External-Validity
医学学术英语u1tb文章
医学学术英语u1tb文章In 1955, during the dawn of the modern era of randomized clinical trials, Thomas Chalmers and his colleagues published a remarkable paper.1 It was then and probably remains one of the most detailed reports of clinical trials ever published: it begins with a Table of Contents and runs on to a further 71 pages of small type. It is a model of how randomized trials should be reported, reflecting Marc Daniels' call for better reporting of clinical trials five years earlier,2 and anticipating by over four decades the reporting standards agreed and promulgated by the CONSORT Group.3Tom Chalmers and his colleagues described the eligibility criteria of participants clearly, and their random allocation (with concealment of the next participant's assignment) into th eir 2?×?2 factorial trials,4 thus permitting comparisons of two regimens per trial. The similarity between treatment groups in respect of 34 other variables that might affect patient prognosis was confirmed. Experimental and control regimens were precisely defined, and compliance with them was closely monitored and reinforced. All patients were accounted for at the end of the trials. Analyses were clearly described and transparent. The ‘external validity’ of the trial results was tested by comparison with another, independent control group of patients. Finally, late effects of the treatment regimens were assessed in a 10-year follow-up study.I first came across this report in 1959. Although I failed to appreciate many of its methodological strategies and strengths at that time, it changed my career. I was a final-year medical student on a medical ward, where a teenager with ‘infectioushepatitis’ (now called ‘Type-A hepatitis’) was admitted to my care. He presented with severe malaise, an enlarged and tender liver, and a colourful demonstration of deranged bilirubin metabolism that made me the envy of my fellow clerks. However, after a few days of total bed rest his spirits and energy returned and he asked me to let him get up and around.In the 1950s, ever yb ody ‘knew’ that such patients, if they were to avoid permanent liver damage, must be kept at bed rest until their enlarged liver receded and their bilirubin and enzymes returned to normal. And if, after getting up and around, their enzymes rose again, back to bed they went. This conventional wisdom formed the basis for daily confrontations between an increasingly restless and resentful patient and an increasingly adamant and doom-predicting clinical clerk.We clinical clerks were expected to read material relevant to the care of our patients. I wanted to understand (for both of us) how letting him out of bed would exacerbate his pathophysiology. After exhausting several unhelpful texts, I turned to the journals. PubMed was decades away, and the National Library of Medicine hadn't yet begun to help the Armed Forces Medical Library with its Current List of the Medical Literature. Nonetheless, it directed me to a citation in the Journal of Clinical Investigation (back in the days when it was a real clinical j ou rnal) for: ‘The treatment of acute infectious hepatitis. Controlled studies of the effects of diet, rest, and physical reconditioning on the acute course of the disease and on the incidence of relapses and residual abnormalities.’1 Reading this paper not only changed my treatment plan for my patient, it forever changed my attitude toward conventional wisdom, uncovered my latent iconoclasm, and inaugurated my career inwhat I later labelled ‘clinical epidemiology’.The paper introduced me to Tom Chalmers, who quickly became my hero and, a decade later, my friend. Tom was a US Army gastroenterologist in the Korean War, and had become involved ina major outbreak of ‘infectious’ hepatitis among American recruits. The application of conventional wisdom on enforced bed rest was keeping affected soldiers in hospital for about two months and requiring another month's convalescence. Tom wrote: ‘This drain on military manpower, along with more recent [short-term metabolic] observations suggesting that strict bed rest might not be as essential as heretofore thought, emphasized the need for a controlled study to determine the safety of a more liberal regimen of rest and less prolonged hospitalization’.Employing what I increasingly came to recognize as ‘elegant simplicity’, Tom and his colleagues allocated soldiers who met pre-defined hepatitis criteria at random either to bed rest (continuously in bed, save for one trip daily to the bathroom and one trip to the shower weekly), or to be up and about as much as the patients wanted (with no effort made to control their activity save 1-hour rests after meals) throughout their hospital stay. The time to recovery (as judged by liver function testing) was indistinguishable between the comparison groups, and no recurrent jaundice was observed.Armed with this evidence, I convinced my supervisors to let me apologize to my patient and let him be up and about as much as he wished. He did, and his clinical course was uneventful.My subsequent ‘clinical course’ was far from uneventful. I became a ‘trouble-maker’, constantly questioning conventional therapeutic wisdom, and offending especially thesubspecialists when they pontificated (I thought) about how I ought to be treating my patients. I had a stormy time in obstetrics, where I questioned why patients with severe pre-eclampsia received intravenous morphine until their respirations fell below 12 per minute. I gained unfavourable notoriety on the medical ward, where I challenged a consultant's recommendation that I should ignore my patient's diastolic blood pressure of 125 mmHg ‘because it was essential for his brain perfusion’. And I deeply offended a professor of paediatrics by publicly correcting him on the number of human chromosomes (they had fallen from 48 to 46 the previous month!).Tom Chalmers, along with Ed Fries (who answered the question about whether diastolic blood pressure should be ignored) and Archie Cochrane, became my role models. Ten years after I discharged my hepatitis patient, armed with some book-learning and blessed with brilliant colleagues, I began to emulate these mentors by converting my passive skepticism into active inquiry, addressing such questions as: Why do you have to be a physician in order to provide first-contact primary care?5 Are the ‘experts’ corr ect that teaching people with raised blood pressure all about their illness really makes them more likely to take their medicine?6 Just because the aorto-coronary arterial bypass is good for ischaemic hearts, should we accept claims that extracranial–intracranial arterial bypass is good for ischaemic brains?7In the year that the paper by T om Chalmers and his colleagues was published, there were only 347 reports of randomized trials. Half a century later, about 50,000 reports of randomized trials were being published every year, with the total number of trial reports by then exceeding half amillion. I am proud to have contributed to this development, to the skepticism that drives it, and to the better informed treatment decisions and choices which have been made possible as a result.。
英语：英汉十大区别
英语：英汉十大区别英语：英汉十大区别英语：英汉十大区别一、英语重结构，汉语重语义我国著名语言学家王力先生曾经说过：就句子的结构而论，西洋语言是法治的，中国语言是人治的。
(《中国语法理论》，《王力文集》第一卷，第35页，山东教育出版社，1984年)我们看一看下面的例子：children will play with dolls equipped with personality chips, computers with inbuilt （成为固定装置的，嵌入墙内的；内在的，固有的）personalities will be regarded as workmates rather than tools, relaxation will be in front of smell television, and digital age will have arrived。
译文：儿童将与装有个性芯片的玩具娃娃玩耍，具有个性内置的计算机将被视为工作伙伴而不是工具，人们将在气味电视前休闲，到这时数字时代就来到了。
这句英语是由四个独立句构成的并列句，前三个句子都用简单将来时，最后一个句子用的是将来完成时，句子之间的关系通过时态、逗号和并列连词and表示得一清二楚。
而汉语译文明显就是简单的叙述，至于句子之间的关系完全通过句子的语义表现出来：前三个句子可以看成是并列关系，最后一个句子则表示结果。
二、英语多长句，汉语多短句由于英语是"法治"的语言，只要结构上没有出现错误，许多意思往往可以放在一个长句中表达；汉语则正好相反，由于是"人治"，语义通过字词直接表达，不同的意思往往通过不同的短句表达出来。
正是由于这个原因，考研英译汉试题几乎百分之百都是长而复杂的句子，而翻译成中文经常就成了许多短小的句子。
例如：interest in historical methods had arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline （身心的锻炼，训练；纪律，风纪，命令服从；惩戒，惩罚；学科，科目）and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves.译文：人们对历史研究方法产生了兴趣，这与其说是因为外部对历史作为一门知识学科的有效性提出了挑战，还不如说是因为历史学家内部发生了争吵。
Libby Boxes 解释
link 1是External Validity外部效度（外部有效性）：一个概念推导出来的结论的真实程度。
即由X推广到Y的有效性，Y是不同于X的其他范围的事物link 2 和3 是Construct Validity结构效度：是从内部程序和措施来概括link4：Statistical Conclusion Validity 统计结论的正确性link5是Internal Validity 内部效度：推导因果关系Article SummaryName _____________________________Article ________________________________________________________________1. Fill in the four Libby boxes, to identify the primary research questionsConceptual Level 概念层面What is the conceptual question? Operational LevelWhat is the operational question? 操作层面Control Variables:控制变量_____________________________________________________2. What is the research problem (or question)?我们研究什么东西 ______________________________________________________________________________________________________3. What is the motivation? (why is this important?)研究的目的是什么 即这个问题很重要，重要的原因是什么 所以我们要研究 ___________________________________________________________________________________________________4. What is the solution (findings)?研究 结论是什么_________________________________________5. What are the major statistical tests? 使用的主要统计模型的方式______________________________________LIBBY BOX简单原理：我们要解释一个问题，即概念A：“智慧”会影响概念B：“学业成就”。
validity翻译
validity翻译
有效性（validity）是指研究结果的意义、准确性和可操作性。
它的
内容包括：普遍性（generality）、内部有效性（internal validity）、外部有效性（external validity）和内容有效性（content validity）。
普遍性（generality）是指研究发现的效果具有普遍性，因而可在多
个环境和情景中使用。
它有助于确定研究结果是否具有更广泛的应用价值。
内部有效性（internal validity）是指测量所检测变化是由研究设
计或者操作所造成的一种可靠性。
这意味着研究应该以最少的外部因素干
扰作为基准，以便研究结果不被其他外来变量的影响所偏离。
外部有效性（external validity）是指研究结果能否正确反映受试
者的实际行为和能力。
它涉及到样品取向、干扰因素、历史效应，以及其
他可能影响研究结果的变量。
内容有效性（content validity）是指从技术上来说，研究中使用的
测量工具能否有效地评估被试者的能力或行为。
其部分内容包括：可测量性、具体性、可行性、简洁性以及对受试者有吸引力等。
案例研究法
择旳管理情境，如生死危机等。
（二）执行阶段
１．搜集数据资料 案例研究旳数据起源涉及五种： ①文件资料 ②访谈 访谈旳类型主要有下列三种：
开放型访谈
半构造型访谈
构造型访谈
③观察 1．参加型观察 2．非参加型观察
④档案统计
⑤实物资料
研究者不只是一位被动旳 观察者，而是真正参加正
2．多案例研究 多案例研究（Multiple Cases）中，研究者首先要将每一种案例及其
主题作为独立旳整体进行进一步旳分析，即案例内分析（Within-Case Analysis）。依托于同一研究主旨，在彼此独立旳案例内分析旳基础上， 研究者将对全部案例进行归纳、总结，并得出抽象旳、精辟旳研究结论， 这一分析被称作为跨案例分析（Cross-Case Analysis ）。 （例如生活质 量满意度研究，医学药物临床试验等等）
个别知识,引 出一般知识
旳推理
1.难以对发觉进行归纳：案例研究旳归纳不是统计性旳而是分 析性旳，这肯定使归纳带有一定旳随意性和主观性。
2.技术上旳局限和研究者旳偏见：案例研究没有一种原则化旳 数据分析措施，证据旳提出和数据旳解释带有可选择性，研究者在 乎见上旳分歧以及研究者旳其他偏见都会影响数据分析旳成果。
但是当理论命题不存在时，是个能够采用旳替代措施
（三）总结阶段（撰写报告 ）
案例研究成果旳表述形式具有很大程度旳灵活性，并不存在原则 或统一旳报告格式。但在社会科学研究领域，经常会使用与案例研究 过程相匹配旳格式，从而将案例研究报告分为相对独立旳几种部分： ①背景描述；②特定问题、现象旳描述和分析；③分析与讨论；④小 结与提议。
2.选择案例
案例选择旳原则与研究旳对象和研究要回答旳问题有关，它拟定 了什么样旳属性能为案例研究带来有 意义旳数据。案例研究能够使用 一种案例或涉及多种案例。应以为单个案例研究能够用作确认或挑战 一种理论，也能够用作提出一种独特旳或极端旳案例。多案例研究旳 特点在于它涉及了两个分析阶段—— 案例内分析和跨案例分析。前者 是把每一种案例看成独立旳整体进行全方面旳分析 , 后者是在前者旳 基础上对全部旳案例进行统一旳抽象和归纳 , 进而得出更精辟旳描述 和更有力旳解释。
最齐全的人力资源常用英语词汇
英汉人力资源管理核心词汇16PF 卡特尔16种人格因素测试360-degree appraisal 360度评估360-degree feedback 360度反馈7S 7S原则/模型New 7S 新7S原则/模型80/20 principle 80/20 法则AAR-After Action Review 行动后学习机制Ability Test 能力测试Ability of Manager 管理者的能力Absence Management 缺勤管理Absence rate 缺勤率Absent with leave 因故缺勤（被）许可缺勤Absent without Leave 无故缺勤擅离职守Absenteeism 缺勤Accelerating Premium 累进奖金制Accident Frequency 事故频率Accident Insurance 意外伤害保险Accident Investigation 事故调查Accident Loss 事故损失Accident Prevention 事故预防Accident Proneness 事故（频发）倾向Accident Severity 事故严重程度Accident Severity Rate 事故严重率Accident Work Injury 工伤事故Achievement Need 成就需求Achievement Test 成就测试Action Learning 行动（为）学习法Action Research 行动研究Active Practice 自动实习Adjourning 解散期解散阶段Administer 管理者Administrative Level 管理层次Administrative Line 直线式管理ADR-Alternative Dispute Resolution建设性争议解决方法Adventure learning 探险学习法Adverse Impact 负面影响Advertisement Recruiting 广告招聘Affective Commitment 情感认同Affiliation Need 归属需求Affirmative Action 反优先雇佣行动Age Composition 年龄结构Age Discrimination 年龄歧视Age Retirement 因龄退休Agreement Content 协议内容ALIEDIM 费茨帕特里克出勤管理模型Allowance 津贴Alternative Ranking Method 交替排序法Amoeba Management 变形虫式管理Analytic Approach 分析法Annual Bonus 年终分红Annual Leave 年假Annuity/Pension 退休金Applicant-Initiated Recruitment 自荐式招聘Application Blank 申请表Appraisal Feedback 考评反馈Appraisal Interview 考评面谈Appraisal Standardization 考评标准化Appraiser Training 考评者培训Apprenticeship Training 学徒式培训Arbitration/Mediation 仲裁Assessment Center 评价中心ATS-Applicant Tracking System 求职跟踪系统Attendance 考勤Attendance Incentive Plan 参与式激励计划Attendance Rate 出勤率Attitude Survey 态度调查Attribution Theory 归因理论Audiovisual Instruction 视听教学Authority 职权Availability Analysis 可获性分析Availability Forecast 供给预测Background Investigation 背景调查Balance-Sheet Approach 决算表平衡法Bargaining Issue 谈判问题BARS-Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale Method 行为锚定等级法Basic Skill 基础技能Behavior Modeling 行为模拟Behavior Modification 行为矫正疗法Behavioral Description Interview 工作方式介绍面试Behavioral Rating 工作方式考核法BEI-behavior event interview 行为事件访谈法Benchmark Job 基准职位Benchmarking Management 标杆管理Benefit Plan 福利计划Benefit/Welfare 福利BFOQ-Bona Fide Occupational Qualification 实际职业资格Biological Approach 生物型工作设计法Board Interview 会议型面试BOS-Behavior Observation Scale 行为观察量表Borter-Lawler's theory of Expectency 波特—劳勒期望激励理论Bottom-Line Concept 底线概念Boundaryless Organizational Structure 无疆界组织结构Bounded Rationality 有限理性Brainstorm Ideas 头脑风暴法Broadbanding Pay Structure 扁平薪资结构BSC-balanced scorecard 平衡计分卡Burnout 精力耗尽Business Necessity 经营上的必要性Cafeteria-Style Benefit 自助式福利CAI-Computer-assisted Instruction 电脑辅助指导Campus Recruiting 校园招聘Candidate-Order Error 侯选人次序错误Career Anchors 职业锚/职业动机Career Counseling 职业咨询Career Curve 职业曲线Career Cycle 职业周期Career Development Method 职业发展方法Career Path 职业途径Career Path Information 职业途径信息Career Planning 职业规划career plateau 职业高原Career Stage 职业阶段Career Training 专业训练职业训练Career-Long Employment 终身雇佣制Case Studay Training Method 案例研究培训法CBT-Computer Based Training 以计算机为载体的培训Central Tendency 居中趋势CIPP-Context,Input,Process,Product CIPP 评估模型CIRO-Context Evaluation,Input Valuation,Reaction Evaluation,Output Evaluation CIRO培训评估模式CIT-Critical Incident Technique 关键事件技术Classification Method 分类法Classroom Training 课堂培训Closed Shop 闭门企业CMI-Computer-managed Instruction 电脑管理指导Coaching 辅导教练Co-Determination 共同决策制Coercive Power 强制权力Cognitive Aptitude Test 认知能力测试Cohesiveness 凝聚力Colleague Appraisal 同事考评Collective Bargaining 劳资谈判Comparable Worth 可比价值Comparative Appraisal Method 比较评估法Compensable Factor 报酬要素Compensation & Benefit 薪酬福利Compensation Committee 报酬委员会Compensatory Time Off 补假Competence-Based Interview 基于能力的面试Competency Assessment 能力评估Competency 胜任特征Competency Model 胜任特征模型Competency-Based Education and Training 能力本位教育与训练Competency-Based Pay/Skill-Based Pay 技能工资Complex 情结Compressed Workweek 压缩工作周Compulsory Binding Arbitration 强制性仲裁Computerized Career Progression System 电脑化职业生涯行进系统Computerized Forecast 电脑化预测Conceptual Skill 概念性技能Conciliation 调解Concurrent Validity 同期正当性Conference Method 会议方法Conflict 冲突Conflict Management 冲突管理Construct Validity 结构效度Constructive Discharge 事实上的解雇Content Validity 内容效度Contractual Right 契约性权利Contrast Error 比较性错误Contributory Plan 须付费的退休金计划Coordination Training 合作培训Copayment 共同付费Core Competency 核心竞争力Core Value 核心价值观Core Worker 核心员工Core Workforce 核心工作团队Corporate Culture 企业文化Corporate Identity 企业识别Corporate Image 企业形象Correlation Analysis 相关分析Cost Per Hire 单位招聘成本Criterion-Related Validity 标准关联效度Critical Job Dimension 关键性工作因子Cross-Functional Training 跨功能训练Cross-Training 岗位轮换培训Culture Shock 文化冲突Cumulative Trauma Disorder 累积性工伤Cutoff Score 录用分数线Cyclical Variation 循环变动Decertification 取消认可Defined Benefit Plan 固定收益制Delphi Analysis 德尔菲分析Deutero Learning 再学习Differential Piece Rate 差额计件工资Dimission 离职Dimission Interview 离职面谈Dimission Rate 离职率Disciplinary Action 纪律处分Discriminant Analysis 判别分析dismissal reason 解雇理由disparate impact 差别性影响disparate treatment 差别性对待distribute bonus/profit sharing 分红distributive bargaining 分配式谈判distributive justice 分配公正diversity management 多样性管理diversity training 多样化培训division structure 事业部结构Double-Loop Learning 双环学习Downsizing 裁员DTL-Decision Tree Induction 决策树归纳法Dual Career Path 双重职业途径dust hazard 粉尘危害EAP-Employee Assistance Program 员工帮助计划Early Retirement 提前退休Early Retirement Factor 提前退休因素Early Retirement Window 提前退休窗口Earnings 薪资Economic Strike 经济罢工Education 学历Education Subsidy 教育津贴EEO-Equal Employment Opportunity 公平就业机会EEOC-Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 公平就业机会委员会Effect Factors of Career Planning 职业规划影响因素Effect Factors of Development 开发影响因素Effective Coaching Technique 有效的训练方法Effective Working Hour 有效工时Efficiency of Labor 劳动效率Efficiency Wage 效率工资Ego-Involvement 自我投入E-Learning 网络化学习Election Campaign 选举活动Electronic Meeting 电子会议Emotional Appeal 感召力Employee Attitude Surveys 员工态度调查Employee Career Management 员工职业生涯管理Employee Consultation Services 员工咨询服务Employee Equity 员工公平Employee Leasing 员工租借Employee Involvement 员工参与Employee Manual 员工手册Employee Orientation 员工向导Employee Ownership 员工所有制Employee Polygraph Protection Act 《雇员测谎保护法案》[美]Employee Potential 员工潜能Employee Referral 在职员工推荐Employee Retirement Income Security Act 《职工退休收入保障法》[美]Employee Safety and Health 员工安全和健康Employee Security 员工安全Employee Security Measures 员工安全措施Employee Self-Service 员工自助服务Employee Services Benefits 员工服务福利Employee Skill 员工技能Employee Stock Ownership Trust 企业员工持股信托Employee Surplus 员工过剩Employee Survey 员工测评Employee Training Method 员工培训方法Employee Turnover 员工流动Employee Turnover Rate 员工流动率Employee Under Training 受训员工Employee-Centered Job Redesign 以员工为中心的工作再设计Employees Bonus 雇员红利Employer Unfair Labor Practices 雇主不当劳动行为Employment 雇用Employment Agency 职业介绍所Employment Application Form 应聘申请表Employment at will 自由就业Employment Consultant 招聘顾问Employment Contract Renewal 雇用合同续签Employment Diseases 职业病Employment History 工作经历Employment Objective 应聘职位Employment Offer/Enrollment 录用Employment Relationship 员工关系Employment Separation Certificate 离职证明书Empowerment 激励自主Entitlement 授权法EQ-Emotional Quotient 情感智商EPA-Equal Pay Act 《平等工资法案》Equal Pay For Equal Work 同工同酬Equity Theory 公平理论E-Recruit 网络招聘ERG theory ERG 理论ERM-Employee Relationship Management 员工关系管理ERP-Enterprise Resource Planning 企业资源计划ESOP-Employee Stock Ownership Plan 员工持股计划Essay Method 叙述法ETS-Environmental Tobacco Smoke 工作场所吸烟问题E-Survey 电子调查Evaluation Criterion 评价标准Excellent Leader 优秀领导Executive Ability 执行力Executive Compensation 管理层薪资水平Executive Development Program 主管发展计划Executive Director 执行董事Executive Management 行政管理Executive Marketing Director 市场执行总监Executive Recruiters 高级猎头公司Executive Salaries 管理层工资Exempt Employee 豁免员工Exit Interview 离职面谈Expectancy Theory 期望理论Expectation 期望值Expected Salary 期望薪水Experimental Method 实验法Experimental Research 试验调查Expiry of Employment 雇用期满Exploit of HR 人力资源开发External Costs 外部成本External Employment 外部招聘External Environment of HR 人力资源外部环境External Equity 外部公平External Labor Supply 外部劳力供应External Recruiting Sources 外部招聘来源External Recruitment Environment 外部招聘环境Extra Work 加班Extrinsic Rewards 外部奖励Face Validity 表面效度Factor Comparison Method 因素比较法Fair Labor Standards Act 《公平劳动标准法案》Family and Medical Leave Act 《家庭和医疗假期条例》[美]Fiedler Contingency Model 费德勒的权变模型First Impression Effect 初次印象效应Five-Day Workweek 每周五天工作制Fixed Term Appointment 固定期聘用Fixed Term Contract 固定任期合同Fixed Term Staff 固定期合同工FJA-Functional Job Analysis 功能性工作分析法Flat Organizational Structure 扁平化组织结构Flex Place 弹性工作地点Flex Plan 弹性工作计划flex time 弹性工作时间Flexible Benefits Program 弹性福利计划Forced Distribution Method 强制分配法Forced-Choice Method 强迫性选择法Formal Organization 正式组织Front-Line Manager 基层管理人员Full-Time 全职Function 职能Function of HRM 人力资源管理职能Functional Conflict Theory 冲突功能理论Functional Department 职能部门Funeral Leave 丧假Fundamental Attribution Error 基本归因误差Gain-Sharing Plan 收益分享计划Gang Boss 领班/小组长Gantt Charts 甘特图GATB-General Aptitude Test Battery 普通能力倾向成套测验General Union 总工会Given Role Playing 角色定位演示法Glass Ceiling 玻璃天花板Goal Conflict 目标冲突GOJA-Guidelines Oriented Job Analysis 指导性工作分析Golden Handshake 黄金握别Golden Parachute 黄金降落伞Graphic Rating Scale 图尺度评价法Grievance Mediation 抱怨调解Grievance Procedure 抱怨程序Gross Pay/Total Payroll 工资总额Group Appraisal 团体/小组奖金Group Congeniality/Cohesiveness 群体凝集力Group Life Insurance 团体人寿保险Group Pension Plan 团体退休金计划Group Piece Work 集体计件制Guaranteed Employment Offer 雇用信H•C•Gantt Premium System 甘特奖励工资制H•Emerson Premium System 艾末生奖励工资制Halo Effect 晕轮效应Halseys Premium System 哈尔赛奖励工资制Handwriting Analysis 笔迹分析法Headhunting 猎头Health Insurance 健康保险H-Form/Holding Company H型结构Hierarchy of Needs Theory 需要层次理论High Performance Organization 高绩效组织High-Performance Work System 高绩效工作系统HMO-Health Maintenance Organization 健康维护组织Holiday Pay 假日薪水Home/Family Leave 探亲假Horizontal Career Path 横向职业途径Hot Stove Rule 热炉规则Housing/Rental Allowance 住房补贴HR Generalist 人力资源通才HR Information System 人力资源信息系统HR Manager 人力资源经理HR Officer 人力资源主任HR Policy 人力资源政策HRCI-Human Resource Certification Institute 人力资源认证机构HRD Appraisal 人力资源开发评价HRD Intermediary 人力资源开发媒介HRD Process 人力资源开发过程HRD-Human Resource Development 人力资源开发HRM-Human Resource Management 人力资源管理HRP-Human Resource Planning 人力资源规划Human Relations Movement 人际关系运动Hygiene Factor 保健因素Hypnosis 催眠Ill-Health Retirement 病退In-Basket Training 篮中训练Incentive Compensation/RewardPayment/Premium 奖金Incentive Plan 激励计划Incentive-Suggestion System 奖励建议制度Incident Process 事件处理法Independent Contractor 合同工Indirect Financial Compensation 间接经济报酬Individual Incentive Plan 个人奖金方案Individual Income Tax 个人所得税Individual Interview 个别谈话Individual Retirement Account 个人退休账户Industrial Injury Compensation 工伤补偿Industrial Union 产业工会Informal Communication 非正式沟通Informal Organization 非正式组织In-House Training 在公司内的培训Initial Interview 初试Insurance Benefit 保险福利Internal Environment of HR 人力资源内部环境Internal Equity 内部公平Internal Growth Strategy 内部成长战略Internal Job Posting 内部职位公开招聘Internal Recruitment 内部招聘Internal Recruitment Environment 内部招聘环境Interpersonal Skill 人际交往能力Interview Appraisal 面谈考评Interview Content 面试内容Interview Method 访谈法Interview Objective 面试目标Interview Planning List 面试计划表Intrinsic Reward 内在奖励Jack Welch's Management 韦尔奇式管理JAS-Job Analysis Schedule 工作分析计划表Job 工作、职业Job Account 工作统计Job Action 变相罢工(如怠工、放慢速度等) Job Aid 工作辅助Job Assignment 工作分配Job Analysis 工作分析Job Analysis Formula 工作分析公式Job Analysis Methods 工作分析方法Job Analysis Information 工作分析信息Job Analysis Process 工作分析流程JAP-Job Analysis Program 工作分析程序法Job Attitude 工作态度Job Bidding 竞争上岗Job Card 工作单Job Characteristic 工作因素Job Characteristics Model 工作特性模式Job Classification 职位分类Job Clinic 职业问题咨询所Job Code 工作编号，职位编号Job Context 工作背景Job Description 职位描述，工作说明Job Design 工作设计Job Enlargement 工作扩大化Job Enrichment 工作丰富化Job Evaluation 工作评估Job-Family 工作群Job Identification 工作识别Job Involvement 工作投入Job Inventory 工作测量表Job Knowledge Test 业务知识测试Job Morale 工作情绪Job Performance 工作表现Job Plan 工作计划Job Posting 公开招聘Job Pricing 工作定价Job Qualification and Restriction 工作任职条件和资格Job Redesign 工作再设计Job Rotation 工作轮换Job Satisfaction 工作满意度Job Security 工作安全感Job Scope 工作范围Job Sharing 临时性工作分担Job Specialization 工作专业化Job Specification 工作要求细则Job Standard 工作标准Job Stress 工作压力Job Surrounding 工作环境Job Time Card 工作时间卡Job Vacancy 职业空缺，岗位空缺Job-hop 跳槽频繁者Job-posting system 工作告示系统JTPA-Job Training Partnership Act 《职业培训协作法》J•S•Adams Equity Theory 亚当斯的公平理论Junior Board 初级董事会Johari Window 约哈瑞窗户Just Cause 正当理由Karoshi 过劳死Keogh Plan 基欧计划KPI-key Process Indication 企业关键业绩指标Kirkpatrick's Four-level Model of Evaluation 四阶层评估模型Knowledge Database 知识数据库Knowledge Management 知识管理KSA－knowledge ,skill, attitude 知识，技能，态度Labor Clause 劳工协议条款Labor Condition 劳动条件Labor Contract 劳动合同，雇佣合同Labor Contract Renewal 劳动合同续签Labor Cost 劳动成本Labor Demand Forecast 劳动力需求预测Labor Discipline 劳动纪律Labor Dispute 劳动纠纷Labor Exchange/Employment Agency 职业介绍所Labor Handbook 劳动手册Labor Insurance 劳保Labor Laws 劳动法Labor Management Relations Act 《劳动关系法》Labor Market 劳动力市场Labor Protection 劳动保护Labor Rate Variance 工资率差异Labor Redundance 劳动力过剩Labor Relation 劳动关系Labor Relation Consultant 劳工关系顾问Labor Relations Process 劳工关系进程Labor Reserve劳动力储备Labor Shortage劳动力短缺Labor Stability Index人力稳定指数Labor Wastage Index 人力耗损指数Labor/Trade Union 工会Labor/Working Hour 人工工时Labor-Management 劳动管理Lateral Communication 横向沟通Lateral Thinking 横向思维Layoff 临时解雇Layoff Process 临时解雇程序Leader Attach Training 领导者匹配训练Leaderless Group Discussion 无领导小组讨论法Leader-Member Exchange Theory 领导者-成员交换理论Leader-Member Relation 上下级关系Leader-Participation Model 领导参与模式Leadership 领导能力Learning Curve 学习曲线Learning Organization 学习型组织Learning Performance Test 学习绩效测试Legitimate Power 合法权力Level-to-Level Administration 分级管理Life Cycle Theory of Leadership 领导生命周期理论Life Insurance 人寿保险Likes and Dislikes Survey 好恶调查表Limitation Factors of PA 考评的限制因素Line Manager 直线经理Line Authority 直线职权Line-Staff Relationship 直线参谋关系Line Structure 直线结构Loaned Personnel 借调人员Lockout 停工闭厂Locus of Control 内外控倾向Long Term Trend 长期趋势Long-Distance Education 远程教育Long-Range Strategy 长期策略Long-Term Contract 长期合同Lower Management 基层管理Lower-Order Need 低层次需求Lump Sum Bonus/Pay Incentive 绩效奖金Lump-Sum Merit Program 一次性总付绩效报酬计划Managed Care 有控制的医疗保健Management As Porpoise 海豚式管理Management Assessment Center 管理评价中心Management by Walking About 走动管理Management Development 管理层开发Management Development of IBM IBM的管理层开发Management of Human Resource Development 人力资源开发管理Management Psychology 管理心理学Management Right 管理权Management Risk 管理风险Management Tool 管理工具Management Training 管理培训Managerial Art 管理艺术Managerial Authority 管理权威Managerial Function 管理职能Managerial Grid Theory 管理方格理论Mandated Benefit 强制性福利Mandatory Bargaining Issue 强制性谈判项目Marital Status 婚姻状况Market Price 市场工资Markov Analysis 马尔可夫分析过程Marriage Leave 婚假Massed Practice 集中练习集中学习Matrix Structure 矩阵结构MBO-Management By Objective 目标管理MBTI-Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 迈尔斯—布里格个性类型测量表Mc-Clelland's Theory of Needs 麦克里兰需要理论McDonnell-Douglas Test 麦当纳道格拉斯法Mechanistic Approach 机械型工作设计法Mediator/Negotiator 调解人Medical Insurance 医疗保险Medical/Physical Ability Inspection/Physical Ability Test 体检Membership Group 实属群体Mental Ability Test 逻辑思维测试Mentor 指导者Mentoring 辅导制Mentoring Function 指导功能Merit Pay 绩效工资Merit Raise 绩效加薪Metrics-Driven Staffing Model 标准驱动招聘模式Mid-Career Crisis Sub Stage 中期职业危机阶段Minimum Wage 最低工资Mission Installation Allowance 出差津贴Mixed-Standard Scale Method 多重标准尺度法Motivation 激励Motivational Approach 激励型工作设计法Motivational Factor 激励因素Motivational Pattern 激励方式Motivation-hygiene Theory 激励保健论MPS-Motivating Potential Score 激励潜能分数Multidivisional Structure M型结构Multimedia Technology 多媒体技术Multiple Cutoff Model 多切点模式Multiple Hurdle Model 跨栏模式National Culture 民族文化National Union (国家)总工会Needs Assessment 需求评估Negligent Hiring 随意雇佣Nepotism 裙带关系Network Career Path 网状职业途径Networking 网络化（组织）NGT-Nominal Group Technique 群体决策法No Financial Compensation 非经济报酬Noncontributory Plan 非付费退休金计划Nondirective Interview 非定向面试Nondiscrimination Rule 非歧视性原则Nonexempt Employee 非豁免的员工Nonverbal Communication 非言语沟通No-Pay Study Leave 无薪进修假期Normal Retirement 正常退休Normative Analysis 规范分析法No-Smoking Rule 禁烟规定object teaching 实物教学,直观教学observation method 观察法occupational choice 职业选择occupational disease 职业病occupational environment 职业环境occupational guidance 职业指导,就业指导Occupational Health &Safety Training 职业安全与卫生培训occupational market condition 职业市场状况occupational mobility 职业流动性occupational outlook handbook 职业展望手册offer letter 录用通知书off-the-job training 脱产培训Ombudsperson 督察专员OMS-Occupational Measurement System 职业测定系统on boarding training 入职培训on-the-job training 在职培训open-door policy 门户开放政策opinion survey 意见调查organization 组织organization change and development 组织变革与发展organization character 组织特征organization design 组织设计organization development appraisal 组织发展评价organization development method 组织发展方法organization environment 组织环境organization goal 组织目标organization renewal 组织革新organization size 组织规模organization structure 组织结构organizational analysis 组织分析organizational authority 组织职权organizational career planning 组织职业规划organizational citizenship behavior 组织公民行为organizational climate 组织气候organizational commitment 组织认同感organizational diagnosis 组织诊断organizational function 组织职能organizational level 组织层次organizational merger 组织合并organizational orientation 组织定位organizational/job stress 组织/工作压力organization-centered career planning 以企业为中心的职业计划organized administration 组织管理orientation 岗前培训orientation objective 岗前培训目标orientation period 岗前培训阶段OSHA standard 美国职业安全与健康局/职业安全与健康法案标准out placement 岗外安置oversea assignment 海外工作overtime hour 加班工时overtime wage 加班工资overtime work 加班paired comparison method 配对比较法panel/group interview 小组面试PA-Performance Analysis 绩效分析Parkinson's Law 帕金森定律participant diary 现场工人日记participative management 参与式管理part-time job 兼职PAS-Performance Appraisal 绩效评估体系pattern bargaining 模式谈判patterned behavior description interview 模式化行为描述面试pay calculation 工资结算pay card 工资卡pay cheque/employee paycheck 工资支票pay compression 压缩工资Pay day 发薪日pay equity 报酬公平pay freeze 工资冻结pay grade 工资等级pay period 工资结算周期pay range 工资幅度pay rate 工资率pay rate adjustment 工资率调整pay secrecy 工资保密pay slip/envelop 工资单pay survey 薪酬调查pay/salary rate standard 工资率标准payroll system 工资管理系统Payroll tax 工资所得税payroll/wage analysis 工资分析payroll/wage form 工资形式payroll/wage fund 工资基金pension plan 退休金计划pension/retirement benefit 退休福利people-first value "以人为本"的价值观perceptual-motor approach 知觉运动型工作设计法performance appraisal 绩效评估performance appraisal interview 绩效评估面谈performance appraisal objective 绩效评估目标performance appraisal period 考评期performance appraisal principle 绩效评估原则performance feedback 绩效反馈performance management system 绩效管理制度performance standard 绩效标准performance-reward relationship 绩效与报酬关系periodic salary adjustment 定期薪资调整permissive management 放任式管理personal character 个人性格,个性personal grievance 个人抱怨personal information record 人事档案personal leave 事假personality test 个性测试Personality-Job Fit Theory 性格与工作搭配理论personnel selection 选拔personnel test 人格测验品格测验Peter M. Senge's Theory of Learning Organization 彼德•圣吉的学习型组织理论physiological need 生理需要piece-rate system 计件工资制pink slip 解雇通知point method 因素计点法polygraph test 测谎测试position analysis questionnaire 职位分析问卷法position description 职位描述position vacant 招聘职位positional level 职位层次positional title 职称post wage system 岗位工资制power distance 权力距离practice 实习predictive validity 预测效度premium plan/incentive system/reward system 奖金制pre-natal/maternity leave 产假prescribed group 正式群体primary welfare 基本福利privacy right 隐私权prize contest 奖励竞争probationary term/probation period 试用期problem-solving team 问题解决团队procedural justice 过程正义process benchmarking 流程标杆管理professional certificate 职业资格证书professional competence/capacity 专业能力professional ethics 职业道德professional examination 专业考试professional liability insurance 职业责任保险professional manager 职业经理人profit-sharing plan 利润分享计划programmed instruction 程序教学projective personality test 人格投射测试promote/demote 晋升/降职protected group 受保护群体psychic reward 精神奖励psychoanalysis 心理分析psychological characteristic/feature 心理特征psychological contract 心理/精神契约psychological factor 心理因素psychological goal 心理目标psychological phenomenon 心理现象psychological test/psychometry 心理测验心理测试psychomotor abilities test 运动神经能力测试quality circles 质量圈quantity of applicant 侯选人数量questionnaire method 问卷调查法quit rate 离职率Race Discrimination 种族歧视Ranking Method 排序法Rater Bias 评估偏差Rating Certificate 等级证书Ratio Analysis 比率分析法Realistic Job Preview 实际岗位演习Reality Shock 现实冲击Reallocate 重新安排重新分配Recommend 员工推荐Recreation Leave Allowance 休假津贴Recreation/Sabbatical Leave 休假Recruiter 招聘人员Recruitment 招聘Recruitment Ditch 招聘渠道Recruitment Examination 招聘考试Recruitment Method 招聘方法Recruitment Optional Program 招聘备择方案Recruitment Task Guide 招募工作指导Red-Circled Employee 红圈员工Reducing Accident 减少事故Reducing Burnout 减少衰竭Reengineering the Corporation 企业再造Reference Check 个人证明材料检查Refusing Applicant 拒绝求职者Regency Effect 近因性错误Regression Analysis 回归分析Regular Earning/Pay/Wage 固定工资Regular Incentive 常规奖励Rehiring 回聘Reinforcement Theory 强化理论Reliability Evaluation 信度评估Renege 违约Replacement Cost 重置成本Requirement Identification 需求识别Requisite Task Attributes Theory 必要任务属性理论Resignation 辞职Resume 简历Resume Inventory 简历数据库Resumption from Leave 销假Retiree System 退休制度Retirement 退休Retirement Age 退休年龄Retirement Fund 退休基金Return of Talent 人才回流Rewarding by Merit/Pay According to Work 业绩报酬Right to Rest and Leisure 休息权Risk Pay Planning 风险工资计划Rokeach Values Survey 罗克奇价值观调查表Role Ambiguity 角色模糊Role Behavior 角色行为Role Conflict 角色冲突Role Playing 角色扮演Roles of HRM 人力资源管理角色Roll-Down Training 自上而下分级培训法Safety Director 安全负责人Safety Inspection 安全检验Safety Measure 安全措施Safety Program 安全方案Safety Training 安全培训Salary Administration 薪水管理Salary Band/Range 薪水范围Salary Survey 薪资调查Satisficing Decision Model 满意决策模型Scanlon Plan 斯坎伦计划Scatter Plot 散点分析Selection 选拔Selection Criteria 选拔准则Selection Decision 选拔决策Self-Actualization Need 自我实现需要Self-Assessment 自我评价Self-Assessment Tool 自我评估工具Self-Efficacy 自我效能Self-Managed Work Team 自我管理工作团队Self-Perception Theory 自我知觉理论Self-Serving Bias 自我服务偏差Seniority 资历Sensitivity Training 人际敏感性训练Serialized /Sequential Interview 系列式面试Severance Pay 告别费Sexual Discrimination 性别歧视Sexual Harassment 性骚扰Shift Differential 值班津贴Short-Term Contract 短期合同Silver Handshake 银色握手Simulation Exercise 模拟练习Single-Loop Learning 单环学习Situational Interview 情景面试Situational Leadership Theory 情境领导理论Skill Inventory 技能量表Skip-Level Interview 越级谈话SMART SMART分析法Social Security 社会保障Special Purpose Team 特殊目的团队Special Training 特别训练Specialized Course 专门课程Spot Bonus 即时奖金Stabilization Sub Stage 稳定阶段Staff Authority 参谋职权Standard Labor Cost 标准人工成本Standard Wage Rate 标准工资率Statutory Holidays 法定假期Statutory Right 法定权利Stock Option 持股权Straight Piece-Rate System 直接计件工资制Strategic HRD 战略性人力资源开发Strategic HRM 战略性人力资源管理Strength/Weakness Balance Sheet 强/弱平衡表Stress 压力Stress Interview 压力面试Stress Source 压力来源Strictness/Leniency Tendency 偏松或偏紧倾向Strike 罢工Structure Employment 结构性就业Structured Interview 结构化面试Subculture 亚文化Subordinate Appraisal 下级考评Succession Planning System 接班人规划系统Suggestion System 建议制度Superordinate Appraisal 上级考评Supplement Pay 补充报酬Supplemental Unemployment Benefit 补充性失业福利Survey Feedback 调查反馈Survival Rate 留任率SWOT SWOT分析法Sympathy Strike 同情罢工Synectics 综摄法分合法System Structure 系统结构Systematic Training Model 分类训练模式Systemic Thinking 系统性思考Talent 人才TA-Transactional Analysis 人际关系心理分析（交互作用分析）TAT-Thematic Apperception Test 主题统觉测试Tax Equalization Plan 税负平衡计划Teaching 讲授法Team Building 团队建设Team Spirit 协作精神Team/Group Incentive Plan 团队激励计划Telecommuting Job 远距离工作Termination at Will 随意解雇Test Reliability 测试信度Test Validity 测试效度The Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values 奥波特-凡农-林德赛的价值观研究The Trade Union Law of the People's Republic of China《中华人民共和国工会法》Theory X X理论Theory Y Y理论Time Management 时间管理Timework Work 计时工作TM-Transcendental Meditation 超自然冥想Traditional Career Path 传统职业途径Trainer 培训师Training 培训Training &Development Manager 培训经理Training Administration 培训管理Training Design 培训设计Training Function 培训职能Training Item 培训项目Training Needs Analysis 培训需求分析Training Outcome 培训结果Training Plan 培训计划Training Specialist 培训专员Transfer 调动Travel Allowance 旅行津贴Traveling Expenses Standard 差旅费标准Treatment 待遇Trend Analysis 趋势分析Turnover 人事变动Unclear PA Standard 不明确的绩效评估标准Undue Hardship 过度重负Unemployment 失业Unemployment Compensation 失业津贴Unemployment Insurance 失业保险Unemployment Rate 失业率Union Authorization Card 工会授权卡Union Steward/Delegate 工会代表Union-Free Policy 无工会政策Unit Labor Cost 单位劳动成本Unitary Structure U型结构（一元结构）Unregistered Employment 隐性就业Unsafe act 不安全行为Unsafe Condition 不安全条件Unstructured Interview 非结构化面试Vacation 假期Value-Based Hiring 价值观为基础的雇佣Variable Compensation 可变报酬Vestibule Training 新员工培训技工学校培训Vesting 既定享受退休金权利Violence in the Workplace 工作场所暴力Virtual Organization 虚拟组织Virtual Team 虚拟团队Voluntary Pay Cut 自愿减少工资方案Voluntary Protection Program 自愿保护项目VPT-Vocational Preference Test 职业性向测试Wage Accounting 工资核算Wage Audit 工资审计Wage by Seniority System/Wage-by-Age System 工龄工资制Wage Control 工资控制Wage Curve 工资曲线Wage Deduction 工资扣除额Wage in Cash 现金工资Wage in Kind 实物工资Wage in Sliding Scale 浮动工资Wage Index 工资指数Wage Level 工资水平Wage Plan 工资计划Wage Policy 工资政策Wage Rate Per Hour 计时工资Wage Standard 工资标准Wage Structure 工资结构Wage System 工资制度Wage-Incentive Plan 奖励工资制Warren G．Bennis's Theory of Group development 沃伦•本尼斯的组织发展理论WBS- Work Breakdown Structure 工作分解结构Web Based Training 网络培训Welfare Management 福利管理Welfare Staff 福利工作人员Wellness Program 平安计划Well-Pay 平安费William Ouchi Theory Z 威廉．大内的Z理论Work & Life Balance 工作生活平衡Work Age 工龄Work Attitude 工作态度Work Behavior 工作行为Work Demand 工作要求Work Efficiency 工作效率Work Out 合力促进Work Pressure 工作压力Work Sample 工作样本Work Sampling Technique 工作样本技术Work Schedule 工作进度表Worker Involvement 雇员参与Workplace Learning 工作场所学习Work-Related Injury Leave 工伤假Work-Sample Test 工作样本测试Written Examination 笔试Wrongful Discharge 不当解雇Xerox Program 施乐方案Yellow-Dog Contract 黄狗合同Zero-Base Forecast 零基预测。
外科临床研究的偏倚和真实性分析
本刊特稿文章编号：1005-2208（2010）01-0014-04外科临床研究的偏倚和真实性分析楼文晖【摘要】外科临床研究的结果有内在和外在的真实性，内在真实性与研究的设计和实施有关，反映的是临床研究的真实可信性；外在真实性反映的是研究结果是否有推广价值。
临床研究的设计和实施过程中因各种原因而产生偏倚，会影响研究的内在和外在真实性。
通过双盲、随机、研究方案的标准化等措施可一定程度上避免偏倚的产生。
外科医生熟悉临床偏倚产生的环节和原因，有助于判断外科临床研究结论的真实性，从而在自己的临床实践中更好地运用研究结果。
【关键词】外科；临床研究；偏倚；真实性中图分类号：R6文献标志码：CBias and validity in surgical clinical trial LOU Wen-hui.Department of General Surgery,Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University,Shanghai200032,ChinaAbstract There are internal validity and external validity in clinical trial.Internal validity closely related to clinical trial design and execution,which reflects the accuracy of its conclusions about an intervention’s effects on a given group of subjects under a study’s specific circumstances.External validity deals with the applicability of a study’s conclusions to the real world.Bias generated during the design and execution of clinical trial will jeopardize the internal and external validity。
The Country of Origin effect 原产国效应
Health
Factor analysis
Factors Flavor Health Design KMO=.794 Eigenvalues 4.55 3.10 2.11 sig.<.001 % of Variance 27.15 21.11 20.09 Cumulative % 27.15 48.26 68.35
Sample size: 318 (valid)/330
Results
Factor analysis
德國巧克力包裝便利
德國巧克力包裝精美 德國巧克力外形吸引 德國巧克力香濃。 德國巧克力味道很有層次 德國巧克力口感絲滑 德國巧克力軟硬合適
Design
Flavor
德國巧克力甜度合適
德國巧克力大小合適。 德國巧克力令人容易發胖。 德國巧克力熱量高。 德國巧克力有很多食物添加劑。
Research Question
Q:
What variables will influence the effect of Country-of-Origin
when consumers evaluate products?
Literature Review
Key Theories/ Concepts
Hypothesis
Product Knowledge and Country Knowledge H2a. Levels of product knowledge will moderate the COO Effect.
Low knowledge consumers are more dependent on country-of-origin information when they evaluate products.(Petty and Cacioppo 1981) The more familiar a person is with a product, the higher the possibility that he will use country-of-origin information. (Johansson 1988)
国外SCI研究针刺的两种临床随机对照试验方法的特点分析及评价
国外SCI研究针刺的两种临床随机对照试验方法的特点分析及评价项燕;李瑞【摘要】Objective : The goal of this research was to know the current state of foreign acupuncture through literatures collected by SCI, including methords they used and the existing problems. So we could provide domestic research workers with meaningful information about the development of foreign acupuncture research. Methods :In Web of Science and PubMed database,taking "trials and acupuncture" , "RCT and acupuncture" as title, we finally got 1581 literatures related to acupuncture which were published in Science Citation Index (SCI) Periodicals. We analyzed the characteristics of RCTs involved in the literatures and assess on them. Results Explanatory randomized controlled trials were used in most literatures. But the result of this kind of RCTs presented poor acupuncture outcome,with a view that acupuncture was not superior to sham acupuncture. While more and more western researchers affirmed that pragmatic randomized controlled trials were more suitable for acupuncture with complex interventions as its feature. The poor outcome that acupuncture was not superior to sham acupuncture had been the result of most SCI clinical studies. While the using of technique of fMRI which presents different mechanisms between acupuncture and sham acupuncture was a new trend in the process of improving the trials protocol, which without any doubt was good news for those promoters.Conclusion: The author of this article thinks that the foreign technicians do not really understand acupuncture with" smoothing meridians and collaterals and adjusting qi and blood" as its main effect is the fundamental reason for why the effect of acupuncture in SCI clinical trials is not ideal. For the internal researches, we suggest that ensuring whether to study the mechanism of acupuncture or the comparison clinical effects between acupuncture and other therapies is the most important in future studies. So the most appropriate trial protocol for clinical acupuncture study is available.%目的:为了解国外SCI针刺的发展、研究方法和研究水平及存在的问题,以便于国内针灸学术界及时掌握国际上高水准的针刺研究方法的发展动态.方法:检索web of science,PubMed两大数据库近5年来以“trials and acupuncture”、“RCT and acupuncture”为标题的所有被SCI收录的论文共1581篇,对其内容进行提取并分析试验设计特点和试验质量.结果:国外SCI大部分临床试验采用的是解释性随机对照试验,然其对于解释针刺组疗效优于假针对照组疗效并不理想,也不利国外针刺研究的进一步发展;而实用性随机对照试验在方法学上更适合于复杂干预的针刺临床研究.对于国外SCI的针刺临床试验研究结果显示针刺疗效与假针疗效无差异.结论:通过数据分析,认为国外针刺临床研究中操作者未得针刺“通经络、调气血”之真义才是导致临床研究中针刺疗效不显著的根本原因所在.对于国内研究者来说,今后在选择临床试验设计方案时,应有一个明确的研究目标,无论是选择哪种研究方法,ERCT还是PRCT作为设计方案,重要的是要有一个明确的研究目标,明确研究的目的是探讨针刺的作用机制或针刺特异性还是研究针刺与其他疗法的疗效对比,从而选择最恰当的研究方案.【期刊名称】《针灸临床杂志》【年(卷),期】2012(028)009【总页数】5页(P9-13)【关键词】SCI;针灸;随机对照试验【作者】项燕;李瑞【作者单位】北京中医药大学,北京100029;北京中医药大学,北京100029【正文语种】中文【中图分类】R245-0针刺疗法是中国传统医学的重要组成部分，蕴含着中华民族特有的精神、思维和文化精华。
internal and external validity内部有效性和外部有效性
CHAPTER 8: INTERNAL and EXTERNAL VALIDITYAn experiment is internally valid if there are no confounds.... that is, the only reason why the groups are different (with respect to the DV) is “actually and only” because of differences in the IVEIGHT THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITYall of the following are a potential source of confounds:1. HistoryCan be a problem in a repeated measures (within subjects) design whereeach participant is tested in each group.A history effect is present when an event (external to participants) occurs:a) Between presentations of the levels of the IVe.g. IV = day of the week: between taking a quiz on Tuesdayand a quiz on Thursday, the campus “shuts down” on Wedwhen a student goes on the rampage (must of gotten his statstest back)orb) From pre-test to post-test with the IV presented in betweene.g. students take a questionnaire on assertiveness > thenreceive assertiveness training > then take the assertivenessquestionnaire again. What if something happens between thepre-test and post-test during the time the IV is presented (e.g.US goes to war with Canada)2. MaturationSystematic, time-related changes in the participants that occur betweenpresentations of the levels of the IV (or while the IV is being presented) ina repeated (within subjects) design (e.g. participants may be growingboard, anxious, hungry, tired etc... they are also getting older)Beware of a maturation effect especially if testing takes place over a longtime, or the task is very difficult, etc...3. Testingchanges in the DV occur simply because the DV was measured (i.e. notbecause of the particular level of the IV).Examplesi. The Hawthorn effect (also called reactance or reactivity effect)Elton Mayo's Hawthorne StudiesThe Hawthorne Studies (or Hawthorne Experiments) were conducted from1927 to 1932 at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois(a suburb of Chicago), where professor Elton Mayo examined productivityand work conditions. Elton Mayo started these experiments by examiningthe physical and environmental influences of the workplace (e.g.brightness of lights, humidity) and later, moved into the psychologicalaspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, working hours, managerialleadership).The Hawthorne EffectIn essence, the Hawthorne Effect can be summarized as "Individualbehaviors may be altered because they know they are being studied."Elton Mayo's experiments showed an increase in worker productivity wasproduced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out, involved,and made to feel important.Additionally, the act of measurement, itself, impacts the results of themeasurement. Just as dipping a thermometer into a vial of liquid can affectthe temperature of the liquid being measured, the act of collecting data,where none was collected before creates a situation that didn't exist before,thereby affecting the results. Another example is measuring attitudestoward discrimination. If the survey is not “disguised” well, participantscould alter their responses (the DV) to provide only socially acceptableresponsesYou can avoid this problem by using non-reactive measures. Forexample, measure the DV in such a way that participants do not knowwhat’s being measured, or perhaps even that they are being observed.(One way mirrors, hidden cameras, deception)ii. Practice effects (or fatigue)Changes in the DV occur simply because of practice with the task(i.e. has nothing to do with the particular levels of the IV)... note thatthis effect is only a factor in repeated designs.E.g. if you take the GRE several times, you can expect your scoreto increase a little each time…it’s not that you know more, you justhave more practice and you are more familiar & comfortable withthe procedure4. Instrumentation effects and human errorValues of the DV change because of faulty equipment, the human scorergets tired etc... That is, changes in the DV which result fromchanges/errors in the recording device (whether synthetic or human)Control by testing a few participants from each group all around the same time. NEVER test all of group A, then test all of group B, then all of group C…a HUGE faux pas!Check your instruments/equipment before testing each day5. Statistical RegressionCan occur in repeated measure designs when people score eitherextremely high or extremely low. You could see regression toward themean. The next time you measure them, there will be a tendency for their scores to move in the direction toward the mean... This is a confoundbecause you will not know if the DV changed because of the IV, orbecause of regression toward the mean.6. SelectionThis is a problem that could arise when using an IV that is a classification (or subject) variable. Examples include: gender, SES, academic major,mental diagnosis… There are certainly pre-existing differences betweenthe levels (categories) of each factor. If you do see a difference betweenthe levels, how do you know if the IV produced the difference vs. the pre-existing differences which are only tangentally related to the IVe.g. Does watching American Idol increase singing in the shower? Tofind out, you record how long American Idol fans sing in the shower vsnon-American Idol fans. However, American Idol fans are probablydifferent from non-fans in other respects eg. AI fans are more intelligent!7. Mortalityrefers to attrition due to death and “no shows”If mortality occurs in one condition more than the other conditions, thenyou have a problem, specifically, a confoundThe “survivors” in the group that w as hit particularly hard are probably verydifferent from the subjects in the other groups. If you now see a differencebetween the groups, you won’t know if it’s because of the IV or somethingparticular to that one group of survivorsEven if mortality is approx the same for each group, you still have aproblem. To what extent do the survivors represent the population youhad originally targeted? I.e. you have a problem with external validity8. Diffusion or imitation of treatmentParticipants in one treatment group become familiar with the treatment ofanother group. They then either copy that treatment or are just otherwiseaffected by what they have learned. As such, they are no longer “naive”and this changes their behavior. This will minimize or mask completelythe difference between your groups in an experiment.We try to prevent this from happening by asking people to refrain fromtalking about the experiment with any other participant until the experimentis over.Interactions with selectionOccur when one or more of the effects discussed above (e.g. history, maturation, mortality, testing, instrumentation etc) are systematically different between the different levels of the classification IVE.g. cross-cultural research is prone to a selection x history effect. That is,different cultures differ not only by culture, but also by their historical experiencesPROTECTING INTERNAL VALIDITYThese actions need to be taken before you run the experiment.First, you must sit down and think about all the potential confounds. Askyourself, “what could go wrong”.Second, implement one or more of the control techniques discussed in chapters6 and 7. (e.g. balance, random assignment to group, hold the EV constant etc…)Third, carefully follow one of the standardized experimental designs, to bediscussed in chapters 10, 11, 12. (e.g. repeated measures t-tests, mixedANOVAs)Fourth, have a knowledgeable person(s) review your proposal before youconduct the experiment.The book says that statistics do not control/eliminate confounds, nor detect them.This is mainly true, but note exceptions:Analysis of co-variance can control for potential confoundsChi squares can help detect a potential confound by seeing if anextraneous variable is evenly distributed across the different levels of theIVThe extent to which your results apply to populations/situations/times/environments different from those in your experiment… concept of generalizabilityDifferent types of generalizationPopulation generalization: the extent to which your results generalize topeople/animals beyond just the participants you tested.Environmental: the extent to which your results generalize to situations orenvironment beyond those used in the current experiment Temporal: the extent to which your findings apply at all times, not just thespecific time/season your study was conducted.NOTE: in all cases, the lack of generalization could in and of itself be VERYinteresting and could yield vital clues about human/animal behavior Relationship between internal validity and external validityRemember this relationship from the previous chapter: as one goes up, the other goes down… as a general rule…As we implement more and more controls to reduce confounds (i.e. increaseinternal validity) we are making the experiment more and more artificial andthereby it’s generalizability (external validity) suffers.An exception would be in reference to specific control techniquese.g. the balance technique would allow for more generalizability thanwould the eliminate or hold constant techniquesRelationship between within group variability, power, and external validity Recall that one way to increase power is to test homogeneous groups. But, inthe real world, people are not homogeneous. So, by testing homogeneousgroups, our results may not generalize well to the real world.FOUR THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY BASED ON METHODSOften, the design of our experiment threatens its generalizability1. Interaction of testing and treatmentIn a pre-test, post-test design (also called a before-after design), the pre-test may sensitize people to the treatment yet to come. Since pre-testingdoes not occur in the real world, our results may fail to generalize wellYou can estimate the effect your pre-test has by adding another group:those who only get the post-test2. Interaction of selection and treatmentThis occurs when the groups of participants you test are so unique, yourresults do not generalize beyond them.3. Reactive arrangementsWhen people know they are part of an experiment, they typically changetheir behavior no matter what the IV is that they are exposed to (theHawthorne effect). This means that our results may not generalize to thereal world where people are not part of an experiment and whose behavioris not thus affectedDemand Characteristics present in reactive treatmentsRecall that these are just about anything (other than what theexperimenter says or does) that participants use to figure out thehypothesis or how they should behave. You cannot eliminate demandcharacteristics in an experiment where people know they are part of thestudy. Since the DC’s change participants’ behavior, and these DC’s arenot present in the real world, your results may not generalize well to thereal world. The only way to completely remove DC’s in a study is if youuse naturalistic observation4. Multiple Treatment InterfaceThese occur in repeated designs where the same people are tested ineach group or condition. It’s possible that the effect you observe ispresent only when people are exposed to this constellation of treatments.That is, in the real world you would not observe the same effect of aspecific treatment because it was not accompanied by the othertreatments.FIVE THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY BASED ON PARTICIPANTS Limited types of population tested (animal)Especially in animal research, we tend to test mostly rats (and specificbreeds at that). To what extent will the results generalize to other species,including humans?Limited types of population tested (human)In human research, we tend to use convenience sampling and test mostlycollege students. To what extent do college students represent thegeneral population? To the extent that they don’t, our external validitysuffers.Gender BiasFor many reasons, some of which persist today, men were studied morethan women in psychological and medical research. To what extent canyou generalize from research conducted on men to women (or vise versafor that matter)?Racial BiasSame idea as above. If your research does not include certain racialgroups, you must exercise caution when trying to generalize to them.Cultural Bias (ethnocentric research)If you study American culture in America, your results can only beassumed to generalize to American culture in AmericaFour goals of research that do not stress external validity1. Finding out if something CAN happen, not when if it usually happens2. Finding out if a real world phenomenon occurs in the lab3. Finding out if something occurs in the lab’s unnatural settings can strengthenthe validity of the phenomenon4. Studying a phenomenon in the lab that doesn’t have a real world counterpart According to Smith & Davis, internal validity is essential for an experiment, whereas external validity is not.Replication with extension can be used to establish the validity of the finding and its external validityOnce an effect is demonstrated under one set of circumstances (testingenvironment, time, participants), you can replicate the finding by changing one or more of these variables. It is advisable to change only one thing at a time. Why?。
HR英文名词解释
HR英文名词解释1. 人力资源管理Human Resource Management ,HRM)人力资源经理human resource manager) 高级管理人员executive)职业profession)道德标准ethics)操作工:(operative employees)专家:(specialist)人力资源认证协会:(the Human Resource Certification Institute,HRCI)2.外部环境:(external environment)内部环境:(internal environment)政策:(policy)企业文化:(corporate culture)目标:(mission)股东:(shareholders)非正式组织:(informal organization)跨国公司:(multinational corporation,MNC) 管理多样性:(managing diversity)3.工作:(job)职位:(posting)工作分析:(job analysis)工作说明:(job description)工作规范:(job specification)工作分析计划表:(job analysis schedule,JAS)职位分析问卷调查法:(Management Position Description Questionnaire,MPDQ) 行政秘书:(executive secretary)地区服务经理助理:(assistant district service manager)4.人力资源计划:(Human Resource Planning,HRP)战略规划:(strategic planning)长期趋势:(long term trend)要求预测:(requirement forecast)供给预测:(availability forecast)管理人力储备:(management inventory)裁减:(downsizing)人力资源信息系统:(Human Resource Information System,HRIS)5.招聘:(recruitment)员工申请表:(employee requisition)招聘方法:(recruitment methods) 内部提升:(Promotion From Within ,PFW)工作公告:(job posting)广告:(advertising)职业介绍所:(employment agency)特殊事件:(special events)实习:(internship)6.选择:(selection)选择率:(selection rate)简历:(resume)标准化:(standardization)有效性:(validity)客观性:(objectivity)规范:(norm)录用分数线:(cutoff score)准确度:(aiming)业务知识测试:(job knowledge tests)求职面试:(employment interview)非结构化面试:(unstructured interview)结构化面试:(structured interview)小组面试:(group interview)职业兴趣测试:(vocational interest tests)会议型面试:(board interview)7.组织变化与人力资源开发人力资源开发:(Human Resource Development,HRD)培训:(training)开发:(development)定位:(orientation)训练:(coaching)辅导:(mentoring)经营管理策略:(business games)案例研究:(case study)会议方法:(conference method)角色扮演:(role playing)工作轮换:(job rotating)在职培训:(on-the-job training ,OJT)媒介:(media)8.企业文化与组织发展企业文化:(corporate culture)组织发展:(organization development,OD) 调查反馈:(survey feedback)质量圈:(quality circles)目标管理:(management by objective,MBO) 全面质量管理:(Total Quality Management,TQM)团队建设:(team building)9.职业计划与发展职业:(career)职业计划:(career planning)职业道路:(career path)职业发展:(career development)自我评价:(self-assessment)职业动机:(career anchors)10.绩效评价绩效评价:(Performance Appraisal,PA)小组评价:(group appraisal)业绩评定表:(rating scales method)关键事件法:(critical incident method)排列法:(ranking method)平行比较法:(paired comparison)硬性分布法:(forced distribution method) 晕圈错误:(halo error)宽松:(leniency)严格:(strictness)3600反馈:(360-degree feedback)叙述法:(essay method)集中趋势:(central tendency)11.报酬与福利报酬:(compensation)直接经济报酬:(direct financial compensation)间接经济报酬:(indirect financial compensation)非经济报酬:(no financial compensation) 公平:(equity)外部公平:(external equity)内部公平:(internal equity)员工公平:(employee equity)小组公平:(team equity)工资水平领先者:(pay leaders)现行工资率:(going rate)工资水平居后者:(pay followers)劳动力市场:(labor market)工作评价:(job evaluation)排列法:(ranking method)分类法:(classification method)因素比较法:(factor comparison method) 评分法:(point method)海氏指示图表个人能力分析法:(Hay Guide Chart-profile Method)工作定价:(job pricing)工资等级:(pay grade) 工资曲线:(wage curve)工资幅度:(pay range)12.福利和其它报酬问题福利(间接经济补偿)员工股权计划:(employee stock ownership plan,ESOP)值班津贴:(shift differential)奖金:(incentive compensation)分红制:(profit sharing)13.安全与健康的工作环境安全:(safety)健康:(health)频率:(frequency rate)紧张:(stress)角色冲突:(role conflict)催眠法:(hypnosis)酗酒:(alcoholism)14.员工和劳动关系工会:(union)地方工会:(local union)行业工会:(craft union)产业工会:(industrial union)全国工会:(national union)谈判组:(bargaining union)劳资谈判:(collective bargaining)仲裁:(arbitration)罢工:(strike)内部员工关系:(internal employee relations) 纪律:(discipline)纪律处分:(disciplinary action)申诉:(grievance)降职:(demotion)调动:(transfer)晋升:(promotion)2. AAction learning：行动学习Alternation ranking method：交替排序法Annual bonus：年终分红Application forms：工作申请表Appraisal interview：评价面试Aptitudes：资质Arbitration：仲裁Attendance incentive plan：参与式激励计划Authority：职权BBehavior modeling：行为模拟Behaviorally anchored rating scale (bars)：行为锚定等级评价法Benchmark job：基准职位Benefits：福利Bias：个人偏见Boycott：联合抵制Bumping/layoff procedures：工作替换/临时解雇程序Burnout：耗竭CCandidate-order error：候选人次序错误Capital accumulation program：资本积累方案Career anchors：职业锚Career cycle：职业周期Career planning and development：职业规划与职业发展Case study method：案例研究方法Central tendency：居中趋势Citations：传讯Civil Rights Act：民权法Classes：类Classification (or grading) method：归类（或分级）法Collective bargaining：集体谈判Comparable worth：可比价值Compensable factor：报酬因素Computerized forecast：计算机化预测Content validity：内容效度Criterion validity：效标效度Critical incident method：关键事件法DDavis-Bacon Act (DBA)：戴维斯―佩根法案Day-to-day-collective bargaining：日常集体谈判Decline stage：下降阶段Deferred profit-sharing plan：延期利润分享计划Defined benefit：固定福利Defined contribution：固定缴款Department of Labor job analysis：劳工部工作分析法Discipline：纪律Dismissal：解雇；开除Downsizing：精简EEarly retirement window：提前退休窗口Economic strike：经济罢工Edgar Schein：艾德加•施恩Employee compensation：职员报酬Employee orientation：雇员上岗引导Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) ：雇员退休收入保障法案Employee services benefits：雇员服务福利Employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) ：雇员持股计划Equal Pay Act：公平工资法Establishment stage：确立阶段Exit interviews：离职面谈Expectancy chart：期望图表Experimentation：实验Exploration stage：探索阶段FFact-finder：调查Fair day's work：公平日工作Fair Labor Standards Act：公平劳动标准法案Flexible benefits programs：弹性福利计划Flex place：弹性工作地点Flextime：弹性工作时间Forced distribution method：强制分布法Four-day workweek：每周4天工作制Frederick Taylor：弗雷德里克•泰罗Functional control：职能控制Functional job analysis：功能性工作分析法GGeneral economic conditions：一般经济状况Golden offerings：高龄给付Good faith bargaining：真诚的谈判Grade description：等级说明书Grades：等级Graphic rating scale：图尺度评价法Grid training：方格训练Grievance：抱怨Grievance procedure：抱怨程序Group life insurance：团体人寿保险Group pension plan：团体退休金计划Growth stage：成长阶段Guarantee corporation：担保公司Guaranteed fair treatment：有保证的公平对待Guaranteed piecework plan：有保障的计件工资制Gain sharing：收益分享HHalo effect：晕轮效应Health maintenance organization (HMO) ：健康维持组织IIllegal bargaining：非法谈判项目Impasse：僵持Implied authority：隐含职权Incentive plan：激励计划Individual retirement account (IRA) ：个人退休账户In-house development center：企业内部开发中心Insubordination：不服从Insurance benefits：保险福利Interviews：谈话；面谈JJob analysis：工作分析Job description：工作描述Job evaluation：职位评价Job instruction training (JIT) ：工作指导培训Job posting：工作公告Job rotation：工作轮换Job sharing：工作分组Job specifications：工作说明书John Holland：约翰•霍兰德Junior board：初级董事会LLayoff：临时解雇Leader attach training：领导者匹配训练Lifetime employment without guarantees：无保证终身解雇Line manager：直线管理者Local market conditions：地方劳动力市场Lockout：闭厂MMaintenance stage：维持阶段Management assessment center：管理评价中心Management by objectives (MBO) ：目标管理法Management game：管理竞赛Management grid：管理方格训练Management process：管理过程Mandatory bargaining：强制谈判项目Mediation：调解Merit pay：绩效工资Merit raise：绩效加薪Mid career crisis sub stage：中期职业危机阶段NNondirective interview：非定向面试OOccupational market conditions：职业市场状况Occupational orientation：职业性向Occupational Safety and Health Act：职业安全与健康法案Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ：职业安全与健康管理局Occupational skills：职业技能On-the-job training (OJT) ：在职培训Open-door：敞开门户Opinion survey：意见调查Organization development(OD) ：组织发展Outplacement counseling：向外安置顾问PPaired comparison method：配对比较法Panel interview：小组面试Participant diary/logs：现场工人日记/日志Pay grade：工资等级Pension benefits：退休金福利Pension plans：退休金计划People-first values："以人为本"的价值观Performance analysis：工作绩效分析Performance Appraisal interview:工作绩效评价面谈Personnel (or human resource) management：人事（或人力资源）管理Personnel replacement charts：人事调配图Piecework：计件Plant Closing law：工厂关闭法Point method/Policies：政策Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) ：职位分析问卷Position replacement cards：职位调配卡Pregnancy discrimination act：怀孕歧视法案Profit-sharing plan利润分享计划Programmed learning：程序化教学QQualifications inventories：资格数据库Quality circle：质量圈RRanking method：排序法Rate ranges：工资率系列Ratio analysis：比率分析Reality shock：现实冲击Reliability：信度Retirement：退休Retirement benefits：退休福利Retirement counseling：退休前咨询Rings of defense：保护圈Role playing：角色扮演SSkip-level interview：越级谈话Social security：社会保障Speak up! ：讲出来！Special awards：特殊奖励Special management development techniques：特殊的管理开发技术Stabilization sub stage：稳定阶段Staff (service) function：职能（服务）功能Standard hour plan：标准工时工资Stock option：股票期权Straight piecework：直接计件制Strategic plan：战略规划Stress interview：压力面试Strictness/leniency：偏紧/偏松Strikes：罢工Structured interview：结构化面试Succession planning：接班计划Supplement pay benefits：补充报酬福利Supplemental unemployment benefits：补充失业福利Salary surveys：薪资调查Savings plan：储蓄计划Scallion plan：斯坎伦计划Scatter plot：散点分析Scientific management：科学管理Self directed teams：自我指导工作小组Self-actualization：自我实现Sensitivity training：敏感性训练Serialized interview：系列化面试Severance pay：离职金Sick leave：病假Situational interview：情境面试Survey feedback：调查反馈Sympathy strike：同情罢工System Ⅳ组织体系ⅣSystem I：组织体系ⅠTTask analysis：任务分析Team building：团队建设Team or group：班组Termination：解雇；终止Termination at will：随意终止Theory X：X理论Theory Y：Y理论Third-party involvement：第三方介入Training：培训Transactional analysis (TA) ：人际关系心理分析Trend analysis：趋势分析Trial sub stage：尝试阶段UUnsafe conditions：不安全环境Unclear performance standards：绩效评价标准不清Unemployment insurance：失业保险Unfair labor practice strike：不正当劳工活动罢工Unsafe acts：不安全行为VValidity：效度value-based hiring：以价值观为基础的雇佣Vroom-Yetton leadership trainman：维罗姆-耶顿领导能力训练Variable compensation：可变报酬Vestibule or simulated training：新雇员培训或模拟Vesting：特别保护权Voluntary bargaining：自愿谈判项目Voluntary pay cut：自愿减少工资方案Voluntary time off：自愿减少时间WWage carve：工资曲线Work samples：工作样本Work sampling technique：工作样本技术Work sharing：临时性工作分担Worker involvement：雇员参与计划Worker's benefits：雇员福利3. 目标mission/ objective集体目标group objective内部环境internal environment外部环境external environment计划planning组织organizing人事staffing领导leading控制controlling步骤process原理principle方法technique经理manager总经理general manager行政人员administrator主管人员supervisor企业enterprise商业business产业industry公司company效果effectiveness效率efficiency企业家entrepreneur权利power职权authority职责responsibility科学管理scientific management现代经营管理modern operational management行为科学behavior science生产率productivity激励motivate动机motive法律law法规regulation经济体系economic system管理职能managerial function产品product服务service利润profit满意satisfaction归属affiliation 尊敬esteem自我实现self-actualization人力投入human input盈余surplus收入income成本cost资本货物capital goods机器machinery设备equipment建筑building存货inventory（2）经验法the empirical approach人际行为法the interpersonal behavior approach集体行为法the group behavior approach 协作社会系统法the cooperative social systems approach社会技术系统法the social-technical systems approach决策理论法the decision theory approach 数学法the mathematical approach系统法the systems approach随机制宜法the contingency approach管理任务法the managerial roles approach 经营法the operational approach人际关系human relation心理学psychology态度attitude压力pressure冲突conflict招聘recruit鉴定appraisal选拔select培训train报酬compensation授权delegation of authority协调coordinate业绩performance考绩制度merit system表现behavior下级subordinate偏差deviation检验记录inspection record误工记录record of labor-hours lost销售量sales volume产品质量quality of products先进技术advanced technology顾客服务customer service策略strategy结构structure(3)领先性primacy普遍性pervasiveness忧虑fear忿恨resentment士气morale解雇layoff批发wholesale零售retail程序procedure规则rule规划program预算budget共同作用synergy大型联合企业conglomerate资源resource购买acquisition增长目标growth goal专利产品proprietary product竞争对手rival晋升promotion管理决策managerial decision商业道德business ethics有竞争力的价格competitive price 供货商supplier小贩vendor利益冲突conflict of interests派生政策derivative policy开支帐户expense account批准程序approval procedure病假sick leave休假vacation工时labor-hour机时machine-hour资本支出capital outlay现金流量cash flow工资率wage rate税收率tax rate股息dividend现金状况cash position资金短缺capital shortage 总预算overall budget资产负债表balance sheet可行性feasibility投入原则the commitment principle 投资回报return on investment生产能力capacity to produce实际工作者practitioner最终结果end result业绩performance个人利益personal interest福利welfare市场占有率market share创新innovation生产率productivity利润率profitability社会责任public responsibility董事会board of director组织规模size of the organization组织文化organizational culture目标管理management by objectives 评价工具appraisal tool激励方法motivational techniques控制手段control device个人价值personal worth优势strength弱点weakness机会opportunity威胁threat海一角营销人网个人责任personal responsibility顾问counselor定量目标quantitative objective定性目标qualitative objective可考核目标verifiable objective优先priority工资表payroll（4）策略strategy政策policy灵活性discretion多种经营diversification评估assessment一致性consistency应变策略consistency strategy公共关系public relation价值value抱负aspiration偏见prejudice审查review批准approval主要决定major decision分公司总经理division general manager 资产组合距阵portfolio matrix明星star问号question mark现金牛cash cow赖狗dog采购procurement人口因素demographic factor地理因素geographic factor公司形象company image产品系列product line合资企业joint venture破产政策liquidation strategy紧缩政策retrenchment strategy战术tactics(5)追随followership个性individuality性格personality安全safety自主权latitude悲观的pessimistic静止的static乐观的optimistic动态的dynamic灵活的flexible抵制resistance敌对antagonism折中eclectic(6)激励motivation潜意识subconscious地位status情感affection欲望desire压力pressure满足satisfaction自我实现的需要needs forself-actualization尊敬的需要esteem needs归属的需要affiliation needs 安全的需要security needs生理的需要physiological needs维持maintenance保健hygiene激励因素motivator概率probability强化理论reinforcement theory反馈feedback奖金bonus股票期权stock option劳资纠纷labor dispute缺勤率absenteeism人员流动turnover奖励reward(7)特许经营franchise热诚zeal信心confidence鼓舞inspire要素ingredient忠诚loyalty奉献devotion作风style品质trait适应性adaptability进取性aggressiveness热情enthusiasm毅力persistence人际交往能力interpersonal skills行政管理能力administrative ability智力intelligence专制式领导autocratic leader民主式领导democratic leader自由放任式领导free-rein leader管理方格图the managerial grid工作效率work efficiency服从obedience领导行为leader behavior支持型领导supportive leadership参与型领导participative leadership指导型领导instrumental leadership成就取向型领导achievement-oriented leadership。
internal and external validity
Illustration of Statistical Regression Effect Selected Participant Pretest S1 110 S3 123 S8 105
Participant Pretest S1 110 S2 46 S3 123 S4 92 S5 59 S6 73 S7 99 S8 105 S9 67 S10 84 S11 61 S12 96
7
Controlling Extraneous Variables
• Can eliminate some extraneous variables • Most must be controlled • Example: CVC and learning method
– control for word association
– brighter – receive more nonspecific attention – don’t stay out late
• Internal validity is questionable
6
Confounding
• Extraneous variable
– any variable other than IV that influences DV
13
Maturation Again
• • • • • Testing benefits of Head Start Program Pretest to establish “ability” of slow learners Set up special room to motivate these kids One year later retested same kids Found 1.75 years improvement for the 1.0 year in the program. • Fame and fortune awaited the researchers…..
医学科研中的偏倚及其控制课件
1. 入院率偏倚（admission rate bias）
也称伯克森偏倚（Berkson’s bias） ， 是指在进行病例对照研究，临床防治试验、 预后判断等研究时，利用医院就诊或住院 病人作为研究对象时，由于入院率或就诊 机会不同而导致的偏倚称为入院率偏倚。
结论：以医院病例作为样本所得观察结果，高血脂是 恶性黑素瘤的保护因素，而骨折则是一危险因素。
设hA为A病（研究疾病）的入院率 hB为B病（对照疾病）的入院率 hC为C因素（研究因素）的入院率
当hA ＝ hB时，不发生入院率偏倚； hC ＝0时，也不发生入院率偏倚。
当hA ＞ hB，且hC ＞ 0时，发生入院率偏倚，它使 OR值减小，偏倚程度的大小取决于hC的大小， hC 越小，偏倚程度越小。 当hA ＜ hB，且hC ＞ 0时，也发生入院率偏倚，它 使OR值增加，偏倚程度的大小也取决于hC的大小。
亦称揭露伪装偏倚，指某因素与某疾病在病因学 上虽无关联，但由于该因素的存在而引起该疾病症状 或体症的出现，从而使患者及早就医，接受多种检查， 导致该人群较高的检出率，以致得出该因素与该疾病 相关联的错误结论。
妇女绝经期服用雌激素与子宫内膜癌关系的病例对照研究
绝经期服 用雌激素
以子宫出血就诊病例
病例
对照
1. 入院率偏倚（admission rate bias）
控制： （1）进行以人群为基础的病例对照研究 （2）若仍采用以医院为基础的研究，最好 进行多中心合作研究
2. 现患病例-新发病例偏倚
(prevalence-incidence bias)
也称奈曼偏倚(Neyman bias)，凡因现患 病例与新病例的构成不同，只调查典型病例 或者现患病例的暴露情况，致使调查结果出 现的系统误差都属于这类偏倚。
Construct Validity
Context-Dependent Mediation
Interaction of causal Relationship with Outcomes Interaction of causal Relationship with Settings
Interaction of causal Relationship over Treatment Variations
Improvement: 1.Detailed description of the studied instance 2.Clear explication of the prototypical elements of the target construct
3.valid observation of relationship among them
Difficult to explicit: community. Depends on the context and particular language
Conclusion:
Establish a one-to-one relationship bewteen the study
operations and corresponding construct is never possible.
Narrow to Broad constancy of causal direction Generali zation At a similar Level Broad to Narrow
Inferences from completed studies to as-yetunstudied applications are necessary to both science and society.
ReliabilityandValidityWhat
Reliability and Validity: What's the Difference?ReliabilityDefinition: Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated.There are two ways that reliability is usually estimated: test/retest and internal consistency.Test/RetestTest/retest is the more conservative method to estimate reliability. Simply put, the idea behindtest/retest is that you should get the same score on test 1 as you do on test 2. The three main components to this method are as follows:1.) implement your measurement instrument at two separate times for each subject;2). compute the correlation between the two separate measurements; and3) assume there is no change in the underlying condition (or trait you are trying to measure)between test 1 and test 2.Internal ConsistencyInternal consistency estimates reliability by grouping questions in a questionnaire that measure the same concept. For example, you could write two sets of three questions that measure the same concept (say class participation) and after collecting the responses, run a correlation between those two groups of three questions to determine if your instrument is reliably measuring that concept. One common way of computing correlation values among the questions on your instruments is by using Cronbach's Alpha. In short, Cronbach's alpha splits all the questions on your instrument every possible way and computes correlation values for them all (we use a computer program for this part). In the end, your computer output generates one number for Cronbach's alpha - and just like a correlation coefficient, the closer it is to one, the higher the reliability estimate of your instrument. Cronbach's alpha is a less conservative estimate of reliability than test/retest.The primary difference between test/retest and internal consistency estimates of reliability is that test/retest involves two administrations of the measurement instrument, whereas the internal consistency method involves only one administration of that instrument.ValidityDefinition:Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions. More formally, Cook and Campbell (1979) define it as the "best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion." In short, were we right? Let's look at a simple example. Say we are studying the effect of strict attendance policies on class participation. In our case, we saw that class participation did increase after the policy was established. Each type of validitywould highlight a different aspect of the relationship between our treatment (strict attendance policy) and our observed outcome (increased class participation).Types of Validity:There are four types of validity commonly examined in social research.1. Conclusion validity asks is there a relationship between the program and the observedoutcome? Or, in our example, is there a connection between the attendance policy and theincreased participation we saw?2. Internal Validity asks if there is a relationship between the program and the outcome wesaw, is it a causal relationship? For example, did the attendance policy cause classparticipation to increase?3. Construct validity is the hardest to understand in my opinion. It asks if there is there arelationship between how I operationalized my concepts in this study to the actual causalrelationship I'm trying to study/? Or in our example, did our treatment (attendance policy)reflect the construct of attendance, and did our measured outcome - increased classparticipation - reflect the construct of participation? Overall, we are trying to generalize our conceptualized treatment and outcomes to broader constructs of the same concepts.4. External validity refers to our ability to generalize the results of our study to other settings.In our example, could we generalize our results to other classrooms?Threats To Internal ValidityThere are three main types of threats to internal validity - single group, multiple group and social interaction threats.Single Group Threats apply when you are studying a single group receiving a program or treatment. Thus, all of these threats can be greatly reduced by adding a control group that is comparable to your program group to your study.A History Threat occurs when an historical event affects your program group such that it causes the outcome you observe (rather than your treatment being the cause). In our earlier example, this would mean that the stricter attendance policy did not cause an increase in class participation, but rather, the expulsion of several students due to low participation from school impacted your program group such that they increased their participation as a result.A Maturation Threat to internal validity occurs when standard events over the course of time cause your outcome. For example, if by chance, the students who participated in your study on class participation all "grew up" naturally and realized that class participation increased their learning (how likely is that?) - that could be the cause of your increased participation, not the stricter attendance policy.A Testing Threat to internal validity is simply when the act of taking a pre-test affects how that group does on the post-test. For example, if in your study of class participation, you measured class participation prior to implementing your new attendance policy, and students became forewarned that there was about to be an emphasis on participation, they may increase it simply as a result of involvement in the pretest measure - and thus, your outcome could be a result of a testing threat - not your treatment.An Instrumentation Threat to internal validity could occur if the effect of increased participation could be due to the way in which that pretest was implemented.A Mortality Threat to internal validity occurs when subjects drop out of your study, and this leads to an inflated measure of your effect. For example, if as a result of a stricter attendance policy, most students drop out of a class, leaving only those more serious students in the class (those who would participate at a high level naturally) - this could mean your effect is overestimated and suffering from a mortality threat.The last single group threat to internal validity is a Regression Threat. This is the most intimating of them all (just its name alone makes one panic). Don't panic. Simply put, a regression threat means that there is a tendency for the sample (those students you study for example) to score close to the average (or mean) of a larger population from the pretest to the posttest. This is a common occurrence, and will happen between almost any two variables that you take two measures of. Because it is common, it is easily remedied through either the inclusion of a control group or through a carefully designed research plan (this is discussed later). For a great discussion of regression threats, go to Bill Trochim's Center for Social Research Methods.In sum, these single group threats must be addressed in your research for it to remain credible. One primary way to accomplish this is to include a control group comparable to your program group. This however, does not solve all our problems, as I'll now highlight the multiple group threats to internal validity.Multiple Group Threats to internal validity involve the comparability of the two groups in your study, and whether or not any other factor other than your treatment causes the outcome. They also (conveniently) mirror the single group threats to internal validity.A Selection-History threat occurs when an event occurring between the pre and post test affects the two groups differently.A Selection-Maturation threat occurs when there are different rates of growth between the two groups between the pre and post test.Selection-Testing threat is the result of the different effect from taking tests between the two groups.A Selection-Instrumentation threat occurs when the test implementation affects the groups differently between the pre and post test.A Selection-Mortality Threat occurs when there are different rates of dropout between the groups which leads to you detecting an effect that may not actually occur.Finally, a Selection-Regression threat occurs when the two groups regress towards the mean at different rates.Okay, so know that you have dragged yourself through these extensive lists of threats to validity - you're wondering how to make sense of it all. How do we minimize these threats without going insane in the process? The best advice I've been given is to use two groups when possible, and if you do, make sure they are as comparable as is humanly possible. Whether you conduct a randomized experiment or a non-random study --> YOUR GROUPS MUST BE AS EQUIVALENT AS POSSIBLE! This is the best way to strengthen the internal validity of your research.The last type of threat to discuss involves the social pressures in the research context that can impact your results. These are known as social interaction threats to internal validity.Diffusion or "Imitation of Treatment occurs when the comparison group learns about the program group and imitates them, which will lead to an equalization of outcomes between the groups (you will not see an effect as easily).Compensatory Rivalry means that the comparison group develops a competitive attitude towards the program group, and this also makes it harder to detect an effect due to your treatment rather than the comparison groups reaction to the program group.Resentful Demoralization is a threat to internal validity that exaggerates the posttest differences between the two groups. This is because the comparison group (upon learning of the program group) gets discouraged and no longer tries to achieve on their own.Compensatory Equalization of Treatment is the only threat that is a result of the actions of the research staff - it occurs when the staff begins to compensate the comparison group to be "fair" in their opinion, and this leads to an equalization between the groups and makes it harder to detect an effect due to your program.Threats to Construct ValidityI know, I know - you're thinking - no I just can't go on. Let's take a deep breath and I'll remind you what construct validity is, and then we'll look at the threats to it one at a time. OK? OK.Constuct validity is the degree to which inferences we have made from our study can be generalized to the concepts underlying our program in the first place. For example, if we are measuring self-esteem as an outcome, can our definition (operationalization) of that term in our study be generalized to the rest of the world's concept of self-esteem?Ok, let's address the threats to construct validity slowly - don't be intimidated by their lengthy academic names - I'll provide an English translation.Inadequate Preoperational Explication of Constructs simply means we did not define our concepts very well before we measured them or implemented our treatment. The solution? Define your concepts well before proceeding to the measurement phase of your study.Mono-operation bias simply means we only used one version of our independent variable (our program or treatment) in our study, and hence, limit the breadth of our study's results. The solution? Try to implement multiple versions of your program to increase your study's utility.Mono-method bias simply put, means that you only used one measure or observation of an important concept, which in the end, reduces the evidence that your measure is a valid one. The solution? Implement multiple measures of key concepts and do pilot studies to try to demonstrate that your measures are valid.Interaction of Testing and Treatment occurs when the testing in combination with the treatment produces an effect. Thus you have inadequately defined your "treatment," as testing becomes part of it due to its influence on the outcome. The solution? Label your treatment accurately.Interaction of Different Treatments means that it was a combination of our treatment and other things that brought about the effect. For example, if you were studying the ability of Tylenol to reduce headaches and in actuality it was a combination of Tylenol and Advil or Tyle nol and exercise that reduced headaches -- you would have an interaction of different treatments threatening your construct validity.Restricted Generalizability Across Constructs simply put, means that there were some unanticipated effects from your program, that may make it difficult to say your program was effective.Confounding Constructs occurs when you are unable to detect an effect from your program because you may have mislabeled your constructs or because the level of your treatment wasn't enough to cause an effect.As with internal validity, there are a few social threats to construct validity also. These include:1. Hypothesis Guessing: when participants base their behavior on what they think yourstudy is about - so your outcome is really not due solely to the program - but also to theparticipants' reaction to you and your study.2.Evaluator Apprehension: When participant's are fearful of your study to the point that itinfluences the treatment effect you detect.3.Experimenter Expectancies: when researcher reactions shape the participant's responses -so you mislabel the treatment effect you see as due to the program when it is more likely due to the researchers behavior.See, that wasn't so bad. We broke things down and attacked them one at a time. You may be wondering why I haven't given you along list of threats to conclusion and external validity - the simple answer is it seems as if the more critical threats involve internal and construct validity. And, the means by which we improve conclusion and external validity will be highlighted in the section on Strengthening Your Analysis.SummaryThe real difference between reliability and validity is mostly a matter of definition. Reliability estimates the consistency of your measurement, or more simply the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used in under the same conditions with the same subjects. Validity, on the other hand, involves the degree to which your are measuring what you are supposed to, more simply, the accuracy of your measurement. It is my belief that validity is more important than reliability because if an instrument does not accurately measure what it is supposed to, there is no reason to use it even if it measures consistently (reliably).。
公司部门英文缩写简称大全
总公司Head Office分公司Branch Office营业部Business Office人事部Personnel Department人力资源部Human Resources Department总务部General Affairs Department财务部General Accounting Department销售部Sales Department促销部Sales Promotion Department国际部International Department出口部Export Department进口部Import Department公共关系Public Relations Department广告部Advertising Department企划部Planning Department产品开发部Product Development Department研发部Research and Development Department(R&D) 秘书室Secretarial Pool采购部Purchasing Department工程部Engineering Department行政部Admin. Department人力资源部HR Department市场部Marketing Department技术部Technolog Department客服部Service Department行政部: Administration财务部Financial Department总经理室、Direcotor, or President副总经理室、Deputy Director, or Vice president总经办、General Deparment采购部、Purchase & Order Department工程部、Engineering Deparment研发部、Research Deparment生产部、Productive Department销售部、Sales Deparment广东业务部、GD Branch Deparment无线事业部、Wireless Industry Department拓展部Business Expending Department物供部、Supply DepartmentB＆D business and development 业务拓展部Marketing 市场部Sales 销售部HR 人力资源部Account 会计部PR people relationship 公共关系部OFC (Office, 但不常见) / OMB = Office of Management and Budget 办公室Finance 财务部MKTG (Marketing) 市场部R&D (Research & Development) 研发部MFG (Manufacturing) 产品部Administration Dept. 管理部Purchasing Dept 采购部Chairman/President Office // Gerneral Manager office or GM office 总经理办公室Monitor & Support Department 监事会Strategy Research 战略研究部我认为翻译没有标准答案，要根据实际情况来进行决定。
rct评价降级标准
rct评价降级标准RCT（Randomized Controlled Trial）是一种高品质的实验研究设计，旨在评估一种干预措施的效果。
为了保证RCT研究的科学性和可靠性，评价降级标准是必不可少的。
下面将介绍一些相关的参考内容，以帮助研究人员进行评价降级。
1. 方法偏倚（Bias）RCT研究中常见的方法偏倚包括选择偏倚、信息偏倚、记忆偏倚等。
评价降级时，可以根据Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions中推荐的工具，例如Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool来评估RCT研究的偏倚程度。
通过对研究方法的严谨性进行评估，可以降低研究结果的不确定性。
2. 样本量（Sample Size）样本量是评价RCT研究的重要指标之一，它直接影响研究结果的可靠性和推广能力。
通常来说，样本量越大，研究结果的置信度越高。
因此，在评价降级时，可以参考Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions中推荐的计算样本量的方法，以评估研究是否具备足够的统计功效。
3. 外部效度（External Validity）外部效度指的是RCT研究结果在不同研究场景下的推广性。
评价降级时，可以考虑RCT研究中的参与者是否代表了目标人群，干预措施是否适用于实际临床实践。
此外，还可以参考公开发表的同类型研究，比较其研究人群的特征、干预措施的设置、结果的一致性等，以评估RCT研究的外部效度。
4. 结果的一致性（Consistency）结果的一致性是衡量RCT研究可靠性与有效性的重要指标之一。
评价降级时，可以考虑对研究结果进行Meta分析，检查不同研究之间的一致性。
一致的结果可以提高RCT研究的证据级别，反之则降低其证据级别。
5. 转化到临床实践的可行性（Feasibility）RCT研究的可行性评估是评价降级的关键之一。
External Validity
Validity
… has lots of types, definitions & procedures
but basically it means …
Accuracy or Correctness
Important to remember !!! No one study, no matter how welldone can ever be conclusive !! You must further apply the research loop -- replication and convergence are necessary before you can be sure about the final answer to your RH:
Bivariate RH:s, Research Designs and Validity...
A RH: is a guess about the relationships between behaviors In order to test our RH: we have to decide on a research design, sample participants, collect data, statistically analyze those data and make a final conclusion about whether or not our results support our RH: When we are all done, we want our conclusion to be “valid”
Internal Validity
– is it correct to give a causal interpretation to the relationship we found between the variables/behaviors ?
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• Types of Research Validity
• Measurement • Internal
• External
• Statistical conclusion
• Components of External Validity
• Population
• Setting
Important to remember !!! No one study, no matter how welldone can ever be conclusive !! You must further apply the research loop -- replication and convergence are necessary before you can be sure about the final answer to your RH:
Types of Validity
Measurement Validity
– do our variables/data accurately represent the behaviors we intend to study ?
External Validity
– to what extent can our results can be accurately generalized to other participants, situations, and times ?
Do the measures/data of our study represent the characteristics & behaviors we intended to study?
Internal Validity
Are there confounds or 3rd variables that interfere with the
– have we reached the correct conclusion about whether or not there is a relationship between the variables/behaviors we are studying ?
How types of validity interrelate -- consider the “flow” of a study
• applicability
the data -- if we can’t get an accurate measure of a behavior we can’t study that behavior
Measurement Validity
the data analysis -- we must decide whether or not the behaviors wห้องสมุดไป่ตู้ are studying are related (and if so, how)
characteristic & behavior relationships we intend to study?
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Do our results represent the relationships between characteristics and behaviors that we intended to study?
Statistical Conclusion Validity
External Validity
Do the who, where, what & when of our study represent
what we intended want to study?
Measurement Validity
• Task/Stimulus
• Participant Selection -- Population Validity
Bivariate RH:s, Research Designs and Validity...
A RH: is a guess about the relationships between behaviors In order to test our RH: we have to decide on a research design, sample participants, collect data, statistically analyze those data and make a final conclusion about whether or not our results support our RH:
When we are all done, we want our conclusion to be “valid”
Validity … has lots of types, definitions & procedures but basically it means … Accuracy or Correctness
Internal Validity
– is it correct to give a causal interpretation to the relationship we found between the variables/behaviors ?
Statistical Conclusion Validity
the research “design” -- all the choices of how we will run the study
Internal validity
External validity
• control
• generalizability
• causal interpretability
• did we get non-representative results “by chance” ? • did we get non-representative results because of external, measurement or