语言2
语言学教程02Chapter 2_sound(2)
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation后滞协同 发音, as is the case of map.
In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the „broad‟ transcriptions.
3.3 Allophones 音位变体
Allophones---- the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
Velarization: clear l and dark l // [] / _____ V [] / V _____
Think about tell and telling!
Phonetic similarity发音近似性: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.
The word „phoneme‟音位 simply refers to a „unit of explicit sound contrast‟: the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
第二语言习得
1.习得与学习假说
习得的知识---关注语言的意义----位于大脑左半球的语言 区，用于语言的自动加工； 有意识的学习---关注语言的形式---本质上属于元语言知 识，也存储在大脑的左半球，但不一定是左半球的语言 区。主要是用来控制语言的加工过程。
2.监控假说
Krashen认为，学习者的言语输出主要依靠习得的知识 生成的。 学得的知识只是用来监控学习者的语言输出过程。这 种监控既可以表现在语言输出之前，也可以在语言输 出之后。 运用语言监控需要三个基本条件： （1）必须有充足的时间； （2）注意力必须放在在语言形式上而不是意义上； （3）学习者必须了解语言规则。
knowledge)。即学习者有意识地学习语言的规则，如语
法规则等。这种学习相对于习得来说，需要耗费时力。
最高级
习得 高级 中级 学习 初级
Walker 1989
学习和习得的区别？
1.习得是一种潜意识的行为，目的性不明确； 学习则是目的性非常明确的活动，除了本身自觉要求之外， 还有外部的督导、考试、竞争等外部因素的作用，是一种 有意识的行为； 2.习得一般是在使用该目的语的社会环境中进行的；学习 主要在课堂环境下进行，可能有目的语环境，也可能没有；
第二语言习得、外语习得
第二语言习得：学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。学 习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当 然也是学习者用来交际的工具。 外语习得：学习者在本国学习目的语。学习者的目的 语在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具。这种语言学习 基本上是在课堂上进行的。
语言能力、交际能力
乔姆斯基在60年代提出“语言能力”的概念，所谓“语言能 力”是指人们所具有的语言知识，是一种内化了的包括语音、 词汇、语法等的语言规则体系。
第二语言教学理论
语内偏误（ 语内偏误（intralingual error）： ）： 指第二语言学习者在学习过程中由于对目的语规 则掌握不全面或因错误推断而造成的偏误。
语际偏误（ 语际偏误（interlingral error）： ）： 指由于第一语言的干扰造成的偏误。
显性（ 显性（overt）偏误： ）偏误： 指那些明显带有结构形式错误的句子。
二、普遍语法与第二语言习得的关系
观点一： 观点一： 在第二语言习得中普遍语法仍起作用，人们 对所接触到的第二语言的语言参数值可以再定值 。学习的初期往往采用第一语言的参数值，所以 初期体现第一语言规则及偏误。接触到更多的第 二语言之后，逐渐把第一语言的参数值进行调整 或重建。
观点二： 观点二： 语言参数不能二次定值。儿童习得第一语言是利用 大脑中先天的语言功能体系（普遍语法），因此儿童 能极其自然地、本能地学会第一语言。但人过了青春 发育期以后，左右脑分工，这时大脑中的推理思维功 能体系有了发展，成年人学习第二语言时就不再是先 天的语言功能体系起作用，而是大脑中的推理思维功 能体系在起作用，是一种像学习数学、物理那样的有 意识的学习。
第三节 输入假说
一、习得与学习假说
克拉申认为习得是首要的，远比我们想象的要重要， 而学习实际上是辅助性的；通过学习获得的语言无法成为 目的语习得的基础，也不能用来自然地表达思想，在交际 中流利地运用第二语言只能靠习得。
二、自然顺序假说
克拉申赞同科德的内在大纲假说，认为人们习得语言 规则有一个可以预测的共同顺序：有的先习得，有的后习 得。
二、对比分析的内容
这是由拉多（Lado）于1957年提出的一种假说。他认为 第二语言与第一语言相似的语言成分容易学，不同的成分则 难学。也就是说，两种语言结构特征相同之处产生正迁移， 两种语言的差异导致负迁移。负迁移造成第二语言习得的困 难和学生的错误。这一假说认为第二语言习得的主要障碍来 自第一语言（母语）的干扰，需要通过对比两种语言结构的 异同来预测第二语言习得的难点和易产生的错误，以便在教 学中采用强化手段突出这些难点和重点，克服母语的干扰并 建立新的习惯。
第二语言学习的语言的输入与互动
1.Nature of input modifications 输入修正的本质
Characteristics of foreigner talk 外国式谈话(5.1)
1、简单高频的词汇和短语； 2、 长时间的停顿； 3、放慢语调； 4、清晰发音； 5、声音大； 6、强调重点单词； 7、简化的语法结构； 8、主题化； 9、句法规律； 10、保留词组的形态
Modification of written input(5.2)
频繁的组织记号，例如大标题和链接； 清晰的主旨句； 强调中心句和同义词； 迅速列出重点； 细化和展开文化背景； 图表；规则；理解核实
5.2Modification of written input
2.Nature of interactional modification语言互动 修正的本质
Input and interaction
语言的输入与互动
The role of input
Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for both L1 and L2 learning. Chapter 3 Krashen's Monitor Model considers comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient to account for SLA. In this chapter, some researchers claim the nature and role of input and interaction in acquisition. Let's see them. 语言的输入对一语二语都是绝对必要的。第三章克拉申的监控假说 就认为理解性的输入对于二语习得来说是必要又充分的。本章节一 些研究者就解释了二语习得中输入和互动的本质与作用。
第二语言习得入门PPT-Unit 2
2.3
Nature of Learning
Learning contains a number of characteristic features (Brown, 1994):
Unit 2 Reviewing Bases of Second Language Acquisition
Unit Preview
Unit topic focus: definition of language different views about language nature of learning misconceptions of learning mystery of first language acquisition
Learning contains a number of characteristic features (Brown, 1994):
1) Learning is acquisition or "getting". 2) Learning is retention of knowledge, information or skill. 3) Retention implies storage systems, memory, and cognitive organization. 4) Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the
Pre-learning Tasks
1. Search the internet to get the definitions of language and learning and explain them with examples to your classmates. 2. Reflect on your own experience of learning the mother tongue. 3. How do you understand the act of learning? Is language learning similar to other types of learning? Why ?
汉语作为第二语言教学的难点
汉语作为第二语言教学的难点1.语音方面(1)声调是汉语语音教学的最大难点。
汉语属于汉藏语系的语言，有声调。
很多学习者的母语没有声调，很雅发准四声的调值并记住每个音节的声调。
即使是母语有声调的学习者，也感到准确地掌握汉语普通话的声调比较困难，因为不同语言的调值和调类并不相同。
(2)送气音和不送气音的区分不易掌握。
(3)音变，包括变调、轻声和儿化等也是汉语作为第二语言教学的难点。
2.词汇方面(1)与汉语双音节词相比，单音节词较难学习。
对于外国学生，识记和使用单音节词比多音节词所花费的功夫要多，特别是听力上不易辨别清楚。
这主要是因为汉语单音节同音现象比较普遍，再加上单音节词只有一个音节，语音持续的时间太短，对听觉神经刺激强度不够。
(2)汉语词汇丰富，同义词在语体色彩、感情色彩、词语搭配、句法功能等方面存在着差异，这给学习者准确运用何一个词造成困难。
(3)带有鲜明汉文化色彩的词语如“贵（校）”、“令〔尊)”、“寿木”、“续弦”、“有喜”等以及现代汉语里遗留的部分文言词语，有的是词义不好把握，有的是运用常常出错。
(4)汉语里有丰富的成语、惯用语等熟语，“负荆请罪”、“刻舟求剑”、“开夜车”、“半瓶醋”、“拍马屁”等，结构简练，含义丰富，出现频率较高，对外国学生来说，理解和准确使用都比较困难。
(5)在书而语中，汉语的词语排列不实行分词连写，给阅读带来不便。
3.语法方面(1)虚词的运用。
汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，虚词是汉语里表达语法意义的一种重要手段。
介词、连词、助词、语气词等虚词中有些词的用法比较复杂，如助词“的”，什么时候用，什么时候不用，什么时候可用可不用，一大堆规测，简直连母语为汉语的人也讲不清楚，外国学生则更不易掌握。
(2)量词的运用。
汉语的量词特别丰富，根据名词的不同，在数词和名词之间选用不同的量词。
汉语的量词运用有些是有理据的，有些是无理据的；有的量词语义虚化；有很多是临时量词；有时同一个名词由于语境的不同可以使用不同的量词；还有量词运用的规范问题等，这些问题使量词学习也成了一大难题。
c语言 2输入输出
二、基本输入输出语句（一）选择题1．逻辑运算符两侧运算对象三数据类型A．只能是0和1 B．只能是0或非0正数C．只能是整型或字符型数据 D．可以是任何类型的数据2．设有：int a=1,b=2,c=3,d=4,m=2,n=2;执行(m=a>b)&&(n=c>d)后n的值为A． 1 B． 2 C． 3 D． 43．以下程序的运行结果是main(){ int a,b,d=241;a=d/100%9;b=(-1)&&(-1);printf(“%d,%d”,a,b);}A． 6,1 B． 2,1 C． 6,0 D． 2,04．若运行时给变量x输入12，则以下程序的运行结果是main(){ int x,y;scanf(“%d”,&x);y=x>12 ? x+10 : x-12;printf(“%d\n”,y);}A． 4 B． 3 C．2 D． 15．指出下面不正确的赋值语句是A．a++ B．ａ＝＝C．ａ＋＝ｂ；D．ａ＝１，ｂ＝２6.在C语言中，错误的语句是。
A.a=b=c;B.;C.breakD.b=3*5,a*=4;7.以下所列语句中，合法的语句是。
A.a=1,b=2B.++a;C.a=a+1=5;D.y=int(a);8．若x,y均为int型数据,z为double型数据,则以下的scanf函数调用语句中不合法的是A．scanf(“%d%lx,%le”,&x,&y,&z); B．scanf(“%2d*%d%lf”,&x,&y,&z);C．scanf(“%x%*d%o”,&x,&y); D．scanf(“%x%o,%6.2f”,&x,&y,&z);9. 若x, y均为int型变量且有值，要输出x, y的值，正确的输出函数调是A. printf("%d%d",&x,&y);B. printf("%f%f",x,y);C. printf("%f%d",x,y);D. printf("%d%d",x,y);10. x为int型变量，且值为2345，不正确的输出函数调用是A. printf("%d",x);B. printf("%3d",x);C. printf("%c",x) ;D. printf("%s",x);11. 若m为float型变量，则执行以下语句后的输出为m=1234.123;printf(“%-8.3f\n”,m);printf(“%10.3f\n”,m);A.1234.123B. 1234.1231234.123 1234.123C.1234.123D. 1234.123001234.123 001234.12312．putchar函数可以向终端输出一个A. 整型变量表达式B.实型变量值C. 字符串D. 字符或字符型变量值13．printf函数中用到格式符%5s，其中数字5表示输出的字符串占用5列。
第二语言习得复习整理
一、名词解释1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。
4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。
对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。
5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克（L.Selinker）于1969年提出来的。
中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。
这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。
8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。
第二语言教学法-视听法ppt课件
• 1）基本特征 继承、发扬了直接、听说二法的长处，创 造性地提出了视觉与听觉相结合、以整体 结构感知的教学法体系。
• 2）理论基础 语言学基础是美国结构主义语言学，心理 学基础是行为主义的刺激—反应论。同时 受完形主义心理学影响。
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• 3）基本原则
a.视觉感知和听觉感知相 结合，利用声光电等现代 化技术手段展示语言材料， 充分调动各种感官，可以 增强刺激、加快反应、加 深记忆。图象与声音相联 系建立起条件反射，即使 图象（情景）单独呈现， 学习者也能自动作出反应， 让语言与形象直接联系， 有利于培养直接用目的语 表达思想的能力，避免了 母语的中介作用。
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1. d.听说先于读写，先 口语教学，后书面语教 学。教材以对话为主。 课上一般不用学生的母 语。但注重通过对比分 析，确定教学内容及难 点。
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ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
• 4）基本教学程式 第一步：先让学生看ppt或视频，配合录音
感知课文大意，边看边听边记忆； 第二步：通过图像和录音，由教师讲解字、
词语和句子，帮助学生完全理解课文內容；
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谢谢观赏
汉语言文学1班 孙凡茹
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语言教学法是关于语言学习和教授的科学。它 的研究物件是言语教学的全过程和这个过程中的各 个环节，包括语言教学的总体设计、语言教材的编 写、课堂教学和课外语言实践活动以及对语言学习 能力和实际语言水平的测试等广泛的问题。
语言教学法实际上是语言规律、语言学习规律 和语言教授规律的总和。
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语言教学法流派（刘珣）
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b.语言和情景相结合，人们的交 际活动总是在一定的情景中进 行的，言语活动也总是受情景 制约。视听法从日常生活情景 中选择、安排语言材料，并创 造尽可能接近真实的情景进行 听说读写活动，有利于培养运 用语言的能力。
第二章2 第二语言教学
(一)什么是第二语言教学
1. 第二语言教学 2．第二语言教学的范围 3．第二语言教学研究对象
1.第二语言教学
是与第一语言教学相对应的概念。 它是指对已经掌握第一语言的人所进行 的其他语言的教学活动，这种活动通常 是在学校环境里所进行的正规的教学活 动。
2．第二语言教学的范围
（ 1 ）外国学生在目的语国家的学校里学习 第二语言。 （ 2 ）本国学生在本国的外语院校学习第二 语言。 （ 3 ）本国某一民族的学生在本国学校里学 习本国其他民族语言。
（4）第二语言的广狭之分
广义：任何一种在获得第一语言之后学习和使 用的语言，包括外语。 狭义： ①第一语言以外的本国通用语或本国其他民族 的语言，不包括外语； ②在该语言使用环境中学习的目的语，包括一 部分外语。
3．主要语言和次要语言
从语言掌握的程度和被使用的程度来区分的。 一般情况下，母语、本族语、第一语言通常是 一个人的主要语言，但在某些情况下，也可能 成为次要语言； 外语、非本族语、第二语言一般是一个人的次 要语言，但也可能成为主要语言。
第二语言输入的情况各异，另外第二语 言学习成功与否跟老师的输入方法很有 关系。
语言习得机制和习得过程不同
（1）习得机制不同： 俞约法 (1992) 认为，儿童的母语习得过程 和言语机制以及思维机制的形成过程几乎 是同步发展的。 对于第二语言习得特别是成人的第二语言 习得，学习者的母语言语机制和思维机制 已经形成，母语第二信号系统的建立使学 习者拥有了一定的语言经验。
3．第二语言教学研究对象
包括“教”和“学”两个方面： （1） “教”： 包括课堂组织、课堂教学技巧、教材的编 写、成绩的测试等。 （2）“学”： 包括学习者的心理和学习的规律等。
5篇关于学习第二语言的好处的高考英语作文范文
5篇关于学习第二语言的好处的高考英语作文范文1. 主题：学习第二语言的重要性范文：Learning a Second LanguageIn today's globalized world, learning a second language has become increasingly important. There are several benefits to learning a second language, both personally and professionally.Firstly, learning a second language enhances our communication skills. It allows us to interact with people from different cultures and backgrounds, breaking down language barriers and fostering understanding. In turn, this can lead to more effective collaboration and cooperation, whether in personal relationships or professional settings.Secondly, learning a second language opens up a world of opportunities. In an interconnected world, being bilingual or multilingual is highly valued by employers. It increases our chances of securing better job prospects and career advancement. Additionally, it allows us to explore different cultures and travel with ease, broadening our horizons and enriching our experiences.Furthermore, learning a second language has cognitive benefits. Studies have shown that bilingual individuals have improved memory, problem-solving skills, and overall mental flexibility. It exercises our brain and enhances our ability to think critically and adapt to new situations.In conclusion, learning a second language is highly beneficial. It improves communication skills, opens up new opportunities, and enhances cognitive abilities. Therefore, it is important for individuals to embrace the opportunity to learn a second language and reap the rewards it brings.2. 主题：学习第二语言对职业发展的影响范文：The Impact of Learning a Second Language on Career DevelopmentIn today's competitive job market, learning a second language can significantly boost one's career prospects. There are several ways in which learning a second language can positively impact career development.Firstly, being bilingual or multilingual gives individuals a competitive edge. It opens up a wider range of job opportunities, especially in multinational companies or industries with international exposure. Employers value employees who cancommunicate effectively with clients or colleagues from different linguistic backgrounds, as it facilitates smoother collaboration and ensures efficient business operations.Secondly, learning a second language demonstrates valuable skills and qualities. It showcases one's adaptability, cultural awareness, and ability to work in diverse environments. These are highly desirable traits that employers look for when hiring or promoting individuals. It shows that an individual is open-minded, flexible, and capable of understanding and respecting different perspectives.Furthermore, learning a second language can lead to increased earning potential. Bilingual or multilingual individuals often have access to higher-paying job positions or have the opportunity to work in international markets, where salaries are often more competitive. This can result in better financial stability and overall career growth.In conclusion, learning a second language has a significant impact on career development. It provides individuals with a competitive advantage, showcases valuable skills, and enhances earning potential. Therefore, individuals should prioritize learning a second language to enhance their career prospects in today's globalized world.3. 主题：学习第二语言对人际关系的影响范文：The Impact of Learning a Second Language on Interpersonal RelationshipsLearning a second language not only enhances our communication skills but also has a positive impact on our interpersonal relationships. There are several ways in which learning a second language can improve our connections with others.Firstly, being able to speak a second language allows us to connect with individuals from different linguistic backgrounds. It breaks down barriers and fosters understanding and empathy. When we make an effort to communicate in someone else's language, it shows a genuine interest in their culture and creates a stronger bond between individuals.Secondly, learning a second language enhances our ability to listen and understand others. Language learning requires active listening and comprehension, which are skills that can be applied to all aspects of communication. This can lead to more effective and meaningful conversations, as we are better able to understand and respond to the needs and emotions of others.Furthermore, learning a second language can lead to increased cultural awareness and sensitivity. Language and culture are closely intertwined, and by learning asecond language, we gain insights into different customs, traditions, and ways of thinking. This helps us to navigate cultural differences with respect and avoid misunderstandings or conflicts in our relationships.In conclusion, learning a second language positively impacts our interpersonal relationships. It fosters understanding, improves communication, and enhances cultural awareness. Therefore, individuals should embrace the opportunity to learn a second language and strengthen their connections with others.4. 主题：学习第二语言对认知能力的影响范文：The Impact of Learning a Second Language on Cognitive AbilitiesLearning a second language has been proven to have a positive impact on cognitive abilities. It exercises our brain and enhances various aspects of our thinking and problem-solving skills.Firstly, learning a second language improves memory. Language learning requires constant memorization of vocabulary, grammar rules, and sentence structures. This exercise of memory strengthens our overall ability to retain and recall information. As a result, bilingual individuals often have better memory retention and retrieval skills, which can be beneficial in various areas of life.Secondly, learning a second language enhances our problem-solving skills. Language learning involves deciphering new words, phrases, and grammar rules, and applying them in different contexts. This process trains our brain to think critically and analytically, as we constantly make connections, draw comparisons, and find solutions. These problem-solving skills can be transferred to other areas of life, such as academics or professional settings.Furthermore, learning a second language improves overall mental flexibility. Bilingual individuals are often more adept at switching between different languages and adapting to new linguistic environments. This flexibility extends to other areas of cognitive functioning, allowing individuals to adapt to new situations, think creatively, and approach challenges from different perspectives.In conclusion, learning a second language has a positive impact on cognitive abilities. It improves memory, enhances problem-solving skills, and increases mental flexibility. Therefore, individuals should embrace the opportunity to learn a second language and reap the cognitive benefits it brings.5. 主题：学习第二语言对文化理解的影响范文：The Impact of Learning a Second Language on Cultural UnderstandingLearning a second language not only allows us to communicate with others but also deepens our understanding and appreciation of different cultures. There are several ways in which learning a second language can enhance cultural understanding.Firstly, learning a second language provides us with insights into different cultural norms, traditions, and values. Language and culture are closely intertwined, and by learning a second language, we gain a deeper understanding of the cultural contexts in which the language is used. This helps us to appreciate the diversity of human experiences and develop a more open-minded and inclusive worldview.Secondly, learning a second language enables us to engage with cultural resources. Literature, films, music, and other forms of artistic expression are often best experienced in their original language. By learning a second language, we can access a broader range of cultural materials and engage with them in a more authentic and meaningful way. This allows us to appreciate the nuances and subtleties of different cultural works and develop a greater appreciation for their significance. Furthermore, learning a second language fosters cross-cultural communication and empathy. When we make the effort to communicate in someone else's language, it shows respect and understanding for their cultural background. This can lead to more meaningful interactions, increased empathy, and a greater ability to navigate cultural differences with sensitivity and respect.In conclusion, learning a second language has a profound impact on cultural understanding. It provides insights into different cultures, enables engagement with cultural resources, and fosters cross-cultural communication. Therefore, individuals should embrace the opportunity to learn a second language and deepen their appreciation for diverse cultures.。
语言点2
1. ... and to mark an important event in my life, as important to my father as coming of age: my first oyster. (Para 5)The father thought that oysters were such a very special dish and that trying oysters for the first time was like "coming of age". This is humour through exaggeration.2. ... and the only emotion was the fear of lost innocence ... (Para 7)For a child, being innocent is usually regarded in the West as a positive quality, so losing innocence in some way can be sad or regretful, even though it is a sign of growing up. Here the writer realized that he had to eat the oyster so he felt the emotion of fear, not about the oyster as such, but about losing innocence. There is a little sadness here as well as humour: Is eating an oyster really that important and is trying the first oyster really losing innocence?3. ... striking a note of compromise for the first time ... (Para 9)To strike a note of something means to speak in a particular manner or tone. Here, the father indicated a compromise or bargain: If the son ate an oyster, he could choose some other food which he liked.4. ... unlike anything I have ever tasted before or since. (Para 13)Before or since refers to before that occasion or since that time.5. ... he raised his glass to me and said, "Cheers!" (Para 13)This is a common way to make a toast on formal occasions. Similar ways to express good wishes when holding a glass of drinks, just before you drink it, include "Good health!" "Good luck!".1. ... it was so highly valued that even taxes were paid in cocoa beans. (Para 1)In different cultures there have been many different ways in which people pay taxes to the rulers. In ancient China, taxes were once paid in corn or grain, in Britain sheep or cattle were used. Here, the Aztecs paid taxes in cocoa beans, which showed how the beans were considered valuable.2. But what accounts for its amazing popularity or even the properties that have made millions of people confess to being chocaholics? (Para 4)Many people admit that they are chocaholics, so the writer asks about the reason why chocolate is so popular and what special characteristics chocolate may have.Chocaholics are people who love chocolate and eat a lot of it. Similar words are workaholic (someone who works compulsively all the time) and shopaholic (someone who is addicted to shopping).3. These chemicals make us feel happy and give us a sense of well-being … (Para 6)A sense of well-being refers to a satisfactory state that someone may feel that they are in. This includes feeling happy, healthy, safe or having enough money.。
语言学 2.Dexies
地点指示
11. Mom: Where are you Jane? Come here! Jane: Coming! 12. Put it here. No, not here but here. 13. Put my parcel over there. 14. ——照片上都是些什么人？ ——中间那个人是我。左边是我大姐，右 边是我二姐。
语用学为什么关照指示语？
人称 时间 地点 语篇 社交 who/what when where how
语用学为什么关照指示语？
• • • • • 语境 人际 面相 手势 身势 经济/省力原则 认知心理
脂砚斋重评石头记庚辰校本第二十七回
• 话未说完，李氏道：“嗳哟哟！这些话 我就不懂了，什么‘奶奶’、‘爷爷’ 的一大堆？” 凤姐笑道：“怨不得你不 懂，这是四五门子的话呢。” 我们奶奶 这里奶奶 五奶奶 舅奶奶 这里的姑奶奶 奶奶
“先638) Dexis and Anaphora: 指示语境指在言语事件中以说话者为中心角 色，以说话者说话时的时空参照为原点，并 以此为视点观察周围的其他事物或人。 • 先用现象涉及语言使用者在使用指示词语时 的一种心理趋势，即言语参与者对处于言语 指示域内的人、事物、时间和地点优先使用 指示词语指示。 • Why this way?
这刘姥姥心神方定，才又说道：“我今日带 了我外孙来，也不为别的，只因我女儿、女婿 在家里，连吃的都没有，如今天又冷，越想越 没个派头儿，只得带了我外孙奔了你老来。”
脂砚斋重评石头记庚辰校本第二十七回
• 到了李氏房中，果见凤姐儿在这里和李氏说话 儿呢。红玉上来回道：“平姐姐叫我回奶奶： 才旺儿进来讨奶奶的示下，好往那家子去，平 姐姐就把那话按着奶奶的主意，打发他去了。” 凤姐笑道：“他怎么按我的主意打发去了？”
语言学Chapter 2
Auditory phonetics
Transcription of Speech Sounds
Broad transcription : used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. [ pit ] Narrow transcription : used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. [ phit]
Sentence stress
Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.
II. Phonology
Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.
1. Phonetics & phonology
第二语言习得研究期末复习题
第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。
中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。
10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。
僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
第二语言习得2案例
• 三者强调的重点不同，都存在价值：
• 语言迁移重在母语对第二语言表达的影 响 • 母语的作用多在教学研究中使用 • 跨语言影响重在母语和目的语之间的相 互影响
• (2)The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis定义：
• The CAH claim that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second language system，and that a scientific， structural analysis of the two languages in question would yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter。
成系统
John can sing
Language transfer VS The role of the mother tongue VS Crosslinguistic influence语言迁移、母语 的作用和跨语言影响 • 语言迁移：The effect of native language on the target language • 包括正迁移（positive）和负迁移 （ negative ）和零迁移（zero）
• 针对“偏误“
• • • • • •
第二语言教学名词解释
第二语言教学名词解释
第二语言教学，英文为Second Language Teaching（SLT），是指在一个非母语环境下教授一门或多门语言的过程。
在第二语言教学领域中，有许多专业术语，以下是其中一些常见术语的解释：
1.语言习得（Language Acquisition）：指非意识、自然而然地学会一种语言的过程，类似于孩子们学习母语的方式。
2.语言学习（Language Learning）：指通过有意识的学习来掌握一种语言的过程，通常是通过学习语法规则、词汇等知识来实现的。
3.输入（Input）：指学习者接收到的语言信息，可通过听、读、观看等方式获取。
4.输出（Output）：指学习者使用语言进行交流的过程，包括说、写、表达等。
5.教学法（Teaching Methodology）：指用于实现教学目标的方法和策略，包括教学计划、教学材料、教学技巧等。
6.语法（Grammar）：指一种语言的结构和规则，包括单词的形态、语法、语序、句法等方面。
7.词汇（Vocabulary）：指一个人掌握的单词和短语的总体，是语言运用的基础。
8.听力（Listening）：指通过听来获取语言信息的能力。
9.口语（Speaking）：指通过说来表达自己的语言能力。
10.阅读（Reading）：指通过阅读来获取语言信息的能力。
11.写作（Writing）：指通过写来表达自己的语言能力。
以上是一些常见的第二语言教学术语解释，这些术语对于理解和实践第二语言教学具有重要意义。
语言表达2 - 答案
语言表达综合训练(二)1. 下列各句中，没有语病的一项是（）A．随着柴静新作《穹顶之下》播出，使公众对其热议程度大有高过今年两会的势头；同时，这几天有关雾霾的话题以及对于视频内容是否客观的探讨，引发了多方热议。
B．“路遥热”的出现是一件鼓舞人心的好事情，它说明文学需要有大情怀和大境界，朴实无华而充满道德诗意的现实主义作品是有生命力的，是不会过时的。
C．在推进农业现代化的进程中，要加快农业先导区建设，把土地流转、高标准农田建设、乡村环境整治作为工作重点，尤其要解决好农用机械和农用设备的配套问题。
D．为了防止这次竞拍免遭再次流拍的结局，拍卖行可谓是绞尽脑汁，制订了一系列的对策，但结果还是让人遗憾。
【答案】B【解析】试题分析：语病题通常的做法是压缩看主干有没有残缺、搭配不当等毛病，再看压缩掉的修饰成分与主干之间是否存在修饰不当的毛病，最后看句子中有没有典型的语病特征，比如表并列的词或标点，是否、能否、好坏等两面的词，是、成为、变成表判断的词。
A项，滥用介词造成主语残缺，删去“随着”或者“使”；C项“农用机械和农用设备”种属不清；D 项不合逻辑，否定混乱，应将“免遭”改为“遭到”。
2. 下列各句中，加点的成语使用不恰当的一项是（）A．有些人取得一点成绩，便自命不凡．．．．，洋洋自得，尾巴都翘到天上去了，这样的人终究不会有大的作为。
B．看到果农家里汗牛充栋．．．．的黄灿灿的橙子，我深感欣慰，因为这说明我们开发的新品种产量高，品质好。
C．对那些少不更事．．．．的年轻人，我们不仅要多加指导，还要给他们更多的锻炼机会，使他们尽快地成熟起来。
D．开发商们对商品房面积的计算方式一直讳莫如深．．．．，由此导致的开发商与业主之间的经济纠纷经常发生。
【答案】B【解析】试题分析：本题考查词语的运用。
主要看感情色彩、适用对象、使用范围、适合语境等等。
踽踽，形容独自走路孤零零的样子。
B项，汗牛充栋：形容书籍多，句中说的是“黄灿灿的橙子”，使用对象有误。
第二语言习得复习资料
第⼆语⾔习得复习资料★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development. Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )6. Language acquisition和Second Language Acquisition之间的关系7.(1) Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. These arise when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to specific responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors.(2) The habit-formation theoryThe association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.Two important characteristics of habitsObservable: the true basis for psychological enquiry existed only in objects that could be touched and actions that could be observed. (Watson)Automatic:habits were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built.Two means: imitation and practiceImitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit- formation, because the behaviorists maintained that imitation will help learners identify the associations between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the associations and help learners to form the new linguistic habits.Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general.The process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation. (The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit.)8. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.Attitude towards errorErrors should be avoided and should be corrected if they have been made, because they are indication of non-learning and have the danger of becoming bad linguistic habits.Errors could be avo ided by comparing the learner?s native language with the target language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential error.Where are the means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists?The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.9. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)10. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.11. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.12. Contrastive Analysis Assumptions1. Language learning = habit formation2. L1 is major source of error in L2 production/reception3. Errors are accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L24. The greater the differences, the more errors will occur5. Focus on dissimilarities in learning; similarities require little new learning6. Difficulty and ease in predicted by differences and similarities between L1 and L213. Steps for contrastive analysis①Describing L1 and L2②Selecting a linguistic feature③Marking an L1-L2 comparison on this feature④Using the results to predict or explain err ors in learner?s L2 performance.14.The Validity of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(正确性)Over-simplification to think that comparing two languages is a straightforward comparison of structures.Other factors such as innate principles of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known, and so forth. In the 1960s, the behaviorist theory of language and language learning was challenged. Language came to be seen in terms of structured rules instead of habits. Learning was nowseen not as imitation but as active rule formation.Another criticism of the role of CA had to do with the concept of difficulty. Differences are based on formal descriptions of linguistic units –those selected by a linguist, a teacher, or a textbook writer. It is not a real measure of difficulty. (Difference=difficulty=error)too negative about borrowing from L1Ignoring the conditions of interference.Empirical study found that not all actually occurring errors were predicted; not all predicted errors occurred.15.Theoretical Criticisms（批评）Chomsky?s attack on behaviorismRelationship between “difficulty” and “error”Problems concerning the linguistic basis of contrastive analysisNeed to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting errors16.“Difficulty” and “Error”There were objections to the validity of equating …difference? with …difficulty? on the hand and …difficulty? with …error? on the other.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psy chological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.17. Definition of EAError analysis:--the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).--A type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners? interlanguage and the target language;--A methodology of describing L2 learners? language systems (Corder, 1981)The Purpose of EATo discover the processes learners make use of in learning & using the target language,To identify the causes of learner errors,To obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learningBasic AssumptionsHuman learning is fundamentally a process involving making errors;Language learning is like any other human learning;Errors made by L2 learners can be observed, analyzed, classified, and described ( Brown,1987: 169-171) Procedure of Error AnalysisIdentification of ErrorsDescription of ErrorsExplanation of errors: determine the sources of errors Comapararison:18.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one?s L1, or the negative transfer of one?s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners? transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules19. Sources of ErrorsIn language learning, learner?s errors are caused by s everal different processes, including--Interlingual transfer--Intralingual transfer--Transfer of training or context of learning--Cognitive & affective factors20. Levels of ErrorsSubstance errorsText errorsDiscourse errors21. Implication & ApplicationError Analysis is significant theoretically and practically.--Theoretica l: it is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process--Practical: it has direct relevance to the improvement of language teaching materials and methods★22. Differences of error analysis Between EA and CA1.Interest in errors ：EA interested in errors resulting from interference from L1CA interested in the totality of the errors of a L2 learner2.Classification of errors :EA classifies only errors resulting from interference of L1CA classifies all errors3.Source of errorsEA: errors are the result of negative transferCA: errors are a learner?s hypotheses in relation to the new language and considered to be a natural part of L2 learning4.Position of errorsEA: errors are harmful and it seeks to correct themCA: takes no position on errors5.When CA/EA beganEA:begins with Fries and LadoCA: a type of study that has existed for a long time6.PerformanceEA. interested in learner?s performance and correlates it to L1CA: interested in the learner?s performance and correlates it to L1 and the developing L222. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.23. DefinitionStrategy VS. technique Stern (1983)Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, while techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.Strategy : conscious , behavioral24. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy 学习策略Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy 交际策略25. Classifications (Cohen 2006)By goal; By function; By skill; Others(1) By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies(e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies).(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.(4) Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.O?Malley & Chamot (1990)MetacognitiveCognitiveSocial26.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one?s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Organize/plan your own learningManage ……..Monitor………Evaluate……….Importance of meta-cognitive strategiesStudents without meta-cognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.27. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.RepetitionResourcingDirected physical responseTranslationGroupingNote-takingDeductionRecombinationImageryAuditory representationKey wordContextualizationElaborationTransferInferencing27. social/affective strategiesSocial strategiesstrategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.协作（cooperation）提问澄清（question for clarification）Affective strategies:strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.28. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamicsattitudes to the teacher and course materialslearning techniquesGeneral factors:ageaptitudecognitive style field dependence / independencemotivationpersonality29. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits: professional advancement, study in the target language, business.Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential constructMotivation= effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes★Integrative motivation 融合型动vs. Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机(p94)★30. Definition –interlanguage★Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner construct for use incommunication through the target language.The term“interlanguage” , coined by Selinker(1972), refers to the language system constructed by second language learners on their way to the target language.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the targetlanguage. (Larry Selinker)Nemser calls it“approximative system”Corder (1971) called learners? language an idiosyncratic dialect .These terms suggest that learners? language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.错误发⽣的原因：Interlingua interference (语际⼲扰)⒈Positive transfer⒉negative transferIntralingua interference（语内⼲扰）★31. Characteristics of interlanguage systempermeable ;dynamic; systematic; fossilization★32.Definition of fossilizationIt has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, such an IL may reach one or more temporary restricting phases during which the development of the IL appears to be detained (Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972; Schumann, 1975).A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972).33. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:暂时性⽯化:Temporary fossilization refers to stability of language acquisition or the plateau phenomenon of learning, at the moment language parameter is steady and static, the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions .Permanent fossilization永久性⽯化：This means the learner?s language stops evolving for ever. Because most of the students? interlanguage is in the temporary and stable stage, no permanent fossilization. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Fossilization appears through five central processes:Language transfer; transfer of learning; learning strategies; communication strategies; overgeneralizationInternal Causes of fossilizationMotivationCommunicative needsAcquisition deviceExternal Causes of fossilizationCommunicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don?t understand you” )34. Linguistic basis for SLAContrastive analysis (pre-Chomskyan structuralism)Universals and contrastive analysisUniversals and SLA★35. Definition of UGUG is a term used by Chomsky to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of learning their native language, and which constrains the shape of the particular grammar they are trying to learn. It consists of various principles which govern the form grammatical rules can take. Some of these principles are parameterized ( i.e. are specified as consisting of two or more options).DefinitionCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines …universal grammar? as …the properties inherent in the human mind?. Un iversal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.Definitiona set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages36. Principles refers to highly abstract properties of grammar which apply to language in general and which, therefore, underlie the grammatical rules of all specific languages.Parameters refers to principles that vary in certain restricted ways from one language to another. That is, they take the form ofa finite set of options which individual languages draw on and which define the variation possible between language36. UG also provides a basis for determining markedness. The degree of markedness depends on whether a feature is part of the …core? or the …periphery?.Core grammar: unmarked, that is, they accord with the general tendencies of language. Periphery rules: marked, that is they are exceptional in some way.core rules (UG) are unmarkedMarkednessperiphery rules are markedUniversals and contrastive analysisMarkedness: refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are …special? or …less natural? or …less basic? than others. Markedness differential condition: marked features are more difficult to learn than unmarked.37.The role of universals in L1 acquisition1. Grammar construction is constrained by the operation of Universal Grammar, which regulates the options the child has to choose from. That is, hypothesis formation is constrained by innate principles.2. Regularities in the order of development can be explained only by considering both Universal Grammar and channel capacity.A distinction can be made between …development' actual progress) and …acquisition' the idealized learning that results from universal Grammar)3. Universal grammar may unfold as a maturational schedule, as suggested by Felix (1984), or it may be activated piecemeal in accordance with the data that the child perceive at different developmental stages, as suggested by White (1981).4. The child is likely to learn unmarked rules before marked rules; he constructs a core grammar before a peripheral grammar.5. The child possesses a projective capacity. This enables one rule to trigger off other rules withwhich it is implicationally linked, and also enables rules to be acquired when no direct evidence for them has been supplied by the input.38. Access to UG1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access39 Linguistic universals and L1 transferThe transfer of L1 unmarked formsUnmarked setting of parameters will occur in interlanguage before marked settings, even if the L2 provides evidence of a marked setting.The non-transfer of L1 marked forms40.Krashen?s Input Hy pothesis ModelKnown by various names--Monitor hypothesis--Input model--Comprehensible input model--Natural modelAll these names refer to the one and the same model★Five hypotheses1. Acquisition – learning distinction hypothesis2. Natural sequence/order hypothesis3. Monitor hypothesis4. Comprehensible input hypothesis5. Affective filter hypothesis. (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the unconscious processes that also takes place in first language acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is responsible for the construction of grammar rules or knowledge about the second language through teaching or error correction.. Acquisition LearningSubconscious – implicit learningA distinct process – can never become learningThe way children learn the languageMeaning focusedInductiveNaturalistic settingsConscious – explicit learningA distinct process –can neverbecome acquisitionThe way adults learn the languageGrammar (form) focusedDeductiveFormal settingsImplications of Acquisition-Learning Distinction HypothesisContent based language teaching – total immersion is preferable.Provide meaningful contexts for understanding languageProvide meaningful communication activities such as information gap activities.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis: SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners? first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting). Implications of natural order hypothesisErrors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis claims a move along the developmental continuum byreceiving comprehensible input.Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learne r?s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner?s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.“i+1”We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Implications of input hypothesisEmploy teacher talk along motherese or foreigner talk(4) The affective filter modelAffect refers to:Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in L2 acquisition.Self-confidence:Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in L2 Acquisition.Anxiety:Low anxiety appears to be conducive to L2 acquisition.Affective filter hypothesisLearners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.The significance of affective filter hypothesisAccounts for individual variationAccounts for the differences between adult and child language acquisition processesImplications of affective filter hypothesisCreate a non-threatening teaching/learning atmosphere in the classroom.Provide a risk-safe environment.Students should not worry about being criticized.Capitalize on what students already know.Create teaching/learning environment in such a way that students encounter success rather than failure.Provide positive and constructive feedback.Analyze your classroom behavior for any hidden agenda(5) Monitor hypothesisThree conditions:Knowledge of grammarFocus on grammarAvailability of timeGrammar focused learning leads to grammar focused productionChildren do not monitor so why should adults?Learning language is different from learning about language.监控假设图⽰(p57)Implications of monitor hypothesisModel language and do not teach grammar explicitly.Krashen?s VariablesFor Krashen, there are only two variables for language acquisition to take place:Abundant comprehensible inputLow affective filterKrashen – An evaluationMajor strength – intuitively appealingAble to be translated into pedagogical modelsHybrid model and so draws strengths from various theoriesFor the first time, somebody was able to say that grammar teaching was not goodHumanistic in its approachImpreciseNot verifiableKrashen?s dogmatic adherence to his hypotheses is the major weakness★41. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.Negative transferPositive transferAvoidanceOveruse★/doc/11a403d433d4b14e85246836.html D(language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★43.critical age period(p100)★44.field independent vs. field independent(p77)★45.distinction between qualitative and quantitative research(p143)★46.input vs. output(p32-33)★47.intellence vs. aptitude(p85-88)。
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（三）诗歌的语言风格
【提问方式】
A、请分析此诗的语言特色（风格）
诗词常见风格
雄浑、豪放、沉郁、旷达 平淡、清新、绚丽、含蓄
古代诗人都有自已创作风格
陶渊明的朴素自然 杜甫的沉郁顿挫 王昌龄的雄健高昂 李商隐的朦胧隐晦 温庭筠的绮丽香艳 李清照的缠绵悱恻 白居易的通俗易懂 李白的豪放飘逸 杜牧的清健俊爽 王维的诗画一体 高适的悲壮苍凉 陆游的悲壮爱国
水槛遣心二首（其一） 杜甫 去郭轩楹敞， 无村眺望赊。 澄江平少岸， 幽树晚多花。 细雨鱼儿出， 微风燕子斜。 城中十万户， 此地两三家。 [注]槛,音jiàn，栏杆。赊，远 “细雨鱼儿出， 微风燕子斜。”是千古名句，请说说妙在哪里？ “出”是“出现”之意。写出了鱼儿在细雨中摇曳着身躯，喷 吐着泡沫，欢欣地游到水面上来了。“出”字用得细腻自然。 “斜”是“倾斜”之意。写出了燕子在微风的吹拂下，轻柔的 躯体，轻盈地掠过水蒙蒙的天空， “斜”字用得逼真生动。 (1)解释该字在句中的含义。 (2) 把该字放入原句中描述。 (3)点出该字作用，烘托了怎样的意境，或表达了怎样的感情。
问答题答题步骤：
(1)用一两个词准确点明语言特色。
(2)用诗中有关语句具体分析这种特色。 (3)指出表现了作者怎样的感情。
长干曲四首（其一）崔颢 君家何处住？妾住在横塘。 停舟暂借问，或恐是同乡。
问：品评这首诗歌语言上的特色。
• 这首诗歌的的语言朴素自然，明快清 新。“何处住？在横塘”句，通过自 问自答的对话形式，采用朴素的口头 语言，不加雕琢，烘托出一个素朴真 率的船家女形象。
春怨 金昌绪 打起黄莺儿，莫教枝上啼。 啼时惊妾梦，不得到辽西。 设问：请分析此诗的语言特色。
• 答： • 此诗语言特点通俗易懂，明白晓畅．(步骤一)。 • “啼时惊妾梦，不得到辽西”用质朴的语言表明了打黄莺是因 为它惊扰了自己思念丈夫的美梦(步骤二)。 • 这样非常自然地表达了女子对丈夫的思念之情(步骤三)。
秋浦歌
（李白）
白发诗语言明白如话，风格雄浑。诗中用浅显 的语言，说明了因愁而生白发，又用夸张的 手法写白发竟有“三千丈”那么长，表达了 诗人深重的愁思。
（二）比较鉴赏句子的优劣
【提问方式】
A、诗中的某一词或某一句，有的版本说 法不同，你认为哪一句更妙， 为什么？ B、诗中的某一句历来被称为千古名句， 请说说妙在哪里？
与夏十二登岳阳楼 李白
楼观岳阳尽，川迥洞庭开。 雁引愁心去，山衔好月来。 云间连下榻，天上接行杯。 醉后凉风起，吹人舞袖回。
【注】乾元二年，李白流放途中遇赦，回舟江陵， 南游岳阳而作此诗。
问：两首诗的末句，一用“应有”，一用 “犹有”，哪个更好？为什么？请简要赏析
答案一：我以为“应有”比“犹有”更好。 (步骤一 表明看法) “应有”是“应该有”而 未必“有”。写出诗人渴望寻找旧影的心绪。 (步骤二 解释该字在句中的含义) “应有”， 主观上有必然判断，表明诗人寻觅旧迹旧影 时既有希望与自信，也有失意与怅惘，更可 能有寻而未果的不甘，二字蕴含丰富，可谓 传神之笔。“犹有”二字则无此意趣。(步骤 三 步骤四 把该字放入原句中描述景象、点 出意境，或表达的感情)
【步骤分析】
一、明确回答自己认可的对象，绝不含糊； 二、解释手法、内容（考虑结构、表情达意、 音韵等方面的作用。） 如在写景句，就勾勒其描绘的画面， 如在抒情句，就写出其能更好地抒发的 情感 三、确定比较点，强调认可答案的优处。 （注：也可以适当分析相比较词语或句子的 不足）
（2005年辽宁卷） 江宁夹口三首（其三） 宋•王安石 落帆江口月黄昏，小店无灯欲闭门。 侧出岸沙枫半死，系船应有去年痕。 舟下建溪 宋•方维深 客航收浦月黄昏，野店无灯欲闭门。 倒出岸沙枫半死，系舟犹有去年痕。
答案二：我以为“犹有”比“应有”更好。(步骤一 表明看法) “犹有”意思是还有，眼前实实在在的存 在。(步骤二 解释该字在句中的含义) “犹有”自然 道出，却出人意料，去年系舟的痕迹竟还保存到现 在，说明此地人客罕至，偏僻与荒寂。进一步传达 出了诗人那种孤寂怅惘的心绪。(步骤三 步骤 四 把该字放入原句中描述景象、点出意境，或表达 的感情)而“应有”二字却不能道出此意。
【提问】诗中的“雁引愁心去”一句，有的 版本写作“雁别秋江去”。你认为哪一句更 妙， 为什么？
参考答案
(步骤一)“雁引愁心去”好。 (步骤二)这一句写大雁有意为诗人带走愁心， 下句写君山有情为诗人衔来好月，愁去喜 来，互相映衬。 它运用了拟人手法，写出了李白流放遇赦 的高兴心情。 (步骤三)“引愁心”比“别秋江”更富有感 情色彩，想象更奇特，更新颖，与后一句 对仗映衬，更显生动活泼、情趣盎然。 (回答“雁别秋江去”，言之成理亦可) 。