语言学 Linguistics

Language and CognitionCognitive LinguisticsWhat Is Cognitive Linguistics?Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.Main Points in Cognitive LinguisticsConstrual and Construal OperationsCategorizationImage SchemasMetaphorMetonymyBlending TheoryConstrual and Construal OperationsConstrual is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.Attention/ SalienceJudgment/ComparisonPerspective/SituatednessConstrual and Construal Operations : Attention/ SalienceThe operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us.In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures.We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation.Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/ComparisonThe construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else.The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration.Static and dynamic figure/ groundTrajector for a moving figureLandmark for the ground of a moving figureCategorizationCategorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories.Basic levelSuper-ordinate levelSubordinate levelMetaphorMetaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categoriesThree Categories of MetaphorOntological metaphorsStructural metaphorsOrientational metaphorsThree Categories of MetaphorOntological metaphorsOntological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances.Three Categories of MetaphorStructural metaphorsStructural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.Three Categories of MetaphorOrientational metaphorsOrientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientationMetonymyMetonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domainTwo Conceptual ConfigurationsWhole ICM and its part(s)Parts of an ICMMetonymy— Whole ICM and its part(s)Thing-and-Part ICMScale ICMConstitution ICMEvent ICMCategory-and-Member ICMCategory-and-Property ICMReduction ICMMetonymy— Parts of an ICMAction ICMPerception ICMCausation ICMProduction ICMControl ICMPossession ICMContainment ICMLocation ICMSign and Reference ICMsModification ICMWhat Is Cognitive Linguistics? Blending TheoryFauconnier and Turner propose and discuss blending or integration theory, a cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into new, blended space which has its unique structure. Conditions are needed when two input spaces I1 and I2 are blended:Cross-Space MappingGeneric SpaceBlendEmergent StructureWhat Is Cognitive Linguistics? Image SchemasImage schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Image SchemasA center-periphery schemaA containment schemaA cycle schemaA force schemaA link schemaA part-whole schemaA path schemaA scale schemaA verticality schema类属空间输入空间1 输入空间2合成空间施事经历者锋利的刀具工作场所程序（目标、方式）角色:外科医生(外科医生身份)角色:病人(病人身份)手术刀手术室目标:康复方式:手术角色:屠夫角色:商品(动物)屠刀屠宰场目标:切肉方式:屠宰外科医生身份病人身份切肉手术刀手术室目标：康复方式：屠宰不称职Chapter nguage and CognitionWhat Is Cognition?What Is Psycholinguistics?What Is Cognitive Linguistics?What Is Cognition?DefinitionIn psychology, the term cognition is used to refer to the mental process of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind had internal states and can be understood in terms of in formation processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning at work.Another definition is the mental process of faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.What Is Cognition?Three ApproachesThe formal approachIt basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning.The psychological approachIt looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning.The conceptual approach.It is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. What Is Psycholinguistics?Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary study , it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.Text book P130-131: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition. Two Questions Concerned in PsycholinguisticsWhat knowledge of language is needed for us to use language?Tacit knowledge and explicit knowledgeLanguage knowledgeSemantics, syntax, phonology, pragmaticsWhat cognitive processes are involved in the ordinary use of language?The Information Processing Systemsensory storesTake in sensory stimuli for a brief time, in a raw, unanalyzed form .short-term memory/ working memoryHas both storage and processing functions.Permanent memoryHold the knowledge of the world. This includes general knowledge and personal experience.What Is Psycholinguistics?It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics:acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition.Language AcquisitionHolophrastic stageTwo-word stageStage of three-word utterancesFluent grammatical conversation stageLanguage Acquisition :Holophrastic stageTwo main features of lexical development in early language acquisition:Most of their early words refer to concrete aspects of the immediate environment.Text book p. 132Children at this stage also tend to use single words to express larger chunks of meaning that mature speakers would express in a phrase or sentence.Text Book P 132Language Acquisition :Two-word stageChildren begin to put words together in systematic ways (primitive syntax begins), preferring some words to others and some orders to others.Children know more than they are able to express.Language Acquisition :Three-word StageChildren produce strings / three-word utterance containing all of its components in the correct order.Language Acquisition :Fluent grammatical conversation stageIt is between the late tow-word and mid-three-word stage.Three-year olds obey grammatical rules a majority of the time.Inflections and function words are more often used by Three-year olds than omitted in earlier sentences.Except for constructions that are rare, all parts of all language are acquired before the child turns four.Language ComprehensionThree Levels of speech processingWord recognitionComprehension of sentencesComprehension of textLanguage ComprehensionThree Levels of speech processingDiscriminate auditory signals from other sensory signals and determine that the stimulus is something that we have heard.identify the peculiar properties that qualify it as speech.recognizing it as the meaningful speech of a particular language.Word recognitionThe perception of spoken wordsCohort modelInteractive modelRace modelPre-lexical routeLexical routeThe perception of printed wordsThe perception of spoken wordsCohort modelDefinition: Cohort model is a model of auditory word recognition in which listeners are assumed to develop a group of candidates, a word initial cohort, and then determine which member of that cohort corresponds to the presented word.Two distinct aspects of spoken word recognitionRecognize words very rapidlyBe sensitive to the recognition pointCohort model—Three stages in Spoken word recognitionoccurs in on the basis of an acoustic-phonetic analysis of the input, a set of lexical candidates is activated. This set is referred to as the word initial cohort.one member of the cohort is selected for further analysis.Elimination takes place in two ways:Context and phonological informationthe selected lexical item is integrated into the ongoing semantic and syntactic context.The perception of spoken wordsCohort modelInteractive model (text book p136)Race model (text book p136)Pre-lexical routeLexical routeThe perception of printed words:Levels of written language processingFeature level: Stimulus is represented in terms of physical features that comprise a letter of the alphabet.Letter level: the visual stimulus is represented more abstractly .An array of features and letters is recognized as familiar word.The perception of printed words:Questions about orthography-to-phonologyHow linguistic structure is derived from printLexical routeNon-lexical routeConnectionist modelComprehension of sentencesStructural factors in comprehensionLexical factors in comprehensionSerial models and parallel modelsStructural factors in comprehensionDefinition:Interpreting sentence comprehension according to the grammatical constraints.Parsing strategiesLate closure strategyAttach new items to the current constituent.Minimal attachment strategyAttach new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodesComprehension of sentencesStructural factors in comprehensionLexical factors in comprehensionSerial models and parallel modelsComprehension of Text/DiscourseLocal discourse structurethe relationships between individual sentences in the discourse.Global discourse structureIn order to understand the text, our general knowledge is connected to the text.Language ProductionAccess to wordsGeneration of sentencesWritten language productionAccess to wordsSpreading activation refers to the process by which one node in a semantic network, when active, activates related nodes.Knowledge of words exists at three different levels.Conceptual levelLemma level (syntactic aspect)lexeme level (captures a word’s phonological properties )Access to wordsMajor Types of Slips of the Tongueshifts, one speech segment disappears from its appropriate location and appears somewhere else.Exchanges :two linguistic units exchange places.Anticipations occur when a later segment takes the place of an earlier one.Perseverations occur when an earlier segment replaces a later item.Major Types of Slips of the TongueAdditions add linguistic material.deletions leave something out.Substitutions occur when one segment is replace by an intruder.Blends apparently occu r when more then one word is being considered and the two intended items “fuse” of “blend” into a single item.Common Properties of Speech ErrorsElements that interact with one another tend to come from similar linguistic environments.Elements that interact with one another tend to be similar to one another.Even when slips produce novel linguistic items, they are generally consistent with the phonological rules of the language.There consistent stress patterns in speech errors.Generation of SentencesSpeech production consists of four major stagesConceptualizing a thoughtFormulating a linguistic planArticulating the planMonitoring one’s speech/ self monitoring.Independence of planning unitsThe sequence of planning unitsChunckingGrouping individual pieces of information into larger units.。