语言学笔记 Lecture1
英语语言学笔记
英语语言学笔记Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writi ng (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g.Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLan guage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort –lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.Functions of language – three meta-functions by HallidayThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information.The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.The textual functionTo form a text.Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new‘. In one exper iment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sentoff to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. Theyflow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cann ot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is cons tructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studiesthe characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentratesprimarily on what speakers do with languagewhich led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In H alliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. d e Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4215996376.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondary34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BChapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concernAuditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point ofview, ―how sounds are perceived‖the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [ Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:V oicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[];??], [?? affricates: [?liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [];?], [?], [? nasals: [?].?glides/semivowels: [w], [The place of articulationbilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [], [v];?? labiodental: [ ?];?], [? dental: [alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r];];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [?velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [glottal: [h].?The place of articulation1. Bilabial;2. Labiodental;3. Dental or interdental;4. Alveolar;5. Palatoalveolar;6. Palatal;7. Velar;8. Uvular;9. Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowels?Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?According to the openness of the mouth].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [?];??], [?Semi-close: [];?], [? Semi-open: [?],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [According to the length of the vowels],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[Diphthongs/gliding vowels?],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rush?Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative?pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal?train bang leaf limbA stop?drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze?Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:?mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:?reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:?who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:?paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different inperspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[spPhonemeA? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [pAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rules?Assimilation ruleDeletion rule?Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sound s in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.。
语言学笔记 Lecture1
语言学笔记陈银2014/2/28Teaching Goal of This Course⏹To get a scientific view on language;⏹To understand some basic theories on linguistics;⏹To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields oflanguage teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;⏹To prepare for the future research work.Teaching Plan Introduction:⏹18-week academic term (including a 2-week holiday, one week revision )⏹Each week: 2-hour teaching⏹Main teaching material《语言学教程》第四版胡壮麟北京大学出版社⏹Auxiliary teaching materials《语言学概论》蓝纯外语教学与研究出版社PPT & handoutsDistribution of Grades⏹10 % Attendance⏹10 % Classroom Behavior⏹10 % Assignment and oral presentation⏹70 % Examination⏹The final examination paper will cover all the materials used and all works done duringclass time and after class time.Requirements:⏹Attendance is a “must”for every student.⏹Complete all the tasks required.⏹Self-discipline is necessary.⏹Be attentive and interactive in classroom discussion and presentation.⏹Self-study is desirable.⏹Preview and review the lessons or do some further reading.Group WorkGroup work requirements:1.Oral English (30%)2.PPT design (30%)3.Key points coverage (40%)Lecture 1Objectives:Students are to know the following:1.Why study language2.What is language3.Design features of language1. 1 Why study languageSome myths about language⏹Language is only a means of communication.⏹Language has a form-meaning correspondence.⏹The function of language is to exchange information.⏹English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.⏹Black English is not standard and should be reformed.⏹Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.⏹Language operates by rules.⏹All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system oflexicogrammar and a system of semantics.⏹Everyone speaks a dialect.⏹Language slowly changes⏹Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.⏹Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.⏹Writing is derivative of speech.1. Why study language⏹People know very little about language❑Stereotypical opinions about language⏹“English is for commerce, German for warfare, French for women,Italian for friends, Spanish for worship of God.”(Charles V, theSpanish Emperor)⏹Language A is superior to language B.❑Superstitions about language: curses and swears❑People know perfectly where and when and how to say what⏹Language is an integral part of our life and humanity.Yet we know little or even have wrong ideas about it.Where does language come from? How? When?Why is language human-specific?Why can a child learn his/her mother tongue so easily?How can we say one thing but mean another?Language has a form-meaning correspondence.The function of language is to exchange information.Future Career Goals may include:In the field of Academia:⏹Research and Teaching specializing in one or more of the many inter-disciplinary fields ofLinguisticsIn the field of education:❑Curriculum design and planning❑Language and literacy policies❑Museum exhibitions & educational programs❑Teaching:⏹languages⏹TESOL(teaching English to speakers of other languages)⏹literacyIn business:⏹Technical Writing⏹Toy Industry⏹Literacy in the Workplace⏹Advertising⏹Telephone CompaniesIn the field of health:⏹Socio/Psycho-linguistic Research⏹Speech pathology⏹Speech Analysis/Forensic LinguisticsIn government:❑Foreign affairs❑Justice (e.g. courtroom interpreting)❑Immigration❑First Nation affairs❑Forensic linguisticsIn the field of Artificial Intelligence:⏹Computational Linguists/Linguists working in areas such as:⏹Speech recognition programming⏹Language recognition programming⏹Lexicography/semantic variation⏹Multilingual programming⏹Natural Language ResearchThe importance of language study1，Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.2，If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.Language can mean⏹what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)⏹the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language)⏹ a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose,colloquial language)⏹the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community(e.g. Chinese language, first language)⏹the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)⏹ a tool for human communication. (social function)⏹ a set of rules. (rule-governed)1.2 What is language?Different sensesPoor languageShakespeare’s language Business languageThe English language A student of language CompetenceIdiolectVarietyAbstract system Universal system2. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)译：“语言”是言语功能的社会产物，也是社团成员所能够接受的允许个人使用言语功能的必要规则的集合。
英语语言学笔记(DOC)
第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication canonly take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interactionincluding such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiveror listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather thanrandomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. Thisexplains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for thesame object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacitagreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound upin the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famousquotati on from shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wishto refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The factthat small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or readalso indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness【'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】----arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
语言学讲义第一章
Chapter 2Speech Sounds2.1 Phonetics and PhonologyWe can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas of study are phonetics and phonology•Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. •Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.Major branches of phonetics：1. Acoustic phonetics (发音语音学): the study of the physical properties of the speech sounds.2. Auditory phonetics (声学语音学): the study of the way listeners perceive these speech sounds.3. Articulatory phonetics (听觉语音学): the study of how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language.•Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.–It aims to ‗discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur‘.–In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.–Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them,–and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. Differences Between Phonology and Phonetics2.2 Speech organsPositions of vocal folder( 声带)•V oiceless: [p, s, t] 声带分开，气流无阻碍•V oiced: [b, z, d] 声带相连，气流受阻•Glottal stop(喉塞音): [?] 声带紧闭，无气流通过•Nasals: [m, n, ŋ] 双唇紧闭，鼻腔发音2.3 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription•Segment音段：there are 4 sound segments in pronouncing “above” (a-b-o-v)•Divergence偏差：ghoti → enough [f] →women [i] →[f i∫] fishnation [∫]→•phonetic transcription音标The IPA→International Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet•In 1886, the Phonetic Te achers‘ Association was inaugurated by a small group of language teachers in France who had found the practice of phonetics useful in their teaching and wished to popularize their methods. It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897. The first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888.2.4 Consonants and vowels•Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.•Vowel The sounds in the production of which no vocal organs come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.In what ways consonants differ from vowels?•Air-stream in Articulation--consonants: the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels: the flow of air comes out freely2) Function:--consonants are used to separate the vowels.--vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next.Categories of consonants:(according to manner of articulation & place of articulation)According to manner of articulation•Stop/plosive 爆破音Oral stop 口腔爆破[ b, p, t, d, k, g]Nasal stop 鼻腔爆破[ m, n, ŋ]•Fricative 摩擦音[ f, v, θ, ð, s, z ʃ, ʒ, h]•(median) Approximant 无摩擦延续音[w, ɹ, j]•Lateral (Approximant)舌边音[ l ]•Affricate (stop + fricative) 塞擦音[ tʃ, dʒ]•others: trill颤音tap一次性接触音flap闪音[r]According to places of articulation•Bilabial 双唇音[b, p, m]•Labiodental 唇齿音[f, v]•Dental 齿音[θ, ð ]•Alveolar 齿龈音[ t, d, n, s, z, ɹ, l ]•Postalveolar / palatal-alveolar颚齿龈音[ ʃ, ʒ]•Retroflex 卷舌音[ r ]•Palatal舌面中音[ j ]•Velar 软颚音[ k, g, ŋ]•Uvular 小舌音（法语中）•Pharyngeal 咽头音（阿拉伯语中）•Glottal 喉音[ h ]Table of English ConsonantsDescription of English consonants•The consonants of English can be described in the following manner:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeV owels•English vowels P52V owel glides•Pure/ monophthong vowels [a] [i]•V owel glidesDiphthongs [ai] [ei]Triphthong [aie] [aue]Description of English vowels•The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:–the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);–the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);–the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and–lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).•We can now describe the English vowels in this way:–[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel–[✞] high back lax rounded vowel–[ ] mid central lax unrounded vowel–[✈] low back lax rounded vowelEnglish vowels2.5 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription•2.5.1 Coarticulation•Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb. When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.–If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.–If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.2.5.2 Narrow and Broad Phonetic Transcription•◆Broad transcription: omit some details, not necessarily phonological, used in most dictionaries and language textbooks, often in square brackets [ ]◆Narrow transcription: phonological in character, differentiate speech sounds in more detail with the help of the diacritics, enclosed in slant brackets / /•[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.–This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].2.6 Phonological AnalysisDefinition of Phonology•Yule‘s book, P54―Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.‖ It studies speech as a purposeful human activity; it views speech as a sys tematically organized activity, intended– under normal circumstances—to convey meaning.Some Key Concepts of PhonologyPhone and Phoneme•A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. e.g. [tin] → [t] [i] [n]•A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] → /t/ /d/–In English, the distinction between aspirated [p h] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemic.–In Chinese, however, the distinction between /p/ and /p h/ is phonemic.Differences Between Phone & Phoneme2.6.1 Phonemes and Allophones•Minimal Pairs•§Minimal pairs: When two words such as ―pat‖ and ―bat‖ are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.Allophones•Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, or, a set of different forms of a phoneme. e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [pʰ] as in pin and [p] in spin.Complementary distribution•In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context:–[p] occurs after [s] while [p h] occurs in other places./p/ [p] / [s] _____[p h] elsewhere•This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.•Phonetic similarity: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance•Free Variants and Free Variation (P59)Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants. For example, cup→[kʰɅpʰ] or [kʰɅpɅ] (the diacritic ― Ʌ‖ indicates no audible release in IPA symbols) The difference may be caused by dialect, habit or individual preference, instead of by any diatribution rule, such phenomenon is called free variation.2.6.2 Phonological processesAssimilationDefinition ---When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ―copied‖ by the other, the process is known as assimilation, which is also often used synonymously with coarticulation.Types ---•Regressive assimilation /anticipatory coarticulation ( a following sound influences a preceding sound, e.g lamb);•Progressive assimilation /perseverative coarticulation (a preceding sound influences a following sound ,e.g ?to meet you )•Note: assimilation is also happened between words,e.g. sun glass /ŋ/, you can keep them. /ŋ/2.6.3 phonological rules•Nasalization rule (鼻音化):[-nasal] → [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal]→stands for “becomes”/ refers to “in the environment of ”___ “ focus bar” refers to “ the location of the change”/æ/→[æ̃] /____+nasal,+ consonant.e.g. lamb → [læ̃m b] can → [cãn]•Dentalization rule（齿音化）:[-dental] → [+dental] / ____ [+dental]e.g. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛṋθ]/n/ is dentalized before a dental fractive /θ/•Velarization rule（颚音化）:[-velar] → [+velar] / ____ [+velar]e.g. since [siṋθ] sink [siŋk]the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal /ŋ/ before the velar stop /k/. (They are all instances of assimilation.)Aspiration rule•V oiceless stop →aspirated/ word initially and initially in stressed syllable•V oiceless stop →unaspireted /#s __ (#:word boundary)voiceless stops are aspirated when they are the initial of a stressed syllable; and are unaspirated after /s/.e. g. “pin” for the first case, and “spin” for the latter one.Lengthening rule•V →V___C# voiced•(V owels are lengthened preceding voiced consonant)Flapping rule•Alveolar stop →voiced flap/V__V unstressed•(/t/,/d/ become [D] between two vowels, the second of which is unstressed)G lottalization rule•Stop voiceless →[?]/__σor /__nasal (σ:syllable boundary)•(/p/, /t/, /k/, especially /t/. Are glottalized when syllable-final or before nasals).Deletion rule•§Under certain circumstances some sounds disappear. Some preceding fricatives and affricates will be influenced by the following sound, which is a devoicing process, namely, the voiced sound will become voiceless.•[+voiced] →[+voiceless]/__ [+voiceless]•(f, v, s, and others)•( love to →[ lΛvtə] [lΛftə] ;•(For more examples please refer to P 61)The English pluralsEnglish Past Tense form•The regular past tense form in English is pronounced as [t] when the word ends with a voiceless consonant, [d] when it ends with a voiced sound, and [ɪd] when it ends with [t] or [d]. e.g. •stopped, walked, coughed, kissed, leashed, reached•stabbed, wagged, achieved, buzzed, soothed, bridged•steamed, stunned, pulled•played, flowed, studied•wanted, located, decided, guided2.7 Distinctive FeaturesThe idea of Distinctive Features was first developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested.Definition: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound of a language (phoneme) from another or one group of sounds from another group.•[+voiced]& [+nasal] are distinctive features.•Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [nasal] and [voiced].–The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonantal].–[nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized) sounds and voiced sounds respectively•These are known as binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with this feature and the other without.–Binary features have two values or specificati ons denoted by ‗ + ‘ and ‗–‘ so voiced obstruents are marked [+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [–voiced].•The place features are not binary features – they are divided up into four values:–[PLACE: Labial]–[PLACE: Coronal]–[PLACE: Dorsal]–[PLACE: Radical]•They are often written in shorthand forms. P672.8 Syllables•Suprasegmentals•Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.•The principal suprasegmentals are:2.8.1 the Syllable Structure•Syllable•Words can be cut up into units called syllables. A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.•Onset: the beginning sounds of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English.•Rhyme( or rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset. The rhyme can also be divided up: rhyme=nucleus + coda•Nucleus: the core or essential part of a syllable.•Coda: the final sounds of a syllable; the ones following the nucleus. These are consonants in English2.8.2 The syllable structureσO(nset) R(hyme)N(ucleus ) Co(da)k r æ k t •Monosyllabic word: a word with one syllable, like cat and dog,•Polysyllabic word: a word with more than one syllable, like transplant or festival•Open syllable: bar, tie•Closed syllable: bard, tied•Maximal Onset Principle (MOP)–When there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. /k∧ntri/2.9 Stress•Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [│] is often used just before the syllable it relates to.–A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter.–Types: primary ~; secondary ~Changing English Stress PatternBecoming norm •inTEGral •coMMUNal •forMIDable •conTROVersyVerb •conVICT •inSULT •proDUCE •reBEL•BLACKboard•BLACKbird。
语言学知识Lecture 1
[2] • (a) any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds; • (b) a special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules etc. used for the transmission of information, as in a computer;… Though we use the word in its various senses, we focus here on its primary sense, namely, [1] (a) (b) (c) (d).
Textbook
• 戴炜栋 何兆熊，2002，新编简明英语语言 学教程，上海外语教育出版社
Reference Books
Strongly recommended: 胡壮麟主编，2006，语言学教程，北京大学出版社 Yule, George. 2000. The Study of Language. Beijing: FLTRP.
Questions
• Do animals have language? • Can they learn language? • Or do they communicate in a way similar to ours?
Animal communication
• Can animals communicate? Dogs, cats, horses… Ants, birds… • How do they communicate? All animals use some perceivable media to convey messages Media: sounds, postures, smells… Messages: membership, danger, aggression
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
语言学笔记
语言学笔记一、语言学的定义和研究对象语言学是研究语言现象的学科，主要研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展及其在社会生活中的运用。
语言学的研究对象包括语言的语音、语法、语义、语用等方面。
二、语言的基本特征1. 符号性：语言是一种符号系统，符号包括能指和所指两个方面。
能指是符号的物质形式，所指是符号所代表的意义。
2. 任意性：语言符号的能指和所指之间的关系是任意的，没有必然的联系。
这种任意性是语言符号系统的基础。
3. 层次性：语言结构具有层次性，包括语音层、语法层、语义层和语用层等。
每个层次都有其独特的结构和规则。
4. 生成性：语言具有生成性，即有限的语言规则可以生成无限多的语言表达式。
这是语言创造力的重要体现。
5. 社会性：语言是一种社会现象，是社会交际的工具。
语言的运用受到社会文化、经济、政治等多种因素的影响。
三、语言学的主要分支1. 语音学：研究语言的语音系统，包括音位、音变、音系等方面的研究。
2. 音系学：研究语言的音节结构和音系规则，揭示语言的音节组成和音系演变规律。
3. 形态学：研究词的内部结构和构词规则，揭示词的形态变化和构词规律。
4. 句法学：研究句子的结构规则和组合规律，揭示句子的句法关系和语义关系。
5. 语义学：研究语言的意义系统，包括词义、句义、篇章意义等方面的研究。
6. 语用学：研究语言在实际运用中的功能和效果，包括语境、会话含义、言语行为等方面的研究。
四、语言学的研究方法1. 描述法：对语言现象进行客观描述和分析，揭示语言的本质特征和规律。
2. 比较法：通过对不同语言或同一语言不同方言的比较研究，揭示语言的共性和差异。
3. 实验法：通过实验手段对语言现象进行实证研究，验证语言学理论和假设。
4. 历史法：通过对语言历史演变的研究，揭示语言的发展规律和演变趋势。
5. 数学法：运用数学方法和模型对语言现象进行定量分析和模拟研究，揭示语言的数学模型和内在规律。
五、语言学的学习意义和价值1. 提高语言能力：通过学习语言学知识，可以更好地掌握和运用语言，提高听说读写译等语言能力。
语言学笔记1
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
Lecture 1 invitation to Linguistics语言学简介
3. Design features of language
3.1 Arbitrariness 3.2 Duality 3.3 Creativity 3.4 Displacement
Martian Language
3.1 Arbitrariness
• Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning • Arbitrariness at the syntactic level • Arbitrariness and convention
一个人读到Chomsky的东西时， 会不由自主地感受到他的强大的学 术力量，而且知道他正在解读一个 非常特别的智慧心灵。他的人格跟 他的学术力量一样的吸引人：他有 创意、看不起世俗的潮流、愿意并 且有这个能力去复古（如innate ideas）、关心最重要的主题，如 人类心灵的架构。 Hilary Puman
--- Lewis Thomas
Main points
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. what is language? Why study language? Design features of language Origin of language Function of language The Classification of languages What is linguistics? Important distinctions in linguistics
―From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.‖ --- Chomsky, 1957
英语语言学知识要点
Exercises for Lecture 1 Introduction2009年09月20日15:05I. <blank filling>1. By ‘scientific’ is meant linguistics is based on the s ystematic investigation oflinguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of languagestructure.2. In his study of a language a linguist usually tries to collect and observe languagefacts, make generalizations, formulate hypotheses, and fully prove the validity of these hypotheses.3. General linguistics deals with the study of language as a whole.4. General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.5. The difference between general linguistics and a linguistic branch such assemantics lies in the fact that general linguistics studies language as a whole,whereas a linguistic branch such as semantics deals with the particular area. For instance, semantics studies the particular aspect of language, or meaning.6. Linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics and so on.7. There are different independent branches of linguistics because language is acomplicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.8. Phonetics is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.9. Phonology deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication.10. Morphology is the study of the way in which linguistic symbols are arranged and combined to form words.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social aspects of language and its relation withsociety.15. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relation of language to psychology.16. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practicalproblems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications isgenerally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Descriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to describe and analyze thelanguage people actually use.18. Prescriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.19. Modern linguistics is mainly descriptive.20. The aim of prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for “c orrect and standard”behavior in using language, or to set models for language users to follow.21. The task of modern linguistic is to describe the language people actually use,whether it is “c orrect” or not.22. The difference between prescriptive and descriptive linguistics is that prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for language users, whereas descriptive linguistics is to describe the language phenomena as they are. Therefore, the former is subjective, while the latter is objective and more scientific.23. Modern linguistics is supposed to be objective, because it aims to describelanguage as it is.24. Synchronic linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time inhistory.25. Diachronic linguistics is the description of a language as it changes through time. Itis also termed historical linguistics.26. The difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is that the formerdeals with language at some point of time in history, while the latter over a period of time.27. Modern linguistics favors synchronic approach because it is less difficult andconcerned with the current existence of language.28. The two major media of linguistic communication are speech and writing.29. Modern linguistics regards as primary speech, or the spoken language.30. F. de Saussure is regarded as the founder of modern linguistics.31. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.32. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules, or the naturally occurring language events.33. Langue is the abstract linguistic system whereas parole is concrete and is therealization of langue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person and from situation to situation.34. According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of hislanguage.35. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of the ideal user’sknowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.36. N. Chomsky proposed the distinction between competence and performance.37. Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, who is famous for his syntactic studies allover the world, and who focuses on the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.38. Saussure’s langue and parole and Chomsky’s competence and p erformance differin that the former takes a sociological view of language, whereas the latter apsychological perspective.39. The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics is thattraditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive, that traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of writing while modern linguistics gives priority to speech, and that traditional grammar forced languages into a Latin-based framework while modern linguistics does not.40. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.41. According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily producedsymbols.42. According to Hall, language is ‘the institution whereby humans communicate andinteract with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols.’43. According to Chomsky, language is ‘a set (finite or infinite) of s entences, eachfinite in l ength and constructed out of a finite set of elements.’44. Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguishit from any animal system of communication.45. Productivity refers to the fact that language makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users, which is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is unique to human language.46. Displacement is the property that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This feature provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.47. Double articulation refers to the duality of structure, the fact that language is asystem, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.II. <true or false>Identify whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1. Linguistics is the systematic study of language.True.2. Linguistics deals with a particular language.False.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.3. Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.Linguistics is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True.5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False.We have general linguistics and applied linguistics. We do not have specific linguistics.6. General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.General linguistics deals with language as a whole, not with language application in particular.7. General linguistics does not study theories of language.False.General linguistics does study theories of language.8. Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.False.Phonetics studies the way human sounds are produced.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False.Phonology studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.Morphology is the study of the rules of word formation.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False.Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of word meaning.False.Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.True.14. Sociolinguistics deals with the relation between language and society.True.15. Psycholinguistics deals with the relation of language to psychology.True.16. Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.False.It means the application of findings in linguistic studies to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability, or, in a narrow sense, the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.False.Modern linguistics aims at describing language as it is.18. Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time.False.It deals with language phenomena over a period of time.19. Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.True.20. Langue means competence.False.They are similar, but differ in that the former is related to sociology and is a matter of social conventions, while the latter is concerned with psychology and is a property of the mind of each individual.21. Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.True.22. F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.True.23. N. Chomsky is an American linguist.True.24. According to Chomsky, the internalization of a set of rules about his language enables a speaker to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.True.25. Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence.False.He regards it as an internalized set of rules of the learner’s language.26. Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.False.Competence, instead.27. Details of language system are genetically transmitted.False.They are not transmitted, but have to be taught and learned instead.28. Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place.False.Displacement of language means language use not subject to time and place.29. Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely.False.Arbitrariness means language is arbitrary by nature, i.e. there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But language is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated, which make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language, though.30. Duality of language means language is a two-level system.True.。
戴伟栋语言学笔记(全)
Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:①The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language①pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字②Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive②Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③Speech and writingSpoken language is primary, not the written④Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Organs of speechV oiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords[C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)[l]à[helW]--àa dental [l] ( )[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h)[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/, [t]/[d], [k]/[g]②Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)③Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], ], [] [By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)①bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions[p]/, [w]à(velar)②labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[W]/[T]④alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge[F]/[V], [t]/[d]⑥palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦velars: the back of the tongue against the velum[k], [g], [N] … [w]⑧glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E] Classification of English vowelsFronti: Central BackClose i `u:uSemi-close e E:Semi-open E C:Open AB Q RB:①The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;②The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;③The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B]All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels④The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx à (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowels[F] The definition of phonologyPhonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[H] Some rules in phonology①sequential rulesSyllableOnset rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1:___/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants [s], [z], [F], [V] are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant[I] Suprasegmental features①StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element②ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone。
英语专业必备!胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总
Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。
Lecture 1 Language and Linguistics语言学
The man
＊A the old man wolf killed. The man bought a car. NP NP Det N N Det ＊ The car bought a man.
man the
Main branches of linguisticsThe study of meaning in language. e.g.The moon is made of brown eggs. Language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences. It is used to convey meaning.
What is language?
--there is not a perfect and satisfactory definition.
Hadumod Bussmann (1996): vehicle for the expression or exchange of thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as well as the fixing and transmission of experience and knowledge. It is based on cognitive processes, subject to societal factors and subject to historical change and development. Hu Zhuanglin (2001): Language is a means of verbal communication.语言是一种言
Main branches of linguistics
现代语言学概论详细笔记
现代语⾔学概论详细笔记Chapter one linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics:the scientific study of language(lingui-:language; -ics:science)1.2. History of linguisticsbefore the mid of 19th century: philology(语⽂学)from the mid of 19th century: linguistics(语⾔学)1.2.1 Ferdinand de Saussure (索绪尔）–1857-1913–Swiss linguist–Famous for his book Course in General Linguistics–Published in 1916, after his death–Based on lecture notes taken by students–Father of modern linguistics–Drew several very important distinctions in the study of language (see blow) ?Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic studies of language–language can be studied synchronically–does not need to consider historyDistinguish between langue and parole–treat language as a system–define the units of language–study the relations among units and the rules of combination ??Synchronic study–study the language system at a given period–treat the system as being static–concentrate on one language and on the speaker’s knowledge of the language ??Diachronic study–study the language systems in different periods–concentrate on how languages change–often needs to study several different languagesLangue vs. parole(language vs. speech)the system of languagea set of social conventionsexists in the mind of each speakerlearned by each speakerall speakers have the same systemmore or less fixeda speaker is powerless to create it or modify itactual speechan individual act of the will and the intelligencea speaker has freedom in uttering sentences, is free to choose what to say ancillary/accidentalThe speeches of two speakers may be rather different Competenc e:-the ideal knowledge of the speaker-a property of the mind of each speakercompetence = knowledge of grammarPerformance-actual realization of this knowledge in utterance-influenced by psychological & social factorsTheoretical lin guistics (理论语⾔学)–Phonetics–Phonology–Morphology–Syntax–Semantics–*Pragmatics–*Discourse Analysis (会话分析)–*Text analysis (语篇学)Chapter 2 Language2.1. Definition of language:language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication ?2.2. Design features of language: (1) duality （双重性）:language is composed of 2 systems.system of sounds: meaningless, limited numbersystem of meanings:meaningful, relatively unlimited(2). Arbitrariness（任意性）-The combination of the sound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention.-there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols,and the meaning of the symbols(3). Productivity （⽣成性）-Productivity refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences.-No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bo mb the railway of Tokoy tomorrow.”-But the communication systems of other animals are not productive.(4). Displacement（移位性）-Displacement is the property of language that enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.(Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ)(5).cultural transmission(⽂化传递性)-Language and culture are closely related to each other.-Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct.-Language is culturally transmitted.2.3. Functions of language(what language is used for)(1).phatic:-Phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.-Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isn?t it?”(2). Directive-When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.-Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”(3). Informative- Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes. - Most declarative sentences, as well as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.(4). Interrogative-When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function.-All the questions that expe ct answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?”(5). Expressive-Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something abut the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.-In expressive funct ion, language is used to evaluate and assert the speaker’s attitudes.-Some ejaculations are the examples ,such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is leaving ,I wish to God he would go!”(6). Evocative-Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer.-Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer.-Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such as,Coke refreshes you like no other can.If it is got to be clean, it?s got to be tide.(7). Performative-When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function.-With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is cancelled.” or… I declare the class is over.”Chapter 3 Phonetics (语⾳学)3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语⾳学):Phonetics is the scientific study of speech soundsDeals with speech soundsConcerns all possible sounds humans can make3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:Articulatory (发⾳) Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sound.Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:the perception of speech sounds.Chapter 3 Phonetics (语⾳学)3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语⾳学):Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds ?Deals with speech soundsConcerns all possible sounds humans can make3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:Articulatory (发⾳) Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sound.Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:the perception of speech sounds3.3 Speech OrgansLips (labia唇)Teeth (dentes齿)Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈)Hard palate ( 硬腭)Soft palate (velum软腭)Uvula （⼩⾆)Tip of tongue （⾆尖）Blade of tongue (⾆⾯)Front of tongue (⾆前部)Back of tongue (⾆后部)Tongue root (⾆根)Pharynx (声门)V ocal cords （声带)Nasal cavity （⿐腔）Oral cavity （⼝腔）Epiglottis (会厌)Tongue (lingua) (⾆)3.4. Phonetic transcription (注⾳)A sound may have many variationsExample 1:[p] in peak is aspirated [ph][p] in speak is unaspirated [p=] or simply [p] Example 2:[l] in lead is clear [l][l] in deal is dark []Symbols for such more specific sounds are called diacritics (变⾳符) ?See胡壮麟, 语⾔学教程, p. 38 Narrow transcription& Broad transcriptionNarrow transcription:use more, specific symbols,i.e. diacraticsBroad transcription:Use ordinary symbolsExample: helpBroad transcription: [help]Narrow transcription: [he?ph]Commonly used diacratics: 。
语言学概念第四版笔记
语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2 Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriageceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能〔被打fuck 吃惊god〕The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communion 应酬交谈〔无实质，“早上好〞〕The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a ba by’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book〞to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book〞to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k〞itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.〞is a pres criptive command; “People don’t say X.〞is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时〔历史上一点〕vs 历时〔历史长河〕A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言〔抽象〕vs 言语〔日常〕Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the syste m of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competenc e, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学– the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学– the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学– the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.〞发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels 辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced without obstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants of English1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English〞or “Oxford English〞because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.2. the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【ə】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面〔following sound〕叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones 音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小比照对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme 〔音位〕：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.E.g. the word “boxes〞has two morphemes: “box〞and “es,〞neither of which permits further division oranalysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology〔形态学〕：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素〔能独立出现〕黏着语素〔disclose中dis-〕Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morphemeRoot, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can’t be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example, internationalism, after removing the “int er-“〞-al〞〞-ism〞, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it can classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John’sDerivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1. Stability 稳定性〔词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair〕Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性〔此中不可插入其他成分〕By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式〔任意一个词都能成为句子〕This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form〞and word “the minimum free form,〞the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词〔follow〕和非变化词〔since, but〕In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflectiveendings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also called function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,〞the negative marker “not,〞and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,〞“do up,〞“look back,〞etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners and post determiners.3.3 Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化〔不改变词性〕Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 创造法〔coke〕Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词〔bicyle-bick〕A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. Acronym 缩略词〔WB-world bank ，WTO〕Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法〔editor-edit〕Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词〔过去式之类〕The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换〔已有单词开发另一词性意义〕By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations〔句法关系〕Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系〔主谓宾〕Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations〔横组合关系〕observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations〔纵聚合关系〕by Hjemslev〔叶尔姆斯列夫〕To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 〔同现关系/纵横关系〕It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to forma sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION〔语法结构体〕or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up〞, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun〞.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent〔成分〕is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构)The syntactic constructions analyzed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents. 句法结构可依据成分的分布以及它们之间的关系分析为两大类Endocentric construction(有中心词)is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整体功能与其某个或某些组成成分〔单个词或词组〕相同或相似，这个词组是整体的核心或中心。
语言学笔记第一章
I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics Linguisticspsycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinction in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “ correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writingfor the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system os any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedSpeech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of he conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA)Descriptive function(cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B)Expressive function(emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C)Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3.Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking. Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee.Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4.Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.。
语言学笔记——精选推荐
语⾔学笔记《简明英语语⾔学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remaina muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:General linguistics: study language as a wholeSpecific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language useInterdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctionsPrescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; it3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and reveals more true feature of language.Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users have abide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2) linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of languageCompetence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-based framework.What is language?●Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4)Language is human-specific.1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds. While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g. photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage of vocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unli-mited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged into morphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught be acquire language.●Functions of languageDescriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’s actionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or information Message---poetic: use language to display the beauty of language Contact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itselfIn early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of languageLimited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditional categories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two divisionMajor lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation, and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives, those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd knowInflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflectionsDistribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur with certain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination ruleNo limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.Coordinated categories must be of the same type.The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elements being conjoined.Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●SpecifiersRole：1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,●Provide information and location, attached to right of the head Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wallComplement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clauseCP complement●ModifiersTo modifier nouns →adj. phrasesTo modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrases Position of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。
英语语言学笔记1-8
Chapter One----Introduction1.1----What is linguistics?1.1.1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Collect and observe language facts----àformulate hypotheses-----àcheck the hypotheses repeatedly to fully prove their validity-----àproveNo Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists‟ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Interest of linguists is “what is said”1.1.2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsSpecific linguistics----the study of a specific language----Chinese linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.1.1.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from grammar in that the latter is based on “high”(religious/literary) wr itten language.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing: (1)from the point of wiew of the liguistic evolution , speech is prior to writing.(2)in daily communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: single.outone aspect of language for serious study.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publicat ion of Saussure‟s “Course in General Linguistics” in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar; (1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‟t force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2----What is language?1.2.1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.Vocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaningThe significance of Duality: because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heared before. In other words, language is productive because of its own duality.(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‟t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‟t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‟s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‟s babbles and chanter‟s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of l anguage. For example, we may use “book” to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use “the word book” to stand by the concept “book” as embodied in language.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1: Introductionmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.3.2. Open class and closed classopen class words: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class words: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.Content words /function words lexical words/grammatical words variable words/invariable words 3.3: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionword: the smallest free form found in language.bound morpheme: morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be attached to another one. It includes derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme.free morpheme: a morpheme that can be a word by itself.allomorphs: the variant forms of a porpheme are called its allomorphs.3.4 Analyzing word structureroots: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major commonent of its meaning.(A root is not always a free morpheme.)affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.3.5: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme:派生语素Bound morphemes which change the category or grammatic class of words.(改变词性)inflectional morpheme：曲折语素Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concept as tense,number,case and so on.(表时态/语态等) E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.3.6: Morphological rules of word formation构词的词素音位规则morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.productive morphological rules: morphological rules that can be used quite freely to new words. 3.7 Derivationderivation: an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.3.8 Compoundscompounds: or compound words , words formed by strinking words together.the noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‘take (v),in’action (n), up’lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‘redcoat, ‘greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2: Categories4.2.1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VMinor lexical categories: Det. Deg. Qua. Aux. Con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word’s category?1Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The proper ty or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‟s categ ory can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with th e same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‟s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as shoul d stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion:Thus, a word‟s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.4.2.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P <---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head:中心语The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier:标识语The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement:补足语The words on the right side of the heads are complements.4.3 Phrase Structure Rule(PS-rule)段语结构规划phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP---- > (Det) N (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) V (NP)….（动宾）AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)…...（介宾）4.3.1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.:The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule :In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.4.3.2. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X---→ X *Con X4.4: Phrase elements4.4.1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, the y typically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.4.4.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. subcategorization:the information about a word‟s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.The XP rule (revised): XP ---→ (Specifier) X (Complements*)“*” means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.“that” ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.“she will win” ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.“that she will win” ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.“Miss Hebert believes” ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.4.4.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier. The expanded XP rule: XP----→ (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.“修饰语” 相对于“中心语”的位置总结为：“形”在前，“介”在后，“副词”前后都可以。
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (高叔叔说这章要考50分，所以东西有点多~)1.Linguistics1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Three key words:? Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general. ? Study: investigate examine research ? Scientific:observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→datacollection→hypotheses testing→ theory f ormulation How to make a study \1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one'sinvestigation and give theman adequate explanation. 2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement 3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization. 1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics). 1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax[‘sint?ks]: studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences 5)Semantics [si’m?ntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context. 1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language; 2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with theaid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis) 1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点 )1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objectivePrescriptive→subjective ]? If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use , it is descriptive(描写性） ? If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive（规定性).Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时) ? The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)? The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study) 1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of communication,speech is primary to writing. 1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)? Ferdinand de Saussure (1857―1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.? Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ? Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ? Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event. 1.3.5 competence（语言能力）and performance (语言运用) It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.? Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and, ? Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication, ? what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why? 1) Competence is comparatively stable2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge. It is a distinction between what one “knows” and what one “does”. nguage2.1 Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.2 Design features of language (重点) Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.? Arbitrariness（任意性）It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning. ? Productivity (创造性/多产性)Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. ? Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)? At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning? At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme―morpheme―word―phrase―clause―sentence? Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的 & Spatial空间的 ]Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .? Cultural transmission (文化传递性)Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth. ? Specialization (特化作用)Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding. ? Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver. 2.3 Functions of Language1)Informational function（信息功能）: transmission of information (tell story /teaching)2) Interpersonal function（人际功能）: interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)3)Performative function（施为功能）: use language to change one’s social status.4)Emotive function（感情功能）: change the emotional status of audiencefor or against some one or something. 5)Phatic function（寒暄功能）: maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factualcontent (nice day/ good morning )6)Recreational function（娱乐功能）: use language for sheer joy7) Meta-lingual function（元语言功能）: use language to talk about language itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学) ? What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.? Three aspects of words:1) A physically definable unit：Phonological & orthographic 2)The common factor underlying a set of forms. 3) A grammatical unit ? Classification of words:1) Variable and invariable words （有时态变化的词和没有变化的词） 2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词) 3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words（封闭性词） ? Word formation:（最重要的两种）1) Compounding（复合词） 2）Derivation(派生词) 3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology: 1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学 2) derivational morphology词汇形态学 3.2 Morpheme词位，语素 (形位) 3.2.1 Definition of morpheme? Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words. 3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体 The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs（词位变体）. A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning. 6.3 Types of Morphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位（语素）? A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. Free morphemes fallinto two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位（语素） ? Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.? Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes（词缀）? Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case. 2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~) CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学) 5.1 The definition of semantics? Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically. 5.2 Approaches to meaning 5.2.1 Meaning as naming? The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory. 5.2.2 Meaning as concept? Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with aparticular concept. 5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour? The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both onparticular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory. 5.2.4 Meaning as context? The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context. 5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions ? The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory. 5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference? Sense(意义) relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.? Reference（所指） deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning（记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背）According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: 5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning（概念意义）? The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. 5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning（内涵意义）? Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning ? Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.? In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.5.3.2.3 Social meaning（社会意义）? Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance. 5.3.2.4 Affective meaning（情感意义）? Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker. 5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning（联想意义）? Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning（搭配意义）? Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning（主题意义）? Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semantic relations between words（记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意） ? Homonymy(同音异义)：words having different meaning have the same form. Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字) Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字) ? Polysemy（一词多义）：one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and Homonymy The distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries. ? Synonymy （近义词）：the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”. ? Antonymy（反义词）：refers to oppositemess of meaning. ? Hyponymy（下义关系）：the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,? Meronymy（部分与整体）：the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts” and “wholes”body.Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningPredication (句子) consist of Arugement（变元）&Predicates（谓语）consist of Features（语义特征） 5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到，最好晓得例子) ? Entailment(蕴含关系)? Presupposition（预设关系） ? Synonymy（同义关系）? Inconsistency（不一致关系）感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
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语言学笔记陈银2014/2/28Teaching Goal of This Course⏹To get a scientific view on language;⏹To understand some basic theories on linguistics;⏹To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields oflanguage teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;⏹To prepare for the future research work.Teaching Plan Introduction:⏹18-week academic term (including a 2-week holiday, one week revision )⏹Each week: 2-hour teaching⏹Main teaching material《语言学教程》第四版胡壮麟北京大学出版社⏹Auxiliary teaching materials《语言学概论》蓝纯外语教学与研究出版社PPT & handoutsDistribution of Grades⏹10 % Attendance⏹10 % Classroom Behavior⏹10 % Assignment and oral presentation⏹70 % Examination⏹The final examination paper will cover all the materials used and all works done duringclass time and after class time.Requirements:⏹Attendance is a “must”for every student.⏹Complete all the tasks required.⏹Self-discipline is necessary.⏹Be attentive and interactive in classroom discussion and presentation.⏹Self-study is desirable.⏹Preview and review the lessons or do some further reading.Group WorkGroup work requirements:1.Oral English (30%)2.PPT design (30%)3.Key points coverage (40%)Lecture 1Objectives:Students are to know the following:1.Why study language2.What is language3.Design features of language1. 1 Why study languageSome myths about language⏹Language is only a means of communication.⏹Language has a form-meaning correspondence.⏹The function of language is to exchange information.⏹English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.⏹Black English is not standard and should be reformed.⏹Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.⏹Language operates by rules.⏹All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system oflexicogrammar and a system of semantics.⏹Everyone speaks a dialect.⏹Language slowly changes⏹Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.⏹Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.⏹Writing is derivative of speech.1. Why study language⏹People know very little about language❑Stereotypical opinions about language⏹“English is for commerce, German for warfare, French for women,Italian for friends, Spanish for worship of God.”(Charles V, theSpanish Emperor)⏹Language A is superior to language B.❑Superstitions about language: curses and swears❑People know perfectly where and when and how to say what⏹Language is an integral part of our life and humanity.Yet we know little or even have wrong ideas about it.Where does language come from? How? When?Why is language human-specific?Why can a child learn his/her mother tongue so easily?How can we say one thing but mean another?Language has a form-meaning correspondence.The function of language is to exchange information.Future Career Goals may include:In the field of Academia:⏹Research and Teaching specializing in one or more of the many inter-disciplinary fields ofLinguisticsIn the field of education:❑Curriculum design and planning❑Language and literacy policies❑Museum exhibitions & educational programs❑Teaching:⏹languages⏹TESOL(teaching English to speakers of other languages)⏹literacyIn business:⏹Technical Writing⏹Toy Industry⏹Literacy in the Workplace⏹Advertising⏹Telephone CompaniesIn the field of health:⏹Socio/Psycho-linguistic Research⏹Speech pathology⏹Speech Analysis/Forensic LinguisticsIn government:❑Foreign affairs❑Justice (e.g. courtroom interpreting)❑Immigration❑First Nation affairs❑Forensic linguisticsIn the field of Artificial Intelligence:⏹Computational Linguists/Linguists working in areas such as:⏹Speech recognition programming⏹Language recognition programming⏹Lexicography/semantic variation⏹Multilingual programming⏹Natural Language ResearchThe importance of language study1，Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.2，If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.Language can mean⏹what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)⏹the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language)⏹ a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose,colloquial language)⏹the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community(e.g. Chinese language, first language)⏹the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)⏹ a tool for human communication. (social function)⏹ a set of rules. (rule-governed)1.2 What is language?Different sensesPoor languageShakespeare’s language Business languageThe English language A student of language CompetenceIdiolectVarietyAbstract system Universal system2. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)译：“语言”是言语功能的社会产物，也是社团成员所能够接受的允许个人使用言语功能的必要规则的集合。