary injunctions, setting that thought adrift in search of a new foundation.” Id. at 532 (footnotes omitted). Could this tide not have carried judicial thought about preliminary injunctions to utilitarian shores? After all, it was around this time that “courts came to require plaintiffs seeking interlocutory relief to accept liability for resulting damage” to defendants. Id. at 534. And this requirement is, as we argue below, an essential move to assure efficiency through the use of preliminary injunctions.29.Leubsdorf maintained this attitude: “Even in common law nuisance cases where the court must perform something like a cost-benefit analysis at trial, other considerations control at the interlocutory hearing.” Id. at 543 n.101.Leubsdorf felt that at the interlocutory hearing, the court’s “goal is to assess the probable loss of rights under various courses of action, not to appraise the net social benefit from those courses.” Id. (emphasis added).30.Id. at 555. Efficiency could never be a sufficient warrant for “interim accommodation,” according to Leubsdorf. Irreparability is always a necessary condition: “The plaintiff must always demonstrate the possibility of irreparable loss.” Id. at 551. Leubsdorf did, however, recognize one category of preliminary injunctions—so-called “statutory injunctions”—in which social policy may justify preliminary intervention without a showing of irreparability. In these instances, “[t]he goal is not to minimize loss of rights in specific cases, but to isolate classes of cases in which granting or denying relief under specified tests will minimize harm to public policies.” Id. at 565. But, of course, public policy might reasonably include increasing aggregate social welfare or the gross national product.31.See, e.g., Am. Hosp. Supply Corp. v. Hosp. Prods., 780 F.2d 589, 594 (7th Cir. 1986) (“The premise of the preliminary injunction is that the remedy available at the end of trial will not make the plaintiff whole; and, in a sense, the more limited that remedy, the stronger the argument for a preliminary injunction . . . .”).。
破解英语词汇记忆的密码
？
yī yāo
1
8 bā fā
an, on, in, un, oun 一
a /ei,/;an/n, n, n/ art. 1. (非特指的)一(个) 2. (同类事物中的)任何一(个) 3. 每一(个)
any/eni/（an=a一，-y后缀） pron. 无论哪个，无论哪些 a. 1. 任一的，任何的 2. [疑问、否定、条件句中]什么，一些，丝毫的 ad. 略，稍，丝毫
wor
world 中的wor指的是“男人”，ld就是old，
指的是age。 world本来意为“life or age of man”，即 “男人的生命或年纪”，由此引申为“现 在地球上的生命”，到后来则变成“世间， 人间，世界”。
Niagara Falls
“男人”的“美德”？
wor, vir 男人，强 W-double V VV
ounce/auns/（oun=on一，-ce后缀；金 衡一磅的十二分之一→） n. 盎司 union /junin/（uni一，-on名词后缀； 联成一体→） n. 1. 工会，联盟 2. 结合，联合，合并 3. 团结，一致，融洽 unique /junik/（un一，-ique=-ic… 的；就此一个的→） a. 1. 唯一的，独特的，独一无二的 2. 极不寻常的，极好的
angle ankle
g-h 对应
红 gōng hóng
gōng：女红 Hóng ：红火
guest hostess
h-k 对应
吭 háng kēng
háng ：引吭高歌； kēng：吭声，一声不吭
short color shirt hole skirt
d-t 音
弹 dàn tán
英语单词的奥秘 超级10000单词第二部分
英语单词的奥秘超级10000单词第二部分全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The mystery of English words is a fascinating topic that has intrigued language enthusiasts for centuries. In this second part of our series on super 10,000 words, we will delve deeper into the origins and meanings of some of the most common and interesting English words.One of the most commonly used words in the English language is "love." This word has its roots in the Old English word "lufu," which meant "feeling of affection." The concept of love has been a central theme in literature, music, and art for centuries, and its meaning continues to evolve and adapt to our modern world.Another interesting word is "freedom." This word comes from the Old English word "freodom," which meant "exemption from slavery or servitude." The concept of freedom has been a driving force behind many major historical events, such as the American Revolution and the Civil Rights Movement, andcontinues to be a central value in many societies around the world.One word that has gained popularity in recent years is "selfie." This word is a combination of "self" and "picture" and refers to a photograph that one takes of oneself, typically with a smartphone or digital camera. The rise of social media platforms like Instagram and Snapchat has led to an explosion of selfies, making this word a common part of our modern lexicon.Moving on to more complex words, "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious" is a word that was popularized by the 1964 Disney film "Mary Poppins." While this word is nonsensical and has no defined meaning, it has become a popular term to express excitement or enthusiasm.In conclusion, the English language is rich with words that carry deep meanings and histories. By exploring the origins and meanings of these words, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the beauty and complexity of language. Stay tuned for the next installment in our series on the mystery of English words!篇2The Mystery of English Words: Super 10,000 Words Part 2Welcome back to the second part of our exploration into the world of English words. In this installment, we will continue our journey through the vast and fascinating realm of the English language, diving into the hidden meanings and origins of some of the most commonly used words in the language.1. BrilliantThe word "brilliant" comes from the Latin word "brillare," which means "to shine brightly." The word has come to be associated with intelligence or exceptional talent, but its original meaning of shining brightly like a diamond or other precious gem is still present in its modern usage.2. MagnificentThe word "magnificent" comes from the Latin word "magnificus," which means "great" or "grand." It is often used to describe something that is splendid or impressive in a grand or majestic way.3. EnthusiasmThe word "enthusiasm" comes from the Greek word "enthousiasmos," which means "inspired" or "possessed by a god." It is used to describe a strong excitement or passion for something, and often conveys a sense of fervor or zeal.4. BeautifulThe word "beautiful" comes from the Middle English word "beaute," which is derived from the Old French word "bealte," meaning "beauty." It is used to describe something that is pleasing to the eye or aesthetically pleasing in some way.5. CourageousThe word "courageous" comes from the Latin word "cor," which means "heart." It is used to describe someone who is brave or daring, especially in the face of danger or adversity.6. ResilientThe word "resilient" comes from the Latin word "resilire," which means "to bounce back" or "to spring back." It is used to describe something or someone that is able to recover quickly from setbacks or difficulties.7. PunctualThe word "punctual" comes from the Latin word "punctualis," which means "of a point" or "on time." It is used to describe someone who is always on time or prompt in their actions.8. OptimisticThe word "optimistic" comes from the Latin word "optimus," which means "best." It is used to describe someone who has a positive or hopeful outlook on life, and who tends to see the best in any situation.9. GraciousThe word "gracious" comes from the Latin word "gratiosus," which means "full of grace" or "kind." It is used to describe someone who is courteous, kind, and considerate in their interactions with others.10. GenerosityThe word "generosity" comes from the Latin word "generosus," which means "noble" or "magnanimous." It is used to describe the quality of being generous or giving freely to others.In conclusion, the English language is a rich and diverse tapestry of words, each with its own unique origins and meanings. By delving into the etymology of these words, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the beauty and complexity of the language we use every day. So the next time you come across a word that catches your eye, take a moment to explore its historyand unravel the mystery behind its meaning. Happy word hunting!篇3The Mystery of English Words: Super 10,000 Words Part IIWelcome back to the second part of our exploration into the fascinating world of English words. In the first installment, we delved into the origins and meanings of 10,000 words that are commonly used in the English language. And now, we continue our journey to uncover the mysteries behind these words.One of the most intriguing aspects of the English language is its vast vocabulary, which is constantly evolving with new words being added and old ones falling out of use. The 10,000 words we are focusing on in this series are just a fraction of the rich tapestry of words that make up the English lexicon.Many of these words have fascinating histories, with origins dating back to ancient civilizations and languages. For example, the word "algorithm" comes from the name of the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, who developed a method for solving mathematical problems that was later adapted by European mathematicians. Similarly, the word "safari" has its roots in Swahili, a language spoken in East Africa.Other words have more unusual origins, such as "berserk", which comes from the Old Norse word "berserkr" meaning "wild warrior". And then there are words that have taken on new meanings over time, like "awful", which originally meant "full of awe" but now is used to describe something unpleasant or terrible.In addition to their historical and etymological significance, English words also have unique characteristics that set them apart from words in other languages. For example, English is known for its large number of homophones - words that sound the same but have different meanings, such as "hear" and "here", or "flower" and "flour".English also has a rich array of phrasal verbs, which are combinations of a verb and one or more particles (e.g. "turn on", "look after") that often have idiomatic meanings that are not immediately obvious from the individual words.Furthermore, English is a language that is constantly borrowing words from other languages, with a long history of linguistic borrowing from languages such as Latin, French, and German. This has resulted in a diverse and eclectic vocabulary that reflects the language's multicultural heritage.In conclusion, the 10,000 words that we have explored in this series are just a small glimpse into the vast and complex world of English vocabulary. Each word has its own unique story to tell, from its historical origins to its modern usage. By learning about the origins and meanings of these words, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the richness and diversity of the English language. Stay tuned for the next installment in our series, where we will continue to unravel the mysteries of English words.。
剑10答案解析
剑10答案解析【篇一：剑桥雅思10test1阅读真题解析】txt>剑桥雅思10test1阅读真题解析摘要：剑桥雅思10，受到广大烤鸭的热烈关注，下面小马小编带来剑桥雅思10test1阅读真题解析，希望能帮助各位正在备考雅思阅读的烤鸭们，一起来看看吧。
小马小编为雅思考生们带来剑桥雅思10test1阅读真题解析，希望能给雅思考生们带来帮助。
点击下载2015年雅思听力真题pdf版【小马内部专用】剑桥雅思10中的阅读难度延续了剑8剑9的常规难度，所以总体来说还好。
海外版的剑桥雅思10一共就两套题，我们今天就来看一下其中test1的阅读。
首先，第一篇文章标题是bovids。
这个文章标题单词不认识时也不用担心，因为正文中第一句话就对这个单词开始了解释：the family of mammals called bovids belongs to……根据这半句话即可知道bovids是一种哺乳动物统称，准确的意思是指“牛科动物”。
文章前三段描述了bovids的主要居住在south-east asia(东南亚)，大部分都喜欢居住在wide open spaces(开阔的地方);还描述了大概的外貌和大小以及特征。
然后第四段开始介绍bovids的五种sub-families(分支)。
文章后有三个题型，第一大题是3个选择，通过题中定位词回文定位，答案集中于前三段。
第二大题是名称特征配对，五个特征作为题目，和四个bovids类型配对，有nb，答案从第四段开始一直到最后。
第三大题是简答题5题，no more than three words, 范围是全篇范围，但都是显性定位词，所以定位和确定答案都不难。
第二篇文章标题是photovoltaics on the rooftop(房顶上的太阳能电池). 就从标题来看的话因为有专有词汇所以没法知道这篇文章在讲什么，这时候看副标题：a natural choice for powering the family home. 从副标题和第一段的前两句可以知道这篇文章讲的是利用大自然给家庭供电。
制高点丛书中考英语词汇突破答案
制高点丛书中考英语词汇突破答案英语考试中，词汇是必不可少的一部分。
尤其在中考中，英语词汇量的积累对于学生来说尤为重要。
然而，对于很多学生来说，掌握英语词汇是一件非常困难的事情。
制高点丛书中考英语词汇突破一书，为中考英语词汇量的积累提供了有益的辅导。
本文将介绍这本书中给出的词汇积累方法。
词汇量统计掌握词汇，首先需要建立一个词汇量的统计表。
在这个统计表中，需要列出所有已经学习的词汇和需要学习的词汇。
对于已经学习的词汇，我们可以将其分为已掌握和未掌握两类，并在表中分别标记。
对于需要学习的词汇，我们需要列出它们的中文意思和英文单词，并标记其级别。
词汇积累方法1.列出常用词汇表制高点丛书中考英语词汇突破提供了一个常用词汇表，它包含了中考中最常考的4000个英语单词。
这个表格非常有用，因为它列出了中考的核心单词，学生可以根据核心单词的掌握程度来判断自己的英语词汇量是否够用。
2.制作单词卡片单词卡片是词汇积累的一个非常好的方法。
学生可以在卡片上写下单词的意义和用法，并在需要的时候拿出来复习。
这种方法可以帮助学生更好地记忆单词。
3.阅读英文文章阅读英文文章是一个很好的增加词汇量的方法。
在阅读的过程中，学生可以遇到很多新单词。
他们可以查阅字典，学习新的单词，并将其添加到自己的统计表中。
4.制作二十词集锦学生可以选择一些难记住的单词，将它们组合成一个二十词集锦，并在每天复习时重点记忆这些单词。
这种方法可以帮助学生更快地掌握这些难以记忆的单词。
以上这些方法都可以帮助学生提高英语词汇量。
当然，学生需要根据自己的实际情况来选择最适合自己的方法，并在日常生活中坚持积累词汇。
只有坚持不懈地进行词汇积累，才能在中考中取得好成绩。
家用空调SASO2663:2021能效认证要求
家用空调SASO 2663:2021能效认证要求摘要：沙特于2021年11月在SLS系统开始签发家用空调SASO 2663:2021新能效标签，于2022年4月开始强制执行SASO 2663:2021能效。
新能效最低能效限值要求不变，能效等级判定由T1工况额定能效比（EER）改为季节能效（SEER），SLS系统注册也随之变更。
本文结合标准SASO 2663:2021，探讨家用空调沙特能效要求和注册注意事项。
关键词：家用空调；能效等级；SEER；沙特能效SASO 2663:2021 energy efficiency certification requirements for household air conditionersChen Lulu Du Minghong Wan Xingpei（GREE ELECTRIC APPLIANCE INC OF ZHUHAI, Guangdong Zhuhai 519070）Abstract: Saudi Arabia began issuing the new SASO 2663:2021 energy efficiency label for household air conditioners in SLS system in November 2021, and the SASO 2663:2021 energy efficiency has been mandatory in April 2022.The minimum energy efficiency limit requirements remain unchanged. The energy efficiency class determination is changed from the rated energy efficiency ratio (EER) of condition T1 to the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), and the SLS system registration is also changed. This article discusses Saudi Arabia energy efficiency requirements and registration considerations for household air conditioners in conjunction with the standard SASO 2663:2021.Key Words:household air conditioners; energy efficiency class; SEER; Saudi Arabia energy efficiency1/20引言2021年11月1日沙特在SLS系统受理SASO 2663:2021版本能效申请，2022年1月1日停止受理SASO 2663:2018版本能效申请。
2021考研英语：六月前 攻克单词、语法
2021考研英语：六月前攻克单词、语法目前，几乎所有的考研学生都已在进行初期阶段的学习，甚至也许你依旧不能做出择校则专业的选择，但是肯定也开始了较难攻克的英语的复习。
基础阶段，除了要搞定大纲词汇，语法也要逐步学习，时间如此充沛还是要把难点攻克在基础阶段以求后续稳妥。
接下来，跨考教育王坤老师就简单介绍6月前该如何攻克考研英语单词和语法。
(l)背单词英语大纲要求5500左右的词汇量，这些单词是同学们以后突破单项最有效的武器，决不可掉以轻心。
考研英语比较难的原因之一就在对单词的掌握方面，不但要求全，更要精、深。
很多单词看起来简单，但在不同环境下有不同的含义，最简单的例子：你知道“miss”的意思吗?对于背单词的具体方法，老师建议制定几个小计划去完成。
例如，将一天的复习计划分成上午、下午、晚上复习计划。
上午背40个单词，下午背30个单词，晚上背20个单词(依个人能力确定单词数目)。
第二天一早起来把头一天的单词浏览记忆一遍，加强记忆。
第三天早晨把第一天和第二天的单词再加速的浏览记忆一下，以此类推。
你的单词量将会像滚雪球一样越来越多，越来越实。
很多人担心考研的超纲词汇，觉得无从下手，其实在做阅读时常常碰到的考研大纲之外的词汇重点记一下，只要了解基本大意就可以了。
(2)基本语法对于基本语法的复习，老师建议同学们把高中时期的语法书复习一下或找一本中级语法书研习一下，考研英语对于语法的考察并不具体，但是实际上我们考研的任何题型都要涉及语法，我们的完形填空要求掌握一定的语法知识，句式结构，更为突出的是，我们的翻译题，阅读C节，这几年的趋向是越来越侧重考核，结构偏长、偏难的句子的翻译，这就说明尽管我们在考题中不出现专项的语法考试题型，但如果你对语法结构的掌握不够熟悉，就达不到翻译的速度也达不到翻译的准确性。
以上是老师在总结了很多成功经验后给出的个人建议，各位同学可以结合自己的专业课复习来制定自己的英语学习规划。
26659235_参考答案
then he felt angry, then afraid.
Paragraph 2:
ing the appearance of the Elephant Man.
ing his hair any more. One day Potter saw
ephant Man more carefully.
备，比如真空吸尘器，可以监听私人信息，
Paragraph 1:
1~4
Reading Check
科学家们正在寻找避免被监视的方法。
Potter felt very surprised. He thought
BDCC
Task 2
he would lose all his hair and become an
They not only can do all kinds of housework
for the festival. What? A cat? The smile
like a real human being than a machine.
but also can communicate with us in any
本文是一篇说明文。现在，
“ 生态环
rious about the reason that he decided to
能电池板、雨水桶，或许还有一个小花园
his mother to ask why. Mother told Potter,
环保型”住宅的数量也在增加。
ugly baldy finally. But Potter was still so cu⁃ 保型”住宅的选择似乎有些有限——太阳
参考答案
●主题阅读
浅谈科技利弊
30天搞定初中英语2000单词康文捷全集
30天搞定初中英语2000单词康文捷全集全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: Master 2000 Middle School English Words in 30 Days with the Kang Wenjie Complete CollectionIntroduction:Learning English vocabulary is an essential aspect of mastering the language. With the Kang Wenjie Complete Collection, students can now easily and effectively learn 2000 middle school English words in just 30 days. This comprehensive set of study materials is designed to maximize learning efficiency and help students achieve fluency in English vocabulary.Day 1-5:In the first five days of your study, focus on learning the most common and basic words in English, such as "hello", "goodbye", "thank you", and "please". Understanding these fundamental words will lay a solid foundation for your vocabulary learning journey.Day 6-10:During the next five days, move on to more intermediate level words that are commonly used in everyday conversations and written texts. Practice using words like "beautiful", "important", "interesting", and "difficult" in various contexts to deepen your understanding and retention.Day 11-20:In the following ten days, immerse yourself in advanced vocabulary that is often found in academic papers, literature, and formal discussions. Words like "consequence", "significant", "comprehensive", and "analysis" will expand your linguistic abilities and enable you to express complex ideas with precision.Day 21-30:As you approach the final stretch of your 30-day journey, focus on reviewing and consolidating your knowledge of the 2000 middle school English words. Test yourself regularly using flashcards, quizzes, and practice exercises to reinforce your memory and ensure long-term retention of the vocabulary.Conclusion:By completing the Kang Wenjie Complete Collection and dedicating 30 days to mastering 2000 middle school English words, you will significantly enhance your language skills andboost your confidence in speaking, reading, and writing in English. Remember that consistency and perseverance are key to successful vocabulary learning, so stay motivated and continue to expand your linguistic horizons beyond the 30-day mark. Good luck on your language learning journey!篇230-Day Complete Guide to Mastering 2000 Middle School English Words with Kang Wen JieAre you looking to improve your English vocabulary but feeling overwhelmed by the sheer number of words to learn? Fear not, because with the Kang Wen Jie Complete Collection, mastering 2000 middle school English words in just 30 days is totally achievable.Day 1-5: Setting the FoundationStart by familiarizing yourself with the first 400 words in the collection. Spend time each day learning and practicing these words through flashcards, quizzes, and writing exercises. Make sure to review previous words regularly to ensure retention.Day 6-10: Expanding Your VocabularyMove on to the next set of 400 words in the collection. Practice using these words in sentences and context to solidify your understanding. Try to incorporate them into your daily conversations and written work.Day 11-15: Advanced Learning TechniquesExplore different learning techniques such as mnemonics, association, and visualization to help you remember more complex words. Create word maps, play word games, and engage in word puzzles to make learning fun and effective.Day 16-20: Strengthening Your FoundationReview the first 800 words learned and test yourself on their meanings and usage. Identify any areas of weakness and focus on strengthening them through targeted practice. Seek feedback from peers or teachers to gauge your progress.Day 21-25: Mastering Difficult WordsTackle the more challenging words in the collection with confidence. Break down complex words into smaller parts to understand their meanings better. Practice using them in sentences until you feel comfortable with their usage.Day 26-30: Comprehensive ReviewReview all 2000 words in the collection to reinforce your learning. Test yourself on spelling, pronunciation, and definitions to ensure mastery. Engage in interactive exercises and mock tests to measure your progress accurately.By following this 30-day guide with the Kang Wen Jie Complete Collection, you will be well on your way to mastering 2000 middle school English words. Remember to stay disciplined, dedicated, and consistent in your efforts, and success will undoubtedly follow. Happy learning!篇3Title: Mastering 2000 Middle School English Words in 30 Days - The Complete Collection by Kang WenjieAre you struggling to expand your English vocabulary? Do you find it difficult to remember new words and their meanings? Look no further than the comprehensive guide - "30 Days to Master 2000 Middle School English Words" by Kang Wenjie. This complete collection of vocabulary exercises and activities is designed to help students, especially those in middle school, enhance their English language skills in just 30 days.The book is divided into different sections, each focusing on a specific set of words. By following the daily exercises andpractice sessions outlined in the book, students can gradually build their vocabulary and improve their language proficiency. The exercises range from simple word definitions and spelling tests to more advanced activities like sentence completion and writing exercises. This comprehensive approach ensures that students not only learn new words but also understand how to use them in context.One of the key features of this book is its emphasis on repetition and reinforcement. Each set of words is revisited multiple times throughout the 30-day period, ensuring that students have ample opportunity to remember and internalize the vocabulary. This spaced repetition technique has been proven to be highly effective in language learning, helping students retain new words in their long-term memory.In addition to the vocabulary exercises, the book also includes tips and strategies for effective language learning. Kang Wenjie provides valuable advice on how to study efficiently, manage your time effectively, and stay motivated throughout the learning process. By following these guidelines, students can maximize their learning potential and make steady progress in mastering the 2000 English words covered in the book.Furthermore, the book includes a variety of practice tests and quizzes to assess students' progress and reinforce their learning. These assessments allow students to track their improvement over the 30-day period and identify areas where they may need additional practice. By regularly testing their knowledge and understanding, students can ensure that they are fully prepared to use the new words in their writing and conversations.Overall, "30 Days to Master 2000 Middle School English Words" by Kang Wenjie is a valuable resource for students looking to enhance their English vocabulary and language skills. Whether you are a beginner or an advanced learner, this book provides a structured and effective way to learn and remember new words. By dedicating just a few minutes each day to the exercises and activities outlined in the book, students can make significant progress in expanding their vocabulary and becoming more proficient English speakers.So why wait? Start your journey to mastering 2000 English words today with Kang Wenjie's comprehensive guide!。
《李阳疯狂英语_突破语法》全文-(省纸打印版)
《李阳疯狂英语》《突破语法》We're sick of boring grammar! Grammar is just like a bottomless sea.;我们厌倦了枯燥的语法！语法如浩瀚的海洋，You are simply turned off once you read a grammar book!;一拿起语法书，学习英语的兴趣荡然无存！We are sick of those sentences fabricated for grammar teaching.;我们厌倦了专门为语法造出来的句子！Once we leave the school,those lfeless sentences become sheer rubbish.;一离开教室那此句子就变成了垃圾，显得苍白无力Li Yang Crazy English gives you a brand new concept;;李阳疯狂英语给你一个全新的概念；Conquer English grammar through practical and beautiful sentences!;用最实用的句子、最精彩的对话全面突破语法难点Each grammar point is given vibrant, exciting dialogues or sentences;每条语法配数个生动、有趣的对话或句子！Just practice crazily and blurt it out! Throw away your boring grammar books!;疯狂操练，脱口而出！抛开无聊的语法书本，Forget about those dull grammar explanations!;摆脱乏味的语法解释，Put aside those sentences that even foreigners wonder at!;抛弃那此连外国人都不懂的句子！Grammar is no more than speaking!;学语法就是这么简单扼要！只不过是说说而已！We are both grammar experts and communication kings!;我们既是语法专家，更是沟通高手！第一章动词时态;I love grammar. I hated grammar before I will be a grammar master.;我爱一般现在时：我爱一般过去时：我爱一般将来时：I thought I would never learn grammar well.;我爱过去将来时：I'm working on my grammar now. I was struggling with my grammar .;我爱现在进行时：我爱过去进行时：I will be speaking with perfect grammar. I've studied grammar for ten years.;我爱将来进行时：我爱现在完成时：I had forgotten all the grammar I learned for exams.;我爱过去完成时：I've been studying grammar for tenyears, but I still can't speak English.;我爱现在完成进行时：1、一般现在时--表示现在的特征或经常性动作;Top 1: I like English very much.; 我非常喜欢英语。
70篇英文突破英语核心1600词！附音频（一）
70篇英文突破英语核心1600词！附音频（一）英语·短篇小说吉米老师为大家整理出了 70 篇英语小故事，每篇都很简短，还贴心地给大家标注了重点单词。
一. A Young Officer and an Old Soldier (1)A very new, young officer was at a railway station. He was going to visit his mother, and he wanted to telephone her to tell her the time of his train. He looked in all his pockets, but found that he did not have the coins for the telephone, so he went outside and looked around for someone to help him.【汉语翻译】年轻军官与老兵(1)一位新上任的(new)年轻军官(young officer)在火车站(railway station)候车。
他要去看望(visit)他的母亲(mother)。
他想打电话(want to telephone sb.)告诉(tell)母亲他的列车(train)到站的时间。
但寻遍了所有的口袋(pocket)，却发现(find)他没有打电话用的硬币(coin)，于是他走到车站外面(outside)，环顾四周(look around)想找人帮忙(help)。
一. A Young Officer and an Old Soldier (2)At last an old soldier came by, and the young officer stopped him and said, “Have you got change for ten pence?”“No,sir,”the old soldier answered quickly.【汉语翻译】年轻军官与老兵(2)最后(at last)有名老兵(old soldier)路过，年轻的军官拦住他道：“你有十便士(pence)的零钱(change)吗？”“没有，长官(sir)。
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同学们好：附件是托福词汇词频统计表。
红色的词汇是出现10+以上的词汇，橙色是出现5+的词汇，绿色是出现3+的词汇，这2000多个单词是大家必须要掌握的！大家可以下载下来放在手机上没事就看看，或者打印出来带在身边看看。
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