外文翻译中文
外文翻译：沙滩车
附录1沙滩车的英文名称为A TV［All Terrain V ehicle］，中文意思就是“适合所有地形之交通工具”。
中国官方机构叫四轮全地形车，已制定其生产标准QC/T760-2006《四轮全地形车通用技术条件》。
全地形车的英文是All Terrain Vehicle（适合所有地形的交通工具），缩写是ATV，俗称为“沙滩车”，又称“全地形四轮越野机车”，车辆简单实用，野性能好，外观一般无篷。
总之很难用简单的中文名称来表达它的意义。
AT具有宽大的轮胎能增加与地面的接触面积，产生更大的摩擦力而且能降低车辆对地面的压强，使其容易行驶于沙滩、河床、林道、溪流，以及恶劣的沙漠地形。
可载送人员或运输物品。
All Terrain Vehicle（适合所有地形的交通工具）很难用简单的中文名称来表达它的意义。
根据它的外观，勉强可以译成“全地形四轮越野机车”，但仍觉得很拗口。
通常大家称它为“沙滩车”，因为在软质的沙地上，ATV宽大的轮胎能增加与地面的接触面积，从而产生更大的摩擦力，再配合独特的胎纹使轮胎不易空转打滑，使其容易行驶于沙地，但其实品质良好、性能优良的ATV不仅能行驶在沙滩上，河床、林道、溪流，更恶劣的沙漠地形甚至都能被它轻易征服。
载送人员或运输物品使ATV的功能发挥得淋漓尽致，堪称全能的行动工具。
所以，请不要再叫它“沙滩车”了，它是很优秀的交通工具，也是人类伟大的发明之一。
只是受限于本地环境，不然它会是人们的最佳伴侣之一。
现代全地形车（ATV）的前身源自于三轮且使用低压气胎的机车，开始时它只是为越野赛设计的车，后来逐渐成为比赛赛车、实用运输车、家庭休闲用车等等。
随着在美国等市场的流行，机车由三轮改变至四轮。
随着四轮车辆成为全地形车的主要形式，四轮驱动式ATV车也发展起来。
目前，具有良好的道路通过性，而且具备一定的载货能力的ATV车在美洲、澳洲很受欢迎。
根据中国汽车工业协会2005年的调查，我国在册的ATV总装厂已达122家，每年出口量很大。
外文翻译中英文对照
Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度，他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。
Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道（如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等）提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。
The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款（如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等）。
Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。
岩土工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Safety Assurance for Challenging Geotechnical Civil Engineering Constructions in Urban AreasAbstractSafety is the most important aspect during design, construction and service time of any structure, especially for challenging projects like high-rise buildings and tunnels in urban areas. A high level design considering the soil-structure interaction, based on a qualified soil investigation is required for a safe and optimised design. Dueto the complexity of geotechnical constructions the safety assurance guaranteed by the 4-eye-principle is essential. The 4-eye-principle consists of an independent peer review by publicly certified experts combined with the observational method. The paper presents the fundamental aspects of safety assurance by the 4-eye-principle. The application is explained on several examples, as deep excavations, complex foundation systems for high-rise buildings and tunnel constructions in urban areas. The experiences made in the planning, design and construction phases are explained and for new inner urban projects recommendations are given.Key words: Natural Asset; Financial Value; Neural Network1.IntroductionA safety design and construction of challenging projects in urban areas is based on the following main aspects:Qualified experts for planning, design and construction;Interaction between architects, structural engineers and geotechnical engineers;Adequate soil investigation;Design of deep foundation systems using the FiniteElement-Method (FEM) in combination with enhanced in-situ load tests for calibrating the soil parameters used in the numerical simulations;Quality assurance by an independent peer review process and the observational method (4-eye-principle).These facts will be explained by large construction projects which are located in difficult soil and groundwater conditions.2.The 4-Eye-PrincipleThe basis for safety assurance is the 4-eye-principle. This 4-eye-principle is a process of an independent peer review as shown in Figure 1. It consists of 3 parts. The investor, the experts for planning and design and the construction company belong to the first division. Planning and design are done accordingto the requirements of the investor and all relevant documents to obtain the building permission are prepared. The building authorities are the second part and are responsible for the buildingpermission which is given to the investor. The thirddivision consists of the publicly certified experts.They are appointed by the building authorities but work as independent experts. They are responsible for the technical supervision of the planning, design and the construction.In order to achieve the license as a publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering by the building authorities intensive studies of geotechnical engineering in university and large experiences in geotechnical engineering with special knowledge about the soil-structure interaction have to be proven.The independent peer review by publicly certified experts for geotechnical engineering makes sure that all information including the results of the soil investigation consisting of labor field tests and the boundary conditions defined for the geotechnical design are complete and correct.In the case of a defect or collapse the publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering can be involved as an independent expert to find out the reasons for the defect or damage and to develop a concept for stabilization and reconstruction [1].For all difficult projects an independent peer review is essential for the successful realization of the project.3.Observational MethodThe observational method is practical to projects with difficult boundary conditions for verification of the design during the construction time and, if necessary, during service time. For example in the European Standard Eurocode 7 (EC 7) the effect and the boundary conditions of the observational method are defined.The application of the observational method is recommended for the following types of construction projects [2]:very complicated/complex projects;projects with a distinctive soil-structure-interaction,e.g. mixed shallow and deep foundations, retaining walls for deep excavations, Combined Pile-Raft Foundations (CPRFs);projects with a high and variable water pressure;complex interaction situations consisting of ground,excavation and neighbouring buildings and structures;projects with pore-water pressures reducing the stability;projects on slopes.The observational method is always a combination of the common geotechnical investigations before and during the construction phase together with the theoretical modeling and a plan of contingency actions(Figure 2). Only monitoring to ensure the stability and the service ability of the structure is not sufficient and,according to the standardization, not permitted for this purpose. Overall the observational method is an institutionalized controlling instrument to verify the soil and rock mechanical modeling [3,4].The identification of all potential failure mechanismsis essential for defining the measure concept. The concept has to be designed in that way that all these mechanisms can be observed. The measurements need to beof an adequate accuracy to allow the identification ocritical tendencies. The required accuracy as well as the boundary values need to be identified within the design phase of the observational method . Contingency actions needs to be planned in the design phase of the observational method and depend on the ductility of the systems.The observational method must not be seen as a potential alternative for a comprehensive soil investigation campaign. A comprehensive soil investigation campaignis in any way of essential importance. Additionally the observational method is a tool of quality assurance and allows the verification of the parameters and calculations applied in the design phase. The observational method helps to achieve an economic and save construction [5].4.In-Situ Load TestOn project and site related soil investigations with coredrillings and laboratory tests the soil parameters are determined. Laboratory tests are important and essential for the initial definition of soil mechanical properties of the soil layer, but usually not sufficient for an entire and realistic capture of the complex conditions, caused by theinteraction of subsoil and construction [6].In order to reliably determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles, load tests need to be carried out [7]. Forpile load tests often very high counter weights or strong anchor systems are necessary. By using the Osterberg method high loads can be reached without install inganchors or counter weights. Hydraulic jacks induce the load in the pile using the pile itself partly as abutment.The results of the field tests allow a calibration of the numerical simulations.The principle scheme of pile load tests is shown in Figure 3.5.Examples for Engineering Practice5.1. Classic Pile Foundation for a High-Rise Building in Frankfurt Clay and LimestoneIn the downtown of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, on aconstruction site of 17,400 m2 the high-rise buildingproject “PalaisQuartier” has been realized (Figure 4). The construction was finished in 2010.The complex consists of several structures with a total of 180,000 m2 floor space, there of 60,000 m2 underground (Figure 5). The project includes the historic building “Thurn-und Taxis-Palais” whose facade has been preserved (Unit A). The office building (Unit B),which is the highest building of the project with a height of 136 m has 34 floors each with a floor space of 1340 m2. The hotel building (Unit C) has a height of 99 m with 24 upper floors. The retail area (Unit D)runs along the total length of the eastern part of the site and consists of eight upper floors with a total height of 43 m.The underground parking garage with five floors spans across the complete project area. With an 8 m high first sublevel, partially with mezzanine floor, and four more sub-levels the foundation depth results to 22 m below ground level. There by excavation bottom is at 80m above sea level (msl). A total of 302 foundation piles(diameter up to 1.86 m, length up to 27 m) reach down to depths of 53.2 m to 70.1 m. above sea level depending on the structural requirements.The pile head of the 543 retaining wall piles (diameter1.5 m, length up to 38 m)were located between 94.1 m and 99.6 m above sea level, the pile base was between 59.8 m and 73.4 m above sea level depending on the structural requirements. As shown in the sectional view(Figure 6), the upper part of the piles is in the Frankfurt Clay and the base of the piles is set in the rocky Frankfurt Limestone.Regarding the large number of piles and the high pile loads a pile load test has been carried out for optimization of the classic pile foundation. Osterberg-Cells(O-Cells) have been installed in two levels in order to assess the influence of pile shaft grouting on the limit skin friction of the piles in the Frankfurt Limestone(Figure 6). The test pile with a total length of 12.9 m and a diameter of 1.68 m consist of three segments and has been installed in the Frankfurt Limestone layer 31.7 m below ground level. The upper pile segment above the upper cell level and the middle pile segment between the two cell levels can be tested independently. In the first phase of the test the upper part was loaded by using the middle and the lower part as abutment. A limit of 24 MN could be reached (Figure 7). The upper segment was lifted about 1.5 cm, the settlement of the middle and lower part was 1.0 cm. The mobilized shaft friction was about 830 kN/m2.Subsequently the upper pile segment was uncoupled by discharging the upper cell level. In the second test phase the middle pile segment was loaded by using the lower segment as abutment. The limit load of the middle segment with shaft grouting was 27.5 MN (Figure 7).The skin friction was 1040 kN/m2, this means 24% higher than without shaft grouting. Based on the results of the pile load test using O-Cells the majority of the 290 foundation piles were made by applying shaft grouting. Due to pile load test the total length of was reduced significantly.5.2. CPRF for a High-Rise Building in Clay MarlIn the scope of the project Mirax Plaza in Kiev, Ukraine,2 high-rise buildings, each of them 192 m (46 storeys)high, a shopping and entertainment mall and an underground parking are under construction (Figure 8). The area of the project is about 294,000 m2 and cuts a 30 m high natural slope.The geotechnical investigations have been executed 70m deep. The soil conditions at the construction site are as follows: fill to a depth of 2 m to 3mquaternary silty sand and sandy silt with a thickness of 5 m to 10 m tertiary silt and sand (Charkow and Poltaw formation) with a thickness of 0 m to 24 m tertiary clayey silt and clay marl of the Kiev and But schak formation with a thickness of about 20 m tertiary fine sand of the But schak formation up to the investigation depthThe ground water level is in a depth of about 2 m below the ground surface. The soil conditions and a cross section of the project are shown in Figure 9.For verification of the shaft and base resistance of the deep foundation elements and for calibration of the numerical simulations pile load tests have been carried out on the construction yard. The piles had a diameter of 0.82 m and a length of about 10 m to 44 m. Using the results of the load tests the back analysis for verification of the FEM simulations was done. The soil properties in accordance with the results of the back analysis were partly 3 times higher than indicated in the geotechnical report. Figure 10 shows the results of the load test No. 2 and the numerical back analysis. Measurement and calculation show a good accordance.The obtained results of the pile load tests and of the executed back analysis were applied in 3-dimensionalFEM-simulations of the foundation for Tower A, taking advantage of the symmetry of the footprint of the building. The overall load of the Tower A is about 2200 MN and the area of the foundation about 2000 m2 (Figure11).The foundation design considers a CPRF with 64 barrettes with 33 m length and a cross section of 2.8 m × 0.8m. The raft of 3 m thickness is located in Kiev Clay Marl at about 10 m depth below the ground surface. The barrettes are penetrating the layer of Kiev Clay Marl reaching the Butschak Sands.The calculated loads on the barrettes were in the range of 22.1 MN to 44.5 MN. The load on the outer barrettes was about 41.2 MN to 44.5 MN which significantly exceeds the loads on the inner barrettes with the maximum value of 30.7 MN. This behavior is typical for a CPRF.The outer deep foundation elements take more loads because of their higher stiffness due to the higher volume of the activated soil. The CPRF coefficient is 0.88 =CPRF . Maximum settlements of about 12 cm werecalculated due to the settlement-relevant load of 85% of the total design load. The pressure under the foundation raft is calculated in the most areas not exceeding 200 kN/m2, at the raft edge the pressure reaches 400 kN/m2.The calculated base pressure of the outer barrettes has anaverage of 5100 kN/m2 and for inner barrettes an average of 4130 kN/m2. The mobilized shaft resistance increases with the depth reaching 180 kN/m2 for outer barrettes and 150 kN/m2 for inner barrettes.During the construction of Mirax Plaza the observational method according to EC 7 is applied. Especially the distribution of the loads between the barrettes and the raft is monitored. For this reason 3 earth pressure devices were installed under the raft and 2 barrettes (most loaded outer barrette and average loaded inner barrette) were instrumented over the length.In the scope of the project Mirax Plaza the new allowable shaft resistance and base resistance were defined for typical soil layers in Kiev. This unique experience will be used for the skyscrapers of new generation in Ukraine.The CPRF of the high-rise building project MiraxPlaza represents the first authorized CPRF in the Ukraine. Using the advanced optimization approaches and taking advantage of the positive effect of CPRF the number of barrettes could be reduced from 120 barrettes with 40 mlength to 64 barrettes with 33 m length. The foundation optimization leads to considerable decrease of the utilized resources (cement, aggregates, water, energy etc.)and cost savings of about 3.3 Million US$.译文:安全保证岩土公民发起挑战工程建设在城市地区摘要安全是最重要的方面在设计、施工和服务时间的任何结构,特别是对具有挑战性的项目,如高层建筑和隧道在城市地区。
精益生产中英文互译
An outline of:Lean Thinking Banish Waste and Create Wealth in YourCorporationBy James P. Womack and Daniel T. JonesNew York, NY: Free Press, Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1996, Second Edition, 2003 Preface to the 2003 Edition. Forecasts are always wrong. That is why lean thinkersstrive to reduce order-to-delivery time. During the 2002 meltdown, this 1996 book went back on the Business Week bestseller list. We have added what we have learned since 1996 in this edition. Lean Thinking is more relevant today. Lean ideas are the single most powerful tool available for creating value and eliminating waste in any organization.Part I: Lean PrinciplesTaiichi Ohno (1912 – 1990), a Toyota executive, identified seven types of waste found in any process:• Transportation. Unnecessary transport of parts under production.• Inventory. Stacks of parts waiting to be completed or finished products waiting to be shipped.• Motion. Unnecessary movement of people working on products.• Waiting. Unnecessary waiting by people to begin the next step.• Over-Processing the product with extra steps.• Over-Production of products not needed.• Defects in the product.We have added an eighth waste: goods and services that do not meet the customer’s needs. Other authors have added: underutilization of peopleLean Thinking is the antidote to waste. There are (5) Lean Principles:• Specify Value. Value can be defined only by the ultimate customer. Value is distorted by pre-existing organizations, especially engineers and experts. They add complexity of no interest to the customer.• Identify the Value Stream. The Value Stream is all the actions needed to bring a product to the customer. If the melter, forger, machiner, and assembler never talk,duplicate steps will exist.• Flow. Make the value-creating steps flow. Eliminate departments that execute a single-task process on large batches.• Pull. Let the customer pull the product from you. Sell, one. Make one.• Pursue Perfection. There is no end to the process of reducing time, space, cost and mistakes.Lean is doing more with less. Use the least amount of effort, energy, equipment, time, facility space, materials, and capital – while giving customers exactly what they want.The Prize We Can Grasp Now. Converting a batch-and-queue system to continuous flow, with pull, will:Double labor productivity• Cut throughput time by 90%• Reduce inventory by 90%• Cut errors by 50%• Cut injuries1: ValueA House or a Hassle-Free Experience? Doyle Wilson Homebuilder found that customers “valued” a hassle-free design process and on-time delivery. All his processes were thenre-aligned to meet this goal.Define Value in Terms of the Whole Product. As the product flows, each firm defines value differently. Think of air travel. Each firm – agent, airline, taxi, currency exchange, customs, immigration – defines their own priorities, duplicates efforts, and works in disharmony with the whole process. The customer is not satisfied.2: The Value StreamThe View from the Aisle. A value stream “map” identifies every action to design, order, and make a specific product. Each step is then sorted into three categories: (1) those that add value, (2) those that add no value but are currently necessary, and (3) those that add no value and can be eliminated. After the third category has been eliminated, the second category should be addressed through flow, pull, and perfection techniques.The Value Stream for a Carton of Cola. The British grocery chain Tesco retails products with thousands of value streams. In the canned cola value stream, three hours of value-added activity take 319 days to perform.3: FlowThe World of Batch-and-Queue. Five-sixths of home-building is waiting for the next set of specialists or rework. Flow principles typically cut half the effort and the time required.The Techniques of Flow. The 1st step is to maintain focus on the product. The 2nd step is to ignore job boundaries and departments IOT remove impediments to continuous flow of the specific product. The 3rd step is to rethink work practices to eliminate backflow, scrap, and stoppages IOT make the product continuously.• Takt time synchronizes the rate of production to the rate of sales. (48) bikes per day sold divided by (8) hours of production = (6) bikes and hour, or (1) bike every tenminutes.• Flow requires all workers and machines to be capable at all times. This requires cross-training.• Flow requires workers to know the status of production at all times. This requires visual controls.• All activities can flow. Concentrate on the value stream for a specific product, eliminateorganizational barriers, and relocate and right-size tools.4: PullPull means that no one upstream should produce anything until the customer downstream asks for it. “Don’t make anything until it is needed, then make it very quickly.” “Sell one, buy one.” “Ship one, make one.”The Bad Old Days of Production. The Toyota bumper replacement system suffered long lead times. The ability to get parts quickly from the next upstream producer enabled re-orders in small amounts. This is the secret to reducing inventory. Cut lead times and inventories. Demand should instantly generate new supply.5: PerfectionThe Incremental Path. Freudenberg-NOK, a gasket manufacturer, improved a single process six times in three years. “Why didn’t they get is right the first time?” Because perfection is continuous.Continuous Radical and Incremental Improvement. If you are spending capital, you are doing it wrong. Once leaders understand the first four lean principles – value specification, value stream identification, flow, andpull – their perfection step starts with policy: a vision of the ideal process, and the step-wise goals and projects to get there. Transparency is everything. Everyone must know what you are attempting to achieve and what area is the first priority. The force behind this is the leader known as the change agent.Part II: From Thinking to Action: The Lean Leap6: The Simple CaseLantech manufacturers stretch wrap machines. “Process Villages” – Sawing department, Machining department, Welding department, Painting department, and Sub-assembly department – all generated long lead times. Batches of ten were manufactured to ship one. Inventory overwhelmed the factory. Order changes created havoc in the plant. “The more inventory yo u have, the less likely you will have the part you need.”• The Lean Revolution. Ron Hicks leaned Lantech. He created four cells, one for each product. He defined standard work: on time, on spec, every time. Takt time wasintroduced: number of products needed per day divided by number of hours (8/8 = 1hour). He right-sized machines to fit inside work cells. He implemented quickchangeover to make multiple different parts with little machine downtime.• Result. Lantech cut 30% excess space, doubled product output, cut defects from 8 per product to 0.8 per product, and cut lead time from sixteen weeks to fourteen hours.On-time shipping rose from 20 to 90%.7: A Harder CaseThe Change Agent. Art Byrne was hired as CEO of Wiremold in 1991. “CEOs are timid to change the shop floor.” Byrne led lean training using a manual he wrote himself. He led toursof the plant to observe waste that his managers were now able to see.• Improvements Must be Fast. Three days was Byrne’s standard.• Post a Scorecard for Each Product Team. Wiremold tracked: Productivity – sales per employee, Service – percent delivered on-time, Inventory – turns, and Quality –mistakes.• Teach People How to See. Create a lean training function. Teach all employees the five principles of lean: Value, Value Stream, Flow, Pull, and Perfection. Teach allemployees lean techniques: standard work, takt time, visual control, pull scheduling,and single-piece flow.• Results. Wiremold freed 50% factory floor space, eliminated a warehouse, and converted $11M of inventory into $24M in sales. Lead time fell from four weeks totwo days.8: The Acid TestPratt & Whitney (P&W). In 1991, CEO Karl Krapek and cost-cutter Mark Coran leanedP&W.• Jet Engines. Founded in 1860, P&W led the aircraft engine business by 1929. When they abandoned piston engines to gamble on jets in 1946, business soared. Production inefficiencies were overlooked.• Overcapacity. Faced with competition in the 1980s, P&W rationalized plant layout and addressed development costs. They needed lower production costs and flexibility toreact to customer needs. Why did P&W need so much space, tools, inventory andpeople to get so little done? Daily output of engines and spare parts could fit insideCEO’s office. Failure to manage ass ets. P&W cut people, cut managers, andoverhauled their entire production culture and processes.• The Monument of all Monuments. A “monument” is a machine or process too big to be moved and whose scale requires operating in batch mode. Monuments are evil, generating huge amounts of waste. P&W had an $80M grinding system, representing obsolete thinking. Although speeding up grinding from 75 minutes to 3 minutes and eliminating multiple manual grinding jobs, in actuality grinding jobs took longer (due to eight-hour changeovers and batch scheduling), and required more people (22 computer technicians). P&W retired the $80M monument, returned to 75-minute production.9: Lean Thinking versus German TechnikPorche. Chairman Wendelin Wiedeking introduced lean thinking to Porche. In 1994, the first-ever Porsche rolled off the line with nothing wrong with it.• Engineers. Porche is led by engineers, intrigued with unique solutions that are difficult to manufacture. Workers are craftsmen. Unfortunately, much craftsmanship is waste.Tinkering with the product – repairing and polishing raw materials, troubleshooting,re-assembling elements, repainting and re-fitting – were thought to be necessaryactivities to produce a high-quality product.• Crisis. 1986 was the boom year. 1992 was the crash. Porche products were tooexpensive. Costs and throughput time had to be slashed. New quality focus: “Stopfixing mistakes that should never have been made.” Reduction in inventory: “Whereis the factory? This is the warehouse!”• Just-in-Time (JIT) Game. Porche asked all their suppliers to play a simulation to learn lean concepts. Lean concepts were critical across all firms contributing to the Porche value stream.• The Remarkable Lean Transition at Porche. In five years, through 1997, Porch doubled its productivity, cut manufacturing space in half, cut lead time for a finished vehicle from six weeks to three days, cut supplier defects 90%, cut inventories 90%,and cut first-time-through errors by 55%.• The German Tradition. The Germans need to stop prioritizing the engineer’s definition of value, “voice of the engineer,” over the customer’s definition of value,“voice of the customer.” A German weakness is a fondness for monster machines that produce large batches: paint booths are an example.• Variety and Refinement Cost. Volkswagen makes four exterior mirrors, nineteen parts each, in seventeen colors. Nissan has four-part mirrors in four colors. Excess varietyoften exceeds the ability of the customer to notice, and his willingness to pay.10: Mighty Toyota; Tiny ShowaShowa has been transformed by its relationship with Toyota. Showa, a radiator manufacturer, had “Process villages” for casting, cleaning, stamping, welding, painting and assembly. Each was run in batch mode with long intervals between tool changes. Mountains of parts were transported and stored between steps.• The Initial Struggle. Taiichi Ohno, lean advisor, promised to reduce three months ofinventory to three days, double labor productivity, and halve plant space for zerocapital investment. This he did.• The Final Element: Rethinking Order-Taking and Scheduling. Showa then leanedorder-taking by scheduling backwards, working to takt time, to synchronize orderswith production slots, exactly four days before shipment time. Orders with incorrectinformation were never passed along.• Toyota Today. Lesson: high-tech automation only works if the plant can run at 100percent output and if the cost of indirect technical support and high-tech tools is lessthan the cost of direct labor saved.Part III: Lean Enterprise11: A Channel for the Stream; a Valley for the ChannelThe Lean Enterprise. No one watches the performance of the whole value stream. Identify all actions to bring a product to the customer, across all firms. There is no privacy. Eachfirm’s costs become transparent.12: Dreaming About PerfectionLong-Distance Travel. Each organization ignores the role of the other parties. The time, cost, and comfort of the total trip are key performance measures. What would travel times be without queues?Construction. 80% of home building is hurry-up and wait, then re-working the construction errors.The Prize We Can Grasp Right Now. Lean thinking can boost productivity while reducing errors, inventories, accidents, space requirements, production lead times, and costs in general. Lean thinking requires little capital.Part IV: Epilogue13: A Steady Advance of Lean ThinkingThis chapter an updated review of Wiremold, Toyota, Porsche, Lantech, and Pratt & Whitney.14: Institutionalizing the RevolutionAn Enhanced Action Plan is the 2003 update to the 1996 plan from Chapter 11.Getting Started [Months 1 – 6]• Find a Change Agent with ability and authority.• Get the Knowledge through an advisor. Start at the big picture before addressing small steps.• Seize a Crisis or create one. Focus on fixing an obvious problem. Small wins. Don’t spend money.• Map your current value streams. Managers need to see. Map also the flow of information going upstream to create a closed circuit. See Rother and Shook, Leaning to See, 1998.• Analyze each step of the Current State. Does this step create value? Is this step capable, available, flexible? Is capacity sufficient? Excessive? Does theinformation flow from the customer smoothly? Every process has a box score:total lead time, value creating time, changeover time, uptime, rework, inventory,every part made every x minutes. If this step went away, what would happen?• Envision the Future State. Draw it.• Begin as soon as possible with an important, visible activity. Convert managers with hand-on activity.• Demand Immediate Results. Everyone should see results which create psychological momentum. One week: less planning, more doing. Identify the waste and remove it.Communicate with your people by showing results at the scene of action.Creating an Organization to Channel Your Streams [Months 6 – 24]• Reorganize Your Firm by product and value streams. Put a Change Agent in charge of each product.• Create a Lean Promotion Team.• Deal with Excess People Early.• Devise a Growth Strategy.• Remove the Anchor Draggers.• When You’ve Fixed Something, Fix It Again.• New: Convince Your Suppliers and Customers to Take the Steps Just Described.Install Business Systems to Encourage Lean Thinking [Months 24 – 48]Create new ways to keep score.• Create new ways to reward people.• Make everything transparent so everyone can see progress.• Teach lean. Learn lean.• Right-size Your Tools to insert directly into the value stream. Large and fast is more efficient but less effective. This wrong assumption is the cornerstone ofbatch-and-queue thinking.• Pay a bonus. Tie bonus amount to the profitability of the firm.Completing the Transformation [Months 48 – 60] Convert to bottom-up initiatives. Lean ideas are democratic and not top-down. Layers of management can be stripped away.New: Convert From Top-Down Leadership to Bottom-Up Initiatives. Toyota gets brilliant results from average managers using brilliant procedures. Competitors get mediocre results from b rilliant managers using mediocre procedures. Don’t search for brilliant managers. Perfect your processes.Reviewer’s CommentsIn 1988 James Womack first described Toyota as a “lean” corporation. Womack and co-writer Daniel Jones described the Toyota Production System (TPS) in The Machine That Changed the World. In 1990, the two toured companies in Europe, North American, and Japan presenting ideas on how to convert mass production practices to lean practices. Lean Thinking, first published in 1996, is a survey of the lean movement. It clearly describes the waste found in mass production, explains the five principles of lean thinking, and then draws lessons from real companies who have successfully implemented lean ideas. Lean Thinking is not a technical how-to text on production, but an enlightened overview of top-level lean ideas and applications. This updated edition includes lessons that the authors have collected between 1996 and 2003, especially the concept of a lean enterprise – a collection of companies working lean together to produce a single product with the least wasted effort and capital. The book is well-written, researched, and organized, and the authors make a strong case that lean is universal and will benefit any organization in any endeavor. Lean thinking and practices are the single most powerful tool for eliminating waste in any organization.中文翻译概述精益思想去除浪费，并在贵公司创造财富由詹姆斯P.沃麦克和丹尼尔T.琼斯纽约编写，纽约：自由出版社，西蒙与舒斯特公司，1996年。
消费者行为心理学中英文外文文献翻译
消费者行为心理学中英文外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文Frontiers of Social PsychologyArie W. Kruglanski 、Joseph P. ForgasFrontiers of Social Psychology is a new series of domain-specific handbooks. The purpose of each volume is to provide readers with a cutting-edge overview of the most recent theoretical, methodological, and practical developments in a substantive area of social psychology, in greater depth than is possible in general social psychology handbooks. The editors and contributors are all internationally renowned scholars whose work is at the cutting-edge of research.Scholarly, yet accessible, the volumes in the Frontiers series are an essential resource for senior undergraduates, postgraduates, researchers, and practitioners, and are suitable as texts in advanced courses in specific subareas of social psychology.Some Social Asp ects of Living in a Consumer SocietyThe following sketches will illustrate that in a consumer society much of the behavior studied by social psychologists relates to consumer stimuli and consumer behavior. Thus, the consumer context provides a rich field for the study of social phenomena and behavior.Consumer Decisions Are UbiquitousWhether we are in the supermarket or not, we are constantly making consumer decisions. We enroll in gyms, use our frequent-flyer miles for a vacation resort, buy health care, choose a restaurant, skip dessert for a healthier lifestyle. In fact, most of our daily decisions do not involve existential decisions such as whom to marry or whether to have children or not, but whether to have tea or coffee, use our credit card or pay cash, or other seemingly trivial decisions. Moreover, many of our daily (consumer) behaviors do not even require intentional decisions. Rather, they may be habitual, such as switching to CNN to get the news or accessing Google when looking up some information. A typical day of a typical person is filled with countless minor consumer decisions or the consequences of previous decisions, starting with the brand of toothpaste in the morning to choosing a movie after work.Consumer Choices Fulfill a Social-Identity FunctionAlthough for most people being a consumer may not be central to their identity, many of their consumer decisions are nevertheless highly identity-relevant insofar as they correspond to a larger set of values and beliefs and express important aspects of the self. Eating a vegetarian diet because one does not want to endorse cruelty to animals and boycotting clothes potentially made by child laborers are some examples. Some people buy a Prius out of environmental concerns; others boycott Japanese cars —such as the Prius —in order to help the local carindustry. In this respect, even the choice between Coke and Pepsi is not necessarily trivial. People who cannot discriminate Coke from Pepsi in a blind test, or who prefer Pepsi, may nevertheless adhere to Coke as a cultural icon. Attempts to change the formula of Coke met with angry protests and opposition. Clearly, consumer products and brands do not only fulfill utilitarian needs (Olson & Mayo, 2000; Shavitt, 1990). In a world of oversupply and differentiating brands, many consumers choose brands in order to express their personality or to affiliate themselves with desired others. They do not simply use a Mac; they are Mac users, and switching to another brand of PC would be akin to treason. From soft drinks to computers, brands may become an ideology. People may also perceive of products as extended selves (Belk, 1988); for example, they may identify with their cars just as they do with pets. Likewise, brands may define social groups. The Harley-Davidson Club is a legendary example; an Internet search revealed clubs for almost every car brand and model. In my hometown, I found a V olkswagen New Beetle Club whose stated purpose is to cultivate contacts between New Beetle Drivers by organizing social events (among others, a visit to a car cemetery). On the road, drivers of the same car model often greet each other. Apparently, driving the same model is sufficient to establish social closeness. Brands, products, and consumption habits not only help to establish social connectivity but also serve as status symbols, defining vertical andhorizontal social boundaries. By using particular brands or consuming specific products, people can express a certain lifestyle or attempt to convey a particular social impression. Subscribing to the opera conveys one’s social position just as going to a monster truck race does. Whether your choice of drink is wine or beer, cappuccino or herbal tea, your order expresses more than merely your taste in beverages.Consumer Choices Affect Social PerceptionGiven that brands and products are part of social expression, it is not surprising that people are judged by the brands and products they use. In particular, products of a social-identity function are used as bases for inferences about a target’s personality traits (Shavitt & Nelson, 2000). Likewise, smoking, food choice and amount of food intake have all been shown to affect social impressions. Depending on the subculture of the perceiver (age, country), different personality traits are assumed in smokers compared with nonsmokers (e.g., Cooper & Kohn, 1989; Jones & Carroll, 1998). Various studies found that eaters of a healthier diet are perceived as more feminine and in general judged more favorably than eaters of unhealthy foods (for a review see V artanian, Herman, & Polivy, 2007). Arguing that a Pepsi drinker is to a Coke drinker what a Capulet was to a Montague is, of course, an exaggeration, but clearly brands may distinguish ingroup from out-group members. Possibly this is most extreme among teenagers, where the brand of jeans is perceived todetermine coolness and popularity. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is not limited to teen culture, as testified by the previous examples of social communities defined by shared brands. In sum, from wet versus dry shaving to driving a Porsche versus a Smart, consumer behavior is used as a cue in person perception. Most likely, such cues also manifest in behavior toward these consumers. Physical attacks on women who wear fur are a most extreme example.Affective Consequences of Consumer BehaviorObviously, consumption and the use of products and services may give pleasure and satisfaction or displeasure and dissatisfaction. People may experience joy from wearing a new sweater or suffer emotional consequences when products or services fail or cause inconvenience. Product use is only one source of affective consumer experiences. The mere act of choosing and acquisition is another. People enjoy or dislike the experience of shopping. They may take pleasure from the freedom of simply choosing between different options (e.g., Botti & Iyengar, 2004), feel overwhelmed and confused by an abundance of options (e.g., Huffman & Kahn, 1998), or feel frustrated by a limited assortment that does not meet their particular needs (e.g., Chernev, 2003). They may experience gratification and a boost in self-esteem from the fact that they can afford a particular consumer lifestyle or grudge the fact that they cannot. Many daily sources of affective experiences involve consumerbehavior in one way or another.The Consumer Context Provides Unique Social InteractionsGranted, we rarely form deep and meaningful relationships with our hairdressers and waiters. Still, the consumer context affords many social interactions over a day. Again, these interactions— even if brief— may constitute a source of affective experiences. The smile of the barista, the compliment from the shop-assistant, and the friendly help from the concierge are just a few examples of how such consumerrelated interactions may make us feel good, worthy, and valued, whereas snappy and rude responses have the opposite effect. Besides, the social roles defined by the consumer context may provide unique opportunities for particular behaviors, interactions, and experiences not inherent in other roles. Being a client or customer makes one expect respect, courtesy, and attendance to one’s needs. For some, this may be the only role in their life that gives them a limited sense of being in charge and having others meet their demands. To give another example, complaining is a form of social interaction that mostly takes place within the consumer context. A search for ―complaint behavior‖ in the PsycI NFO database found that 34 out of 50 entries were studies from the consumer context. (The rest mostly related to health care, which may to some extent also be viewed as consumer context.) Given the importance of the consumer context to social experiences and interactions, it provides a prime opportunity forstudying these social behaviors.•How consumers think, feel, reason, and the psychology of screening for different items (such as brands, products); • Consumer behavior when they shop or make other marketing decisions;•Limits in consumer knowledge or access to information affect decisions and marketing outcomes;•How can marketers adapt and improve their marketing competitiveness and marketing strategies to attract consumers more efficiently?Bergi gives an official definition of consumer behavior: the process and the activities people perform when they research, select, purchase, use, evaluate, and deal with products and services in order to meet their needs. The behavior occurs in a group or an organization where individuals or individuals appear in this context. Consumer behavior includes using and handling products and studying how products are bought. The use of products is generally of great interest to marketers because it may affect how a product is in the best position or how we can encourage increased consumption.The Nicosia model focuses on the relationship between the company and its potential customers. The company communicates with consumers through its marketing messages or advertisements and consumers' reactions to the information they want to buy. Seeing this pattern, we willfind that companies and consumers are interconnected. Companies want to influence consumers. Consumers influence company decisions through their decisions.Consumer sentiment refers to a unique set of emotional reactions to the use of or eliciting a consumer experience in the product, a unique class or relationship of the emotional experience described and expressed (such as joy, anger and fear), such as the structural dimensions of the emotional category or pleasant/unpleasant, Relax/action, or calm/excited. Goods and services are often accompanied by emotional reactions (such as the fear caused by watching a horror movie). Emotional values are often associated with aesthetic choices (such as religion, reason). However, more material and utilitarian products also seem to have emotional value. For example, some foods cause childhood experiences and feel comfortable with them. Izad (1977) developed a method of emotional experience and introduced basic emotions. He uses ten words to distinguish the basic types of emotions: interest, joy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. This method has been widely used by consumer research.In order to implement the interpersonal and personal construction in this framework, we use the concept of self-awareness to express the influence of consumer response on society. Self-awareness is defined as the individual's consistent trend to focus directly on inward or outward.This theory identifies two different types of people with self-consciousness. The open self-conscious person pays special attention to other people's views on their outside. The private self-conscious person pays more attention to their inner thoughts and feelings. In this case, we assume that the reputation of consumption may be different based on sensitivity to other people. This proposal is also consistent with previous research. It shows that people with different personal behaviors depend on their sensitivity to interpersonal influences. Dubois and Dikena emphasized that "we believe that the analysis of the direct relationship between consumers and brands is a key to improving understanding of such a market." This original assumption is that of private or The value of the open superior product comes from the inherent social status of these objects. Many existing studies emphasize the role of the role played in the exchange of information about their owners and social relationships.中文译文社会心理学前沿艾瑞·克鲁格兰斯基，约瑟夫·弗加斯社会心理学的前沿是一个新的领域专用手册系列。
国际贸易对碳排放的影响外文文献翻译中英文
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文The effects of international trade on Chinese carbon emissionsB Wei ，X Fang ，Y WangAbstractInternational trade is an important impact factor to the carbon emissions of a country. As the rapid development of Chinese foreign trade since its entry into the WTO in 2002, the effects of international trade on carbon emissions of China are more and more significant. Using the recent available input-output tables of China and energy consumption data, this study estimated the effects of Chinese foreign trade on carbon emissions and the changes of the effects by analyzing the emissions embodied in trade between 2002 and 2007. The results showed a more and more significant exporting behavior of embodied carbon emissions in Chinese international trade. From 2002 to 2007, the proportion of net exported emissions and domestic exported emissions in domestic emissions increased from 18.32% to 29.79% and from 23.97% to 34.76%, respectively. In addition, about 22.10% and 32.29% of the total imported emissions were generated in processing trade in 2002 and 2007, respectively, which were imported and later exported emissions. Although, most of the sectors showed a growth trend in imported and exportedemissions, sectors of electrical machinery and communication electronic equipment, chemical industry, and textile were still the biggest emission exporters, the net exported emissions of which were also the largest. For China and other developing countries, technology improvement may be the most favorable and acceptable ways to reduce carbon emissions at present stage. In the future negotiations on emissions reduction, it would be more fair and reasonable to include the carbon emissions embodied in international trade when accounting the total emissions of an economy. Keywords: input-output analysis, carbon emissions, international trade, ChinaIntroductionGlobal warming has been considered an indisputable fact. The main reason is that the warming of the global climate system is due to the continuous increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the result of human activities (IPCC, 2007). In order to avoid the possible negative impact on human society's global warming, a series of measures have been taken to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to slow down global warming. However, around the CO2 emission reduction and the future allocation of carbon emission rights, the game plays a different interest group.With the development of globalization, the impact on the international trade of the environment is becoming more and moresignificant, including the potential impact of carbon emissions from geographical relocation. Many researchers estimate that it is reflected in international trade in certain countries as well as in the world economy (Wykoff and Rupp, carbon emissions in 1994; Schaefer and Lealdesa, 1996, Machado et al., 2001 Year; Munksgaard, Peder and Sen, 2001; Ahmed and Wykov, 2003; Sanchez-Chóliz and Duarte, 2004; Peters and Hess, 2006, 2008; Mäenpää et al, 2007; Keman et al., 2007). The general conclusion is that in a more open economy, the impact of large foreign trade on the carbon emissions of a country. In addition, all these studies have pointed out that import and export trade cannot ignore a relatively open economy; otherwise, energy and carbon emissions figures may be seriously distorted by this economy (Machado et al., 2001). In terms of total volume, the value of China’s trade surplus increased from US$30.43 billion in 2002 to US$261.83 billion in 2007 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). The rapid growth of China’s foreign trade will have a significant effect on China’s carbon emissions.As one of the countries with the highest carbon emissions, China is facing increasing pressure to reduce emissions. However, China is also a big country in international trade. The rapid development of China’s economy has led to steady growth in foreign trade. From 1997 to 2002, China’s total import and export value increased by an average annual growth rate of 14.35%. Since joining the World Trade Organization, theaverage annual growth rate of China’s trade has jumped to 28.64%. From 2002 to 2007, the value of exports compared with 2002, it increased by 2.7 times in 2007 to reach US$1.2177.8 billion. Imports also soared to US$955.95 billion in 2007, which was 2.2 times higher than the 2002 imports. In terms of total volume, the value of China’s trade surplus increased from US$30.43 billion in 2002 to US$261.83 billion in 2007 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). The rapid growth of China’s foreign trade will have a significant effect on China’s carbon emissions.However, quantitative assessment of the impact of China's international trade in energy use and carbon emissions has only recently begun. Estimates from the IEA (2007) show that China's domestic production and export of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions account for 34% of total emissions, and if it is used in 2004, the weighted average carbon intensity of commodity countries imported from China is estimated. China's net exports of EM-rich CO2 may be more than 17% of total emissions in 2004 (Levin, 2008). Using a single-area input-output model, Pan et al. (2008) estimated that their production of energy and emissions in 2002 accounted for 16% and 19% of China’s net exports of primary energy consumption, respectively, in 2002. In the input-output analysis, China reported that the discharge volume of pre-grid discharges to the United States accounted for about 5%. Weber et al. (2008), ESTI mating production exported from China's carbon dioxide emissions from1987 to 2005. In 2005, about one-third of China's emissions were due to production exports, and this proportion has risen from 12% in 1987 to 21% in 2002. In developed countries, consumption is driving this trend. Wei et al.'s estimation (2009a) also found that the presence of emissions in China's economy in 2002 reflected significant export behavior; in addition, subsequent exports (processing trade played by EMIS--) were total imports of 20 %the above. In addition, using a multi-area input-output model, Peters and Hewei (2008) also found that export emissions represented 24.4% of China's domestic emissions, and the proportion of imports in 2001 was only 6.6%. A similar study by Atkinson et al. (2009) also shows that China is a net exporter of carbon emissions in international trade. In recent years, using ecological input-output based on physical access programs, MOD-Y eling, Chen and Chen (2010) estimated that in 2007 China's export of carbon dioxide emissions and total energy were respectively 32.31% and 33.65% of total emissions.Both the United States and European countries are major importers of China’s export carbon emissions. Using the economic input-output life cycle assessment software, Ruihe Harris (2006) found that about 7% of China’s carbon dioxide emissions from exports to the United States during the period of 1997-2003 were produced by 14% of the total; the US’s CO2 emissions will At 3%-6%, if increased imports from Chinahave been produced in the United States. AP-walking a similar approach, Lee Hewitt found that bilateral trade between the United Kingdom and China (2008) produced about 4% of CO2 emissions. In 2004, China's CO2 emissions were for the UK market to produce goods and the UK trade decreased. About 11%. Weber et al. (2008) also found that most of China’s recent export emissions went to developed countries, approximately 27% of the United States, 19% of the EU-27, and 14% of the remaining Annex B countries, mainly Japan and Australia. And New Zealand. Recently, Xu et al. (2009) studied the impact of energy consumption and exhaust emissions on the environment. From 2002 to 2007, the use of environmental input-output analysis and adjustment of bilateral trade data reflected trade in the East (from China to the United States). Zhang (2009) has also obtained similar results. Energy and CO2 account for about 12% and 17% of China's energy consumption, and China's CO2 emissions are 8% and 12%, respectively.Although China's international trade is a meaningful research on carbon emissions, further related research is necessary because of the rapid development of China's foreign trade, especially the development of processing trade. According to statistics (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008), the export share of processing trade has been more than 50% of total exports since 1996. In 2002 and 2007, the share of processing trade reached 55.26% and 50.71%, which will be processing trade. Thenecessary distinction between the impact of general trade and China's carbon emissions.Since China's input-output table is only 5 years, we have chosen from 2002 (entry to the WTO) to 2007 (the latest issue), and China's international trade input-output table has impact on carbon emissions with the view of the last requirement of this paper. Influence changes. In addition, we distinguish between domestic processing trade and import investment in the assessment of production processes (import emissions and re-exports), which will help us to further understand the impact of international trade on emissions status. In this study, we tried to answer three questions: 1) What is the net emissions generated by foreign trade in China as a big country's foreign trade? 2) China from 2002 to 2007, International How does trade affect carbon emissions? 3) From 2002 to 2007, which departments were the major emitters of China's import and export trade and their roles?Uncertainty in the calculation of carbon emissionsThe calculation of emissions from China's trade reflects a certain degree of uncertainty. One is that the input-output analysis itself has many inherent uncertainties (more discussion in Lenzen, 2001). Based on an input-output table for China's single region, it allows us to obtain a relatively accurate assessment of the emissions that are reflected in China's exports, but this error may be more pronounced when estimatingthe emissions of goods and services exported to China. (Lenzen , 2001; Lenzen et al., 2004). Another important factor of uncertainty is that the calculations come from different regions, which may underestimate the method of importing the carbon intensity factor that is reflected in the import of larger proportion of finished product producing countries and tertiary industries, and the smaller proportion of secondary industries. In addition, the method of pro-grade introduction of the column will inevitably result in some errors in order to obtain a matrix from the inlet of the original import and export table.At present, for reasons of data availability, we cannot fully quantify the accuracy of our calculations, but preliminary estimates suggest that the use of more accurate data results from research will not significantly change the conclusions of this analysis. These restrictions will be improved through the use of multi-zone import and export tables and out-of-zone more detailed industry carbon intensity and sector-to-sector production processes in the future for detailed analysis.Understand the impact of international trade on carbon emissions in ChinaFrom 2002 to 2007, the impact of foreign trade on China’s carbon emissions has greatly expanded. It may be largely related to two factors. The first is the coal-based energy consumption structure. The secondary industry-based production structure will maintain high domestic energyintensity. In 2002, the coal consumption exchange was only 66.3% of the total energy consumption. The 44.8% of China's gross domestic product (GDP) is due to the secondary industry in 2002 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). In 2007, related stock prices rose as high as 69.5% and 48.6%, respectively, which will lead to the fact that the unit exports are higher than the carbon emissions reflected in unit imports. The second factor, which may be a more important factor, is the rapid growth of export trade. From 2002 to 2007, China’s exports increased by 246.80%, while imports increased by 199.97% (National Bureau of Statistics, 2008). Export growth is significantly higher than imports, which may lead to a sharp increase in net exports. Decomposition analysis using input and output structures, Liu et al. (2010) also found that the total export expansion of export and energy-intensive products tends to expand, reflecting the export of energy from 1992 to 2005, but the improvement and change of energy efficiency in the primary energy consumption structure can offset part of the impact on export energy. The above driving force is implemented.Although, based on the coal-based energy consumption structure, the carbon dioxide emissions produced by the secondary industry-based production structure, the more important role, it may be difficult for China to adjust because of its endowment characteristics, and in a very short time Its structural characteristics and its current economicdevelop ment stage. In addition, the expansion of China’s foreign trade, including the expansion of the trade surplus, is mainly the result of the market economy’s maximizing its comparative advantage. The development-replacement of China's economy not only provided many of the world's goods and services, but also reduced the nation's production-based relative costs in developed countries. China’s foreign trade has always played an important role in the development of the world economy, due to its huge market, stable government system and abundant cheap labor. Therefore, it can be argued that at the current stage, for China's better methods to reduce the impact of international trade on national or global CO2 emissions should be to improve its production technology, reduce the intensity of energy consumption as a whole, not only to control China The amount of foreign trade. In addition, the imported goods from China should take part in China's carbon emission responsibilities, because the CON-consumer demand of foreign consumers has generated a large amount of China's carbon emissions, especially for consumers in developed countries.ConclusionDespite some uncertainties in this study, most areas produced from the details of the data, we can conclude that international trade has a significant impact on China's carbon emissions, and changed the impact of time on going. Compared with 2002 emissions, domestic exportemissions in 2007 increased from 267.07 MTC to 718.31 MTC, with a speed increase of over 160%; net exports also increased correspondingly, from 204.08 MTC up to 615.65 MTC, over 200% growth rate Now. From 23.97% in 2002, the share of domestic emissions from domestic emissions jumped to 34.76% in 2007. The share of pre-net transplants that exceeded domestic emissions also rose from 18.32% in 2002 to 29.79% in 2007. The results show that more and more significant net export behaviors of implied carbon emissions exist in China's economy and processing trade have more and more significant effects on carbon emissions.Regardless of the emissions of imported emissions or exports, most industries showed a growth trend in 2007. Compared with 2002, emissions although the sectoral emissions have changed for the entire economy from 2002 to 2002, The impact, of which the largest percentage of imported major department or China's export emissions remain unchanged. The largest import emissions (all or actual imports) come from the industries of electrical machinery and communications electronics, chemicals, smelting and rolling plus metals. Electrical machinery and communications electronics equipment, chemicals, textiles and other sectors are the largest emitters of exports, net exports of which are also the largest. Technological progress may be the most favorable and acceptable way for China and other developing countries toreduce their carbon emissions. Considering that the world’s largest carbon emissions and the recent increase in emissions are in developing countries, the historical responsibility for the current responsibilities, developed countries should also take more efforts to help developing countries reduce their carbon emissions. Economic growth through technical assistance And financial support. In the car's list of future emissions reductions, which include the total economic output, the carbon emissions reflected in international trade will be fair and reasonable.中文译文国际贸易对中国碳排放的影响: 一份具有经验性的分析作者：B Wei ，X Fang ，Y Wang摘要国际贸易是一个国家碳排放量重要的影响因素,自2002年加入世贸组织,中国对外贸易的快速发展对碳排放的影响越来越显著。
旅游文献资料中英文外文翻译
旅游文章Passage One天下绝景气吞云梦——黄鹤楼The Imposing Yellow Crane Tower黄鹤楼雄踞长江之滨，蛇山之首，背倚万户林立的武昌城，面临汹涌浩荡的扬子江，相对古雅清俊晴川阁，登上黄鹤楼，武汉三镇的旖旎风光历历在目，辽阔神州的锦绣山河也遥遥在望。
由于这独特的地理位置，以及前人流传至今的诗词、文赋、楹联、匾额、摩岩石刻和民间故事，使黄鹤楼成为山川与人文景观相互倚重的文化名楼，与湖南岳阳楼、江西滕王阁并称为“江南三大名楼”，素来享有“天下绝景”和“天下江山第一楼”的美誉。
Located on the top of Snake Hill, the Yellow Crane Tower stands against Wuchang, faces the vast Yangtze River and the elegant Qingchuan Pavilion. Ascending the tower, you can enjoy the beautiful scenery of Wuhan. Thanks to its unique geological location, and the poems, prose, couplets and folk stories, the Yellow Crane Tower is reputed as one of the “three famous towers south of the Yangtze River”. It enjoys such titles as “best scenery under heaven” and “the first tower under heaven”.关于黄鹤楼因何而建，流传下来很多的传说，这就更给黄鹤楼增加了几分神秘色彩，引得无数人景仰。
传说一：一千多年前，有位姓辛的老人在蛇山上开了酒店，常客中有一道士，回回喝酒不买酒菜，只用随身带着的水果下酒。
外文翻译及中文译文
车床用于车外圆、端面和镗孔等加工的机床称作车床。
车削很少在其他种类的机床上进行，因为其他机床都不能像车床那样方便地进行车削加工。
由于车床除了用于车外圆还能用于镗孔、车端面、钻孔和铰孔，车床的多功能性可以使工件在一次定位安装中完成多种加工。
这就是在生产中普遍使用各种车床比其他种类的机床都要多的原因。
两千多年前就已经有了车床。
现代车床可以追溯到大约1797年，那时亨利•莫德斯利发明了一种具有把主轴和丝杆的车床。
这种车床可以控制工具的机械进给。
这位聪明的英国人还发明了一种把主轴和丝杆相连接的变速装置，这样就可以切削螺纹。
车床的主要部件：床身、主轴箱组件、尾架组件、拖板组、变速齿轮箱、丝杆和光杆。
床身是车床的基础件。
它通常是由经过充分正火或时效处理的灰铸铁或者球墨铸铁制成，它是一个坚固的刚性框架，所有其他主要部件都安装在床身上。
通常在球墨铸铁制成，它是一个坚固的刚性框架，所有其他主要部件都安装在床身上。
通常在床身上面有内外两组平行的导轨。
一些制造厂生产的四个导轨都采用倒“V”，而另一些制造厂则将倒“V”形导轨和平面导轨结合。
由于其他的部件要安装在导轨上并（或）在导轨上移动，导轨要经过精密加工，以保证其装配精度。
同样地，在操作中应该小心，以避免损伤导轨。
导轨上的任何误差，常常会使整个机床的精度遭到破坏。
大多数现代车床的导轨要进行表面淬火处理。
以减少磨损和擦伤，具有更大的耐磨性。
主轴箱安装在床身一端内导轨的固定位置上。
它提供动力。
使工件在各种速度下旋转。
它基本上由一个安装在精密轴承中的空心轴和一系列变速齿轮---类似于卡车变速箱所组成，通过变速齿轮，主轴可以在许多中转速的旋转。
大多数车床有8～18中转速，一般按等比级数排列。
在现代车床上只需扳动2～4个手柄，就能得到全部挡位的转速。
目前发展的趋势是通过电气的或机械的装置进行无级变速。
由于车床的精度在很大程度上取决于主轴，因此主轴的结构尺寸较大，通常安装在紧密配合的重型圆锤滚子轴承或球轴承中。
工程管理专业外文文献翻译(中英文)【精选文档】
xxxxxx 大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Project Cost Control: the Way it Works项目成本控制：它的工作方式学院（系）: xxxxxxxxxxxx专业: xxxxxxxx学生姓名: xxxxx学号： xxxxxxxxxx指导教师： xxxxxx评阅教师：完成日期：xxxx大学项目成本控制：它的工作方式在最近的一次咨询任务中，我们意识到对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的,仍有一些缺乏理解。
所以我们决定描述它是如何工作的.理论上，项目成本控制不是很难跟随。
首先，建立一组参考基线。
然后，随着工作的深入，监控工作,分析研究结果,预测最终结果并比较参考基准。
如果最终的结果不令人满意，那么你要对正在进行的工作进行必要的调整，并在合适的时间间隔重复。
如果最终的结果确实不符合基线计划，你可能不得不改变计划.更有可能的是，会 (或已经) 有范围变更来改变参考基线，这意味着每次出现这种情况你必须改变基线计划。
但在实践中，项目成本控制要困难得多，通过项目数量无法控制成本也证明了这一点。
正如我们将看到的，它还需要大量的工作，我们不妨从一开始启用它。
所以，要跟随项目成本控制在整个项目的生命周期.同时，我们会利用这一机会来指出几个重要文件的适当的地方。
其中包括商业案例，请求（资本)拨款（执行），工作包和工作分解结构，项目章程（或摘要),项目预算或成本计划、挣值和成本基线。
所有这些有助于提高这个组织的有效地控制项目成本的能力。
业务用例和应用程序（执行）的资金重要的是要注意，当负责的管理者对于项目应如何通过项目生命周期展开有很好的理解时,项目成本控制才是最有效的。
这意味着他们在主要阶段的关键决策点之间行使职责。
他们还必须识别项目风险管理的重要性，至少可以确定并计划阻止最明显的潜在风险事件。
在项目的概念阶段•每个项目始于确定的机会或需要的人.通常是有着重要性和影响力的人,如果项目继续,这个人往往成为项目的赞助。
外文翻译-中文
利率市场化对储蓄和投资的影响：来自尼日利亚的数据J.U.J.Onwumere1, Okore Amah Okore1 and Imo G.Ibe,摘要知识平台的研讨会提供了Mckinnon (1973)和Shaw（1973）对于发展中国家的金融自由化的的成果。
他们认为，利率市场化会导致利率上升，从而增加储蓄和投资。
本文研究了在利率市场化对储蓄和投资在尼日利亚的影响。
它涵盖的期间为1976至1999。
利用简单线性回归技术，采用SPSS统计软件。
研究结果表明，利率市场化在尼日利亚对储蓄有不显著的负影响，对投资显著负影响。
因此，利率市场化，虽然是一个好的政策，但在尼日利亚。
这可能是由于发展的步伐和测序不当。
在确定了利率市场化的适当的排序，我们建议当局不仅要区分贷款和存款的交易，也要批发和零售交易之间进行区分。
第一复杂的实体批发交易利率应该放开，其次是贷款利率和存款利率。
这种渐进的方式可以保障银行的盈利能力的同时，可以让个人和企业自由调整开放时间。
介绍McKinnon (1973)和 Shaw (1973)的研究成果表明由于金融抑制是发展中国家业绩增长缓慢的原因。
他们认为，国家以金融抑制；提高名义利率，通货膨胀会增加储蓄和投资的资源的供给。
生产率的投资也上升为这些资源流向有高回报率的项目。
他们进一步认为，金融抑制的产生主要是当一个国家的“天花板”的名义存贷款利率相对于通货膨胀的程度处于一个较低的水平。
由此产生的低或负的实际利率，阻碍了储蓄通过金融系统进行储蓄动员和引导动员。
因此投资对经济增长的负面影响。
McKinnon和 Shaw认为发展中国家的金融抑制政策引发的问题需要金融自由化来改变。
自从20世纪70年金融自由化概念的引入以来，许多国家，如安哥拉，布隆迪，刚果，科特迪瓦，冈比亚，加纳，肯尼亚，马达加斯加，马拉维，莫桑比克，尼日利亚，卢旺达，坦桑尼亚，赞比亚，津巴布韦，印度，中国，土耳其，等在为开放本国金融业的利率放开而努力，消除或减少信贷管制，允许自由进入银行业的自主性，给商业银行，允许银行私有化和自由化的国际资本流动。
机器人外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
外文资料robotThe industrial robot is a tool that is used in the manufacturing environment to increase productivity. It can be used to do routine and tedious assembly line jobs，or it can perform jobs that might be hazardous to the human worker . For example ，one of the first industrial robot was used to replace the nuclear fuel rods in nuclear power plants. A human doing this job might be exposed to harmful amounts of radiation. The industrial robot can also operate on the assembly line，putting together small components，such as placing electronic components on a printed circuit board. Thus，the human worker can be relieved of the routine operation of this tedious task. Robots can also be programmed to defuse bombs，to serve the handicapped，and to perform functions in numerous applications in our society.The robot can be thought of as a machine that will move an end-of-tool ，sensor ，and/or gripper to a preprogrammed location. When the robot arrives at this location，it will perform some sort of task .This task could be welding，sealing，machine loading ，machine unloading，or a host of assembly jobs. Generally，this work can be accomplished without the involvement of a human being，except for programming and for turning the system on and off.The basic terminology of robotic systems is introduced in the following:1. A robot is a reprogrammable ，multifunctional manipulator designed to move parts，material，tool，or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of different task. This basic definition leads to other definitions，presented in the following paragraphs，that give acomplete picture of a robotic system.2. Preprogrammed locations are paths that the robot must follow to accomplish work，At some of these locations，the robot will stop and perform some operation ，such as assembly of parts，spray painting ，or welding .These preprogrammed locations are stored in the robot’s memory and are recalled later for continuousoperation.Furthermore，these preprogrammed locations，as well as other program data，can be changed later as the work requirements change.Thus，with regard to this programming feature，an industrial robot is very much like a computer ，where data can be stoned and later recalled and edited.3. The manipulator is the arm of the robot .It allows the robot to bend，reach，and twist.This movement is provided by the manipulator’s axes，also called the degrees of freedom of the robot .A robot can have from 3 to 16 axes.The term degrees of freedom will always relate to the number of axes found on a robot.4. The tooling and frippers are not part the robotic system itself;rather，they are attachments that fit on the end of the robot’s arm. These attachments connected to the end of the robot’s arm allow the robot to lift parts，spot-weld ，paint，arc-weld，drill，deburr，and do a variety of tasks，depending on what is required of the robot.5. The robotic system can control the work cell of the operating robot.The work cell of the robot is the total environment in which the robot must perform itstask.Included within this cell may be the controller ，the robot manipulator ，a work table ，safety features，or a conveyor.All the equipment that is required in order for the robot to do its job is included in the work cell .In addition，signals from outside devices can communicate with the robot to tell the robot when it should parts，pick up parts，or unload parts to a conveyor.The robotic system has three basic components: the manipulator，the controller，and the power source.A.ManipulatorThe manipulator ，which does the physical work of the robotic system，consists of two sections:the mechanical section and the attached appendage.The manipulator also has a base to which the appendages are attached.Fig.1 illustrates the connectionof the base and the appendage of a robot.图1.Basic components of a robot’s manipulatorThe base of the manipulator is usually fixed to the floor of the work area. Sometimes，though，the base may be movable. In this case，the base is attached to either a rail or a track，allowing the manipulator to be moved from one location to anther.As mentioned previously ，the appendage extends from the base of the robot. The appendage is the arm of the robot. It can be either a straight ，movable arm or a jointed arm. The jointed arm is also known as an articulated arm.The appendages of the robot manipulator give the manipulator its various axes of motion. These axes are attached to a fixed base ，which，in turn，is secured to a mounting. This mounting ensures that the manipulator will in one location.At the end of the arm ，a wrist（see Fig 2）is connected. The wrist is made up of additional axes and a wrist flange. The wrist flange allows the robot user to connect different tooling to the wrist for different jobs.图2.Elements of a work cell from the topThe manipulator’s axes allow it to perform work within a certain area. The area is called the work cell of the robot ，and its size corresponds to the size of the manipulator.（Fid2）illustrates the work cell of a typical assembly ro bot.As the robot’s physical size increases，the size of the work cell must also increase.The movement of the manipulator is controlled by actuator，or drive systems.The actuator，or drive systems，allows the various axes to move within the work cell. The drive system can use electric，hydraulic，or pneumatic power.The energy developed by the drive system is converted to mechanical power by various mechanical power systems.The drive systems are coupled through mechanical linkages.These linkages，in turn，drive the different axes of the robot.The mechanical linkages may be composed of chain，gear，and ball screws.B.ControllerThe controller in the robotic system is the heart of the operation .The controller stores preprogrammed information for later recall，controls peripheral devices，and communicates with computers within the plant for constant updates in production.The controller is used to control the robot manipulator’s movements as well as to control peripheral components within the work cell. The user can program the movements of the manipulator into the controller through the use of a hard-held teach pendant.This information is stored in the memory of the controller for later recall.The controller stores all program data for the robotic system.It can store several differentprograms，and any of these programs can be edited.The controller is also required to communicate with peripheral equipment within the work cell. For example，the controller has an input line that identifies when a machining operation is completed.When the machine cycle is completed，the input line turn on telling the controller to position the manipulator so that it can pick up the finished part.Then ，a new part is picked up by the manipulator and placed into the machine.Next，the controller signals the machine to start operation.The controller can be made from mechanically operated drums that step through a sequence of events.This type of controller operates with a very simple robotic system.The controllers found on the majority of robotic systems are more complex devices and represent state-of-the-art eletronoics.That is，they are microprocessor-operated.these microprocessors are either 8-bit，16-bit，or 32-bit processors.this power allows the controller to be very flexible in its operation.The controller can send electric signals over communication lines that allow it to talk with the various axes of the manipulator. This two-way communication between the robot manipulator and the controller maintains a constant update of the end the operation of the system.The controller also controls any tooling placed on the end of the robot’s wrist.The controller also has the job of communicating with the different plant computers. The communication link establishes the robot as part a computer-assisted manufacturing （CAM）system.As the basic definition stated，the robot is a reprogrammable，multifunctional manipulator.Therefore，the controller must contain some of memory stage. The microprocessor-based systems operates in conjunction with solid-state devices.These memory devices may be magnetic bubbles，random-access memory，floppy disks，or magnetic tape.Each memory storage device stores program information fir or for editing.C.power supplyThe power supply is the unit that supplies power to the controller and the manipulator. The type of power are delivered to the robotic system. One type of power is the AC power for operation of the controller. The other type of power isused for driving the various axes of the manipulator. For example，if the robot manipulator is controlled by hydraulic or pneumatic drives，control signals are sent to these devices causing motion of the robot.For each robotic system，power is required to operate the manipulator .This power can be developed from either a hydraulic power source，a pneumatic power source，or an electric power source.There power sources are part of the total components of the robotic work cell.中文翻译机器人工业机器人是在生产环境中用以提高生产效率的工具，它能做常规乏味的装配线工作，或能做那些对于工人来说是危险的工作，例如，第一代工业机器人是用来在核电站中更换核燃料棒，如果人去做这项工作，将会遭受有害放射线的辐射。
道路与桥梁工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Bridge research in EuropeA brief outline is given of the development of the European Union, together withthe research platform in Europe. The special case of post-tensioned bridges in the UK is discussed. In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio: relating to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges using digital impulse radar.IntroductionThe challenge in any research arena is to harness the findings of different research groups to identify a coherent mass of data, which enables research and practice to be better focused. A particular challenge exists with respect to Europe where language barriers are inevitably very significant. The European Community was formed in the 1960s based upon a political will within continental Europe to avoid the European civil wars, which developed into World War 2 from 1939 to 1945. The strong political motivation formed the original community of which Britain was not a member. Many of the continental countries saw Britain’s interest as being purelyeconomic. The 1970s saw Britain joining what was then the European Economic Community (EEC) and the 1990s has seen the widening of the community to a European Union, EU, with certain political goals together with the objective of a common European currency.Notwithstanding these financial and political developments, civil engineering and bridge engineering in particular have found great difficulty in forming any kind of common thread. Indeed the educational systems for University training are quite different between Britain and the European continental countries. The formation of the EU funding schemes —e.g. Socrates, Brite Euram and other programs have helped significantly. The Socrates scheme is based upon the exchange of students between Universities in different member states. The Brite Euram scheme has involved technical research grants given to consortia of academics and industrial partners within a number of the states—— a Brite Euram bid would normally be led by partners within a number of the statesan industrialist.In terms of dissemination of knowledge, two quite different strands appear to have emerged. The UK and the USA have concentrated primarily upon disseminating basic research in refereed journal publications: ASCE, ICE and other journals. Whereas the continental Europeans have frequently disseminated basic research at conferences where the circulation of the proceedings is restricted.Additionally, language barriers have proved to be very difficult to break down. In countries where English is a strong second language there has been enthusiastic participation in international conferences based within continental Europe —e.g. Germany, Italy, Belgium, The Netherlands and Switzerland. However, countries where English is not a strong second language have been hesitant participants }—e.g. France.European researchExamples of research relating to bridges in Europe can be divided into three types of structure:Masonry arch bridgesBritain has the largest stock of masonry arch bridges. In certain regions of the UK up to 60% of the road bridges are historic stone masonry arch bridges originally constructed for horse drawn traffic. This is less common in other parts of Europe as many of these bridges were destroyed during World War 2.Concrete bridgesA large stock of concrete bridges was constructed during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. At the time, these structures were seen as maintenance free. Europe also has a large number of post-tensioned concrete bridges with steel tendon ducts preventing radar inspection. This is a particular problem in France and the UK.Steel bridgesSteel bridges went out of fashion in the UK due to their need for maintenance as perceived in the 1960s and 1970s. However, they have been used for long span and rail bridges, and they are now returning to fashion for motorway widening schemes in the UK.Research activity in EuropeIt gives an indication certain areas of expertise and work being undertaken in Europe, but is by no means exhaustive.In order to illustrate the type of European research being undertaken, an example is given from the University of Edinburgh portfolio. The example relates to the identification of voids in post-tensioned concrete bridges, using digital impulse radar.Post-tensioned concrete rail bridge analysisOve Arup and Partners carried out an inspection and assessment of the superstructure of a 160 m long post-tensioned, segmental railway bridge in Manchester to determine its load-carrying capacity prior to a transfer of ownership, for use in the Metrolink light rail system..Particular attention was paid to the integrity of its post-tensioned steel elements.Physical inspection, non-destructive radar testing and other exploratory methods were used to investigate for possible weaknesses in the bridge.Since the sudden collapse of Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, UK in 1985, there has been concern about the long-term integrity of segmental, post-tensioned concrete bridges which may b e prone to ‘brittle’ failure without warning. The corrosion protection of the post-tensioned steel cables, where they pass through joints between the segments, has been identified as a major factor affecting the long-term durability and consequent strength of this type of bridge. The identification of voids in grouted tendon ducts at vulnerable positions is recognized as an important step in the detection of such corrosion.Description of bridgeGeneral arrangementBesses o’ th’ Barn Bridge is a 160 m long, three span, segmental, post-tensionedconcrete railway bridge built in 1969. The main span of 90 m crosses over both the M62 motorway and A665 Bury to Prestwick Road. Minimum headroom is 5.18 m from the A665 and the M62 is cleared by approx 12.5 m.The superstructure consists of a central hollow trapezoidal concrete box section 6.7 m high and 4 m wide. The majority of the south and central spans are constructed using 1.27 m long pre-cast concrete trapezoidal box units, post-tensioned together. This box section supports the in site concrete transverse cantilever slabs at bottom flange level, which carry the rail tracks and ballast.The center and south span sections are of post-tensioned construction. These post-tensioned sections have five types of pre-stressing:1. Longitudinal tendons in grouted ducts within the top and bottom flanges.2. Longitudinal internal draped tendons located alongside the webs. These are deflected at internal diaphragm positions and are encased in in site concrete.3. Longitudinal macalloy bars in the transverse cantilever slabs in the central span .4. Vertical macalloy bars in the 229 mm wide webs to enhance shear capacity.5. Transverse macalloy bars through the bottom flange to support the transverse cantilever slabs.Segmental constructionThe pre-cast segmental system of construction used for the south and center span sections was an alternative method proposed by the contractor. Current thinkingire suggests that such a form of construction can lead to ‘brittle’ failure of the ententire structure without warning due to corrosion of tendons across a construction joint，The original design concept had been for in site concrete construction.Inspection and assessmentInspectionInspection work was undertaken in a number of phases and was linked with the testing required for the structure. The initial inspections recorded a number of visible problems including:Defective waterproofing on the exposed surface of the top flange.Water trapped in the internal space of the hollow box with depths up to 300 mm.Various drainage problems at joints and abutments.Longitudinal cracking of the exposed soffit of the central span.Longitudinal cracking on sides of the top flange of the pre-stressed sections.Widespread sapling on some in site concrete surfaces with exposed rusting reinforcement.AssessmentThe subject of an earlier paper, the objectives of the assessment were:Estimate the present load-carrying capacity.Identify any structural deficiencies in the original design.Determine reasons for existing problems identified by the inspection.Conclusion to the inspection and assessmentFollowing the inspection and the analytical assessment one major element of doubt still existed. This concerned the condition of the embedded pre-stressing wires, strands, cables or bars. For the purpose of structural analysis these elements、had been assumed to be sound. However, due to the very high forces involved,、a risk to the structure, caused by corrosion to these primary elements, was identified.The initial recommendations which completed the first phase of the assessment were:1. Carry out detailed material testing to determine the condition of hidden structural elements, in particularthe grouted post-tensioned steel cables.2. Conduct concrete durability tests.3. Undertake repairs to defective waterproofing and surface defects in concrete.Testing proceduresNon-destructi v e radar testingDuring the first phase investigation at a joint between pre-cast deck segments the observation of a void in a post-tensioned cable duct gave rise to serious concern about corrosion and the integrity of the pre-stress. However, the extent of this problem was extremely difficult to determine. The bridge contains 93 joints with an average of 24 cables passing through each joint, i.e. there were approx. 2200 positions where investigations could be carried out. A typical section through such a joint is that the 24 draped tendons within the spine did not give rise to concern because these were protected by in site concrete poured without joints after the cables had been stressed.As it was clearly impractical to consider physically exposing all tendon/joint intersections, radar was used to investigate a large numbers of tendons and hence locate duct voids within a modest timescale. It was fortunate that the corrugated steel ducts around the tendons were discontinuous through the joints which allowed theradar to detect the tendons and voids. The problem, however, was still highly complex due to the high density of other steel elements which could interfere with the radar signals and the fact that the area of interest was at most 102 mm wide and embedded between 150 mm and 800 mm deep in thick concrete slabs.Trial radar investigations.Three companies were invited to visit the bridge and conduct a trial investigation. One company decided not to proceed. The remaining two were given 2 weeks to mobilize, test and report. Their results were then compared with physical explorations.To make the comparisons, observation holes were drilled vertically downwards into the ducts at a selection of 10 locations which included several where voids were predicted and several where the ducts were predicted to be fully grouted. A 25-mm diameter hole was required in order to facilitate use of the chosen horoscope. The results from the University of Edinburgh yielded an accuracy of around 60%.Main radar sur v ey, horoscope verification of v oids.Having completed a radar survey of the total structure, a baroscopic was then used to investigate all predicted voids and in more than 60% of cases this gave a clear confirmation of the radar findings. In several other cases some evidence of honeycombing in the in site stitch concrete above the duct was found.When viewing voids through the baroscopic, however, it proved impossible to determine their actual size or how far they extended along the tendon ducts although they only appeared to occupy less than the top 25% of the duct diameter. Most of these voids, in fact, were smaller than the diameter of the flexible baroscopic being used (approximately 9 mm) and were seen between the horizontal top surface of the grout and the curved upper limit of the duct. In a very few cases the tops of the pre-stressing strands were visible above the grout but no sign of any trapped water was seen. It was not possible, using the baroscopic, to see whether those cables were corroded.Digital radar testingThe test method involved exciting the joints using radio frequency radar antenna: 1 GHz, 900 MHz and 500 MHz. The highest frequency gives the highest resolution but has shallow depth penetration in the concrete. The lowest frequency gives the greatest depth penetration but yields lower resolution.The data collected on the radar sweeps were recorded on a GSSI SIR System 10.This system involves radar pulsing and recording. The data from the antenna is transformed from an analogue signal to a digital signal using a 16-bit analogue digital converter giving a very high resolution for subsequent data processing. The data is displayed on site on a high-resolution color monitor. Following visual inspection it isthen stored digitally on a 2.3-gigabyte tape for subsequent analysis and signal processing. The tape first of all records a ‘header’ noting the digital radar settings together with the trace number prior to recording the actual data. When the data is played back, one is able to clearly identify all the relevant settings —making for accurate and reliable data reproduction.At particular locations along the traces, the trace was marked using a marker switch on the recording unit or the antenna.All the digital records were subsequently downloaded at the University’s NDT laboratory on to a micro-computer.（The raw data prior to processing consumed 35 megabytes of digital data.） Post-processing was undertaken using sophisticated signal processing software. Techniques available for the analysis include changing the color transform and changing the scales from linear to a skewed distribution in order to highlight、突出certain features. Also, the color transforms could be changed to highlight phase changes. In addition to these color transform facilities, sophisticated horizontal and vertical filtering procedures are available. Using a large screen monitor it is possible to display in split screens the raw data and the transformed processed data. Thus one is able to get an accurate indication of the processing which has taken place. The computer screen displays the time domain calibrations of the reflected signals on the vertical axis.A further facility of the software was the ability to display the individual radar pulses as time domain wiggle plots. This was a particularly valuable feature when looking at individual records in the vicinity of the tendons.Interpretation of findingsA full analysis of findings is given elsewhere, Essentially the digitized radar plots were transformed to color line scans and where double phase shifts were identified in the joints, then voiding was diagnosed.Conclusions1. An outline of the bridge research platform in Europe is given.2. The use of impulse radar has contributed considerably to the level of confidence in the assessment of the Besses o’ th’ Barn Rail Bridge.3. The radar investigations revealed extensive voiding within the post-tensioned cable ducts. However, no sign of corrosion on the stressing wires had been foundexcept for the very first investigation.欧洲桥梁研究欧洲联盟共同的研究平台诞生于欧洲联盟。
辐射外文翻译 中英文
本外文翻译含中英文，前面英文，后面中文。
Mobile Phone Radiation Induces Reactive OxygenSpecies Production and DNA Damage in HumanSpermatozoa In VitroAbstractBackgroundIn recent times there has been some controversy over the impact of electromagnetic radiation on human health. The significance of mobile phone radiation on male reproduction is a key element of this debate since several studies have suggested a relationship between mobile phone use and semen quality. The potential mechanisms involved have not been established, however, human spermatozoa are known to be particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress by virtue of the abundant availability of substrates for free radical attack and the lack of cytoplasmic space to accommodate antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, the induction of oxidative stress in these cells not only perturbs their capacity for fertilization but also contributes to sperm DNA damage. The latter has, in turn, been linked with poor fertility, an increased incidence of miscarriage and morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer. In light of these associations, we have analyzed the influence of RF-EMR on the cell biology of human spermatozoa in vitro.Principal FindingsPurified human spermatozoa were exposed to radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) tuned to 1.8 GHz and covering a range of specific absorption rates (SAR) from 0.4 W/kg to 27.5 W/kg. In step with increasing SAR, motility and vitality were significantly reduced after RF-EMR exposure, while the mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species and DNA fragmentation were significantly elevated (P<0.001). Furthermore, we also observed highly significant relationships between SAR, the oxidative DNA damage bio-marker, 8-OH-dG, and DNA fragmentation after RF-EMR exposureConclusionsRF-EMR in both the power density and frequency range of mobile phones enhances mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation by human spermatozoa, decreasing the motility and vitality of these cells while stimulating DNA base adduct formation and, ultimately DNA fragmentation. These findings have clear implications for the safety of extensive mobile phone use by males of reproductive age, potentially affecting both their fertility and the health and wellbeing of their offspringlistIntroduction (1)Results (2)RF-EMR disrupts human sperm motility and vitality and induces intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (2)RF-EMR has a negative impact on human spermatozoa over a range of SAR values (4)Reactive Oxygen Species are central to the RF-EMR response (5)RF-EMR induces oxidative DNA damage (8-OH-dG) (6)RF-EMR induces DNA fragmentation in human spermatozoa (7)Discussion (9)Methods (12)Ethics Statement (12)Reagents and Solutions (12)Human spermatozoa (12)Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Radiation and Waveguide (13)Dihydroethidium Assay (14)MitoSOX Red (MSR) Assay (15)Assay for 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG) (15)TUNEL Assay (16)Analysis by Flow Cytometry (16)Statistics (17)References (17)IntroductionMale infertility is a distressingly common condition affecting about 1 in 20 of the male population [1]. In a majority of cases, the male partner produces sufficient numbers of spermatozoa to achieve fertilization but there are functional defects in these cells that prevent conception from occurring [2]. Despite several decades of research, the causes of such functional deficiencies in human spermatozoa remain largely unresolved. However, one contributory factor that has recently emerged is the quality of the sperm DNA delivered to the oocyte at the moment of fertilization [3]. Fragmentation of DNA in the male germ line has been associated with impaired fertilization, poor embryonic development, high rates of miscarriage and an increased incidence of morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer [3], [4]. In view of the seriousness of these clinical outcomes, attention has recently focused on the environmental and genetic factors that might be involved in the aetiology of DNA damage in the male germ line.These investigations have suggested that one of the environmental factors potentially involved in the etiology of DNA damage in human spermatozoa is an increased exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) emitted from mobile phones. This association was initially suggested by an epidemiological study which found negative correlations between mobile phone usage and various attributes of semen quality, particularly motility [5]. This was immediately followed by an experimental study involving exposure of male mice to RF-EMR, which revealed a significant impact on the integrity of both the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes [6]. Recently, the negative impact of mobile phone usage on semen quality in human males was confirmed in a study that found the duration of exposure to be correlated with defects in sperm count, motility, viability, and normal morphology [7]. In light of these data, there is now an urgent need to determine whether exposure of human spermatozoa to RF-EMR can also induce DNA damage and to resolve the cellular mechanisms involved.Several studies have found an association between human health and exposure to RF-EMR, with emphasis on a range of clinical conditions including childhood leukaemia, brain tumours, genotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease [8], [9]. While the cellular mechanisms underpinning these effects have not been completely resolved, it has been suggested that oxidative stress could be a key factor [10]. However, extensive analysis of the importance of oxidative stress in mediating the pathological effects of RF-EMR has generated conflicting results, possibly due to differences in the fundamental redox susceptibility of the cell lines employed in these analyses [11]. In this context, it is significant that human spermatozoa are uniquely sensitive to oxidative stress for a variety of reasons. Firstly, these cells arelargely devoid of the cytoplasm that in somatic cells houses the antioxidant enzymes that offer a first line of defense against free radical attack [12]. Secondly, these cells possess abundant targets for the induction of peroxidative damage including polyunsaturated fatty acids and DNA [12]–[14]. Thirdly, these cells are professional generators of reactive oxygen species, that appear to emanate largely from the sperm mitochondria and, possibly, plasma membrane NAD(P)H oxidases [15], [16]. Thus if any cell type would be vulnerable to the oxidative stress reportedly generated on exposure to RF-EMR, it would be human spermatozoa.In light of these considerations, we have conducted a careful analysis of the biological consequences of exposing human spermatozoa to RF-EMR. The study design involved overnight exposure to RF-EMR at a defined frequency (1.8 GHz), over a range of SAR values that both covered the emission characteristics of mobile phones and generated sufficient dose-response data to shed light on the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. Moreover, the temperature of the incubations was maintained at 21°C to avoid any secondary heating effects. The results clearly demonstrate that exposure to this type of radiation not only stimulates free radical generation by the sperm mitochondria but also creates a state of oxidative stress characterized by the formation of oxidative base adducts and DNA fragmentation. These data clearly have important implications for the safety of mobile phone use and highlight the potential importance of RF-EMR in the etiology of male infertility and childhood disease.ResultsRF-EMR disrupts human sperm motility and vitality and induces intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) productionIn an initial experiment, functional human spermatozoa isolated from the high density region of Percoll gradients and suspended in BWW medium were exposed to RF-EMR at an SAR of 27.5 W/kg. This exposure induced a highly significant decline in both vitality (p<0.001; Figure 1A) and motility (p<0.01; Figure 1B) compared with the unexposed controls. Exposed spermatozoa also produced significantly higher amounts of ROS than background levels as measured by both the dihydroethidium (DHE) (p<0.001; Figure 1C) and MitoSOX red (MSR) probes (p<0.001; Figure 1D) suggesting that free radical generation had been initiated as a consequence of RF-EMR and that the mitochondria were significantly involved in this response.Figure 1. RF-EMR exposure decreases motility and vitality of human sperm while also inducing intracellular ROS.Percoll-purified spermatozoa (5×106 cells) were suspended in 1 ml BWW in a 35 mm Petri dish and placed within the waveguide while control cells placed outside the waveguide. A frequency of 1.8 GHz at a SAR of 27.5 W/kg was used and all samples were incubated for 16 h at 21°C. A, Sperm vitality was significantly reduced from the control value of 82%±4% to 29%±4% for the exposed cells (***p<0.001). B, Sperm motility was also significantly reduced from the control value of 82%±4% to 28%±1% (**p<0.01). C, ROS production was increased after RF-EMR exposure such that 28%±1% of the cells were producing ROS, while only 7%±0.4% of the controls contributed to ROS production (***p<0.001). D, 24%±1% of the exposed cells generated mitochondrial ROS, while the only 12%±1% of the control cells produced ROS from this source (***p<0.001). All results are based on 4 independent samples. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.g001RF-EMR has a negative impact on human spermatozoa overa range of SAR valuesIn light of these results we then extended the range of SAR values over which the consequences of RF-EMR radiation were examined (0.4 W/kg–27.5 W/kg) to include the values covered by conventional mobile phones (0.5 W/kg–1.5 W/kg).High quality spermatozoa selected in discontinuous Percoll gradients displayed a decline in both vitality and motility after exposure to RF-EMR in a dose- dependent manner. The control populations maintained an average vitality of 89%; however, significant reductions in vitality were observed at exposure levels as low as 1.0 W/kg (p<0.01) (Figure 2A). Similarly, the control populations maintained motilities at an average of 86% over the incubation period, however after exposure to RF-EMR at levels of 1.0 W/kg, motility was observed to significantly decrease to 68% (p<0.05) and decreased still further at higher SAR exposures (Figure 2B).Figure 2. RF-EMR exposure reduces motility and vitality of human spermatozoa, in an SAR dependent manner.Percoll-purified spermatozoa (5×106 cells) were suspended in 1 ml BWW in a 35 mm Petri dish and placed within the waveguide while control cells (closed circles) were placed outside the waveguide. Cells in the waveguide were exposed to 1.8 GHz RF-EMR at SAR levels of 0.4, 1.0 2.84.3 10.1 and 27.5 W/kg (open circles) for 16 h at 21°C. Both vitality and motility were reduced ina dose dependent manner. A, Vitality was significantly reduced at a SAR of 1.0 W/kg from 89%±3% to 65%±1% (**p<0.01). B, Motility was also significantly reduced at a SAR of 1.0 W/kg from 86%±2% to 68%±2% (*p<0.05). All results are based on 4 independent samples.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.g002Reactive Oxygen Species are central to the RF-EMR response Exposure of human spermatozoa to RF-EMR over a range of SAR levels resulted in a dose-dependent activation of ROS generation, as detected by the DHE probe (Figure 3A). In this analysis, a significant increase in ROS positive cells was observed after exposure at 1.0 W/kg (p<0.05); thereafter ROS production rose rapidly with SAR values up to 4.3 W/kg and then began to plateau reaching a peak of 30% at the highest exposure levels assessed (Figure 3A). To determine whether such increases in ROS production might originate from the sperm mitochondria, MSR was employed as a probe. Spermatozoa exposed to increasing levels of RF-EMR, generated a significant, dose-dependent increase in ROS generation by the mitochondria. The response rose rapidly following RF-EMR exposure reaching statistical significance (p<0.001) at an SAR value 2.8 W/kg at which point 16% of the exposed cells were MSR positive. At SAR values above 4.3 W/kg, RF-EMR induced mitochondrial ROS begun to plateau reaching 30% at the maximal SAR values assessed (Figure 3B). By plotting the DHE positive cells against the MSR response for the entire data set (Figure 3D) we observed an extremely strong correlation (R2 = 0.823) between these signals, suggesting that a majority of the ROS production elicited by RF-EMR involved electron leakage from the mitochondrial electron transport chain.Figure 3. RF-EMR induces ROS generation in human spermatozoa, in an SAR-dependent manner unrelated to thermal effects.Percoll-purified spermatozoa (5×106 cells) were suspended in 1 ml BWW in a 35 mm Petri dish and placed within the waveguide while control cells placed outside the waveguide (closed circles). Cells in the waveguide were exposed to 1.8 GHz RF-EMR at SAR levels between 0.4 and 27.5 W/kg (open circles) for 16 h at 21°C. Also, purified sperm cells were subjected to incubation temperatures ranging from 21°C–50°C for 2 h. As the power levels were increased, the cellular generation of ROS increased in a dose-dependent manner. ROS levels were also observed to increase as a result of incubation temperature, but such results were not significant until the temperature exceeded 40°C. A, ROS generation (DHE response) was significantly increased from control levels after exposure to 1.0 W/kg (*p<0.05) and above (***p<0.001). B, RF-EMR induces ROS generation by the sperm mitochondria as monitored by MSR; significant increases were observed at SAR values of 2.8 W/kg (***p<0.001) and above. All results are based on 4 independent samples. C, In order to control for thermal effects, the impact of temperature of cellular ROS generation was monitored; a significant increase in ROS generation was observed as temperatures rose above 40°C (p<0.001). D, Across the entire data set, the total level of ROS generation by human spermatozoa (DHE positive cells) was highly correlated with the level of ROS generation by the mitochondria (MSR positive cells: R2 = 0.823).doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.g003In order to control for bulk thermal effects of RF-EMR exposure, spermatozoa were also incubated at temperatures ranging from 21°C–50°C for 2 h (Figure 3C). This analysis did reveal an effect of heat on free radical generation by human spermatozoa possibly due to the activation of an apoptotic response, however these effects were only significant above 40°C. Thus at the temperature at which these experiments were performed (21°C) the highest observed RF-EMR-induced temperature rise (+0.4°C at 27.5 W/kg), could not of itself account for the increased ROS response observed across the range of SAR settings evaluated in this study.RF-EMR induces oxidative DNA damage (8-OH-dG)In order to determine whether the ROS generation induced on exposure of human spermatozoa to RF-EMR resulted in a state of oxidative stress, we monitored the expression of8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-dG), a marker for oxidative damage to sperm DNA. As the SAR level was increased, the amount of oxidative DNA damage expressed in the spermatozoa became elevated (Figure 4A). A significant increase in 8-OH-dG expression became apparent at low SAR values (<5.0 W/kg) rising to a maximum of around 20% at the highest levels of exposure (27.5 W/kg). By plotting the 8-OH-dG positive cells against the MSR signal (Figure 4B) it was apparent that a strong positive correlation existed between the two parameters (R2 = 0.727); thehigher the level of mitochondrial ROS generation, the greater the degree of oxidative DNA damage in the spermatozoa.Figure 4. RF-EMR induces oxidative DNA damage in human spermatozoa.Following Percoll fractionation, 5×106 high density, spermatozoa were suspended in 1 ml BWW. The cells were placed in 35 mm Petri dishes and placed inside a waveguide. 5×106 cells in 1 ml BWW were placed outside the waveguide as a control (closed circle). The cells in the waveguide were exposed to 1.8 GHz RF-EMR at SAR levels between 0.4 and 27.5 W/kg (open circles) and all samples were incubated for 16 h at 21°C. Following incubation, Fe2+ and H2O2 was added to cells to act as a positive control, incubated for 1 h, then 100 µl 2 mM DTT/BWW solution was added and incubated for 45 min at 37°C. Cells were fixed and labeled with 100 µl charcoal purified anti-8-OH-dG, FITC tagged antibody at a dilution of 1:50, incubated at 21°C for 1 h, washed and then assessed by flow cytometry. A, As the power levels were increased, the amount of oxidative DNA damage expressed also increased. A significant amount of oxidative DNA damage was observed in cells exposed to 2.8 W/kg (*p<0.05) RF-EMR and above (**p<0.01; ***p<0.001). Results are based on 4 independent samples. B, The levels of 8-OH-dG expression were positively correlated with the levels of ROS generation by the mitochondria (R2 = 0.727).doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.g004RF-EMR induces DNA fragmentation in human spermatozoa To determine whether the oxidative DNA base damage precipitated by RF-EMR-induced ROS generation had any impact on DNA stand breaks in human spermatozoa, the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay was utilized. As illustrated in Figure 5A, human spermatozoa responded to RF-EMR exposure, with a significant increase in DNA strand breaks atan SAR of 2.8 W/kg (p<0.05) that increased rapidly with rising SAR values and then reached a plateau so that at the highest SAR level assessed (27.5 W/kg), 29% of the cells expressed significant DNA fragmentation. This DNA damage was highly correlated with free radical generation by the sperm mitochondria giving a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.861 (Figure 5B). Moreover, the level of DNA fragmentation was highly correlated with 8-OH-dG formation (R2 = 0.725; Figure 5C) such that sperm cells exhibiting high levels of oxidative DNA damage, also possessed high levels of DNA fragmentation.Figure 5. RF-EMR induces DNA fragmentation in human spermatozoa.Following Percoll fractionation, 5×106 high density spermatozoa were resuspended in 1 ml BWW, pipetted into 35 mm Petri dishes and placed inside a waveguide. 5×106 cells in 1 ml BWW were placed outside the waveguide as a control (closed circle). The cells in the waveguide were exposed to 1.8 GHz RF-EMR at SAR levels between 0.4 and 27.5 W/kg (open circles) and all samples were incubated for 16 h at 21°C. Following incubation, cells were fixed; DNase-I was used as a positive control. After 1 h incubation at 37°C, 50 µl of label and enzyme master mixes were added to the cells and incubated for 1 h at 37°C. Cells were then washed and assessed by flow cytometry. A, Significant levels of DNA fragmentation was observed in exposed spermatozoa at 2.8 W/kg (*p<0.05) and above (***p<0.001). B, DNA fragmentation was positively correlated with ROS production by the mitochondria as monitored by MSR (R2 = 0.861). C, 8-OH-dG was also positively correlated with DNA fragmentation (R2 = 0.725). Results are based on 4 independent samples.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006446.g005DiscussionWhile a high proportion of the male population suffers from infertility associated with defective sperm function [17], the etiology of this condition remains largely unresolved. Notwithstanding the general paucity of information in this area, recent studies have highlighted the interesting finding that male infertility patients are frequently characterized by high levels of DNA damage to their spermatozoa [18]. In light of these data, we have hypothesized that the disruption of sperm fertilizing potential and the concomitant presence of high levels of DNA damage in the sperm nucleus involves a common causative mechanism in the form of oxidative stress [19].Oxidative stress has been known for some time to limit the fertilizing potential of human spermatozoa through the induction of peroxidative damage to the sperm plasma membrane [13], [20]. Oxidative stress is also known to be associated with DNA damage in human spermatozoa [21]. Furthermore, the source of the free radicals responsible for generating such stress appears to be the mitochondria [15]. However, the factors responsible for inducing the mitochondria to leak electrons and propagate the production of ROS have not been elucidated. The research described in this article suggests that one of the key environmental factors involved in the stimulation of sperm mitochondria to produce high levels of ROS, might be excess exposure to RF-EMR from sources such as mobile phones.In a pilot study, human spermatozoa were found to respond to RF-EMR (at 1.8 GHzwith a SAR of 27.5 W/kg) with a range of negative changes including dramatic declines in both sperm vitality and motility. We also observed significant increases in both cytoplasmic ROS levels (DHE) as well as mitochondrial ROS levels (MSR) after RF-EMR exposure. We have previously shown that the chemical induction of mitochondrial ROS production with rotenone can precipitate a state of oxidative stress leading to high levels of lipid peroxidation and a loss of sperm motility [15]. Therefore, these data highlight the particular vulnerability of human spermatozoa to oxidative attack and the potential significance of sperm mitochondria in the generation of free radicals.To assess whether similar effects could be observed at lower power densities, closer to the SAR values associated with mobile phones (0.5–1.5 W/kg) a dose-dependent analysis was conducted. In addition to the conventional assessments of motility and vitality, assays were included to assess the potential for RF-EMR to induce sperm DNA damage and further, whether the DNA damage was oxidative in nature. Confirmation of the detrimental effects of RF-EMR on human sperm was again observed. Over the power density range employed, a significant (P<0.001) dose-dependent response for all sperm parameters was observed, including motility, vitality, ROS generation by the whole cell, ROS generation by the mitochondria, oxidative DNA damage and DNA fragmentation. Furthermore, the profiles of all the observed effects with respect to SAR were intriguingly similar, suggesting a common underlying mechanism.Specifically, all of the responses examined showed an extremely rapid change at low SAR exposures that then reached a plateau at a point where around 30% of the sperm population was affected. This suggests that while we were careful to use only Percoll-purified, high quality spermatozoa in this analysis, there exists within this cell population, a cohort of spermatozoa that are particularly vulnerable to the induction of oxidative stress by RF-EMR. These spermatozoa may have compromised mitochondria, poorly remodeled chromatin or a combination of such factors [15], [22]. Heterogeneity within the sperm population is a feature of the human condition. However, this does not mean that a majority of spermatozoa would not, ultimately, be affected by RF-EMR in vivo; much would depend on the duration of exposure. In vitro, we are limited by the inability of human spermatozoa to survive for more than 24 hours in a simple defined culture medium. In vivo, spermatozoa may take up to a week to move from the seminiferous tubules in the testes to the cauda epididymis and during the whole of this time they would be vulnerable to RF-EMR exposure [23].We recognize that these studies were conducted using spermatozoa suspended in a simple defined culture medium rather than the epididymal plasma in which they would be suspended in vivo. Nevertheless the fact that effects on sperm quality havepreviously been observed in both whole animal radiation experiments [3] and in epidemiological studies of human subjects exposed to various levels of mobile phone radiation [5], [7], [24], emphasizes the biological and clinical relevance of these findings. Moreover, another recent study has found that exposing human spermatozoa to mobile phone radiation for 1 hour leads to significant declines in motility and vitality in concert with an increase in cellular reactive oxygen species generation [25]. The levels of RFEMR exposure were not quantified in this study nor were the sources of ROS identified. Nevertheless, these findings reinforce the general conclusions generated in this paper, particularly with respect to central role played by oxidative stress. The ever-increasing prevalence of mobile communications technology means that humans are now exposed to higher amounts of RF-EMR than ever before. Mobile phones are commonly carried in bags or in pockets in very close proximity to the body. In addition to this, these devices can be stored adjacent to the same part of the body for extended periods of time. In this context, exposure of the male reproductive system to RF-EMR is clearly a significant issue.The particular significance of the present study is that it not only demonstrates a direct effect of RF-EMR on sperm motility, vitality and DNA integrity but also identifies a potential causative mechanism involving electron leakage from the mitochondrial electron transport chain and the induction of oxidative DNA damage. In part, these mechanistic insights have been achieved because the cell type used in these studies, the human spermatozoon, has an extremely simple cellular architecture, lacking significant cytosol and possessing few cellular organelles other than the sperm nucleus, flagellum and mitochondria. One consequence of this structure is that these cells are uniquely vulnerable to oxidative stress. Moreover, such stress is already known to induce the functional and structural lesions observed in this study including both a loss of motility mediated by peroxidative damage to the sperm plasma membrane, as well as the formation of DNA base adducts in the sperm nucleus that ultimately lead to DNA fragmentation [26], [27].Notwithstanding the specialized nature of mammalian spermatozoa, the mechanisms suggested by this study may also apply to RF-EMR-mediated damage in other cell types. The RF-EMR used for communications, including mobile phone networks, is not of high enough power to be classed as ionizing radiation. The latter has sufficient energy to pull away electrons, dramatically altering the properties of affected molecules and typically creating extremely reactive radical species. RF-EMR does not contain sufficient energy for these processes. Nevertheless, this form of radiation may have other effects on larger scale systems such as cells and organelles, which stem from the perturbation of charged molecules and the disruption of electron flow [28], [29]. Mitochondria have one of the largest standing membrane potentials in the body and their energetic functions are entirely dependent on the regulated movement of electrons and protons within the inner mitochondrion membrane.Theoretically, such fluxes might be susceptible to disruptions in local electric fields induced by RF-EMR, offering a potential link between this form of radiation and the non-thermal biological effects observed in this study.This study clearly demonstrates that RF-EMR can damage sperm function via mechanisms that involve the leakage of electrons from the mitochondria and the creation of oxidative stress. These findings have immediate implications for the high rates of male infertility seen in our species, a majority of which is idiopathic. Furthermore, the fact that sperm DNA is damaged by this form of radiation has additional implications for the health and wellbeing of children born to fathers who have experienced high levels of occupational or environmental exposure to RF-EMR around the time of conception. Overall, these finding raise a number of related health policy and patient management issues that deserve our immediate attention. Specifically we recommend that men of reproductive age who engage in high levels of mobile phone use, do not keep their phones in receiving mode below waist level.MethodsEthics StatementThis study was conducted according to the principles expressed in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was approved by the University of Newcastle (H-712-0799). All patients provided written informed consent for the collection of samples and subsequent analysis.Reagents and SolutionsAll chemicals and reagents used in this research were obtained from Sigma Aldrich (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) unless stated otherwise. All reagents used were of research grade. All fluorescent probes were purchased from Molecular Probes Inc. (Eugene, OR). Biggers, Whitten and Whittingham (BWW) media supplemented with 1 mg/ml polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used in all experiments [30]. It was prepared fresh as required and kept at 37°C with an osmolarity in the range of 290–310 mOsm/kg. Human spermatozoaInstitutional and State Government ethical approval was secured for the use of。
机器人外文翻译(中英文翻译)
机器人外文翻译(中英文翻译)机器人外文翻译(中英文翻译)With the rapid development of technology, the use of robots has become increasingly prevalent in various industries. Robots are now commonly employed to perform tasks that are dangerous, repetitive, or require a high level of precision. However, in order for robots to effectively communicate with humans and fulfill their intended functions, accurate translation between different languages is crucial. In this article, we will explore the importance of machine translation in enabling robots to perform translation tasks, as well as discuss current advancements and challenges in this field.1. IntroductionMachine translation refers to the use of computer algorithms to automatically translate text or speech from one language to another. The ultimate goal of machine translation is to produce translations that are as accurate and natural as those generated by human translators. In the context of robots, machine translation plays a vital role in allowing them to understand and respond to human commands, as well as facilitating communication between robots of different origins.2. Advancements in Machine TranslationThe field of machine translation has experienced significant advancements in recent years, thanks to breakthroughs in artificial intelligence and deep learning. These advancements have led to the development of neural machine translation (NMT) systems, which have greatly improved translation quality. NMT models operate by analyzinglarge amounts of bilingual data, allowing them to learn the syntactic and semantic structures of different languages. As a result, NMT systems are capable of providing more accurate translations compared to traditional rule-based or statistical machine translation approaches.3. Challenges in Machine Translation for RobotsAlthough the advancements in machine translation have greatly improved translation quality, there are still challenges that need to be addressed when applying machine translation to robots. One prominent challenge is the variability of language use, including slang, idioms, and cultural references. These nuances can pose difficulties for machine translation systems, as they often require a deep understanding of the context and cultural background. Researchers are currently working on developing techniques to enhance the ability of machine translation systems to handle such linguistic variations.Another challenge is the real-time requirement of translation in a robotic setting. Robots often need to process and translate information on the fly, and any delay in translation can affect the overall performance and efficiency of the robot. Optimizing translation speed without sacrificing translation quality is an ongoing challenge for researchers in the field.4. Applications of Robot TranslationThe ability for robots to translate languages opens up a wide range of applications in various industries. One application is in the field of customer service, where robots can assist customers in multiple languages, providing support and information. Another application is in healthcare settings, where robots can act as interpreters between healthcare professionals and patientswho may speak different languages. Moreover, in international business and diplomacy, robots equipped with translation capabilities can bridge language barriers and facilitate effective communication between parties.5. ConclusionIn conclusion, machine translation plays a crucial role in enabling robots to effectively communicate with humans and fulfill their intended functions. The advancements in neural machine translation have greatly improved translation quality, but challenges such as language variability and real-time translation requirements still exist. With continuous research and innovation, the future of machine translation for robots holds great potential in various industries, revolutionizing the way we communicate and interact with technology.。
红楼梦和大观园外文文献翻译中英文
红楼梦和大观园外文翻译中英文英文Tourism, a Classic Novel, and Television：The Case of Cáo Xue˘qin’s Dream of the Red Mansions and Grand View Gardens, BeijingChris RyanAbstractThis article reports a study of the importance of the classic Chinese novel, The Dream of the Red Mansion, in attracting visitors to Grand View Gardens in Beijing. That site was built as a replica of a Qing Dynasty palace for a popular television series. The study found that 52% of the 308 respondents stated that the novel was very or extremely important in attracting them to the gardens. The article seeks to go beyond this statistic by examining how familiarity with the novel might help explain some of the statistical findings and concludes by arguing that if one is to obtain an understanding of the tourist experience of a place made popular by fiction, then it is also necessary to engage in cultural, media, and literary studies as well as conversations and surveys of visitors. Hence, the text of the novel is itself part of the data set.Keywords: Chinese literature; tourism; constructions; culture; heritageThe purpose of this article is to examine to what extent familiarity with the television series and classic novel, The Dream of the RedMansion, attracted visitors to Grand View Gardens in Beijing. Given the text taken above from the novel by Cáo Xue˘qin, the nature of the site, the novel, the film, and the different perceptions of visitors might be said to combine to fulfill Cáo Xue˘qin’s complex unfolding of illusion as reality, and reality as illusion. In addition, repeated visits by the authors were found to inform subsequent visits and the research project so that the authors became filters through which to better understand the place and people’s experience of it. Consequently, the study us es a mixed-methods research approach in which the data are (1) observation and sustained visitation during a period of more than 4 months, (2) the statistical data collected from respondents, (3) responses to open-ended questions, (4) conversations with visitors, and (5) knowledge of the novel. This last is important in that it quickly became evident that for many respondents the visit was motivated by the novel and its status within Chinese literature as “a masterpiece of realism written in the middle of t he eighteenth century” (Yang and Yang 1979, p. 1289). The implication of this is that a sixth source of data exists, which is the experience and knowledge of the authors of not only the site but also Chinese culture, including its Taoist and Buddhist underpinnings. Consequently, the discourse within this article is informed by not only an empiricist research tradition but also a subjective tradition of observation that Adler and Adler (1994, p. 389) maintain serves as “the most powerful form ofvalidation.” By necessity, therefore, the authors have recourse not only to the meta-narratives implicit in the postpositivistic approach that seeks to generalize and predict from quantitative data but also in the minutiae of observations of behaviors. They have adopted ideas derived from symbolic or interpretive interactionism and the “lived in experience” as proposed by Denzin (2001) and the stance of CAP ethnography— that is, creative analytical practice—as espoused by Richardson (2000), by which research unfolds micro actions with unknown macro implications. However, problems relate to such non-post positivistic approaches premised on the view that “the truth” of a situation is structured within its social setting and that the researcher is also part of that structure. The authors recognize that the act of asking a question is not neutral. The question shapes the articulation of a response on the part of the respondent, and thus asking a question initiates a reply on the part of the respondent about something which the respondent may not actually have previously thought about. For example, a visitor may visit an attraction unaware that it is associated with a novel or a film, but on being told of the linkage will now shape a response having had that linkage created in his or her mind. The question has changed the visitor’s experience! Simply collecting data that are formed solely by responses to a quantitatively based questionnaire does not include this aspect of the visitor experience. However, a challenge then exists for the researcher.While now the researcher has played a role in the construction of the experience, how does the researcher establish the credibility of an interpretation in the reporting of the visitor experience to which they have contributed? In this instance the authors used text analysis software to help formulate the interpretation of at least part of the qualitative data.To summarize, the research question is to what extent associations with film and literature attract people to the gardens, or a re the garden’s aesthetic attributes alone sufficient? Accordingly, the article is contextualized within different texts. First, there is that related to the novel itself. Second, there is that related to the academic literature on the relationship between films and novels on one hand and tourism on the other. Third, there is that related to the modes of analysis adopted. This last includes some explanation of the software used to interpret the textual data. The article is also premised on a view that there is little written about the relationship between literature and television on one hand and patterns of visitation to sites in China on the other. This article does not pretend to offer a definitive analysis of that situation but simply seeks to initiate a discussion by offering this case study.Consequently, the article is divided into various sections. The first is a description of the novel and location of the research, thereby indicating why the gardens were selected as a site for this research. Second, there is a review of the literature pertaining to visitor motivation and reaction tosites based on popular media representations. Third, the results of the research are presented, before finally a discussion of the implications of the research completes the article.Grand View Gardens and The Dream of the Red MansionThe Dream of the Red Mansion is one of the classic pieces of Chinese literature, and thus the destination has two facets to being a tourist attraction. First, it replicates the location of the story itself. Second, the destination was created, in Beijing, from 1984 to 1989 as a film location for a television series that, because of its historical antecedents as well as the epic style of the production, became very popular in China. However, unlike many Western film sets, the buildings not only sought to replicate the Qing Dynasty setting of the novel but also were built as permanent structures on a large scale. It covers 30 hectares (32.12 acres) and replicates in full size the palace, pavilions, and gardens of the period, as is illustrated in figures 1 and 2. It also appeals to tourists by being more than simply a replica of classical Chinese architecture by also maintaining a permanent exhibition of costumes and photographs of the film series and through hosting various events based on the story line, including “The Imperial Concubine Yuan Visits Home,” “A Grand View Garden Temple Fair,” and “The Grand View Garden Mid-Autumn Night.” In addition, as shown in figures 3 and 4, the gardens are used as a recreational resource by local people. In addition, visitors are offered anopportunity to be dressed in the clothes of the period, have photographs taken (figure 5), and be carried in a sedan chair. Visitors pay an entrance fee, but local people are able to buy an annual pass at a heavily discounted price, thereby permitting frequent access to the gardens. This is consistent with normal Chinese practice in Beijing as evidenced at other parks, for example Jingshang Park. Chinese parks are important social meeting places and are venues for dance, song, and games playing for their local communities. This study is of nonlocal visitors, but the local people are part of the experiential framework, and it can be argued that multiple gazes exist within the park where nonlocal visitors, especially non-Chinese, are themselves gazed on by the locals. For an analysis of this existence of multiple gazes, see Willemen (1995, p. 114) who notes, “Any articulation of images and looks which brings into play the position and activity of the viewer . . . also destabilises that position . . . the viewer [therefore] runs the risk of becoming the object of the look.”The novel, written by Cáo Xue˘qin, was written in the middle of the eighteenth century and is thought to be, at least in part, autobiographical (Hawkes 1973). Centered on two houses of the Jia Clan, it is an epic with more than 400 characters. Their stories are told over four volumes, 120 chapters, and 2,549 pages. On the face of it the story is about two great houses brought to ruin through a dictatorial whim, while within the sagathere lies a story of romance denied and decay and decline, as great as any found in Western literature. It is difficult to understate the importance of the novel. Minford (1986, p. 15) comments that “we witness death (sometimes brief and poignant, more often protracted and harrowing), ruin (nowhere in Chinese literature is there such a well inventoried chronicle of a family’s ‘confiscation’).” Throughout the story is the life of the major protagonist, Jia Bao-yu—the stone. And herein lies the complexity of the story, for this is no mere telling of a family’s fortune like John Gal sworthy’s Forsyte Saga, indicative though that novel is of the social mores of its time. The Dream of the Red Mansion is infused with Taoist and Buddhist thought and observation (Kao 1988). Hawkes (1973, p. 45) states that “Chinese devotees of the novel of ten continue to read and reread it throughout their lives and to discover more . . . each time they read it.” As the current authors have delved more into the surrounding literature and Buddhist readings, so too they have become more immersed in this world and the journey toward Jia Bao-yu’s enlightenment through his detachment from the world of the mansion, its girls, and the garden. For anyone wishing to understand Chinese culture, it is essential reading. For example, Ryan, Gu, and Zhang (2009) draw explicit attention to chapter 17 of the novel in seeking to explain the role of calligraphy in natural settings (and Chinese national parks) to demonstrate the harmony of man and natural places as found in Chineseclassical culture informed by Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian thought. Visitors to Grand View Gardens are immersed in that tradition to a greater or lesser extent in addition to awareness of the actual text. Levy (1999, p.4) argues the book is “transforming” but also states there are as many interpretations as there are readers. Her analysis of the novel is based on themes of Buddhist thought, the examination of the social structures, the dysfunction of the Jia household through the abrogation of responsibilities by the male characters, the role of medicine (which is detailed in the novel), and the role of poetry (through which the land of illusion is a land of allusion and part of the puzzle referred to above). The novel is both complex and detailed in its observations of eighteenth-century life and Buddhist thought, and it is simply not possible to provide other than a fleeting glimpse of the novel in this article. The story commences with an introduction through a wandering Buddhist monk and a Taoist who, at the foot of Greensickness Peak, draw out a stone. These monks appear and reappear through the story. The romance is with Jia Bao-yu (the Stone), and there is conflict between Jade (Bao-Chai) and Flower (Dai Yu), and while Bao-yu loves Dai Y u, family requirements create a marriage with Bao-Chai, and finally he accepts his role as the eldest male, but the acceptance of those roles leads to detachment in the Buddhist sense, and eventually he wakens from illusion to seek enlightenment. This takes place against a background of familydecline and suicides. To add to the complexities there are different translations and spellings. C.-C. Wang (1958) translates the title as Dream of the Red Chamber and anglicizes the author’s name as Tsao Hsueh-Chin, while the characters are given English translations. Thus, Xinfeng is “Phoenix”—a name redolent with implications within Chinese culture—and is thus made more accessible to an English-speaking audience in this translation if they are aware of the connotations. Certainly, as any examination of Buddhist texts reveals, such as Nagarjuna’s Precious Garland of Advice, which dates from the second or third century, or Mills’s (1999) contemporary explanation of Buddhist life, Taoist and Buddhist thought are intimately concerned with the illusion of life. Hence, in the context of this research article, a place that replicates a novel and eighteenth-century palace yet has a contemporary presence in popular and classic fiction arguably is perhaps more nuanced for many Chinese visitors than might be the case of a film set for a Western counterpart such as the example of Coronation Street. For readers interested in an easily accessible analysis of the cultural connotations of names, Saussy’s (1987) essay “Reading and Folly in Dream of the Red Chamber” represents a learned and b rief introduction.The Relationship among Literature, Film, and TourismSince the pioneering work of Riley and Van Doren (1992), there is an emergent literature on the role of films in inducing tourists to visit agiven site, including, for example, the books by Beeton (2005) and Crouch, Jackson, and Thompson (2005). In addition, in 2008, La Trobe and Monash Universities hosted their third themed conference on tourism and media that included the impacts of novels, films, and filmmaking on destinations. Thus, in recent years there has been some progress since Beeton (2005, p. 17) wrote, “The study of filminduced tourism is complex. . . . Consequently, this is an untapped and little-understood field of tourism research.” In addition, within her text there are other references to the anecdotal nature of much of the evidence. For example, on page 112 she notes a “dearth of research and information on the topic,” referring to the impact of the Lord of the Rings trilogy on tourism in New Zealand, and again on page 105 she notes the poor quality of evidence relating to visitor reactions from visits to film locations. It can also be noted that in work related to cultural geographies there remains a silence on the topic. For example, Norton (2000, p. 298) refers to the fact that “cultural geographers are recognizing that powerful individuals and institutions, including the state, act as agents to shape the landscape, and landscapes are being read accordingly,” yet the index contains no references to film making even wh ile chapters exist on “popular culture.” Thus, Norton is largely able to discuss the creation of image with no reference to tourism, much less films. At least Valentine (2001, p. 259) makes reference to wilderness and adventure with reference to thecommodification of the New Zealand landscape, but Valentine refers more to photography than actual tourism promotions. In total, tourism in both Norton and Valentine are accorded but a passing mention of about half a dozen pages. If this relative silence is broadly true of the situation within the academic literature of the Western world, then it seems to be certainly true of any analysis of tourism destinations in China that are based on popular literature, film, and television productions—at least in the English academic literature.中文旅游，经典小说和电视节目：以曹雪芹的《红楼梦和大观园》为例克里斯瑞安摘要本文报道了中国经典小说《红楼梦》对吸引北京大观园游客的重要性的研究。
二手物品交易网站外文文献翻译中英文
外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Jens Clausen, Birgit Blättel-Mink2, Lorenz Erdmann, Christine Henseling . Contribution of Online Trading of Used Goods to Resource Efficiency: An Empirical Study of eBay Users [J]. Sustainability, 2010, 2: 10-30.英文原文Contribution of Online Trading of Used Goods to Resource Efficiency:An Empirical Study of eBay UsersJens Clausen, Birgit Blättel-Mink , Lorenz Erdmann and ChristineHenselingAbstractThis paper discusses the sustainability impact (contribution to sustainability, reduction of adverse environmental impacts) of online second-hand trading. A survey of eBay users shows that a relationship between the trading of used goods and the protection of natural resources is hardly realized. Secondly, the environmental motivation and the willingness to act in a sustainable manner differ widely between groups of consumers. Given these results from a user perspective, the paper tries to find some objective hints of online second-hand trading’s environmental impact. The greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the energy used for the trading transactions seem to be considerably lower than the emissions due to the (avoided) production of new goods. The paper concludes with a set of recommendations for second-hand trade andconsumer policy. Information about the sustainability benefits of purchasing second-hand goods should be included in general consumer information, and arguments for changes in behavior should be targeted to different groups of consumers.Keywords: online marketplaces; online auctions; consumer; electronic commerce; used products; second-hand market; sustainable consumption 1. IntroductionOnline auction and trading platforms are increasing the opportunities for sustainable consumption. The potential of online based second-hand trading lies largely in the opportunity to extend the life span of products, thereby avoiding additional environmental stresses due to the purchase of new goods. To date, private households often failed to exploit the potentials for reusing products because of high transaction costs. Trade in second-hand goods remained limited to regional markets. These barriers frequently prevented local and regional used goods markets from attaining critical mass and becoming attractive for both buyers and sellers. In recent years, however, rapidly increasing use of the Internet and trading platforms, such as eBay, have fundamentally transformed the underlying conditions of such markets.Online markets have not only significantly increased the numbers of market participants; they have also changed the roles traditionally assigned to consumers and producers. Exchange sites, auction platformsand other Internet-based trading models where users are not merely buyers, but at the same time, also active sellers of products or services, have shifted the role of consumers.Against this background, this article examines consumption processes using the example of eBay, the world’s largest online trading platform for used goods, by focusing on the following question: Which sustainability potentials are connected with the electronic trading of used goods, and how can these potentials be exploited? This question lies in the center of the research project ―From Consumer to Prosumer—Development of new trading mechanisms and auction cultures to promote sustainable consumption.‖ The project is intentionally linked with various streams of research and insights, especially concerning the intensification of use, lifestyle research, and life-cycle assessment, in the fields of information technology and telecommunications, and integrates them from the perspective of the research guiding question.After giving an overview of the scientific work on environmental attitudes and behavior in the context of internet based used goods trading, and an empirical look on internet usage in Chapter 2, the empirical results of an online survey on online trading and sustainability are presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 draws conclusions from the empirical study and Chapter 5 focuses on the ecological assessment of used goods trading.The paper concludes with some remarks on the consequences of second-hand trade, online platforms, and consumer policy.2. Internet-Based Used Goods Trading from a Subjective PerspectiveSustainability researchers in the social sciences assume that environmentally-oriented behavior is supported to a non-negligible degree by positive attitudes toward the environment and by knowledge about the environment [1-7]. Time and again, however, representative surveys of the population provide evidence for a discrepancy between concern about increasing environmental devastation and its consequences, as well as knowledge about the environment on the one hand, and environmental behavior that is in line with such knowledge on the other. It is possible to identify groups of individuals who display environmentally-friendly behavior, but not the corresponding attitudes toward the environment (e.g., older single women), just as there are groups of individuals who display a high degree of ecological awareness, but whose behavior is nonetheless not consistently environmentally oriented (e.g., families whose environmentally-friendly behavior is organized to the hilt, but who still drive a family car). Three bundles of characteristics that influence the sustainability of styles of consumption have emerged in the research [8]: the household’s social situation (socio-demographic characteristics and time resources), consumer preferences (subjective preferences relating to the selection of productsand behaviors), and actual consumption behavior. Socio-demographic characteristics that substantially influence differences in terms of sustainable consumption patterns include age, educational level, gender, marital status, and income, with women, well educated people, and parents striving for consistency of attitudes and behavior.Grunenberg and Kuckartz [1] were able to identify the group they called the ―environmentally committed‖ in their study, which was representative for Germany. ―[A group] that takes e nvironmental problems more seriously and is actively committed to solving them. Entirely consistent pro-environment behavior is not demanded of this group; that would require, for example, that these individuals would not just eat exclusively organically-grown food, but would also sell their cars and take bicycling vacations.‖ (Grunenberg/Kuckartz, p. 204 [1]). The following indicators were used to define the group of environmentally-committed individuals: membership in an organization promoting conservation or environmental protection; donation to such an organization in the previous year; familiarity with the term ―sustainable development;‖ high willingness to pay for improved environmental protection; frequenting of information about environmental problems from specialist periodicals; environmental mentality type 1 (motto: ―Be a role model when it comes to environmental protection!‖); declared shared responsibility for environmental protection (statement: ―It isn’t difficultfor an individual person to do something for the environment!‖) (Grunenberg/Kuckartz, p. 204 [1]). Members of this group are often in the familial phase of life, have a relatively high level of education, often live in major cities or small communities, seldom in medium-sized towns or villages, tend to come from West Germany, as a rule have a higher professional position (senior staff, upper-middle-level or upper-level civil servants, the professions), have a medium to high, but not very high income, and tend to live in quiet neighborhoods in single- or two-family houses. Regarding their political preferences, the authors ascertained a more pronounced interest in politics in general, and a clear focus on post-materialist values.As to trading in used goods as a specific area of consumption, a study of West Berlin showed that buying and selling used goods is linked fairly rarely to ecological motives [9]. Pragmatic reasons for selling used goods are mentioned more frequently, for instance ―making room‖ or ―getting rid of items we no longer need.‖ In contrast, when purchasing used goods, financial motives are more important. The proportion of men who buy and sell used goods is somewhat higher than that of women. The average age is 36. More than two-thirds of those offering goods on the second-hand market have a job. Housewives and students comprise 10% of sellers each, the unemployed and pensioners about 5% each. The sellers often live in multi-person households, and live less commonlyalone. Among the buyers of second-hand goods, 29.4% are in the 19- to 25-year age group and 35.7% are in the 26- to 35-year group. Most people have a job (61%), and students form 15% of the buyers, which is substantially higher than their proportion of the sellers. Educational levels are above-average among buyers, too, as is the proportion of individuals living in multi-person households.3. Online Trading and Sustainability—Empirical ResultsTaking the example of eBay, the above mentioned relationships were more closely looked at with an online survey that was carried out by the authors in November, 2008. The survey was intended to gain insight into eBay users’ consumption patterns, their attitudes, and their ways of dealing with used products on eBay. The survey was directed to private eBay users who use the site, both for buying and selling, and who carried out at least one transaction during the preceding 12 months. In total, 2,511 valid questionnaires were analyzed. In contrast to Germany’s total population, more men (57.1%) than women responded, more persons who live with their partners (73.4%), and more people living in households of three or more (52.4%). The sample also displays a relatively high educational (49.4% level A) and employment status (49.2% working full time), and the respondents tend to live in or near urban areas. The age distribution of the respondents (biggest cluster 40–49 years old; 29.8%) and their income distribution (40% medium to low income) arecomparable with the overall population. More women (45.1%) than men (34.0%) of the sample live in households with children; the proportion of men increases with increasing age. The women who buy or sell on eBay have lower incomes. 48.7%, of all female eBay buyers earn less than 2,000 Euros per month compared to 39.8% of all male eBay buyers. Compared to the group of Internet users mentioned above, the sample analyzed here differs only in relation to income, with Internet users displaying higher incomes. The following subjects will be approached: Attitudes toward the environment and motives for trading on eBay, attitudes of eBay users regarding used products and their handling of used products. Then, a typology of consumer patterns of eBay users that was derived from the data will be presented.4. Conclusions from the Empirical StudyThe results of the survey show that environmental aspects play only a minor role for the majority of the surveyed eBay users when trading used products. When concerning their motivations in particular, other aspects have been more important to date: practical and financ ial considerations, as well as having fun trading on eBay. Opportunities to make trading on eBay more environmentally friendly lie in providing information about the environmental relevance of used goods trading, e.g., directly on the eBay platform. In addition, the broad range of motivations that eBay speaks to offers good starting points for creating alliances ofmotivations that connect ecological aspects with other aspects of use. A concrete strategic point of intervention is the option to provide opportunities for climate-neutral shipping on the eBay platform, and eBay users have indicated a high willingness to use such an option. The survey also made it possible to identify various starting points for intensifying used goods trading. When developing communications strategies in this regard, the value of used goods for others should be emphasized more strongly. This could happen, for example, by pointing more clearly to the quality, as well as the monetary value, of used products in such communications. Interesting approaches that take this direction include quality tests of used products, as well as tools with which users can learn about the prices they can get for used products. The test lab introduced by eBay in mid-2008 is an interesting approach. Certain used products were tested here to show their value in relation to the value of new products.The results highlight the significance of situations of change in life for trading used products. Such phases, for example, the birth of one’s first child or retirement can (under certain circumstances) function as times when people start trading used goods, or they can be situations in which the willingness to buy and to sell second-hand products is especially high.An important aspect for used goods trading is that the effort investedin selling the product must be financially worthwhile. The responses showed, however, that this is not always the case. This aspect must be taken into account when developing measures to intensify used goods trading. Another finding: a central problem of used goods trading lies in the fact that many buyers are unsure of the quality of the products for sale (lack of warranties, doubts about whether the products are in fact in proper working order). In order to address this concern, it is important to develop mechanisms that increase trust in second-hand products and reflect their quality. Initial starting points include initiatives to refurbish used products. One example for this is the initiative which purchases, refurbishes and then resells used cell phones and provides a warranty. Identification of the five consumption patterns in online used goods trading contributed to structuring the various behavior patterns of private eBay users. Above all, the fact that the respondents’ dif ferences in socio-demographic characteristics are very small is remarkable. The five types do differ significantly, however, regarding their attitudes and their behavior on eBay. They also differ with respect to their concern for the sustainability-related contexts of eBay trading. The environmentally oriented buyers of used goods and the prosumers, as different as they may be, are those upon whom we pin our hopes for sustainability. Although the former group displays a certain consistency in terms of attitudes and behavior, which is also characterized by increasing awareness ofsustainability, it is the prosumers who treat new and used products with care in order to resell them, thereby contributing to lengthening of the life spans of products, even if they are not aware of this effect.中文译文二手物品网上交易资源效率的贡献:eBay用户的实证研究Jens Clausen , Birgit Blättel-Mink , Lorenz Erdmann ,Christine Henseling 摘要本文探讨了网上二手交易的可持续性的影响(对可持续发展的贡献,减少对环境的不利影响) 。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
食品包装外文翻译文献中英文
食品包装外文翻译文献(含：英文原文及中文译文)英文原文Scheme for industrialized production of steamed breadSteamed bread in our country people's daily lives in the main position, is the traditional popular staple food. According to statistics, the amount of flour used to bread flour accounted for about 40% of the total. At present, the production condition of steamed bread is not suitable for people's living rhythm and nutrition and health requirements. In recent years, although the production environment of steamed bread has improved, but still remain in the workshop type stage. Steamed bread production of process appears simple, but includes the formulation of raw materials, fermentation method, process selection, quality factors, hobbies, evaluation of multiple subject, relate to biotechnology, cereal chemistry, fermentation science, food engineering, mechanics and other multi application discipline techniques. Because our country wheaten food for a long time in family workshops processing mode based, coupled with flour staple food of the diversity and complexity of wheat varieties, traditional staple food processing by experience, for a long time domestic research based on staple food process is relatively weak. Steamed bread industrialized production of steamed bread, the process should be simple,continuous, fast and efficient. Therefore, after the fermentation process, then neutralizing the forming. Process is as follows: Flour + water + yeast and fermentation < doped mixing > forming a shaping a discharge a Xing hair a steaming a product cooling packaging.Staple food steamed bread industry will drive the industrialization of other Chinese traditional pasta, promote related industries the development of as traditional staple food, steamed bread, dumplings, noodles, as the main raw materials are flour, in mechanism research and application research have many similarities and differences. Such as easy to aging, easy to mildew and other issues in the flour food ubiquitous, is caused by flour food shelf life is short, not easy to store the main reason that restrict the circulation radius of flour food. To capture the steamed bread aging resistance, mildew key technologies, to solve dumplings, noodles and other food related issues, many varieties of Chinese traditional food industry of have a strong reference, for the comprehensive development of nearly 200 billion yuan of the industrialization of staple food market has a positive role in promoting. Also the staple food industrialization involves the national economy of our country the first, the second and third industry, the industrial chain relates to grow wheat, flour processing, food processing, food service industry, mechanical design and processing, testing equipment, such as related industries, driven by industry, the scientific and technologicallevel of the related industries, relevant industry labor productivity and international competitiveness of the market existing production equipment steamed bread simply copy the handmade process to improve. However, due to the surface and mechanical stirring strength is greater, forming the spiral extrusion would seriously undermine the strength of dough, the dough in the machining process temperature rise too higher defect is the steamed bread machine processing beyond the main reason for the comprehensive quality of bread by hand. Steamed Buns is also involved in biotechnology, cereal chemistry, fermentation, food engineering, mechanics and other application technology.At present, as the unique Chinese characteristics of traditional food safety and health, China has introduced the world's interest in steamed bread. In recent years, Europe and the United States food companies and research institutions have set off a boom in the study of Chinese steamed bread.Industry of Chinese steamed bread is in the workshop and intensive chemical plant to the industrialization and industrialization development is an important transition period, the scientific research community and the industry is bound to see tremendous market potential in the future, thereby increasing the intensity of the use of scientific research investment and high technology, especially in the use of modern science and technology discovery and maintenance of traditional craft productionof the unique flavor of bread at the same time, will gradually raise the production automation and mechanization. Because the way to rely on a large number of artificial production can not adapt to the growing tension of human resources in China, but also does not meet the requirements of safety and health of consumers. Through the implementation of the promotion of staple food steamed bread industrialization projects, will lead a batch of products of good quality, high technology content, strong market competitiveness of enterprises are booming, gradually replace the workshops and other backward processing methods, further improve the industrial concentration and the core competitiveness.Development of steamed bread machine relates to food engineering, fermentation theory, mechanical design, multi applied science and technology, and requires a lot of food based on research results do support. Therefore Engineering Center has established a special flour food machinery research, by the technology personnel and mechanical design personnel together, in the development of steamed bread in the process of the equipment, engineering center make full use of the accumulated over the years the scientific research in wheat, flour, flour food, in the in-depth study of traditional handmade bread and surface, forming, baking, steaming process principle of system based on, according to scientific industrialization production process requirements for mechanical design, the hand-made steamed bread shaping method is successfully simulatedby using intelligent bionics technology. And on this basis for a series of technical innovationWheat flour is the main raw material for the production of steamed bread, and the protein content of the steamed bread production process and the quality of steamed bread have a great impact. Rheological measurement showed that the content of wet gluten flour in the production of 39.7% or so steamed bread is better. This process of dough, good quality, good air, moderate strength, surface color Steamed Buns white, thin silk. The internal structure is small and flexible honeycomb layers. With high gluten content of flour production, although the volume of steamed bread, but the fermentation time is long, the surface of the finished product surface color, there are blisters. The volume is smaller than 60% Steamed Buns gluten content in wheat flour, the internal honeycomb structure is rough, poor flavor.Plays an important role in the process of production of steamed bread fermentation of steamed bread production process of fermentation, fermentation quality will directly affect the steamed bread quality and nutrient composition, fermentation is using the yeast flour sugar and other nutrients alcohol fermentation to produce CO2 and alcohol, the dough swelling loose and flexible. With the dough fermentation, lactic acid and acetic acid, such as lactic acid and acetic acid, can also be produced by lactic acid and acetic acid. Alcohol and acid can be combined into estersof aromatic substances, aromatic flavor. Therefore, alcohol, organic acids and esters are important substances Steamed Buns produce wine, sweet dough. If the fermentation time is long, also can form aldehyde, ketone and so on carbonyl compound, they are also the important flavor substance. The temperature, humidity, time and the protein content of flour should be controlled strictly in the process of dough fermentation.Double roller spiral forming Steamed Buns used rub finish forming machine. Its working principle is by motor starting will and good fermentation of dough into surface feed bucket inner feeder cast will shape the dough into a packing auger, and the introduction of dough extruding mouth rotary cutting knife cut into uniform size of dough, and turn into a twin roll type forming groove. Fermentation under the screw driven rapidly knead the dough into feed hopper, feeder cast will shape the dough into a packing auger, and launched crowded mouth rotary rubbing to form a smooth surface spherical dough blank. If you need a different shape, a specially designed auxiliary device to achieve the weight of billet surface by an adjusting device set. The double roller forming machine theory error, leave some blank dough spin marks affect the quality of the finished appearance. And set up a plastic machine to be eliminated. The spherical twist ratio of height to diameter greater than the green cylinder, and then become the steaming process thoroughly smooth spherical. The production of key equipment Steamed BunsOne is to solve the problem of labor intensity, the two is to ensure product hygiene, three are automatically arranged accurately, to avoid sticking to the skin. Dial plate discharge machine.The plate-type discharge machine feeds the formed dough to the discharge machine at a certain distance from the conveyor belt. The upper part of the discharge machine is provided with a rotating carboxylate plate, and the direction of rotation of the plate is perpendicular to the direction of movement of the conveyor belt. Whenever a certain number of boring heads pass through the conveyor belt, the dial plate moves once and a predetermined number of boring heads are dialed into the locators located under the conveyor belt. With the natural drop of the steamed bread and the arrangement of the discharge port, a certain number of steamed breads are arranged neatly on the tray or main conveyor belt with a certain clearance, and the next process is performed. The number of steamers dialed by the dial plate is based on the output of the production line. set up. Zhu Keqing, the industrialized production technology of the traditional staple steamer, completely synchronizes the movement of the dial plate with the conveyor belt speed. Both must be connected by a transmission system. This discharge machine, structureSimple and convenient for the layout of the production line.Automatic discharge machine. The discharge principle of this kind of discharge machine is to use the self weight of the hammer to guide theraw blank into a fixed positioning device through an intermittent placement guide to achieve automatic alignment. The machine is mainly composed of three parts: guide, fixed positioning device and main transmission mechanism. After the boring head has been formed, the feeding port fed into the guide is lifted by the conveyor belt, and the guide is a raceway that can rotate flexibly. One is to control the rolling drop of the boring head and the other is to accurately realize the rotation at a certain angle, and ensure that the outlet of the boring head is opposite to the hole arranged on the plane of the positioning device. The function of the fixed positioning device is to change the position of the blank to achieve discharge. The arrayed blanks fall onto the tray or conveyor belt and run forward to the next process.Steaming is the two key processes that determine the final quality of steamed bread. The production process combines the two processes together in a single positioning situation, and the bursting and steaming are controlled and implemented according to the specified process conditions and requirements. The purpose of bursting is to make the dough continue to expand more evenly, and the volume after the curl increases compared to the original. There are two forms of bursting process, one is a batch layout and the other is a continuous layout. The batch type arrangement uses a special boring tray. After arranging the boring heads, the rakes are sent together with the pallet trucks and sentinto the masher to be steamed. The continuous method is to link the bursting and steaming process with a set of mechanisms and complete the steaming under the appropriate process conditions. Continuous production We have developed two devices. One is a tunnel type and the other is a cascade type. Tunnel type device. The tunnel type device consists of a power source, a chain, a sprocket, a carriage and a guide rail. This kind of conveying device feeds the dough at one end of the steamer, ensures the steam process conditions in the steam chamber, and matures when the hammer is output from the other end. At the turning point of the device, the breadboard automatically falls off due to the white weight, and the conveyor belt enters the finished product warehouse. This device has a simple structure, convenient maintenance, and high reliability. However, it has a large floor area and relatively low thermal efficiency. The return trip cannot be used. It has brought some difficulties to the promotion of the production line.Stacked device. The stacking device ensures the structure is simple and the action is realized. The conveyor belt is composed of multiple pallets. A long and a short two pins are projected from both ends of each pallet. The long pins are hinged on the two chains and the short pins are covered with rollers. In the horizontal movement state, the chain drives the carriage, the short pins have supporting rails, and all the carriages are in a plane. During cornering, the long axis moves in a circular motionwith the wheel, and the short axis enters an arc-shaped track to perform a circular motion synchronously, and the dragging plate realizes a translational transition at the turning point, which ensures that the position of the hammer head when turning. When the steamed bread is steamed and the short axis support rail is removed at the outlet position for a certain distance, the weight loss will be reversed along the long axis to disengage the steamed bread.Shantou factory production must be adapted to local conditions, the scale is moderate, and the output and variety must take into account the market demand. In terms of equipment, we should focus on the development of multi-functional continuous cooking machines and single machines with complete functions to produce taro products of different flavors and varieties.中文译文工业化生产馒头的方案馒头在我国人民日常生活中占主要地位,是传统的大众主食。
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
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运作整合
供应链协作的首要问题是提高运作整合的程度。
供应链协作课达到的好处，直接关系到捕捉效率之间的职能的企业，以及全国的企业，构成了国内或国际供应链。
本章重点阐述的挑战，一体化管理，由研究为什么一体化创造价值，并通过详列的挑战，双方的企业集成和供应链整合。
必不可少的供应链流程是确定的。
注意的是，然后向信息技术提供，以方便集成化供应链规划。
本章最后审查了定价。
在最后的分析，定价的做法和政府是至关重要的供应链的连续性。
为什么整合创造价值
基本的优点与挑战的综合管理介绍了在第1章。
进一步解释整合管理的重要性，有用的指出客户都至少有三个角度的价值。
传统的角度来看，价值是经济价值。
第二个价值的角度来看，是市场价值。
实现双方经济和市场价值是很重要的客户。
然而，越来越多的企业认识到商业上的成功也取决于第三个角度来看，价值，被称为关联性。
物流一体化目标
为实现物流一体化的供应链背景下，6个业务目标必须同时取得：（ 1 ）响应，（ 2 ）差额减少，（ 3 ）库存减少，（ 4 ）托运巩固，（ 5 ）质量，（ 6 ）生命周期支持。
的相对重要性，每个直接关系到公司的物流战略。
响应
一公司的工作能力，以满足客户的要求，及时被称为反应。
作为一再指出，信息技术是促进反应为基础的战略，允许业务的承诺被推迟到最后可能时间，其次是加速投放。
实施对应策略服务，以减少库存承诺或部署在预期客户的需求。
响应服务转向业务重点从预测未来的需求，以容纳顾客对快速订单到出货的基础上。
理想的情况是，在一个负责任的系统中，库存是没有部署，直到客户承诺。
支持这样的承诺，公司必须有物流的属性，库存的可用性和及时交付，一旦客户订单收到。
差异减少
所有经营领域的物流系统很容易受到差额。
方差结果从未能履行任何预期的层面后勤业务不如预期。
举例来说，毫不拖延地在客户订单处理，意想不到的干扰，以便选择，抵港货物损坏，在客户的位置，和/或未能提供在适当的位置上的时间，所有创造无计划的差异，在订单到交货周期。
一个共同的解决办法，以保障对不利的差异是使用库存安全库存，以缓冲行动。
这亦是共同使用的首选运输，以克服意想不到的差异延误交货计划。
这种做法，鉴于其相关的成本高，可以尽量减少使用资讯科技，以维持积极的物流控制。
向程度的差异是最小化，物流的生产力将提高。
因此，差异减少，消除系统中断，是一个基本的目标，综合物流管理。
库存减少
要达到的目标，库存减少，一个综合物流系统必须控制资产的承诺，并把速度。
资产的承诺，是财政的价值部署清单。
把速度，反映了利率，这是充实库存随着时间的推移。
高转率，再加上预期的库存供货，平均资产用于库存正在迅速而有效利用，这就是整体资产承诺支持一个综合运作减至最低。
库存能够而且确实方便可取的好处这是很重要的要请记住。
库存是至关重要的实现规模经济，在制造业和采购。
目的是要减少和管理存货，以尽可能最低的水平，同时实现整体供应链绩效的目标。
联合运输
其中最重要的物流费用是运输。
每个物流美元超过60美分是用于交通运输。
运输成本是直接关系到产品的类型，大小，装运，和运动距离。
许多物流系统功能的实现直接依赖于高的速度，小货件的运输，这是成本高昂。
一个制度的目的是要实现装运巩固在努力降低运输成本。
作为一般规则，规模较大的货物的距离，这是运输，降低成本是每单位。
巩固需要的创新项目结合起来，小装运及时的综合运动。
这种程序需要的多种形式的协调，因为他们超越供应链。
成功的电子商贸实现直接到消费者需要创新的方法来实现有效的巩固。
质量
一个最主要的的业务目标是持续质量改进。
全面质量管理（TQM ）是一个重大举措，全国大部分地区层面的行业。
方面的质量进行了讨论，在第3章和第4条。
如果一个产品变得有缺陷，或者如果服务承诺没有保存，如果没有任何价值，可以补充，由物流过程。
后勤费用，一旦支出，不能扭转或收回。
事实上，当产品质量失败后，客户交付和更换是必要的，物流费用的迅速累积。
除了最初的物流成本，产品必须归还和更换。
这种无计划的变动通常费用多于原来的分布。
基于这个原因，承诺零缺损订单到交货的表现是一个重大的目标，领先的物流。
物流本身是下有挑战性的条件。
的困难，实现零的缺陷物流是放大的事实，即物流业务通常是执行全国广大的地理区域，在所有的时候，一天一夜，并没有直接的监督。
生命周期支持
一体化设计的最后目标是生命周期的支持。
少数项目是出售一些保证，该产品将演出广告。
在某些情况下，最初的增值存货流，以客户必须予以扭转。
产品的回报是常见的是由于越来越严格的质量标准，产品到期约会，并负责危险的后果。
逆向物流的结果也从越来越多的法律，鼓励回收饮料容器和包装材料。
显着的一点关于逆向物流是需要维持的最高控制时，一个潜在的健康不存在赔偿责任，如被污染的产品。
业务的要求，逆向物流范围从最低的总外套，如返回瓶，以作循环再造，最大限度地控制局势中，涉及有缺陷的产品。
公司设计高效率的逆向物流往往是能够回收价值，减少数量的产品，否则可能被取消或出售在一定的折扣。
健全的综合战略，不能制定没有仔细审查扭转的物流需求。
对一些产品，如复印设备，最初的利润，关键在出售的用品和售后的服务，以维持产品。
生命周期支持的重要性是显着不同的情况，其中大部分的利润，实现在售后市场。
企业营销的耐用消费品的消费者或工业设备，致力于生命周期的支持，构成了灵活的和要求的营销机会，以及作为其中一个最大的成本，物流业务。
生命周期支持，需要从摇篮到摇篮物流。
从摇篮到摇篮的后勤支援超越逆向物流及循环再造，以包括的可能性售后的服务，产品召回，以及产品的处置。
企业集成
基层的整合是内部运作的个别公司。
经验不足的管理人员，一体化下的职能管理控制，一个企业可能会出现容易做到。
在实践中，一些最具挑战性的整合问题涉及跨职能的贸易帐在一个特定的公司。
正如前面所指出的，在讨论系统的分析，管理功能是作为大多数企业深深植根最佳做法。