1) Lexical and Semantic Change

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Lexical_&_Semantic_Change

3.4 word formation --- lexical change
3.4 word formation---Lexical change

Formation of new words
Phonological change

Morphosyntactic change

Semantic
change
articulate,assassinate,coeducate,demarcate,emote,in tuit,legislate,marinate,orate,vaccinate,valuate

3.4 word formation---Lexical change

Analogical creation(类比构词法） The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. From irregular to regular work:wrought → worked beseech:besought → beseeched slay:slew → slayed go:goed → went
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3.4 word formation---Lexical change

Acronym(首字母拼音词）
Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. the first letters of an organization, scientific and technological words.It is pronounced as a whole word. AIDS:Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ASAP:as soon as possible CD-ROM:Compact Disc Read-Only Memory WASP:White Anglo-Saxon Protestant dink(y):double income,no kids nink(y):no income,lots of children

语言学论文

Linguistics英师123 胡聪12号Abstract: Linguistics studies not only particular language about English and Chinese, Arabic, Latin, but also it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematics investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. Linguistics content of so many parts , and have an important influence to English study. Linguistics is the scientific study of language , language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Key words: Linguistics, language, contents, influence.1.Introduction.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions. And it probes into various problems related to language. Linguistics also can have some important distinctions: prescriptive vs descriptive, synchronic vs diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance, traditional grammar and modern linguistics. When we study linguistics ,we can explore the nature of human languages, and we can get close to the human nature. It is harmless to study linguistics.Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be .applied to many fields.2.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistic to research of other areas. Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. Theyhave to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time. This has given rise to a number relatively independent branches within the area of linguistics. Linguistics content of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. It is a pure science and examines speech sounds in general.Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. And it can be seen functional phonetics of particular language.Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemesSyntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meani ng in abstraction.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how spe akers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone,and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.In a broad sense pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when they communi cate with one another.Sociolinguistics is the studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology .It aims to answer such questions as how human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize ,and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication.Applied linguistics is the study of such applications. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refer to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3.The change of linguisticsWith time goes by, the linguistics can change a lot. Phonological changes can contents of two major types: sequential change and segmental change.Morphological and syntactic can also have change. It can have the addition of affixes, loss of affixes, the change of word order and the change in negation rule.Lexical and semantic change can be seen in the addition of new words like coinage, clipped words, blending acronyms ,back-formation, functional shift and borrowing, then loss of words semantic changes. All the change can have influence of moving towards greater informality ,and American English, then science and technology. The cause of those change are “the theory of least effort”and “economy of memory”.4.ConclusionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. Language is not only express facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitude, beliefs, points of views and ways of life. In a word ,language express cultural reality. Linguistic can have close relationship with English study and society. It can bring the way to study a language. It is also related with lexicology. So it is important to learn linguistics well. We should pay more attention to the study of linguistics.。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第7章语言变化——第9

第7章语言变化7.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Phonological Change音系变化2. Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化3. Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加(创新词，缩略词，紧缩法，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法)；词义的变化(意义扩大，意义缩小，意义转换)。

本章内容索引：I. Definition of historical linguisticsII. Phonological ChangeIII. Morphological and syntactic change1. Addition of affixes2. Loss of affixes3. Chang of word order4. Chang in negation ruleIV. Lexical and semantic change1. Addition of new words(1) Coinage(2) Clipped words(3) Blending(4) Acronyms(5) Back-formation(6) Functional shift(7) Borrowing2. Loss of words3. Semantic Changes(1) Semantic broadening(2) Semantic Narrowing(3) Semantic shiftV. Some recent trends1. Moving towards greater informality2. The influence of American English3. The influence of science and technology(1) Space travel(2) Computer and internet language(3) EcologyVI. Causes of language changeI. Definition of historical linguistics（历史语言学的定义）Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.历史语言学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言随着时间的变化而产生的变化与变化的原因。

简明英语语言学教程 Chapter 7

• Children's acquisition of language is quickly and effortlessly. It seems that their acquisition process is simple and straightforward . • In the learning of language , children's grammar is never exactly like that of the adult community . • Language has a lot of dialects and many individual styles.The features of these grammers may the merge(合并)----lead to certain rules of language may be simplified or overgeneralized.
• The reasons for some changes are relatively obvious. For example, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words.Such as bullet train ,laser printer,CD-ROM , laptop computer, iphone. • Social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with a great number of new words and expressions: shuttle diplomacy,mini-summit,jungle war,Scientific Outlook on Development • Some other words have also changed as women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men .

英语语言学期末温习

Chapter5 Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2. Lexical meaning:Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.(1)D ialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumn fallflat apartment(2)S tylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）Amaze VS Astound2.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1. an round object used in game.2. a large formal social event at which people dance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. . rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form. . tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. . tear v. /tear n.4.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animalSubordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,5.反义词AntonymyIt is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:品级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4. Sentence sense relations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包括于）. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）. John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异样）. The table has bad intensions.5. Analysis of meaning1. Componential Analysis成份分析法----分析辞汇抽象意义It’s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist 提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc. (通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1. speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的概念；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。

语言学重点讲解

三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。

Language change

14Байду номын сангаас
Fusion refers to this type of grammatialization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.
fusion Word word (suffixation) > base + affix
3
The nature of language change
As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. 语言变化是普遍的，持续的，在一定的程度范围内规则的，系统的变化。
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hād -hood (childhood) -dom (freedom) dōm
(ge-)līc ly(fatherl y)
7.3.2 Loss of affixes
◆As affixes can be added to the grammar,they can also get lost,some affixes simply fade out of use for no apparent reason.some loss can be explained via sound changes.For example, Old English had a complex system of affixes marking case and gender. （最显著的形态消失涉及格和性的标记的消失）
Word word (prefixation)

语义演变与词汇演变

Semantic Change and Lexical Change 作者：吴福祥[1]
作者机构： [1]北京语言大学语言科学院/历史语言学研究中心,北京100083
出版物刊名：古汉语研究
页码： 2-10页
年卷期： 2019年第4期
主题词：语义演变;词汇演变;历史语言学
摘要：本文讨论语义演变与词汇演变的概念内涵及其相互关系,主要观点是:(1)语义演变指的是义位的增加(添加新义)或消失(丢失旧义),而非某个义位本身的改变;(2)词汇演变主要是指词汇单位的产生、更替、消亡以及词汇系统或词库结构的变迁;(3)语义演变有时会引发词汇演变,反之亦然。

英语语言学概论第七章笔记.

Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language研究语言变化的目的和意义The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence.Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric development in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.The historical study of language also enables us to determine how non-linguistic factors, such as social, cultural and psychological factors, interact over time to trigger linguistic change.研究语言变化对于理解人类语言和人类的语言能力极其重要。

历史语言学的研究成果揭示语言变化的史前发展和同一语言早期和后期变体自己的联系，为不同语言的亲缘关系提供线索。

历史语言学的研究还可以使我们对非语言的因素，如社会文化和心理因素等在语言变化过程中所起的作用有更深的认识。

语言学——精选推荐

语⾔学Unit 7 Language Change7.1 IntroductionHistorical linguistic: as a branch of linguistic，is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.7.2 Phonological changesAmong all the changes in language, rather subtle or obvious, changes at phonological level are particularly noticeable and varied.The most dramatic change that English underwent included the vowels . It‘s worth mentioning that all aspect of language‘s phonology such as tone, stress and syllable structure are subject to change over time.7.3 morphological and syntactic change7.31 Addition to affixesDuring the middle English period, many French words containing the suffix -ment（e.g accomplishment）were introduced into English.In addition to the borrowed affixes, some lexical forms became grammatical over time. This process is called grammaticalization. Fusion refers to this type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes, either prefixes or suffixes.7.32 Loss of affixesAs affixes can be added to the grammar, they can also get lost, some affixes simply fade out of use for no apparent reason. some loss can beexplained via sound changes.By the 19th century, English case endings had changed radically. Consequently, many of the earlier case and gender markings were obliterated,7.33 Change of word orderAll languages make a distinction between the subject and direct objects, which can be illustrated in word order.The subject-object-verb order also prevailed in embedded clauses , even when the direct object was nor a pronoun.7. 3 .4 Change in negation ruleAs late as the 15th and 16th century, one could merely add not at the end of an affirmative sentence to negate it, as in.I love thee notHe saw you notIn modern English, not must precede the main verb, and a do, marked for the proper tense, must be insertedI love you- I do not love youHe saw you- He did not see you7.4 Lexical and semantic changeLexical items are the building block of a language, and the changes in this aspect are comparatively more obvious and noticeable.There are a number of ways in which new words may be added to thelanguages. We may also find new words formed by derivational process, as in glorification and insurmountable.7.41 Addition of new word1.Coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose.2.Clipped words: it refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases3.Blending: a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words4.Acronyms: they are word derived from the initials of several words5.Back-formation: new words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affixes thought to be part of the old word.6.Fuctional shift : words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion.7.Borrowing: when different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. Of the 20000 or so words in common use, about three-fifths are borrowed.7.42 Loss of wordAs new words may come into a language, some words can disappear in use over time. The loss of words, as the example show, takes place gradually over the course of several generations.New word constantly come into being, yet many new coinages are quite short-lived.7.43 Semantic changes1.Semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader,it may include all the meaning it used to mean, and then more.2.Semantic narrowingSemantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words which are still used in modern English.3.Semantic shiftThe fact that a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change. The word inn refers to a small hotel or pub, usually an old one. But now a well-known nice hotel may use inn as its name, such as Holiday Inn.7.5 Some recent trends7.51 Moving towards greater informallyConversational forms like ain‘t, don‘t and can‘t are now commonly used in articles in the press, and often people prefer to use informal styles such as It‘s me and who did you see?7.52 The influence of American EnglishFor many year American English has been assaulting the British Isles with ever-increasing power and persistence through movies, newspapers, magazines. Radio and television.7.53 The influence of science and technologyAs science and technology develops, new words come into being to express new inventions, new techniques as well as new concepts. Because of the rapid development during the last 50 years, new words andexpressions are coined one after another and it takes less time for them to become well-accepted.1.Space travelSpace travel, more novel than nuclear reactors 50 years ago , has many linguistic discoveries to make./doc/7c506b59b9d528ea81c779fc.html puter and internet languageThe development of computer and information technology has produceda new vocabulary of their own.3.EcologyEcology refers to the study of the relationship between plants, animals, people and their environment, and the balances between them.7.6 The cause of language changeThe reasons for some changes are relatively obvious . For example, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of bullet train, fax and etc.As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job have been created. Another cause of change may be due to economy of memory, which results in grammar simplification .Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change.Unit8 Language and society8.1The scope of sociolinguistics8.1.1The relationship between language and societyThere are many indication of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background.Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.8.1.2 Speech community and speech varietyThe social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community. A speech community is a group people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.Speech variety, or language variety ,refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Variety is considered amore neutral term than terms such as standard of non-standard language and dialects.8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesWe can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how its reflects the social differentiations The other approach is to look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm‘s eye view of language in use8.2 Varieties of language8.2.1 Dialectal varietiesIt is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. In most case, however, the regional dialects spoken in two neighboring areas are mutually intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual, rather than an abrupt process8.2.1.2 SociolectJust as regional dialect is associated with separation caused by physical conditions, social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions. It has also been found that the absence of the suffix of the third-person present-tense singular form of verbs and the non-standard use of negation8.2.1.3 Language and genderGender differentiation is also reflected in the use of certain lexical items. While the word girls is commonly used by females to females as an address form regardless of the age of the addressee, men would mainly use ladies. It is interesting to knowthat the language used by men and women have some special features of their own.8.2.1.4 Language and age it has been noticed that in many communities the language used by the older generation differs from that used by the younger generation in certain ways. The causes of such differentiation are complex8.2.1.5 IdiolectIdiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials ,the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors8.2.1.6 Ethnic dialectit is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences, it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation8.2.2 RegisterThere are many social constraints that come into play in controlling which variety from the linguistic repertoire of a speaker is to be used on aparticular occasion.8.2.3 Degree of formalityLanguage used on different occasions differs in the degree of formality which is determined by he social variables. Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels, namely, syntactic, lexical and phonological 8.3 standard dialectIt is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system , used by the mass media where the language is taught as a foreign or second languageThe standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area wh ich is considered the nation‘s political and commercial center.Second, it is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect.8.4 Pidgin and CreoleA pidgin is a special language variety that mixed or blend s languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Unit 9 language and culture9.1 introductionMuch of the recent work has revealed that language is also related tocognition9.2 what is cultureCulture means integrated [pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations9.3 the relationship between language an cultureCulture both emancipates and constrains the individual socially, historically and metaphorically. Although language and culture are inextricably intertwined, this relationship is not simply analogous to that of structure and processes9.4 Sapir whorl hypothesisThe discussion about the relationship between language and cultures is incomplete without touching on that between language and thought. There are mainly two different interpretations about the hypothesis ;a strong version and a weak one 9.5 linguistic evidence of cultural differencesAny linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative connotative or iconic kind of meanings. All these types of words cannot be separated from their associations which are stereotypically constructed.9.6 culture contact, cultural overlap and diffusionAcculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional praticesAssimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. Amalgamation occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another9.7 the significance of culture; teaching and learningLearning a language is inseparable from learning its culture. We need to learn enough about the language‘s culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the linguistic competence but also the pragmatic or communicative competence as well.9.8 intercultural communicationIt is known as cross-cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.Chapter 10 Language Acquisition⼀、定义1.语⾔习得Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition refers to the development of the Child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of his community.2.输⼊InputIt refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn.3.⾏为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theoryIt‘s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner‘s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulus and response when applied to first language acquisition.源⾃⼼理学的理论—⾏为主义,它认为⼉童的语⾔⾏为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。

语言学小组任务

• spoken and written by the Anglo-Saxon and their descendants
• its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman conquest.
Middle English •developed out of Late Old English in Norman England (1066–1154) •ended at about 1470, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread
我怎么能够把你来比作夏天？你不独比他可爱也比他温婉；狂风把五月宠爱的嫩蕊作践，夏天出赁的期限又未免太短；
7.2 Phonological change
1.Vowel sound change 2.Sound loss 3.Sound addition 4.Sound movement
1.Vowel sound change
7.1 Introduction：
Major periods in the history of English :
Old English: (449-1100) 449 Anglo-Saxon invasion
Middle English: (1100-1500) 1066 Norman conquest Modern English: (1500-now) European Renaissance Movement

简明语言学7-12章总结

Chapter7 LANGUAGE CHANGE I What’s Historical linguisticsII Changes1 Phonological change vowel sound change2 Morphological and syntactic changeMorphological(1).Affix loss: loss of gender and case markings drop of causative verb formation rule(2). Affix addition: -able, -ment (from French), -izeSyntactic(1).rule loss: (1) adj, agree with the head noun in case, number and gender; (2) do uble-negation rule(2). rule addition: (1) particle movement rule; (2) distinction between auxiliary ver bs and main verbs(3).rule change: (1) negation way; (2) sentence structure: SVO, VSO, SOV, OSV3 Lexical and semantic changeLexical----- most vigorous and on-going change(1)lexical addition: borrowing and word-formation (refer to syntax)(2)lexical loss: no longer in use(3)Semantic change: 1) semantic broadening; 2) semantic narrowing; 3) semantic shiftIII Some recent trends1 Moving towards greater informality2 The influence of American English3 The influence of science and technologyIV The cause of language changePhysiological, linguistic, or sociological factorsChapter8 LANGUAGE AND SOCIETYI.The scope of sociolinguistics1.The relatedness between language and society2. Speech community and speech varietySC: speech community is a social group singled out for any special studySV:language variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.II Variety of language1 Dialectal varieties(1)Regional dialects is a speech variation according to the particular area wherea speaker comes from, which is the most discernible and definabledialects)(2)Sociolect linguistic differences associated with respective definable socialgroups even within the same geographical location(3)Language and gender(4)Language and age(5)Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects ofall the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one way or another(6)Ethnic dialect2 RegistersField of discourseTenor of discourse’Mode of discourseIII Standard dialectThe standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language IV Pidgin and CreolePidgin: is a variety of language that is generally used by native of speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. Itmay contain significant grammatical features of two or more languages, but rule-governed.Creole: is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in som e speech community. A pidgin becomes a Creole when it is adopted by a population as its primary language, and children learn it as their first languageV.Bilingualism and diglossiaBilingualism: refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particul ar regions or a nation.Diglossia: is a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social functions and appropria te for certain situations. One is a more standard variety called the high variety (H-vari ety), the other is a non-prestige variety called the low variety (L-variety) Chapter9 LANGUAGE AND CULTUREI What is cultureBroadly speaking, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.II The relationship between language and cultureThe relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in LIII Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis1 Linguistic determinism -- refers to the notion that a language determines certain nonlinguistic cognitive processes. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing around, they think and speak differently.2 Linguistic relativity-- refers to the claim that the cognitive processes that are determined are different for different languages. Thus, speakers of different languages are said to think in different ways.IV Linguistic evidence of cultural differences1 Greetings and terms of address2 Gratitude and compliments3 Color words4 Privacy and taboos5 Rounding off numbers6 Words and culture-specific connotations7 Culture-related idioms,proverbs and metaphorsV The significance of cultural teaching and learing1 To get the students familiar with cultural differences；2 To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will；3 To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesChapter10 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, t he native language of the community in which a child has been brought up (naturally and successfully).I Theories of child language acquisition—three different theories concerning how language is learned1 The behaviorist Imitation—Practice2 The innatist LAD3 The interactionistII Cognitive development in child language development1 Language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the w orld and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development2 The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses.III Language environment and the Critical Period HypothesisIV Stage in child language developmentPhonological developmentV ocabulary development1) Under-extension2) Over-extension3) Prototype theoryGrammatical development1) Telegraphic speech2) Sentences of three main elements Pragmatic developmentV Atypical developmentAtypical or abnormal language development occurs due to trauma or injury. Atypical language development includes:Hearing impairmentMental retardationautismstutteringAphasiaDyslexia and dysgraphiaChapter11 SECOND LANGUAGEACQUISITIONSecond Language Acquisition ---- formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.I Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisitionThe first language study has influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels.SLA is different from first language acquisition.II Contrastive analysisIII Error analysisTwo main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors intralingual errorsOvergeneralizationIV The role of native language in second language learning1 Language transfer: positive and negative2 Three interacting factors in determining language transfer:1)A learner’s psychology2)Perception of native-target language distance3)Actual knowledge of the target languageV Second language learning models and input hypothesis1 Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;2 The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings equipped innately with language acquisition device, are capable of language learning provided with adequate language input.3 The social interactionists argue that language and social interaction cannot be separated.VI Individual differences1 Language aptitude2 Motivation3 Learning strategies4 Age of acquisition5 PersonalityChapter12 LANGUAGE AND THEBRAINLanguage is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousnessI Neurolinguistics1 What is neurolinguistics?2 The structure and function of the human brain3Methods in the study of the brain and evidencefor lateralizationAutopsy studies;–Methods to study the brain&–Methods to study the behavior associated with thebrain4 Aphasia;–Broaca’s aphasia–Wernicke’s aphasia–Acquired dyslexiaII Psycholinguistics1 What is psycholinguistics?2 Psycholinguistic research method–Field work–Experimental methodsLexical Decision;The priming experimentTimed-reading experimentsEye-movement experimentsEvent-related potential experiment3 Linguistics and language processing–Bottom-up vs. top-down processing–Phonetics and phonology;–Morphological processing–Syntax: garden path sentence4 Psycholinguistic modelling;–Levelt’s model of speech production ;新编简明英语语言学教程7-12章总结班级：英语1001姓名：王晶学号：1005100105。

鼓励学生考虑语言变化的方式英语作文

鼓励学生考虑语言变化的方式英语作文Embracing the Evolving Nature of Language: Encouraging Students to Explore the Dynamics of Linguistic ChangeLanguage is a living, breathing entity that constantly evolves, adapting to the ever-changing needs and preferences of its users. As educators, it is our responsibility to foster an appreciation for this dynamic nature of language and encourage students to explore the various ways in which it can change over time. By doing so, we can empower our students to become active participants in the ongoing process of linguistic evolution, equipping them with the skills and understanding necessary to navigate the complexities of communication in the modern world.One of the primary ways in which language changes is through the introduction of new words and phrases. As our society and culture evolve, new concepts, technologies, and cultural phenomena emerge, necessitating the creation of new linguistic tools to describe and discuss them. This process of lexical expansion is a natural and essential aspect of language development, allowing it to keep pace with the changing needs of its users.By encouraging students to be aware of and engage with these linguistic innovations, we can help them develop a deeper understanding of the dynamic nature of language. This can involve activities such as tracking the emergence of new words in popular media, analyzing the origins and meanings of these new terms, and exploring how they are being integrated into the broader linguistic landscape.Furthermore, language change can also manifest through the evolution of existing words and phrases. Over time, the meanings and connotations of words can shift, with certain terms taking on new or expanded meanings, while others may fall out of use or undergo semantic narrowing. By exploring these processes of semantic change, students can gain valuable insights into the ways in which language adapts to the changing needs and perspectives of its speakers.One approach to engaging students in this exploration is to have them research the historical development of specific words or idioms, tracing their origins, changes in meaning, and cultural significance over time. This not only deepens their understanding of linguistic change but also fosters a greater appreciation for the richness and complexity of language.In addition to lexical and semantic changes, language can also evolvethrough the adoption of new grammatical structures, the emergence of regional dialects, and the influence of other languages. These aspects of linguistic change can be equally fascinating for students to explore, as they shed light on the social, cultural, and geographic factors that shape the evolution of language.By encouraging students to investigate these various manifestations of language change, we can help them develop a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the role of language in shaping and reflecting the human experience. This, in turn, can foster a greater appreciation for the diversity of linguistic expression and the importance of maintaining linguistic flexibility and adaptability in an increasingly globalized world.Furthermore, by exploring the dynamics of language change, students can gain valuable insights into the complex interplay between language and identity, power, and social dynamics. They can examine how linguistic evolution is often tied to issues of cultural preservation, social inclusion, and the negotiation of power structures within a given community or society.In conclusion, encouraging students to consider the ways in which language changes and evolves is a crucial aspect of language education. By fostering an appreciation for the dynamic nature of language, we can empower our students to become more active andengaged participants in the ongoing process of linguistic development, equipping them with the skills and understanding necessary to navigate the complex and ever-changing landscape of communication in the 21st century.。

语言学2017-知识点总结

语言学2017-知识点总结Unit 1一：.Important distinction in linguistics1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.(should be)2:synchronic and diachronic (共识的和历时的）synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.3.speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.ngue and parole (语言和言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.5. Competence and performance （语言的能力和表现）competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6.traditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学）二.Design features of language●arbitrariness(任意性）：it means there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.●productivity（生产性）:language is productiveor creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.●duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.●displacement(替代性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.●cultural transmission（文化传递): it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning.Unit 2（重点）一：the speech organslips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位的对立，互补的分布，最小对位）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.3.Morphology形态学Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function.Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morphFree morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必须与其他连用-s.-erDerivational morpheme:改变词意[n→adj] Inflectional morpheme:不改变词性[改变时态-ed]Compounds 合成词3.Syntax 句法Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, AP[adjective phrase], PP[prepositional phrase]XP rule: XP→(sp ecifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P representcomplementPhrase elements:a. Specifiers--determiner, qualifier, degree words b. Complements--provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.c. Modifiers 修饰语5.Semantics 语义学→meaningThe naming theory 命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, such as joy and impulse, can not be named. The conceptualist view 概念论: linked through themediation of concepts inthe mind and can name theabstract notion semantic triangle/ triangle of significance 语Refer ent(t Symbo l/for Thought/ref意三角(suggested by Ogden and Richards)Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth): meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context--elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield): situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and reference[sense意义: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized可以脱离语境./reference所指: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在)b.major sense relations:①synonymy近义词[dialectal synonyms方言同义词--used in different regional dialects e.g.BritishEnglish(autumn)&AmericanEnglish(fall)//stylistic synonyms语言的文体同义词，正式程度不同--differing in style e.g.dad, father//synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同e.g.collaborator, accomplice//collocational synonyms搭配不同 e.g.accuse, accuse..of//semantically different synonyms语义不同e.g.amaze, astound]②polysemy多义词:have more than one meaning③homonymy同音异义词④hyponymy下义词 e.g. superordinate上义--general meaning(animal)//hyponyms下义--specific words(dog, cat)⑤antonymy反义词[gradable antonyms等级反义词 e.g.middle-aged, elderly//complementary antonyms互补反义词e.g.male,female//relational opposites关系反义词e.g.patient,doctor]句与句之间的关系:synonymous同义/inconsistent自相矛盾/entails or entailment上下义，一个句子意思包含另一个句子/presupposes or prerequisite预设前途/contradiction一句话前后自相矛盾/semantically anomalous语义异常Analysis of meaning:ponential analysis成分分析[a way to analyze lexical meaning]:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male//b.pre dication analysis述谓分析[[a way to analyze sentence meaning]:predicate谓词+argument论源(除动词以外的)6.Pragmatics语用学Definition:it is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference--whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredContext: it determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s, and constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Speech act theory:a.Austin’s model of speech acts:①made a distinction[constatives陈述--were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable//performatives表达--were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable] ②three acts: locutionary act言内行为(本身意义literal meaning), illocutionary act言外(弦外之意expressthe speaker’s intention), perlocutionary act言后(带来的后果resulting from saying something)b.Searle’s classification of speech acts:when people are speaking a language, they are doing sth, or performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequenceof acts.Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives阐述directives指令commissives承诺expressives表达declarations声明宣告c.Indirect speech acts: primary speech act--the speaker’s goal of communicationsecondary speech--the means by which he achieves his goalsPrinciple of conversation会话原则[by Grice]: conventional implicature规约含义(是一个群体的规范惯例，说话时大家都能理解)//particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(当新的信息出现，寻找特殊会话含义)Cooperative Principle(CP)[by Grice]:The maxim of quantity数量原则:make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is requiredThe maxim of quality质量原则: do not say whatyou believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidenceThe maxim of relation关系原则:be relevantThe maxim of manner方式原则:avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/ be brief/ be orderlyChapter7 Language ChangeLexical and semantic change:词汇和语义变化Addition of new words1)Coinage新造字及词语（Kodak）2)Clipped words省略词（gym-gymnasium）3)Blending合成词（smog=smoke+fog）4)Acronyms首字母缩写（CEO=chief executive officer）5)Back-formation逆构词（to donate-derived from donation）6)Functional shift词性转变7)Borrowing借用（外来语）●Loss of words（beseem-to be suitable）●Semantic changes1)Semantic broadening词义变宽（holiday）2)Semantic narrowing词义变窄（meat）3)Semantic shift词义变化（lust）The causes of language change●The rapid development of science and technology●Social and political changes and political needs●Women have taken up activities●The way children acquire a language●“Economy of memory”which results in grammar simplificationChapter8 Language and SocietyThree types of speech variety:话语群体\共同体Regional dialects, sociolects, registersVarieties of language语言变体●Dialectal varieties1)Regional dialect方言变体2)Sociolect社会方言3)Language and gender4)Language and age5)Idiolect个人习语6)Ethnic dialect种族方言●Register语域Halliday’s register theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.分类：field of discourse语域、语场tenor of discourse 语旨mode of discourse 语式Eg: a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific Tenor: teacher-students(formal-polite) Mode: oral(academic lecturing)Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, this constitutes the situation of bilingualism.Diglossia: in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.Chapter9 Language and CultureThe relationship between language and cultureLanguage symbolizes cultural reality.Diachronically, any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself, its technological achievements, monuments and works of art; synchronically, its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.Culture also affects a discourse community’s imagination, or common dreams which aremediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life.The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.Three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation.Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.文化适应，外来文化有力量，自己适应外来的。

语言学答案

一填空1.语言变化包括phonological change(音位变化) , morphologicalchange（形态变化）, syntactic change（句法变化）,lexical and semantic changes（词法和语义变化）。

2.单词的意义变化可体现在哪三个方面widening of meaningnarrowing of meaning ,meaning shift3.决定语域的三个变量：field of discourse(语场)、tenor ofdiscourse(语旨)、mode of discourse（语式）。

4.关于语言习得的三个理论：a behaviorist of language acquisition（行为主义者的语言习得观）、an innatist view of language acquisition(语言天生主义者的语言习得观)、an interactionist view of language acquisition(互动主义者的语言习得观)。

5.NL:TL comparisons ( Contrastive Analysis)对比分析：汉语—英语,IL: TL comparisons (Error Analysis)错误分析：汉语—英语，NL:IL comparisons (Transfer Analysis) 利用中介语分析6.克鲁申“i+1”理论：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis：Krashen make adistinction between acquisition & learning.He put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :“i”represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is an “i + 1”.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.7.第二语言习得中个体差异包括：Language aptitude（能力），Motivation，Learning strategies ，Age of acquisition（习得年龄），Personality 。

第七章语言变化

“再说”逐渐发展，出现在连谓结构形式中，位置后移至句末，且不带后续成分，不具有言说义，成为非语义重心的“再说”。例如: （5）这些朋友当中，一向只有黄胖姑、黑八哥两个遇事还算关切。我明天先找他两个商量商量再说。(清· 李宝嘉《官场现形记》第二十八回) 这时的“再说”已经完全丧失了本意，意义完全虚化，变成了一个彻底的虚词
Chapter 7 Language change
All languages change over time though they do so rather slowly. Old English— modern English ancient Chinese ---modern Chinese Historical linguistics(历史语言学） is a branch of linguistics that is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.
base+affix child had child-hood Free dom Free-dom Father lic Father-lic affix + base
“再说”的语法化历程

ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ

再说在古代汉语中是两个都具有实在意义的词语， “再”表示第二次，“说”表示“诉说，告诉”等义，由于这两个词经常一起出现，久而久之，两个实词的原本意义弱化，最后变成了现代汉语中表示关联的连词。再”与“说”结合在一起使用，其后带宾语约出现于五代。例如: (1) 佛令阿难为侍者，阿难就佛乞于三愿:一、不愿着故衣，二、不得诫别请，三、廿五年前教法，为我再说。(五代《敦煌变文集新书》)

语言学答案

一填空1.语言变化包括phonological change(音位变化) , morphologicalchange（形态变化）, syntactic change（句法变化）,lexical and semantic changes（词法和语义变化）。

1) Lexical and Semantic Change

Lexical_&_Semantic_Change

语言学论文

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第7章 语言变化——第9

简明英语语言学教程 Chapter 7

英语语言学期末温习

语言学重点讲解

Language change

语义演变与词汇演变

英语语言学概论第七章笔记.

语言学——精选推荐

语言学小组任务

简明语言学7-12章总结

鼓励学生考虑语言变化的方式英语作文

语言学2017-知识点总结

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