语言学基础教程

合集下载

普通语言学教程-索绪尔

一：绪论
第一章：语言学史一瞥
依照索绪尔的对语言学历史的划分可分为三个阶段（不包括其自身）
1.语法：以逻辑为基础，唯一目的是规定的语言的使用方式，何为正确，何为错误。

2.语文学：确定，解释，评注各种文献，为历史语言学者所爱好。

3.比较语言学：诸语言系统之比较，发现其亲属关系，和源流。

以梵语为起始点与希腊与比较，显然希腊语中脱落了s，与拉丁语比较，显然拉丁文中是变s为r。

第二章：语言学的材料和任务；它和毗邻科学的关系
1.语言学的材料和任务
1.语言的材料：言语的总和，正确和优美以及一切的表达方式；但是，这些言语是被说出之后会消失在可研究的固态状
态，为研究所不易得，所以，要以书面文献去研究过去的和其他的语言。

2.语言的任务：1.对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理它们的历史，那就是，整理各语系的历史，尽可能重建每个语
系的母语
2.寻求一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能够概括一切历史特殊现象的一般规律。

3.确定自己的界限和定义。

2.它和毗邻科学的关系
从和民族的关系，到和人类学的关系，到社会心理学，生理学，语文学，的关系，层层递进。

第三章：语言学的对象
1.语言；和它的定义。

《语言学教程》第 2 章语音学与音位学1

语音学研究的是语音，发出、
语音如何即以及对传递和感知
语音
词连续性语音的描写和分类。
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Articulatory phonetics / 发音语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.

①SPEECH ORGANS, also knows as VOCAL ORGANS， are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. ②It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
3 and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss some of the basic ideas of articulatory phonetics and phonological analysis.
的规则。
音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。

语言学基础教程戴庆厦1-2章

语言学基础教程
第一章导论
∆
第一节语言学的性质及其任务
一、什么是语言学？语言学：是关于语言的科学，是以人类语言为研究对象的一门独立科学。语言学概论主要研究语言的基础理论，揭示人类语言的性质、功能、结构特点，以及语言发展与变化的一般规律。
二、语言学的分类 1.从研究对象上，分为具体语言学和普通语言学（一般语言学）。 2.从研究方法上，分为历史语言学（历时），描写语言学（共时）、比较语言学（历史比较语言学和对比语言学）等。 3.从研究范围上，分为宏观语言学和微观语言学。 4.从研究侧重面上，分为理论语言学和应用语言学。
第一章导论
（3）结构语言学（20世纪20年代）兴起于 20 世纪 20 年代的欧洲，基本理论源出于索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》，反对对语言现象进行孤立的分析，主张系统的研究。结构语言学内部又分为三大学派：布拉格学派（马泰修斯、特鲁别兹科依和雅各布逊）、哥本哈根学派（布龙达尔、叶尔姆斯列夫）以及美国描写语言学（博厄斯、萨丕尔、布龙菲尔德）特点：重视系统性，重视共时的描写、重视口语，反对对语言现象进行孤立的分析，主张系统的研究，影响深远，渗透到人文社会科学各个领域。
第一章导论
（2）历史比较语言学（19世纪欧洲的语文学进入了一个新的时期）英国的琼斯最先发现希腊语和拉丁语、梵语之间的相似之处，首先提出 “印欧语假设”。丹麦的拉斯克研究并论证了北欧诸语语欧洲其他语言的地位。德国的葆朴在印欧语亲属关系的研究方面独树一帜。德国的格里姆提出著名的“语音转变规律”（格里姆定律）。俄国的沃斯托克夫研究了斯拉夫诸语言相互之间的发生学关系。特点：摆脱了遗忘的附庸地位，促使语言成为了一门真正独立的学科，但是仍具有局限性，认为只有研究语言历史的语言学才是科学，其他语言学都不是科Байду номын сангаас。唯我独尊，只注重书面语的研究，忽视了口语研究和语言整体的系统研究。

（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

语言学教程第一章

A
11
1. What is Linguistics?
A
12
1.1 The definition of linguistics
Linguistics
—lan—gu—ag—e.
is
the—sc—ien—tif—ic study
——
of
Two important messages are conveyed in
Course Description
➢ Aim:This course will present you with some of the basic knowledge about language, including the nature of language, its system and organization, its relations with other factors such as psychology, culture, society, mind, literature, language learning and teaching, etc.
It helps to develop your ability to think consciously, the ability to find and solve problems.
It is tested if you pursue your graduate study in the English department.
What is special about language of linguistics?
• Language of commonsense Vs. Language of science

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)

英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版）Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic.1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units ofthe primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand anindefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to thefact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.3.Functions of Language.Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certainatmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas).Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.(2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearerto do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.”(3)Informative function: Language serves an “informational function” when used to tellsomething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogativefunction”. This includes all questi ons that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function” is the use of langu age to create certain feelings inthe hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.4. What is linguistic?“Linguistics” is the sc ientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc. 6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic study vs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguis tic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(4). langue vs. paroleF. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, . to discover the regularities governing all instances of paroleand make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). competence vs. performanceAccording to N. Choms ky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. (6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says . his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain per son is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phoneticsis phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process.(2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain.(3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance ofa consonant.4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated.5. Phonology“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.6. Narrow transcription and broad transcription.The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable ofdistinguishing one word from another in a given language.7. Phone Phoneme AllophoneA “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we he ar and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, ., the different ., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words is the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out bya phonologist.8.Minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, ., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what English phonemes are. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.9. Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”.10. Complementary distributionWhen two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme.11. Assimilation rule.The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar.12. Deletion ruleThe “deletion rule” tell us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented.13. Suprasegmental phonology and suprasegmental features“Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the s tudy of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.Chapter 3. Morphology1.Morpheme and MorphologyThe “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules b y which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.2.Types of Morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morphemeA “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‘bed”, “tree”, etc. A “bound morpheme” is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-s” in “beds”, “-al” in “national” and so on.All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).(2). root; affix; stemA “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is the part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.“Affixes”is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. (prefix, suffix, infix)A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.(3). Inflectional affix and derivational affix.Inflectional affixes: do not change the word class, but only added a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Derivational affixes: often change the lexical meaning and word class.Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, and derivational affixes can be prefixes (sub-, de-) or suffixes (-er, -able).3. Inflection“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.4. Word formationIn its restricted sense, refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be future sub classified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type.5. Lexical change(1) lexical change proper(特有词汇变化)A. InventionB. Blending: blending is relative complex from of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.C. Abbreviation: a new word is created by cutting the final part, the initial part, or both the initial and final parts accordingly.D. Acronym: acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which have a heavily modified headword.E. Back-formation: it refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.F. Analogical creation: it can account for the co-existence of the forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.G. Borrowing:a. loanwords: the borrowing of loanwords is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some causes, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.b. loanblend: it is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.c. loanshift: it is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, and the form is native.d. loan translation: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(2). Morpho-syntactical change （形态句法变化）A. morphological change: the words have changed their formsB. syntactical change(3). Semantic change （语义变化）A. broading: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relative general one.B. narrowing: it refers to a process in which the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.C. meaning shift: the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction.D. fork etymology: it refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term on from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.(4). Phological change （音位变化)Refers to changes in sound leading to change in form.a. loss（语音的脱落）b. addition （语音的增加）c. metathesis（换位）d. assimilation （同化）(5). Orthographic change （书写法变化）Chapter Four. Syntax1. Syntax.“Syntax” is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.2. Sentence.L. Bloomfield defines “sentence” as an independent linguistic form not include d by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic from, i. e., it is not subordinated to a larger linguistic form, and it is a structurally independent linguistic form. It is also called a maximum free form.3. Syntactic relations.“Syntactic relations” refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences; hencethree kinds of syntactic relations: positional relations, relations of substitutability and relations of co-occurrence.a.“Positional relation”, or “word order”, refers to the seq uential arrangement to words in a language.It is a manifestation of a certain aspect of what F. de Saussure called “syntagmatic relations”, or of what other linguists call “horizontal relations” or “chain relations”.b.“Relations of substitutability” refer to classes or sets of words substitutable for each othergrammatically in same sentence structures. Saussure called them “associative relations”. Other people call them “paradigmatic/vertical/choice relations”.c.“Relations of co-occurrence”, one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit orrequire the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations and partly to paradigmatic relations.3.Grammatical constructionGrammatical construction: it can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional function in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.4.IC analysis and immediate constituents.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentence study that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are. What remain of the first cut is called “immediate constituents”, and what are left at the final cut is called “ultimate constituents”.5.Endocentric and exocentric constructions“Endocentric construction” is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable “centre” or “head”. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the head.“Exocentric construction”, opposite of endocentric construction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as whole; that is to say, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction.6.Coordination and subordination.They are two main types of endocentric construction.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two of more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as “and” ,“but” and “or”. Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. (three basic types of subordination clause: complement clause, adjunct clause, relation clause.)7. Syntactic function(1) Subject: “subject” refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.a. Grammatical subject: it refers to a noun which can establish correspondence with the verb and which can be checked by a tag-question test, ., “He is a good cook, (isn’t he?).”b. Logical subject: the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies, the core subject, now the object of a preposition, is called the logical subject.(2). Predicate: A “predicate” refers to a major constituent o f sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject are considered together. ., in the sentence “The monkey is jumping”, “is jumping” is the predicate.(3) Object: “object” refers to the receiver or goal of an action and it is further classified into two kinds: direct object and indirect object. In some inflecting languages, an object is marked by case labels: the “accusative case” for direct object, and the “dative case”for direct object, and the “dative case” for indirect to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). ., in the sentence “John kissed me”, “me” is the object. Modern linguists suggest that an object refers to such an item that it can become a subject in passive transformation.8. CategoryThe term “category” in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.(1)Number: “Number” is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying suchcontrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.(2)Gender: “Gender” displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate” and“inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case: “Case” identifies the syntactic r elationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar,cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.(4)Agreement (or Concord): “Concord” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or morewords of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, ., “man runs”, “men run”.9. Syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relationSyntagmatic relation: it is a relation between one item and other in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between “weather” and the others in the following sentence “If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.”Paradigmatic relation: it is also called Associative, a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. It is also known as the vertical relation or choice relation.10. Phrase; clause and sentence.A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy, falling between a clause and word, ., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we havenominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase.Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield (1935) defined the sentence as “one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.”11. RecursivenessIt mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category. By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a c omplex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, ., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”(1)Conjoining: “Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined withanother, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”(2)Embedding: “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in thesentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, ., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”12. Beyond the sentence(1) Sentential connection: the notion of hypotactic and paratactic relations can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.a. “Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjuncti on, . “He bought eggs and milk.”b. “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).(2). Cohesion:Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse of text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution etc.Chapter Five. Meaning1.Semantics:“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.2.What is meaning?Though it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter belie ves the user refers to…linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”, “conceptualism/mentalism”, “mechanism”, “contextualism”, “behaviorism”, “functionalism”, etc. Mention ought to be made of the “Semantic Triangle Theory” of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第一章-第六章重难点

名词解释Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognitionMinimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each wordSemi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Chapter 1Design feature of languageArbitrariness1.bowwow 汪汪2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的Duality1.底层构建上层Creativity/productivity1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长Displacement1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的Functions of languageHalliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容◆Interpersonal function◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关门）◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）Important distinctions in linguistics◆Descriptive VS prescriptive尊重语言事实，客观描述约定俗成的现在更关注descriptive◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competenceChapter 2Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lipsVoiceless consonants-- air can pass through easilyvoiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each otherConsonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻P32, 33 图（⚠）例如：voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless alveolar fricativeVoiceless velar stopGlottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant例如：high front tense unrounded vowelHigh back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）Nasalization （cap-can）Dentalization （tent-tenth）Velarization （since-sink）Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）Rule ordering冠词规则：The elsewhere conditionThe more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）SyllableNucleus 一般为元音Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)Intonation and toneIntonation-- fall-rise tonesChinese is tone language.Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}Chapter3Morpheme◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在◆Bound Morpheme 不可以Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是catRoot：nature stem：naturalAffix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）Allomorphs同位异形体in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开Lexeme 词位Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word formContent words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰millCoordinative compound （teacher-student）并列Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compoundInflection 曲折构词曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。

胡壮麟语言学简明教程

胡壮麟语言学简明教程一、语言学的定义与基础概念语言学作为研究语言的学科，涉及语言的结构、功能和演变。

它探讨语言的各个层面，从语音、语法到语义和语用，揭示语言系统的内在规律及其在社会和文化中的应用。

二、语言学的主要分支音系学（Phonetics）：研究语音的发音及其在语言中的功能和变化。

语音学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的系统和规则。

形态学（Morphology）：研究词汇结构和词形变化规律。

句法学（Syntax）：研究句子结构和语法规则。

语义学（Semantics）：研究语言表达的意义和词汇义项的语义关系。

语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在特定语境中的使用规则及其言外之意。

三、语言学的发展历程语言学作为一个学科，经历了丰富的发展历程。

从传统的结构主义到现代的认知语言学和社会语言学，不同的学派和理论在不同的历史阶段对语言现象进行了深入研究和解释，推动了语言学理论的不断演进和完善。

四、语言学在现代社会中的应用语言教育与教学：语言学的理论和方法为语言教育提供了科学的依据，促进了语言学习和教学的效果和效率。

自然语言处理：语言学的知识和技术被应用于计算机科学领域，推动了自然语言处理技术的发展和应用。

语言政策与规划：语言学研究对于制定语言政策和语言规划具有重要的指导意义，帮助社会和国家管理语言资源和促进语言多样性的平衡发展。

五、语言学的未来展望与挑战在全球化和信息化的时代背景下，语言学面临着新的挑战和机遇。

如何更好地理解和解释多样化的语言现象，如何应对语言技术的快速发展和应用，以及如何保护和传承语言文化遗产，都是未来语言学研究亟需解决的重要问题。

六、胡壮麟语言学简明教程希望通过对语言学基本概念、主要分支、发展历程、应用领域及未来展望的全面介绍，为读者提供一个清晰而深入的学习指南。

语言学不仅仅是一门学科，更是人类认知和交流的重要工具和资源。

希望读者能够通过本教程，深入理解语言学的精髓，探索语言世界的奥秘，为未来的学习和研究打下坚实的基础。

语言学基础教程

Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics: Language Through Time8.1 What is historical linguistics?It is an indisputable fact that all languages have been constantly changing through time. Essentially, modern linguistics has centered around two dimensions to deal with language change: the synchronic dimension and the diachronic dimension. The synchronic dimension has dominantly been applied to describe and explain differences or variations within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time. The synchronic dimension is usually the topic of sociolinguistics, which will be discussed in Chapter 10. This chapter will focus on the diachronic dimension of language change. Those who study language from this latter point of view are working in the field of historical linguistics (Poole, 2000: 123). To put it more specifically, historical linguistics is the study of the developments in languages in the course of time, of the ways in which languages change from period to period, and of the causes and results of such changes, both outside the languages and within them (Robins, 2000: 5).8.2 When language changesAlthough language change does not take place overnight, certain changes are noticeable because they usually conflate with a certain historical period or major social changes caused by wars, invasions and other upheavals. The development of the English language is a case in point. Generally speaking, the historical development of English is divided into three major periods: Old English (OE), Middle English (ME), and Modern English (ModE).500 (the time when Germanic tribes invaded Britain)Old English1100 (the time after the Norman Conquest in 1066) Middle English1500 (the beginning of Renaissance and the firstprinting press set up in 1476 in England) Modern Englishthe presentIn about the year 449 AD, the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes from northern Europe invaded Britain and became the founders of the English nation. Their language, with the Germanic language as the source, is called, the name derived from the first tribe, the Angles. It had a vocabulary inherited almost entirely from Germanic or formed by compounding or derivation from Germanic elements (Dension, 1993: 9). From this early variety of Englisc,many of the most basic terms in the English language came into being: mann(“man”), cild(“child”), mete(“food”), etan(“eat”), drincan(“drink”) and feohtan(“fight”). From the sixth to the eighth centuries AD, the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity, and a number of terms, mainly to do with religion, philosophy and medicine, were borrowed into English from Latin,the language of religion. The origins of the modern words angel, bishop, candle, church, martyr, priest and school all date from that period. From the eighth century to the tenth century, the Vikings from northern Europe invaded England and brought words such as give, law, leg,skin, sky, take and they from their language, Old Norse (Yule, 2000: 218).In the year of 1066 AD, the Norman French conquered the whole of England, bringing French speakers into the ruling class and then pushing French to the position as the “prestige language” for the next two hundred years. This language was used by the nobility, the government, the law and civilized behavior, providing the source of such modern terms as army,court,defense,prison and tax(Yule, 2000: 219). Yet the language of the peasants remained English.By the end of the ME period, when English had once again become the first language of all classes, the bulk of OE lexis had become obsolete, and some ten thousand French words had been incorporated into English, maybe 75% surviving into ModE (Baugh & Cable, 2001:174).During the early ModE period, which coincided with the Renaissance period, English borrowed enormous lexical resources from the classical languages of Latin and Greek. And, later on as the British Empire expanded, the range of lexical influence widened to ever more exotic source languages (Dension, 1993: 13).The types of borrowed words noted above are examples of external changes in English, and the internal changes overlap with the historical periods described above. According to Fennell (2005: 2), the year 500 AD marks the branching off of English from other Germanic dialects; the year 1100 AD marks the period in which English lost the vast majority of its inflections, signaling the change from a language that relied upon morphological marking of grammatical roles to one that relied on word order to maintain basic grammatical relations; and the year 1500 AD marks the end of major French influence on the language and the time when the use of English was established in all communicative contexts. Thus, those internal changes will be elaborated below at the phonological, lexical, semantic and grammatical levels.8.3 How language changesThe change of the English language with the passage of time is so dramatic that today people hardly read OE or ME without special study. In general, the differences among OE, ME and ModE involve sound, lexicon and grammar, as discussed below.8.3.1 Phonological changeThe principle that sound change is normally regular is a very fruitful basis for examining the phonological history of a language. The majority of sound changes can be understood in terms of the movements of the vocal organs during speech, and sometimes more particularly in terms of a tendency to reduce articulatory effort (Trask, 2000: 70, 96).8.3.1.1 Phonemic change8.3.1.1.1 Vowel changeOne of the most obvious differences between ModE and the English spoken in earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sounds (Yule, 2000: 219). Sometimes a language experiences a wholesale shift in a large part of its phonological system. This happened to the long vowels of English in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesAD, each vowel becoming closer, the highest becoming diphthongs as in the words wife and house (respectively changed from wayf /wi:f/ and haws /hu:s/ in OE). We call this shift the Great Vowel Shift (Poole, 2000: 127), and the specific changes may be diagrammed as follows (Robins, 2000: 342).In ME, the vowels in nearly all unstressed syllabic inflections were reduced to [ә], spelled <e> (Dension, 1993: 12). The general obscuring of unstressed syllables is a most significant sound change (to be elaborated further in 8.3.3 and 8.3.4), since it is one of the fundamental causes of the loss of inflections (Fennell, 2005: 99).8.3.1.1.2 Consonant changeConsonants are produced with an obstruction of the air-stream, and tend to be less stable over time than vowels in most languages. Two fairly common processes are assimilation and lenition.Assimilation is the process by which two sounds that occur close together in speech become more alike. This sort of change is easy to understand: moving the speech organs all over the place requires an effort, and making nearby sounds more similar reduces the amount of movement required, and hence the amount of effort (Trask, 2000: 53). Instances can be found in words such as irregular, impossible and illegal, in which the negative prefixes im-and il-should be “in-based” in accordance with etymology.Under the influence of neighboring vowels, consonants may also be weakened. This weakening or lenition, can change a voiceless consonant into a voiced one and a plosive into a fricative (Poole, 2000: 126). Instances of [h] in native English words generally derive from the lenition of an earlier *[k]: such words as head, heart, help,hill and he all began with [k] in a remote ancestral form of English, but this[k] was lenited first to [x] and then to [h], and the modern lenition of [h] to zero merely completes a process of lenition stretching over several thousand years (Trask, 2000: 59).8.3.1.2 Whole-segment changeCertain phonological changes are somewhat unusual in that they involve, not just changes in the nature of segments, but a change in the number or ordering of segments, and these are referred to as whole-segment processes (Trask, 2000: 66). The change known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sounds. The following are examples from the OE period:acsian ask bridd bird brinnan beornan (burn)frist first hros horse waeps wasp(Yule, 2000: 220).8.3.2 Lexical changeAs defined by Freeborn (2000: 23), lexical change refers to new words being needed in the vocabulary to refer to new things or concepts, with other words dropping out when they no longer have any use in society. Lexical change may also involve semantic change, that is, change in the meaning of words. Thus, lexical change mainly consists of addition of new words, loss of words and change in the meaning of words.8.3.2.1 Addition of new wordsThe conditions of life for individuals in society, their artifacts, customs, and forms of organization are constantly changing. Accordingly, many words in languages and the situations in which they are employed are equally liable to change in the course of time (Robins, 2000: 343). Floods of new words constantly need to be added to the word-stock to reflect these developments. E tymology, which is the study of the history of individual words, shows that while the majority of words in a language are native words, there may also be loan words or borrowed words from another language. Native words are those that can be traced back to the earliestform of the language in question. In English, native words are words of Anglo-Saxon origin, such as full, hand, wind, red. Loan words are those that are borrowed or imported from another language, such as myth, career, formula, genius. Apart from borrowing, many new words are added to a language through word-formation. The following processes are quite pervasive in the addition of new words in the evolution of English.8.3.2.1.1 Compounding and affixingAccording to Fennell (2005: 77-8), new words in OE were mainly formed on the basis of compounding and affixing. Many words were formed through compounding, e.g. blod + read (“blood-red”); Engla (“Angles”) + land = England. Affixing covers suffixing and prefixing in OE, the former usually used to transform parts of speech while the latter generally used to change the semantic force. A suffix like -dom could create an abstract noun from another noun or adjective: wis + dom (“wisdom”). The perfective prefix ge- was most often used to form past participles: ceosan (“to choose),gecoren(“chosen”);findan(“to find”),gefunden(“found”). It could also be used to change the meaning of a word: hatan (“to call”), gehatan (“to promise”).In modern English, new words are added not only through compounding and affixing, but also by means of coinage, conversion, blending, backformation and abbreviation. All these word-formation processes are discussed in Chapter 3.8.3.2.1.2 Reanalysis and metanalysisReanalysis means that a word which historically has one particular morphological structure, is perceived by speakers as having a second, quite different structure. The Latin word minimum consisted in Latin of the morphemes min- (“little”, also found in minor and minus) and-im-(“most”), plus an inflectional ending; however, thanks to the influence of the unrelated miniature, English speakers have apparently reanalyzed both words as consisting of a prefix mini-(“very small”) plus something incomprehensible, leading to the creation of miniskirt and all the newer words whichhave followed it (Trask, 2000: 102).The history of English provides some nice examples of reanalysis involving nothing more than the movement of a morpheme boundary, a type of change impressively called metanalysis. Forms like a napron and an ewt were apparently misheard as an apron and a newt, producing the modern forms. Other similar instances are adder(the English former word: naddre), umpire(noumpere) and nickname(ekename) (Trask, 2000: 103).8.3.2.1.3 Analogical creationAnalogical creation is the replacement of an irregular or suppletive form within a grammatical paradigm by a new form modeled on the forms of the majority of members of the class to which the word in question belongs. The virtual replacement of kineby cows as the plural of cow is an example of analogical creation, and so are the more modern regular past tense forms helped, climbed, and snowed, for the earlier holp, clomb, and snew (Robins, 2000: 359). Analogical creation is quite persuasive in accounting for the process of cultural transmission to be discussed in 8.4.2.8.3.2.2 Loss of wordsIn the course of time, some words pass out of current vocabulary as the particular sorts of objects or ways of behaving to which they refer become obsolete. One need only think in English of the former specialized vocabulary, now largely vanished, which relates to obsolete sports such as falconry(Robins, 2000: 343). Such examples abound in almost every language.8.3.2.3 Semantic changeSemantic change refers to changes in the meanings of words. There are mainly three processes of semantic change: broadening, narrowing and meaning shifts (Fromkin & Rodman 1983: 297).Broadening and narrowing are changes in the scope of word meaning. That is, some words widen the range of their application or meaning, while other words havetheir contextual application reduced in scope. Broadening is a process by which a word with a specialized meaning is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept or meaning. For example, the original meaning of carry is “transport by cart”, but now it means “transport by any means”. Narrowing is the opposite of broadening, a process by which words with a general meaning become restricted in use and express a narrow or specialized meaning. For example, the word girl used to mean “a young person”, but in modern English it refers to a young female person. More examples of broadening and narrowing are provided below:Broadening:dog (docga OE) one particular breed of dog all breeds of dogsbird(brid ME) young bird all birds irrespective of age holiday(holy day) a religious feast the very general break from workNarrowing:hound (hund OE) any kind of dog a specific breed of dogmeat (mete OE) any kind of food edible food from animalsdeer (dēor ME) any beast, animal one species of animalMeaning shift is a process by which a word that used to denote one thing is used to mean something else. For example, the word coach, originally denoting a horse-drawn vehicle, now denotes a long-distance bus or a railway vehicle. Meaning shifts also include transference of meaning, that is, change from the literal meaning to the figurative meaning of words. For example, in expressions like the foot of a mountain, the bed of a river and the eye of a needle, we use foot, bed and eye in a metaphorical way. Other types of meaning shifts include elevation and degradation. Elevation of meaning is a process by which a word changes from a derogatory sense to an appreciative sense. For example, the word nice originally meant “ignorant” and fond simply meant “foolish”. Degradation of meaning is a process by which a word of appreciative meaning falls into pejorative use. For example, the word silly used to mean “happy”and cunning originally meant “skillful”.8.3.3 Grammatical changeThe most fundamental feature that distinguishes Old English from the languageof today is its grammar (Baugh & Cable, 2001: 54). Modern English is an analytic language while Old English is a synthetic language. The major difference is that a synthetic language is one that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections, but an analytic language makes extensive use of prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and depends on word order to show other relationships. In OE, the order of words in a clause was more variable than that of ModE, and there were many more inflections on nouns, adjectives and verbs (Freeborn, 2000: 66). The grammatical changes of English such as those in number, gender, case and tense mainly took place on its morphological level, while syntactic changes such as those in word order are the consequence of the loss of rich inflections in English. The most sweeping morphological change during the evolution of English is the progressive decay of inflections. OE, ME and ModE can be called the periods of full, reduced and zero inflections, respectively because, during most of the OE period the endings of the noun, the adjective, and the verb are preserved more or less unimpaired, while during the ME period the inflections become greatly reduced, and finally by the ModE period, a large part of the original inflectional system had disappeared entirely (Dension, 1993: 12; Baugh & Cable, 2001: 50).The loss of inflections in the case system of Old English is a good example of grammatical change. Case is the grammatical feature that marks functions of the subject, object, or possession in a clause. In OE, nouns showed a four-term case contrast, for which the Latinate terms nominative (subject), accusative (direct object), genitive (possessive) and dative (indirect object) are conventionally used, and the case-ending system can be illustrated by the following:CASE nominative genitive dative accusative MODERNENGLISHstone/stonesstone’s/stones’stone/stonesstone/stonesOESINGULARstānstānesstānestānOEPLURALstānasstānastānumstānas(Fromkin & Rodman, 1983: 290)The ME period is the beginning of the loss of most of the inflections of OE, mainly through the weakening and dropping of the final unstressed vowels. For example, whenthe vowel was dropped in the plural form of stones[st:n s], it became [st wnz], and when the “weak” syllables representing case endings in the forms of the singular, genitive plural, and dative plural were dropped, English lost much of its case system (ibid).The loss of inflections marks a transition of English from a synthetic to an analytic language, and thus led to a greater reliance on word order. Word order in OE was more variable than that of ModE: word order was not as fixed or rigid in OE as it is in ModE (Fennell, 2005: 59). Both the orders subject-object-verb (“hēhine geseah”: “he saw him”) and object-subject-verb (“him man ne sealde”: “no man gave [any] to him”) are possible (Yule, 2000: 221). Word order in an OE sentence was not so crucial because OE is so highly inflected. The doer of the action and the object of the action were revealed unambiguously by various case endings, which makes the sentence meaning perfectly clear.It can be said that changes in sound, lexicon and grammar do not operate separately or independently of each other, but they are interacting and interdependent. One change is often integrated or incorporated into the other changes. And, it is the complex interrelationships among them that have shaped the whole process of the language change. As is shown above, the dropping of the final unstressed vowels led to the loss of inflections of OE, and this in turn led to a greater reliance on word order.8.4 Why language changesNo change described above has happened overnight, but has constantly and gradually taken place. Many changes are difficult to discern while they are in progress. The causes of language change are many and various, and only some of them are reasonably well understood at present (Trask, 2000: 12). Two broad categories of factors contribute to language change: external and internal factors.8.4.1 External causesExternal causes of linguistic changes are the contacts between the speakers of different languages: the sort that occurs when a language is imposed on a peopleby conquest or political or cultural domination, or when cultural and other factors produce a high degree of bilingualism between adjacent speech areas (Robins, 2000: 340). The significant influence of Norman French on the English language from the eleventh century AD supports this proposition. It can be said that any dramatic social change caused by wars, invasions and other upheavals can possibly bring about correspondent changes in language.8.4.2 Internal causesAccording to Yule (2000: 222), the most pervasive source of change seems to be in the continual process of cultural transmission (in particular, the transmission of speech habits from one generation to another). Each new generation has to find a way of using the language of the previous generation. In this unending process whereby each new language-user has to “recreate”for him-or herself the language of the community, there is an unavoidable propensity to pick up some elements exactly and others only approximately. There is also the occasional desire to be different.In the process of cultural transmission, some underlying physiological factors can also play a vital role, mainly marked by least effort. For sound change, one key motivator is ease of articulation. There is a tendency for intervocalic voiceless plosives to be subjected to lenition because producing a voiced fricative between vowels requires less physiological change than does the production of a voiceless plosive (Poole, 2000: 130). For grammatical change, it is not difficult to see that the principle of least effort works for widespread simplification of the grammatical categories in the English language, exemplified by substantial losses of gender, case and tense distinctions.8.5 SummaryIn this chapter we have focused on language change in the diachronic dimension, namely from the historical perspective of change. We draw the conclusion that English has gradually and continuously shifted from a synthetic language to an analytic language in the course of time, marked by interrelated and interdependent changes at all levels, including the general obscuring of unstressed syllables, theprogressive decay of inflections and the rigidity of word order. And, this shift may be mainly caused by major social changes and contacts, and by cultural transmission and least effort.Questions and Exercises1. Define the following terms.historical linguistics metathesisanalogical creation Great Vowel Shiftetymologysynthetic languagelenitionreanalysisanalytic language2. How are the historical developments of the English language generally divided? What are the main features that characterize each period?3. Can you apply the theory of reanalysis to explain how cheeseburger, chickenburgerand vegeburger are derived from the word hamburger? Can you find more examples of reanalysis in English?4. Use one or two examples to show how the grammatical case is changed in the course of the historical evolution of English.5. Use one or two examples to illustrate how changes in sound, lexicon and grammarare integrated or interrelated.6. What are the semantic processes in the changes of word meanings?7. Among the phonological, lexical and grammatical levels of language change, which level do you believe undergoes the fastest change and which level the slowest change? Can you account for these changes?8. In the English language, some names of animals are generally known by the Germanic terms and the resultant meats by the French terms. Which of the following words are derived from OE and which from Norman French? Can you trace the reason for this differentiated origin?calf, pork, mutton, ox, veal, swine, beef, sheep9. Give examples to account for the causes for language change.。

胡壮麟语言学教程u1(第一单元)提纲

(2) Features:
1)Arbitrariness: first proposed by Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.Different level ofarbitrariness:
2)Duality:Languages have two levels of structures, units of the primary level (words) are composed ofelements of
the secondary level (sounds) and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.
●Creativity partly originates from its duality, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.
Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. (eg: Dog bark: bowwow&汪汪)
（arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time）

语言学教程Chapter 7. Language, Culture, and Society(课堂PPT)

2
Anthropological linguistics
A branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its tradition, beliefs, and family structure. 语言学的一个分支，研究一个社团的语言和文化之间的关系，如传统、信仰和家庭结构。
22
Prediction
Linguistic studies in the new century will become more fruitful if an evolutionary, cognitive, and interdisciplinary perspective is taken in its theoretic pursuit.
Paved the way for a cultural, rather, a contextual study of language use in Britain.
10
His influence
Under his anthropological view of language and being fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, Firth, a leading figure in a linguistic tradition later known as the London school, tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationships between language use and its co-occurrent factors. He developed

语言学教程(苗兴伟)章节1 language and linguistics

language andlinguisticsdeﬁnition of language初定义：language is a means of humancommunicationmerit brevity and popularity in language usersdisadvantagenot adequate ;only instrumental aspect;"human communication" needs moreexplanation ; periods or groups variesdeﬁnitiona system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication and interactiondesign features of language（C.F.HOCKETT）purposedistinguish human language from otherspecies' systems of communication (inSaussure' s theory it's between soundimage and concept)contentarbitrariness : there's no intrinsic relationbetween sound and meaning例如：there is no reason that we attach themeaning of "animal with a grunt and acurly tail " to the sound of "pig"例如从另一角度：cross-linguistic evidenceshows that different sounds are used tosignify the same object in differentlanguagesduality/double articulation : having 2 levelsof structures or patterningat primary, higher level, language is analyzed in terms ofcombinations of meaningful units, such as morphemes andwords; secondary lower level, language is composed of asequence of segments, such as phonological units which donot have any intrinsic meaning but combine to form units ofmeaninge.g. in sentence "He goes to school"at the ﬁrst higher level,the sentence consists of meaningfulunits:"he,go,-es (a morpheme indicating third person singular number),to,school" At the lowerlevel,these meaningful units are made of phonological units:"/h/,/i:/,/g/etc"或者说： from phonological segments to meaningful unitsDuality is a design feature that enables language to beproductive,because language users can use or produce alarge number of forms by combining a relatively smallnumber of lower level elements in a variety of differentways.productivity/creativity : capacity oflanguage users to produce andunderstand inﬁnite sentencesdistinctive feature of human languagedisplacement : human can talk aboutobjects/events which do not belong to theimmediate setting in space and timecultural transmission: transmission oflanguage between generations is acultural fact rather than a genetic onethe origin of languagedivine-origin theory language is God's gift to mankind. according to the《Genesis》, Godcreated Adam and gave him power to name things.invention theorylanguage is human invention (Danishjepersen)the bow-wow theory: by imitations ofnatural sounds (e.g. onomatopoeic words)the Pooh-Pooh theory: language arosefrom instinctive cries of emotion( pain,anger,pleasure )( e.g. interjections 感叹词 inlanguage)the ding-dong theory : from people'sresponses to things around them bysoundssound symbolismthe phenomenon that vocal soundssuggest meaninge.g. the "-gl words " for shiny things ,suchas "glare, glass, glisten, gleam"the oral-gesture theory: language is an oralmirror of physical gestures through themovement of the tongue,lips and othervocal organs.e.g. One possible example is the oralgesture (movement of the tongue) ina“goodbye"message as a vocal mimicry ofthe physical gesture (waving of the hand orarm).the yo-he-ho theory: Language developedout of the rhythmical grunts of humansworking together.the prosodic features（韵律特征）,especially of rhythm in languagethe la-la theory: Language derived fromsounds associated with the romanticaspect of life,such as song,love,art andpoetry.evolution theory language developed in the course of the evolution of the human species.a few distinctionsmodern linguistics VS traditional grammarlinguistics is descriptive rather thanprescriptive（规定性的）.linguists try tomake statements which are testable,andtake language as it is rather than say howit should be.empirical（经验主义的） approach inlinguistics: data collection (usually in the formof a corpus),tentative ruleconstruction,tentative rule examination andrule ﬁnalizationno standard correctnesslinguistics regards spoken rather thanwritten language as primary.traditional grammar tends to emphasize theimportance of classical writer's writings whilemodern linguistics gives priority to spokenlanguagelinguistics differs from traditional grammar in that itdoes not force languages into a Latin-based framework.general linguistics VS descriptivelinguisticsGeneral linguistics deals with language,aiming at developing a theory thatdescribes the rules of human language ingeneral.Descriptive linguistics, is the study ofparticular languages,attempting toconstruct models that describe the rules ofindividual languagesalso have links: general linguistics provideframework for descriptive linguistics inwhich a particular language can bestudieddiachronic linguistics VS synchroniclinguisticsdiachronic linguistics is a study of language changethrough timesynchronic linguistics studies language existing ina “state" at one particular point in timetheoretical linguistics VS appliedlinguisticstheoretical linguistics studies language and languages with aview to construct a theory of their structure and functionswithout regard to any practical applicationsapplied linguistics concerns the application of the conceptsand ﬁndings of linguistics to a variety of practical tasks,including language-teaching.theoretical linguistics VS generallinguisticsgoal of theoretical linguistics is theformulation of a satisfactory theory of thestructure of language in generalGeneral linguistics attempts to establish aworkable theory of language at all levelsmacrolinguisticsLinguists have drawn on recent discoveriesor developments from other areas of studyand come up with enlightening views onlanguage.why linguistics is a science ?its goal of scientiﬁc enquiry is objectiveunderstanding. the primary goal is tounderstand the nature of languagelinguistics is scientiﬁc in methodologydeﬁnition of linguisticsScience of language or scientiﬁc study oflanguage。

语言学基础教程知识点总结

语言学基础教程知识点总结语言学是研究语言的学科，它涉及语音、语法、语义、语用、语言变迁等多个方面。

在本文中，我们将对语言学的基础知识点进行总结，主要包括语音学、语法学、语义学和语用学四个方面。

希望通过本文的总结，读者能够对语言学有一个基本的了解，并能够在相关领域进行更深入的学习和研究。

一、语音学1. 语音学概述语音学是研究语音的学科，它主要涉及语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。

语音学包括音韵学和声学两个方面，音韵学主要研究语音的基本单位音素，声学则研究语音的物理和声学特性。

2. 语音的分类语音可以根据发音部位和发音方式进行分类。

根据发音部位可以分为唇音、齿音、舌音、软腭音和喉音等；根据发音方式可以分为清音、浊音、塞音、擦音、鼻音、侧音等。

3. 语音的产生机制语音的产生主要通过呼吸、发音器官和声带的协调完成。

呼吸提供气流，发音器官包括喉、嘴和鼻腔等，声带则通过震动产生声音。

4. 语音的变化规律语音的变化规律主要包括语音变调、重音位置和音位变异等方面。

语音的变化规律是语音学研究的一个重要内容，也是语言变迁的基础。

二、语法学1. 语法学概述语法学是研究语言结构和句子构成规律的学科，它包括句法学、词法学和形态学等内容。

语法学主要研究句子构成规律、词类和句法成分等方面。

2. 句子成分句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语和补语等。

不同语言的句子成分可能存在差异，但大致都包括这几个方面。

3. 句子结构句子结构主要包括主谓结构、主谓宾结构、主系宾结构等。

句子结构是句法学的重要内容，也是句子的基本构成规律。

4. 语法规则语法规则是语言中的基本规律，它包括词汇、句法和语用等方面。

语法规则是语法学研究的核心内容，也是语言学习的重要内容。

三、语义学1. 语义学概述语义学是研究语言意义的学科，它主要包括词义学、句义学和话语义学等方面。

语义学主要研究词义、句义和话语意义的内在规律。

2. 词义及词义辨析词义是词语的意义，它包括词语的词义、义项和词义辨析等方面。

语言学基础教程

语⾔学基础教程Chapter 8 Historical Linguistics: Language Through Time8.1 What is historical linguistics?It is an indisputable fact that all languages have been constantly changing through time. Essentially, modern linguistics has centered around two dimensions to deal with language change: the synchronic dimension and the diachronic dimension. The synchronic dimension has dominantly been applied to describe and explain differences or variations within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time. The synchronic dimension is usually the topic of sociolinguistics, which will be discussed in Chapter 10. This chapter will focus on the diachronic dimension of language change. Those who study language from this latter point of view are working in the field of historical linguistics(Poole, 2000: 123). To put it more specifically, historical linguistics is the study of the developments in languages in the course of time, of the ways in which languages change from period to period, and of the causes and results of such changes, both outside the languages and within them (Robins, 2000: 5).8.2 When language changesAlthough language change does not take place overnight, certain changes are noticeable because they usually conflate with a certain historical period or major social changes caused by wars, invasions and other upheavals. The development of the English language is a case in point. Generally speaking, the historical development of English is divided into three major periods: Old English (OE), Middle English (ME), and Modern English (ModE).500 (the time when Germanic tribes invaded Britain)Old English1100 (the time after the Norman Conquest in 1066)Middle English1500 (the beginning of Renaissance and the first printingpress set up in 1476 in England)Modern Englishthe presentIn about the year 449 AD, the Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes from northern Europe invaded Britain and became the founders of the English nation. Their language, with the Germanic language as the source, is called, the name derived from the first tribe, the Angles. Ithad a vocabulary inherited almost entirely from Germanic or formed by compounding or derivation from Germanic elements (Dension, 1993: 9). From this early variety of Englisc,many of the most basic terms in the English language came into being: mann (“man”), cild (“child”), mete (“food”), etan (“eat”), drincan (“drink”) and feohtan (“fight”). From the sixth to the eighth centuries AD, the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity, and a number of terms, mainly to do with religion, philosophy and medicine, were borrowed into English from Latin,the language of religion. The origins of the modern wordsangel,bishop,candle,church,martyr,priest and school all date from that period. From the eighth century to the tenth century, the Vikings from northern Europe invaded England and brought words such as give, law, leg, skin, sky, take and they from their language, Old Norse (Yule, 2000: 218).In the year of 1066 AD, the Norman French conquered the whole of England, bringing French speakers into the ruling class and then pushing French to the position as the “prestige language” for the next two hundred years. This language was used by the nobility, the government, the law and civilized behavior, providing the source of such modern terms as army, court, defense, prison and tax (Yule, 2000: 219). Yet the language of the peasants remained English.By the end of the ME period, when English had once again become the first language of all classes, the bulk of OE lexis had become obsolete, and some ten thousand French words had been incorporated into English, maybe 75% surviving into ModE (Baugh & Cable, 2001:174).During the early ModE period, which coincided with the Renaissance period, English borrowed enormous lexical resources from the classical languages of Latin and Greek. And, later on as the British Empire expanded, the range of lexical influence widened to ever more exotic source languages (Dension, 1993: 13).The types of borrowed words noted above are examples of external changes in English, and the internal changes overlap with the historical periods described above. According to Fennell (2005: 2), the year 500 AD marks the branching off of English from other Germanic dialects; the year 1100 AD marks the period in which English lost the vast majority of its inflections, signaling the change from a language that relied upon morphological marking of grammatical roles to one that relied on word order to maintain basic grammatical relations; and the year 1500 AD marks the end of major French influence on the language and the time when the use of English was established in all communicative contexts. Thus, those internal changes will be elaborated belowat the phonological, lexical, semantic and grammatical levels.8.3 How language changesThe change of the English language with the passage of time is so dramatic that today people hardly read OE or ME without special study. In general, the differences among OE, ME and ModE involve sound, lexicon and grammar, as discussed below.8.3.1 Phonological changeThe principle that sound change is normally regular is a very fruitful basis for examining the phonological history of a language. The majority of sound changes can be understood in terms of the movements of the vocal organs during speech, and sometimes more particularly in terms of a tendency to reduce articulatory effort (Trask, 2000: 70, 96).8.3.1.1 Phonemic change8.3.1.1.1 Vowel changeOne of the most obvious differences between ModE and the English spoken in earlier periods is in the quality of the vowel sounds (Yule, 2000: 219). Sometimes a language experiences a wholesale shift in a large part of its phonological system. This happened to the long vowels of English in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries AD, each vowel becoming closer, the highest becoming diphthongs as in the words wife and house (respectively changed from wayf /wi:f/ and haws /hu:s/ in OE). We call this shift the Great Vowel Shift (Poole, 2000: 127), and the specific changes may be diagrammed as follows (Robins, 2000: 342).In ME, the vowels in nearly all unstressed syllabic inflections were reduced to [?], spelled (Dension, 1993: 12). The general obscuring of unstressed syllables is a most significant sound change (to be elaborated further in 8.3.3 and 8.3.4), since it is one of the fundamental causes of the loss of inflections (Fennell, 2005: 99).8.3.1.1.2 Consonant changeConsonants are produced with an obstruction of the air-stream, and tend to be less stable over time than vowels in most languages. Two fairly common processes are assimilation and lenition.Assimilation is the process by which two sounds that occur close together in speech become more alike. This sort of change is easy to understand: moving the speech organs all over the place requires an effort, and making nearby sounds more similar reduces the amount of movement required, and hence the amount of effort (Trask, 2000: 53). Instances can be found in words such as irregular,impossible and illegal, in which the negative prefixes im-and il-should be “in-based” in accordance with etymology.Under the influence of neighboring vowels, consonants may also be weakened. This weakening or lenition, can change a voiceless consonant into a voiced one and a plosive into a fricative (Poole, 2000: 126). Instances of [h] in native English words generally derive from the lenition of an earlier *[k]: such words as head,heart,help,hill and he all began with [k] in a remote ancestral form of English, but this [k] was lenited first to [x] and then to [h], and the modern lenition of [h] to zero merely completes a process of lenition stretching over several thousand years (Trask, 2000: 59).8.3.1.2 Whole-segment changeCertain phonological changes are somewhat unusual in that they involve, not just changes in the nature of segments, but achange in the number or ordering of segments, and these are referred to as whole-segment processes (Trask, 2000: 66). The change known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sounds. The following are examples from the OE period: acsian → ask bridd → bird brinnan → beornan (burn)frist → first hros → horse waeps → wasp(Yule, 2000: 220).8.3.2 Lexical changeAs defined by Freeborn (2000: 23), lexical change refers to new words being needed in the vocabulary to refer to new things or concepts, with other words dropping out when they no longerhave any use in society. Lexical change may also involve semantic change, that is, change in the meaning of words. Thus, lexical change mainly consists of addition of new words, loss of words and change in the meaning of words.8.3.2.1 Addition of new wordsThe conditions of life for individuals in society, their artifacts, customs, and forms of organization are constantly changing. Accordingly, many words in languages and the situations in which they are employed are equally liable to change in the course of time (Robins, 2000: 343). Floods of new words constantly need to be added to the word-stock to reflect these developments.E tymology, which is the study of the history of individual words, shows that while the majority of words in a language are native words, there may also be loan words or borrowed words from another language. Native words are those that can be traced back to the earliest form of the language in question. In English, native words are words of Anglo-Saxon origin, such as full, hand, wind, red. Loan words are those that are borrowed or imported from another language, such as myth, career, formula, genius. Apart from borrowing, many new words are added to a language through word-formation. The following processes are quite pervasive in the addition of new words in the evolution of English.8.3.2.1.1 Compounding and affixingAccording to Fennell (2005: 77-8), new words in OE were mainly formed on the basis of compounding and affixing. Many words were formed through compounding, e.g. blod + read (“blood-red”); Engla (“Angles”) + land = England. Affixing covers suffixing and prefixing in OE, the former usually used to transform parts of speech while the latter generally used to change the semantic force. A suffix like -dom could create an abstract noun from another noun or adjective: wis + dom (“wisdom”). The perfective prefix ge- was most often used to form past participles: ceosan (“to choose), gecoren (“chosen”); findan (“to find”), gefunden (“found”). It could also be used to change the meaning of a word: hatan (“to call”), gehatan (“to promise”).In modern English, new words are added not only through compounding and affixing, but also by means of coinage, conversion, blending, backformation and abbreviation. All these word-formation processes are discussed in Chapter 3.8.3.2.1.2 Reanalysis and metanalysisReanalysis means that a word which historically has one particular morphological structure, is perceived by speakers as having a second, quite different structure. The Latin word minimum consisted in Latin of the morphemes min-(“little”, also found in minor and minus) and-im-(“most”), plus an inflectional ending; however, thanks to the influence of the unrelated miniature, English speakers have apparently reanalyzed both words as consisting of a prefix mini-(“very small”) plus something incomprehensible, leading to the creation of miniskirt and all the newer words which have followed it (Trask, 2000: 102).The history of English provides some nice examples of reanalysis involving nothing more than the movement of a morpheme boundary, a type of change impressively called metanalysis. Forms like a napron and an ewt were apparently misheard as an apron and a newt, producing the modern forms. Other similar instances are adder(the English former word: naddre), umpire (noumpere) and nickname (ekename) (Trask, 2000: 103).8.3.2.1.3 Analogical creationAnalogical creation is the replacement of an irregular or suppletive form within a grammatical paradigm by a new form modeled on the forms of the majority of members of the class to which the word in question belongs. The virtual replacement of kine by cows as the plural of cow is an example of analogical creation, and so are the more modern regular past tense forms helped, climbed, and snowed, for the earlier holp, clomb, and snew (Robins, 2000: 359). Analogical creation is quite persuasive in accounting for the process of cultural transmission to be discussed in 8.4.2.8.3.2.2 Loss of wordsIn the course of time, some words pass out of current vocabulary as the particular sorts of objects or ways of behaving to which they refer become obsolete. One need only think in English of the former specialized vocabulary, now largely vanished, which relates to obsolete sports such as falconry (Robins, 2000: 343). Such examples abound in almost every language.8.3.2.3 Semantic changeSemantic change refers to changes in the meanings of words. There are mainly three processes of semantic change: broadening, narrowing and meaning shifts (Fromkin & Rodman 1983: 297).Broadening and narrowing are changes in the scope of word meaning. That is, some words widen the range of their application or meaning, while other words have their contextual application reduced in scope. Broadening is a process by which a word with a specialized meaning is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept or meaning. For example, the original meaning of carry is “transport by cart”, but now it means “transport by any means”. Narrowing is the opposite of broadening, a process by which words with a general meaning become restricted in use and express a narrow or specialized meaning. For example, the word girl used to mean “a young person”, but in modern English it refers to a young female person. More examples of broadening and narrowing are provided below:Broadening:dog (docga OE) one particular breed of dog →all breeds of dogsbird (brid ME) young bird →all birds irrespective of ageholiday (holy day) a religious feast →the very general break from workNarrowing:hound (hund OE) any kind of dog → a specific breed of dogmeat (mete OE) any kind of food →edible food from animalsdeer (dēor ME) any beast, animal →one species of animalMeaning shift is a process by which a word that used to denote one thing is used to mean something else. For example, the word coach, originally denoting a horse-drawn vehicle, now denotes a long-distance bus or a railway vehicle. Meaning shifts also include transference of meaning, that is, change from the literal meaning to the figurative meaning of words. For example, in expressions like the foot of a mountain, the bed of a river and the eye of a needle, we use foot, bed and eye in a metaphorical way. Other types of meaning shifts include elevation and degradation. Elevation of meaning is a process by which a word changes from a derogatory sense to an appreciative sense. For example, the word nice originally meant “ignorant” and fond simply meant “foolish”. Degradation of meaning is a process by which a word of appreciative meaning falls into pejorative use. For example, the word silly used to mean “happy” and cunning originally meant “skillful”.8.3.3 Grammatical changeThe most fundamental feature that distinguishes Old English from the language of today is its grammar (Baugh & Cable, 2001: 54). Modern English is an analytic language while Old English is a synthetic language. The major difference is that a synthetic language is one that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections, but an analytic language makes extensive use of prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and depends on word order to show other relationships. In OE, the order of words in a clause was more variable than that of ModE, and there were many more inflections on nouns, adjectives and verbs (Freeborn, 2000: 66). The grammatical changes of English such as those in number, gender, case and tense mainly took place on its morphological level, while syntactic changes such as those in word order are the consequence of the loss of rich inflections in English. The most sweeping morphological change during the evolution of English is the progressive decay of inflections. OE, ME and ModE can be called the periods of full, reduced and zero inflections, respectively because, during most of the OE period the endings of the noun, the adjective, and the verb are preserved more or less unimpaired, while during the ME period the inflections become greatly reduced, and finally by the ModE period, a large part of the original inflectional system had disappeared entirely (Dension, 1993: 12; Baugh & Cable, 2001: 50).The loss of inflections in the case system of Old English is a good example of grammatical change. Case is the grammatical feature that marks functions of the subject, object, or possession in a clause. In OE, nouns showed a four-term case contrast, for which the Latinate terms nominative (subject), accusative (direct object), genitive (possessive) and dative (indirect object) are conventionally used, and the case-ending system can be illustrated by the following:CASE nominative genitive dative accusative MODERNENGLISHstone/stonesstone’s/stones’stone/stonesstone/stonesOESINGULARstānstānesstānestānOEPLURALstānasstānastānumstānas(Fromkin & Rodman, 1983: 290)The ME period is the beginning of the loss of most of the inflections of OE, mainly through the weakening and dropping of the final unstressed vowels. For example, when the vowel wasdropped in the plural form of stones[st :n?s], it became [st wnz], and when the “weak”syllables representing case endings in the forms of the singular, genitive plural, and dative plural were dropped, English lost much of its case system (ibid).The loss of inflections marks a transition of English from a synthetic to an analytic language, and thus led to a greater reliance on word order. Word order in OE was more variable than that of ModE: word order was not as fixed or rigid in OE as it is in ModE (Fennell, 2005: 59). Both the orders subject-object-verb (“hē hine geseah”: “he saw him”) and object-subject-verb (“him man ne sealde”: “no man gave [any] to him”) are possible (Yule, 2000: 221). Word order in an OE sentence was not so crucial because OE is so highly inflected. The doer of the action and the object of the action were revealed unambiguously by various case endings, which makes the sentence meaning perfectly clear.It can be said that changes in sound, lexicon and grammar do not operate separately or independently of each other, but they are interacting and interdependent. One change is often integrated or incorporated into the other changes. And, it is the complex interrelationships among them that have shaped the whole process of the language change. As is shown above, the dropping of the final unstressed vowels led to the loss of inflections of OE, and this in turn led to a greater reliance on word order.8.4 Why language changesNo change described above has happened overnight, but has constantly and gradually taken place. Many changes are difficult to discern while they are in progress. The causes of language change are many and various, and only some of them are reasonably well understood at present (Trask, 2000: 12). Two broad categories of factors contribute to language change: external and internal factors.8.4.1 External causesExternal causes of linguistic changes are the contacts between the speakers of different languages: the sort that occurs when a language is imposed on a people by conquest or political or cultural domination, or when cultural and other factors produce a high degree of bilingualism between adjacent speech areas (Robins, 2000: 340). The significant influence of Norman French on the English language from the eleventh century AD supports this proposition. It can be said thatany dramatic social change caused by wars, invasions and other upheavals can possibly bring about correspondent changes in language.8.4.2 Internal causesAccording to Yule (2000: 222), the most pervasive source of change seems to be in the continual process of cultural transmission (in particular, the transmission of speech habits from one generation to another). Each new generation has to find a way of using the language of the previous generation. In this unending process whereby each new language-user has to “recreate”for him-or herself the language of the community, there is an unavoidable propensity to pick up some elements exactly and others only approximately. There is also the occasional desire to be different.In the process of cultural transmission, some underlying physiological factors can also play a vital role, mainly marked by least effort. For sound change, one key motivator is ease of articulation. There is a tendency for intervocalic voiceless plosives to be subjected to lenition because producing a voiced fricative between vowels requires less physiological change than does the production of a voiceless plosive (Poole, 2000: 130). For grammatical change, it is not difficult to see that the principle of least effort works for widespread simplification of the grammatical categories in the English language, exemplified by substantial losses of gender, case and tense distinctions.8.5 SummaryIn this chapter we have focused on language change in the diachronic dimension, namely from the historical perspective of change. We draw the conclusion that English has gradually and continuously shifted from a synthetic language to an analytic language in the course of time, marked by interrelated and interdependent changes at all levels, including the general obscuring of unstressed syllables, the progressive decay of inflections and the rigidity of word order. And, this shift may be mainly caused by major social changes and contacts, and by cultural transmission and least effort.Questions and Exercises1. Define the following terms.historical linguistics Great V owel Shift lenitionmetathesis analogical creation etymologysynthetic languagereanalysisanalytic language2. How are the historical developments of the English language generally divided? What are the main features that characterize each period?3. Can you apply the theory of reanalysis to explain how cheeseburger, chickenburger andvegeburger are derived from the word hamburger? Can you find more examples of reanalysis in English?4. Use one or two examples to show how the grammatical case is changed in the course of the historical evolution of English.5. Use one or two examples to illustrate how changes in sound, lexicon and grammar areintegrated or interrelated.6. What are the semantic processes in the changes of word meanings?7. Among the phonological, lexical and grammatical levels of language change, which level do you believe undergoes the fastest change and which level the slowest change? Can you account for these changes?8. In the English language, some names of animals are generally known by the Germanic terms and the resultant meats by the French terms. Which of the following words are derived from OE and which from Norman French? Can you trace the reason for this differentiated origin?calf, pork, mutton, ox, veal, swine, beef, sheep9. Give examples to account for the causes for language change.。

普通语言学教程

普通语言学教程语言中的一切比如声音的变化归根到底是心理的。

在我们看来(要解决这一切困难只有一个办法:了开始就姑在语言的阵地上，把它当作言语活动的其他一切表现的堆则。

一个概念在脑袋里引起一个相应的音响形象，这完全是一个心理现象。

接着是个生理过程:接着是一个生理过程:脑子把一个与那音响形象有相互关系的仲动传递给发音器官，然后把声波从甲的口里播送到乙的耳朵:这是纯粹的物理过程。

随后，循环在乙方以相反的程序继续着:从耳朵到脑于，这是音响形象征生理上的传忿在脑子里，是这形象和相应的概念在心理上的联结oo如果轮到乙方说话，这新的行为就继续下去——从他的因子到甲方的脑子——进程限航心理部分也不是全部起作用的:执行的一方是没有关系的，因为执行永远不是由集体，而是由个人进行的。

个人永远是它的主Az我们管它叫言语。

语言的特征可以概括如T2(1)它是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中一个十分确定的对象。

它是言语活动的社会部分，个人以外的东西;个人独自不能创造语言，也不能改变语言;它只凭社会的成员问通过的一种契约而存在。

另一方面，个人必须经过一个见习期才能懂得它的运用;儿童只能一点一油地掌握它。

一个人即使丧失了使用言语的能力，只要能理解所吁到的声音符号，还算是保持着语言(2)语言和言语不同，它是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。

我们虽已不再说死去的语言，但是完全能够教授它们的语言机构。

语言科学不但可以没有言语活动的其他要秦，而且正要没有这些要素搀杂在里面，才能够建立起来。

(3)言语活动是异质的，而这样规定下来的语言却是同质的:它是一种符号系统;在这系统里，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要淑在这系统里，符号的两个部分都是心理的。

语言中只有昔响形象，我们可以把它们译成固定的视觉形象。

每个音响形象也不过是若干为数有限的要亲或音位的总和，我们可以设想有一门研究社会生活中符号生命的科学它将构成社会心理学的一部分，因而也是普通心理学的一部允我们管它叫符号学(s6miologle?正因为这个特征只在语言中显露得员清楚，而它却正是在人们研究得最少的地方表现出来，结果，人们就看不出一门符号科学有什么必要或特殊效用。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

语言学基础教程
第一章、导论
第一节，语言学的性质及任务
一，语言学
1、语言学：是关于语言的科学，是以人类语言为研究对象的一门科学。

2、语言学的任务
（1）研究对象：及研究有文字的语言，也研究无文字记录的语言，既研究古代的语言也研究当今适用的语言。

（2）任务：揭示人类语言的性质、功能、结构特点以及语言变化发展的一般规律。

（3）作用：帮助人们了解语言基本理论和知识，知道人们更好的学习和适用语言。

二，语言学的分类。

1、按研究对象分：（1）具体语言学：汉语语言学、藏语用语言学
（2）普通语言学：语言学概论
2、按研究方法分：（1）历史语言学：汉语史
（2）描写语言学，共时语言学
（3）比较语言学：不同的语言进行比较研究
3、按研究范围分：（1）宏观语言学
（2）微观语言学
4、按侧重面分：（1）理论语言学
（2）应用语言学
四、名词解释
1.语言学：关于语言的科学，是以人类古今，书面和口头的语言为研究对象的一门科学。

2.语文学：广义，对文学和文化系统的研究；狭义，依据文献资料和文学作品作出的历史语
言分析。

此处偏重于从文献的角度研究语言，文学学科的总称，应属于语言科学
体系。

3.历史语言学：采用历史的方法
4.比较语言学：
5.描写语言学：
6．历史比较语言学：
7.结构语言学
8.转换生成语言学
9.历时语言学
10.共时语言学
11.一般语言学
12.具体语言学
13.理论语言学
14.应用语言学。

语言学基础教程

普通语言学教程-索绪尔

《语言学教程》第 2 章 语音学与音位学1

语言学基础教程戴庆厦1-2章

（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

语言学教程第一章

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版)

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第一章-第六章重难点

胡壮麟 语言学简明教程

语言学基础教程

胡壮麟语言学教程u1(第一单元)提纲

语言学教程Chapter 7. Language, Culture, and Society(课堂PPT)

语言学教程(苗兴伟)章节1 language and linguistics

语言学基础教程知识点总结

语言学基础教程

普通语言学教程

《语言学教程》第 2 章语音学与音位学1

胡壮麟语言学简明教程