横穿贝加尔湖铁路路基的冻胀性研究_英文_

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翻译(颠簸激流和积冰)

翻译1 英文原文TURBULENCEEveryone who flies encounters turbulence at some time or other . A turbulent atmosphere as one in which air currents range from rather mild eddies to strong currents of relatively large dimensions. As an aircraft moves through these currents, it undergoes changing accelerations which jostle it from its smooth flight path. This jostling is turbulence. Turbulence ranges from bumpiness which can annoy crew and passengers to severe jolts which can structurally damage the aircraft or injure its passengers.Aircraft reaction to turbulence varies with the difference in wind speed in adjacent currents, size of the aircraft, wing loading, airspeed, and aircraft attitude. When an aircraft travels rapidly from one current to another, it undergoes abrupt changes in acceleration. Obviously , if the aircraft moves more slowly, the changes in acceleration would be more gradual. The first rule in flying turbulence is to reduce airspeed. Your aircraft manual most likely lists recommended airspeed for penetrating turbulence.Knowing where to expect turbulence helps a pilot avoid or minimize turbulence discomfort and hazards. The main causes of turbulence are (1) convective currents, (2) mountain wave, and (3) wind shear. Turbulence also occurs in the wake of moving aircraft whenever the airfoils exert lift—wake turbulence. Any combination of causes may occur at one time.CONVECTIVE CURRENTSConvective currents are a common cause of turbulence, especially at low altitudes. These currents are localized vertical air movements, both ascending and descending. For every rising current, there is a compensating downward current. The downward currents frequently occur over broader areas than do the upward currents, and therefore, they have a slower vertical speed than dothe rising currents.Convective currents are most active on warm summer afternoons when winds are light. Heated air at the surface creates a shallow, unstable layer, and the warm air is forced upward. Convection increases in strength and to greater heights as surface heating increases. Barren surfaces such as sandy or rocky wastelands and plowed fields become hotter than open water or ground covered by vegetation. Thus, air at and near the surface strength of convective currents can vary considerably within short distances.When cold air moves over a warm surface, it becomes unstable in lower levels. Convective currents extend several thousand feet above the surface resulting in rough, choppy turbulence when flying in the cold air. This condition often occurs in any season after the passage of a cold front.Turbulence on approach can cause abrupt changes in airspeed and may even result in a stall at a dangerously low altitude. To prevent the danger, increase airspeed slightly over normal approach speed. This procedure may appear to conflict with the rule of reducing airspeed for turbulence penetration; but remember, the approach speed for your aircraft is well below the recommended turbulence penetration speed.As air moves upward, it cools by expansion. A convective current continues upward until it reaches a level where its temperature cools to the same as that of the surrounding air. If it cools to saturation, a cloud forms. Billowy fair weather cumulus clouds, usually seen on sunny afternoons, are signposts in the sky indicating convective turbulence. The cloud top usually marks the approximate upper limit of the convective current. A pilot can expect to encounter turbulence beneath or in the clouds, while above the clouds, air generally is smooth.MOUNTAIN WAVEWhen stable air crosses a mountain barrier, the turbulent situation is somewhat reversed. Air flowing up the windward side is relatively smooth. Wind flow across the barrier is laminar—that is, it tends to flow in layers. The barrier may set up waves in these layers much as waves develop on a disturbed water surface. The waves remain nearly stationary while the wind blows rapidly throughthem. The wave pattern is a “standing” or “mountain” wave, so named because it remains essentially stationary and is associated with the mountain. The wave pattern may extend 100 miles or more downwind from the barrier.Wave crests extend well above the highest mountains, sometimes into the lower stratosphere. Under each wave crest is a rotary circulation, the “rotor” forms below the elevation of the mountain peaks. Turbulence can be violent in the overturning rotor. Updrafts and downdrafts in the waves can also create violent turbulence.When planning a flight over mountainous terrain, gather as much preflight information as possible on cloud reports, wind direction, wind speed, and stability of air. Satellites often help locate mountain waves, but adequate information may not always be available, so remain alert for signposts in the sky. What should you look for both during preflight planning and during your in flight observations?Wind at mountain top level in excess of 25 knots suggests some turbulence. Wind in excess of 40 knots across a mountain barrier dictates caution. Stratified clouds mean stable air. Standing lenticular and rotor clouds suggest a mountain wave; expect turbulence many miles to the lee of mountains and relative smooth flight on the windward side. Convective clouds on the windward the mountain.When approaching mountains from the leeward side during strong winds, you’d better begin your climb well away from the mountain—100 miles in mountain wave .Climb to an altitude 3,000 to 5,000 feet above mountain tops before attempting to cross. The best procedure is to approach a ridge at a 45°angle to enable a rapid retreat to calmer air. If unable to make good on your first attempt and you have higher altitude capabilities, you may back off and make another attempt at higher altitude. Sometimes you may have to choose between turning back or detouring the area.Flying mountain passes and valleys is not a safe procedure during high winds. The mountains funnel the wind into passes and valleys thus increasing wind speed and intensifying turbulence. If winds at mountain top level are strong, go high, or go around. Surface wind may be relatively calm in a valley surrounded by mountains when wind aloft is strong.. If taking off in the valley, climb above mountain clearance from the mountains sufficient to allow recovery if caught in a downdraft.WIND SHEARWind shear generates eddies between two wind currents of differing velocities. The differences may be in wind speed, wind direction, or in both. Wind shear may be associated with either a wind shift or a wind speed gradient at any level in the atmosphere. Three conditions are of special interest—(1) wind shear with a low-level temperature inversion, (2) wind shear in a frontal zone, and (3) clear air turbulence at high levels associated with a jet stream or strong circulation.WIND SHEAR WITH A LOW-LEVEL TEMPERATURE INVERSIONWhen surface wind is calm or very light, takeoff or landing can be in any direction. Takeoff may be in the direction of the wind above the inversion. If so, the aircraft encounters a sudden tailwind and a corresponding loss of airspeed when climbing through the inversion. Stall is possible. If approach is into the wind above the inversion, the headwind is suddenly lost when descending through the inversion. Again, a sudden loss in airspeed may induce a stall.A temperature inversion forms near the surface on a clear night with calm or light surface wind. When taking off or landing in calm wind under clear skies within a few hours before or after sunrise, be prepared for a temperature inversion near the ground. You can be relatively certain of a shear zone in the inversion if you know the wind as 2000 to 4000 feet is 25 knots or more. Allow a margin of airspeed above normal climb or approach speed to alleviate danger of stall in event of turbulence or sudden change in wind velocity.WIND SHEAR IN A FRONTAL ZONEA front can contain many hazards. However, a front can be between two dry stable airmasses and can be devoid of clouds. Even so, wind changes abruptly in the frontal zone and can inducewind shear turbulence. The degree of turbulence depends on the magnitude of the wind shear. When turbulence in expected in a frontal zone, follow turbulence penetration procedures recommended in your aircraft manual.CLEAR AIR TURBULENCEClear air turbulence implies turbulence devoid of clouds. However, we commonly reserve the term for high level wind shear turbulence, even when in cirrus clouds. A preferred location of CAT is in an upper trough on the cold side of the jet stream. Another frequent CAT location is along the jet stream north and northeast of a rapidly deepening surface low. Even clear air turbulence can destroyed the aircraft so easily, it is every pilots’ obligation to report the CAT when encountered, and pilot when preflight must check the weather forecast, and report to make sure there is no CAT in the flight path.WAKE TURBULENCEAn aircraft receives its lift by accelerating a mass of air downward. Thus, whenever the wings are providing lift, air is forced downward under the wings generating rotary motions or vortices off the wing tips. When the landing gear bears the entire weight of the aircraft, no wing tip vortices develop. But the instant the pilot “hauls back” on the controls, these vortices begin and spread downward and outward from the flight path. They also drift with the wind. Strength of the vortices is proportional to the weight of the aircraft as well as other factors. Therefore, wake turbulence is more intense behind large, transport category aircraft than behind small aircraft. Generally, it is a problem only when following the larger aircraft.The turbulence persists several minutes and may linger after the aircraft is out of sight. At controlled airports, the controller generally warns pilots in the vicinity of possible wake turbulence. When left to your own resources, you could use a few pointers. Most jets when taking off lift the nose wheel about midpoint in the takeoff roll; therefore, vortices begin about the middle of the takeoff roll. Vortices behind propeller aircraft begin only a short distance behind lift-off. Followinga landing of either type of aircraft, vortices end at about the point where the nose wheel touches down. Avoid flying through these vortices. More specifically, when using the same runway as a heavier aircraft:(1)if landing behind another aircraft, keep your approach above his approach and keep youtouchdown beyond the point where his nose wheel touched the runway;(2)if landing behind a departing aircraft, land only if you can complete your landing roll beforereaching the midpoint of his takeoff roll;(3)if departing behind another departing aircraft, take off only if you can become airbornebefore reaching the midpoint of his takeoff roll and only if you can climb fast enough to stay above his flight path;(4)If departing behind a landing aircraft, don’t un less you can taxi onto the runway beyond theat which his nose wheel touched down and have sufficient runway left for safe takeoff. The foregoing procedures are elementary. The problem of wake turbulence is more operational than meteorological. The FAA issues periodic advisory circulars of operational problems. If you plan to operate out of airports used routinely by air carriers, we highly recommend you read the latest advisory circulars on wake turbulence. Titles of there circulars are listed in the FAA “Advisory Circular Checkl ist and Status of Regulations.”ICINGAircraft icing is one of the major weather hazards to aviation. Icing is a cumulative hazard. It reduces aircraft efficiency by increasing weight, reducing lift, decreasing thrust, and increasing drag. As shown in figure 1, each effect tends to either slow the aircraft or force it downward. Icing also seriously impairs aircraft engine performance. Other icing effects include false indications on flight instruments, loss of radio communications, and loss of operation of control surfaces, brakes, and landing gear.Figure 1. Effects of structural icing.In this article we discuss the principles of structural, induction system, and instrument icing, and other factors on icing. Although ground icing and frost are structural icing, we discuss them separately because of their different effect on an aircraft. And we wind up the chapter with a few operational pointers.STRUCTURAL ICINGTwo conditions are necessary for structural icing in flight: (1) the aircraft must be flying through visible water such as rain or cloud droplets, and (2) temperature at the point where the moisture strikes the aircraft must be 0° ; C or colder. Aerodynamic cooling can lower temperature of an airfoil to 0° C even though the ambient temperature is a few degrees warmer.Supercooled water increases the rate of icing and is essential to rapid accretion. Supercooled water is in an unstable liquid state; when an aircraft strikes a supercooled drop, part of the drop freezes instantaneously. The latent heat of fusion released by the freezing portion raises the temperature of the remaining portion to the melting point. Aerodynamic effects may cause theremaining portion to freeze. The way in which the remaining portion freezes determines the type of icing. The types of structural icing are clear, rime, and a mixture of the two. Each type has its identifying features.CLEAR ICEClear ice forms when after initial impact, the remaining liquid portion of the drop flows out over the aircraft surface gradually freezing as a smooth sheet of solid ice. This type forms when drops are large as in rain or in cumuliform clouds. Figure 2 illustrates ice on the cross section of an airfoil, clear ice shown at the top.Figure 2. Clear, rime, and mixed icing on airfoilsRIME ICERime ice forms when drops are small, such as those in stratified clouds or light drizzle. The liquid portion remaining after initial impact freezes rapidly before the drop has time to spread over the aircraft surface. The small frozen droplets trap air between them giving the ice a white appearance as shown at the center of figure 2.Rime ice is lighter in weight than clear ice and its weight is of little significance. However, its irregular shape and rough surface make it very effective in decreasing aerodynamic efficiency of airfoils, thus reducing lift and increasing drag. Rime ice is brittle and more easily removed than clear ice.MIXED CLEAR AND RIME ICINGMixed ice forms when drops vary in size or when liquid drops are intermingled with snow or ice particles. It can form rapidly. Ice particles become imbedded in clear ice, building a very rough accumulation sometimes in a mushroom shape on leading edges as shown at the bottom of figure 2.INDUCTION ICINGIce frequently forms in the air intake of an engine robbing the engine of air to support combustion. This type icing occurs with both piston and jet engines, and almost everyone in the aviation community is familiar with carburetor icing. The downward moving piston in a piston engine or the compressor in a jet engine forms a partial vacuum in the intake. Adiabatic expansion in the partial vacuum cools the air. Ice forms when the temperature drops below freezing and sufficient moisture is present for sublimation. In piston engines, fuel evaporation produces additional cooling. Induction icing always lowers engine performance and can even reduce intake flow below that necessary for the engine to operate. Figure 3 illustrates carburetor icing.Figure 3. Carburetor icing. Expansional cooling of air and vaporization of fuel can induce freezing and cause ice to clog the carburetor intake.Induction icing potential varies greatly among different aircraft and occurs under a wide range of meteorological conditions. It is primarily an engineering and operating problem rather than meteorological.INSTRUMENT ICINGIcing of the pitot tube as seen in figure 4 reduces ram air pressure on the airspeed indicator and renders the instrument unreliable. Most modern aircraft also have outside static pressure port as part of the pitot-static system. Icing of the static pressure port reduces reliability of all instruments on the system - the airspeed, rate-of-climb, and altimeter.Figure 4. Internal pitot tube icing. It renders airspeed indicator unreliable.Ice forming on the radio antenna distorts its shape, increases drag, and imposes vibrations that may result in failure in the communications system of the aircraft. The severity of this icing depends upon the shape, location, and orientation of the antenna.OTHER FACTORS IN ICINGIn addition to the above, other factors also enter into icing. Some of the more important ones are discussed below.FRONTSAtmospheric circulation is the movement of air around the surface of the Earth. It is caused by uneven heating of the Earth’s surface and upsets the equilibrium of the atmosphere, creating changes in air movement and atmospheric pressure. Because the Earth has a curved surface that rotates on a tilted axis while orbiting the sun, the equatorial regions of the Earth receive a greater amount of heat from the sun than the polar regions. The amount of sun that heats the Earth depends upon the time of day, time of year, and the latitude of the specific region. All of these factors affect the length of time and the angle at which sunlight strikes the surface. In general circulation theory, areas of low pressure exist over the equatorial regions, and areas of high pressure exist over the polar regions due to a difference in temperature. Solar heating causes air to become less dense and rise in equatorial areas. The resulting low pressure allows the high-pressure air at the poles to flow along the planet’s surface toward the equator. As the warm air flows toward the poles, it cools, becoming more dense, and sinks back toward the surface. This pattern of air circulation is correct in theory; however, the circulation of air is modified by several forces, most importantly the rotation of the Earth. The force created by the rotation of the Earth is known as Coriolis force. This force is not perceptible to us as we walk around because we move so slowly and travel relatively short distances compared to the size and rotation rate of the Earth. However, it does significantly affect bodies that move over great distances, such as anair mass or body of water. The Coriolis force deflects air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, causing it to follow a curved path instead of a straight line. The amount of deflection differs depending on the latitude. It is greatest at the poles, and diminishes to zero at the equator. The magnitude of Coriolis force also differs with the speed of the moving body—the faster the speed, the greater the deviation. In the Northern Hemisphere, the rotation of the Earth deflects moving air to the right and changes the general circulation pattern of the air. The speed of the Earth’s rotation causes the general flow to break up into three distinct cells in each hemisphere. [Figure 10-9] In the Northern Hemisphere, the warm air at the equator rises upward from the surface, travels northward, and is deflected eastward by the rotation of the Earth. By the time it has traveled one-third of the distance from the equator to the North Pole, it is no longer moving northward, but eastward. This air cools and sinks in a belt-like area at about 30°latitude, creating an area of high pressure as it sinks toward the surface. Then it flows southward along the surface back toward the equator. Coriolis force bends the flow to the right, thus creating the northeasterly trade winds that prevail from 30°latitude to the equator. Similar forces create circulation cells that encircle the Earth between 30° and 60° latitude, and between 60° and the poles. This circulation pattern results in the prevailing westerly winds in the conterminous United States. Circulation patterns are further complicated by seasonal changes, differences between the surfaces of continents and oceans, and other factors. Frictional forces caused by the topography of the Earth’s surface modify the movement of the air in the atmosphere. Within 2,000 feet of the ground, the friction between the surface and the atmosphere slows the moving air. The wind is diverted from its path because the frictional force reduces the Coriolis force. This is why the wind direction at the surface varies somewhat from the wind direction just a few thousand feet above the Earth.Air flows from areas of high pressure into those of low pressure because air always seeks out lower pressure. In the Northern Hemisphere, this flow of air from areas of high to low pressure is deflected to the right; producing a clockwise circulation around an area of high pressure. This is also known as anti-cyclonic circulation. The opposite is true of low-pressure areas; the air flows toward a low and is deflected to create a counter-clockwise or cyclonic circulation. High-pressure systems are generally areas of dry, stable, descending air. Good weather is typically associated with high-pressure systems for this reason. Conversely, air flows into a low-pressure area to replace rising air. This air tends to be unstable, and usually brings increasing cloudiness and precipitation. Thus, bad weather is commonly associated with areas of low pressure.A condition favorable for rapid accumulation of clear icing is freezing rain below a frontal surface. Rain forms above the frontal surface at temperatures warmer than freezing. Subsequently, it falls through air at temperatures below freezing and becomes supercooled. The supercooled drops freeze on impact with an aircraft surface. Figure 5 diagrams this type of icing. It may occur with either a warm front (top) or a cold front. The icing can be critical because of the large amount of supercooled water. Icing can also become serious in cumulonimbus clouds along a surface cold front, along a squall line, or embedded in the cloud shield of a warm front.Figure 5. Freezing rain with a warm front (top) and a cold front (bottom). Rainfall through warm air aloft into subfreezing cold air near the ground. The rain becomes supercooled and freezes on impact.TERRAINAir blowing upslope is cooled adiabatically. When the air is cooled below the freezing point, the water becomes supercooled. In stable air blowing up a gradual slope, the cloud drops generally remain comparatively small since larger drops fall out as rain. Ice accumulation is rather slow and you should have ample time to get out of it before the accumulation becomes extremely dangerous. When air is unstable, convective clouds develop a more serious hazard as described in "Icing and Cloud Types."Icing is more probable and more hazardous in mountainous regions than over other terrain. Mountain ranges cause rapid upward air motions on the windward side, and these vertical currentssupport large water drops. The movement of a frontal system across a mountain range often combines the normal frontal lift with the upslope effect of the mountains to create extremely hazardous icing zones.Each mountainous region has preferred areas of icing depending upon the orientation of mountain ranges to the wind flow. The most dangerous icing takes place above the crests and to the windward side of the ridges. This zone usually extends about 5,000 feet above the tops of the mountains; but when clouds are cumuliform, the zone may extend much higher.SEASONSIcing may occur during any season of the year; but in temperate climates such as cover most of the contiguous United States, icing is more frequent in winter. The freezing level is nearer the ground in winter than in summer leaving a smaller low level layer of airspace free of icing conditions. Cyclonic storms also are more frequent in winter, and the resulting cloud systems are more extensive. Polar regions have the most dangerous icing conditions in spring and fall. During the winter the air is normally too cold in the polar regions to contain heavy concentrations of moisture necessary for icing, and most cloud systems are stratiform and are composed of ice crystals.GROUND ICINGFrost, ice pellets, frozen rain, or snow may accumulate on parked aircraft. You should remove all ice prior to takeoff, for it reduces flying efficiency of the aircraft. Water blown by propellers or splashed by wheels of an airplane as it taxis or runs through pools of water or mud may result in serious aircraft icing. Ice may form in wheel wells, brake mechanisms, flap hinges, etc, and prevent proper operation of these parts. Ice on runways and taxiways create traction and braking problems.中文翻译颠簸激流每一个飞行员都有可能遇到颠簸，当一个颠簸的气流运动(包括涡旋和大的相对气流),飞机飞过这些气流时，它改变了飞机的速度，从而使飞机偏离了它平滑的航道。

寒区铁路客运专线路基冻胀变形监测方法

寒区铁路客运专线路基冻胀变形监测方法马天驰【摘要】哈齐铁路客运专线是我国目前纬度最高的高速铁路，大部分路段位于湿地之上，冬季长，气温低，路基冻胀将直接影响高速铁路运行安全。

为确保哈齐客运专线安全运营，在建设期对路基进行同步冻胀变形监测。

采用水准测量的方法，通过秋、冬、春三季对典型路段路基进行监测，分析冻胀变形可能对铁路运营带来的影响，采取有效措施加以克服，确保运营安全。

%So far,Harbin-Qiqihar passenger dedicated line has been a high-speed railway building in the highest latitude area in China,most of which segments are located in wetlands.Due to the relatively longer winter and lower temperature,the safety of operation will be affected directly by the phenomenon of subgrade frost heaving.With the railway being constructed,the deformation monitoring in subgrade frost heaving has to be done in order to ensure the safety of operation.By means of leveling surveying,the subgrade of typical segment is monitored and measured in autumn,winter and spring.The possible negative effects on railway operation caused by subgrade frost heaving are studied,and the effective measures are taken to undo the adverse effect,sequentially ensuring the safety of wailway operation.【期刊名称】《黑龙江工程学院学报（自然科学版）》【年(卷),期】2015(000)003【总页数】3页(P22-24)【关键词】客运专线;路基冻胀;变形监测;水准测量【作者】马天驰【作者单位】黑龙江工程学院测绘工程学院，黑龙江哈尔滨 150050【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TU196+.1哈齐铁路客运专线是黑龙江省第一条开建的省内客运专线，是黑龙江省省会哈尔滨到黑龙江省第二大城市齐齐哈尔之间的高速铁路，是国家“十二五”规划的重点工程。

加拿大冻土

Morphology and geotechnique of active-layer detachment failures in discontinuous and continuous permafrost,northern CanadaAntoni G.Lewkowicz a,T ,Charles Harris baDepartment of Geography,University of Ottawa,Ottawa,Canada K1N 6N5bSchool of Earth,Ocean and Planetary Sciences,University of Cardiff,Cardiff,CF103YE,UK Received 5April 2004;received in revised form 15January 2005;accepted 24January 2005Available online 8March 2005AbstractFifty active-layer detachment failures triggered after forest fire in the discontinuous permafrost zone (central Mackenzie Valley,658N.)are compared to several hundred others caused by summer meteorological triggers in continuous permafrost (Fosheim Peninsula,Ellesmere Island,808N).Most failures fall into compact or elongated morphological categories.The compact type occur next to stream channels and have little internal disturbance of the displaced block,whereas the elongated types can develop on any part of the slope and exhibit greater internal deformation.Frequency distributions of length-to-width and length-to-depth ratios are similar at all sites.Positive pore pressures,expected theoretically,were measured in the field at the base of the thawing layer.Effective stress analysis could predict the instability of slopes in both areas,providing cohesion across the thaw plane was set to zero and/or residual strength parameters were employed.The location of the shear planes or zones in relation to the permafrost table and the degree of post-failure secondary movements (including headwall recession and thermokarst development within the failure track)differed between the localities,reflecting dissimilarity in the environmental triggers and in the degree of ground thermal disturbance.D 2005Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.Keywords:Landslides;Permafrost;Slope stability1.IntroductionActive-layer detachment failures are translational landslides that occur in summer in thawing soil overlying permafrost.They develop on very gentle to moderate slopes and are characterized by a shallow failure plane that runs parallel to the surface.Detach-ment failures are widely reported from northern North America,especially from the Mackenzie Valley (e.g.,Hughes et al.,1973;Mackay and Matthews,1973;McRoberts and Morgenstern,1973,1974;Harry and MacInnes,1988;Aylsworth and Egginton,1994;Aylsworth et al.,2000;Dyke,2000),the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (e.g.,Hodgson,1977;Stangl et al.,1982;Mathewson and Mayer-Cole,1984),and Alaska (e.g.,Anderson et al.,1969;Carter and Galloway,1981).Siberian examples have also been0169-555X/$-see front matter D 2005Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.01.011T Corresponding author.E-mail address:alewkowi@uottawa.ca (A.G.Lewkowicz).Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297/locate/geomorphdescribed (e.g.,Leibman,1995;Leibman and Egorov,1996;Leibman et al.,2003).Most of these studies have focused on individual failures or on creating an inventory of all such landslides along a transportation corridor (e.g.,Aylsworth et al.,2000;Aylsworth and Traynor,2001).We are not aware of any detailed comparative investigations from areas with differing permafrost conditions.In this paper,we compare active-layer detachments at sites within the central Mackenzie Valley (658N)in relatively warm,discontinuous permafrost to failures over cold,continuous permafrost on the Fosheim Peninsula,Ellesmere Island (808N)(Fig.1).Our goal is to examine the similarities and differences between forms,process variables,and trigger mechanisms.We have published previously on the Ellesmere sites (Lewkowicz,1990,1992;Harris and Lewkowicz,1993a,b,2000),whereas others have reported ongeotechnical conditions and remedial slope stability measures at one of the Mackenzie Valley sites (Savigny et al.,1995;Hanna et al.,1998).This paper provides complete descriptions and analyses of the Mackenzie Valley sites,as well as updated maps for the Fosheim Peninsula to include significant land-sliding that took place in 1998.A companion paper (Lewkowicz and Harris,2005)discusses environ-mental triggers,frequency and magnitude relations and potential links to climate change.2.Study areas2.1.Mackenzie Valley sitesFieldwork in the Mackenzie Valley (see Fig.1)was undertaken in August 1995.Forty-fivedetach-Fig.1.Location map of the study areas in relation to permafrost zones in Canada (after Heginbottom et al.,1995).Study sites are shown by squares and weather stations by dots.NW:Norman Wells;T:Tulita (formerly Fort Norman);W:Wrigley.Inset shows the location of the three study areas on the Fosheim Peninsula,Ellesmere Island.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297276ment failures were examined at the main site (KP 182;Fig.2),an unnamed tributary valley of the Mackenzie River south of the Saline River con-fluence,at approximately kilometer post 182of the Norman Wells oil pipeline (64817V N,124828V W).This area had been burned in a forest fire (designated VQ 037/94)1year earlier in July 1994(Savigny et al.,1995).Reconnaissance-level observations were also made of seven fresh detach-ment failures along the eastern bank of the Mackenzie River ~40km SE of Norman Wells,4km SE of the confluence with Jungle Ridge Creek and opposite the Halfway Islands (6582V N,12688V W).These slope failures resulted from fire VQ 009/95,which took place in early to mid-June 1995(Hanna et al.,1998).The KP 182site was mapped by Heginbottom and Radburn (1992)as intermediate,discontinuous permafrost (permafrost underlying about 50%of the area)with low to moderate ice content.The Halfway Islands site was mapped as having similar ground ice contents in widespread discontinuous permafrost.Mean annual ground temperatures at the depth of zero amplitude are À1.58C to À28C and permafrost thickness is about 50–100m (Heginbottom et al.,1995;Hanna et al.,1998).The meandering valley at KP 182is incised into a plateau to depths of 30–50m.The bedrock is composed of shales,dolomites,and sandstones of Paleozoic age (Geological Survey of Canada,1981).The area was glaciated during the late Wisconsinan,and is blanketed by glaciolacustrine silts and clays with sand layers underlain by a silty clay till (Vincent,1989;Savigny et al.,1995;Duc-Rodkin and Lemmen,2000).Mean annual air temperatures at the site likely lie between À6.28C measured 85km to the NW at Tulita (formerly Fort Norman)and À5.18C measured 125km to the SE at Wrigley (data from Burns,1973).The climate is continental with a difference between January and July monthly temperatures of 458C and total precipitation of about 330mm.The site is in the boreal forest zone and before the 1994fire,was covered by white spruce (Picea glauca )and white birch (Betula neoalaskana ),with black spruce (Picea mariana )in poorly drained locations.Prior to the fire,most slopes would have had a ground cover of mosses and/orpeat.Fig.2.Map of active-layer detachments at KP 182,Mackenzie Valley,in August 1995.Slope failures occurring prior to 24September 1994are outlined from aerial photographs.Those occurring after this date and prior to fieldwork in August 1995are shown by lines because detailed failure maps were produced only in selected cases.Failures 28(see Fig.7)and 33(see Fig.8A)are marked.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297277Fig.3.Map of active-layer detachment failures at Black Top Creek.Modified from Lewkowicz (1992)and up-dated to summer 2000.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297278The climate and vegetation cover at the Halfway Islands site are similar to those at KP182.Bedrock also comprises sandstones and shales of Paleozoic age (Geological Survey of Canada,1981).Air temper-atures are probably virtually the same as at KP182 because the mean value at Norman Wells40km to the NW isÀ6.48C(Atmospheric Environment Service, 1984b).The area is mapped as an eroding river bank adjacent to a glaciolacustrine silt-clay plain(Hanley and Chatwin,1975;Duc-Rodkin,2002)with the potential for detachment failure and retrogressive thaw slumping of the15–208bluff adjacent to the Mackenzie River,especially following fire.2.2.Ellesmere Island sitesFieldwork on the Fosheim Peninsula,Ellesmere Island(see Fig.1)was carried out annually from 1988–1997and again in2000.Three lowland sites, ranging from1.6to11.5km2in area and located within35km of Eureka(808N,85841V W),were studied:Black Top Creek(BTC;Fig.3),Hot Weather Creek(HWC;Fig.4)and b Big Slide Creek Q(BSC; Fig.5)(unofficial name).The BTC and HWC study areas are largely below the Holocene marine limit of about140m asl(Bell,1996),while BSC is above this limit.Bedrock in BTC consists of poorly lithified shales,siltstones,sandstones,and mudstones belong-ing to the Awingak,Deer Bay and Isachsen For-mations of Mesozoic age(Geological Survey of Canada,1971b).The BSC and HWC areas are underlain by Tertiary sandstones,siltstones,shales and coal of the Eureka Sound Formation(Geological Survey of Canada,1971a).Surficial materials are dominantly low-to medium-plasticity clays and silts of marine,glacial,and colluvial origin.HWC has slightly sandier soils and BTC exhibits the finest grain sizes(Lewkowicz,1992;Harris and Lewkowicz, 2000).The climate of the Fosheim Peninsula is cold and dry.Eureka,located on the north shore of Slidre Fiord, has a mean annual air temperature ofÀ208C and annual precipitation of64mm(Atmospheric Environ-ment Service,1984a).Summer air temperatures, however,are relatively warm for this latitude:the July average at Eureka is5.48C,and temperatures are still greater away from coastal influences(e.g., Atkinson,2000).The active layer typically variesin Fig.4.Map of active-layer detachment failures at Hot Weather Creek. Modified from Lewkowicz(1992)and updated to summer2000.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris/Geomorphology69(2005)275–297279Fig.5.Map of active-layer detachment failures at b Big Slide Creek Q .Modified from Lewkowicz (1992)and updated to summer 2000.Failure 1(see Fig.8B)is marked.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297280thickness from0.5to0.9m with the greatest depths in sandy soils.It overlies continuous permafrost,with a temperature of aboutÀ178C,extending to depths of about500m(Heginbottom et al.,1995).The area falls within the enriched prostrate shrub zone of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago(Edlund and Alt, 1989),and the vegetation is dominated by grasses, Dryas integrifolia and Salix arctica.Typical vegeta-tion cover is up to50%on hummocky Salix-Dryas tundra and b20%on drier,more-exposed slopes(also dominated by a Salix-Dryas community).Detachment failure scars are largely vegetation-free and may remain so for decades at BTC and HWC as salt release occurs from the uppermost,formerly peren-nially-frozen,marine sediments(Kokelj and Lewko-wicz,1999).3.MethodsActive-layer detachments were mapped in the field using50-m tape measures and an Abney hand level. The timing and frequency of failure was established from aerial photos(oblique and vertical)and repetitive field mapping.Detailed site plans were made of selected detach-ment failures.Inspection pits were excavated in scar floors,tracks,and displaced masses to obtain undisturbed samples for subsequent geotechnical analyses.Instantaneous ground temperature profiles were measured with a YSI44033thermistor located in the tip of a steel probe that was pushed progressively into the thawed soil(Mackenzie Valley sites)or by using the same type of thermistor pre-installed at various depths in PVC tubes(Fosheim Peninsula sites).A Druck miniature pore pressure transducer(Type PDCR81),sealed into the tip of a stainless steel probe,was used to obtain in situ pore pressures.The instrument was installed immediately above the thaw front by pushing to the base of a hand-augered vertical hole.Readings were taken at 30-min intervals for up to6h until a constant output was achieved(Harris and Lewkowicz,2000).Undis-turbed soil samples were collected in60-mm square by50-mm deep plastic boxes for testing in a standard60-mm shear box(BS1377,1990).In addition,in situ undrained shear strengths were measured in the field using a hand shear vane.The vane was pushed horizontally into a cleaned trial pit face with five repetitions made at each depth to provide an average value.Laboratory analyses included determination of soil grain-size distributions,Atterberg Limits,and shear strength,following British Standard procedures(BS 1377,1990).Granulometry was measured by wet sieving to separate the sand from the silt/clay fractions.The sand fraction was then dried and sieved,and the silt/clay fraction was analysed using a Sedigraph.The cone penetrometer method was used in the Atterberg Limit determination and a standard 60-mm shear box provided peak and residual shear strengths.4.ResultsResults focus on the following geomorphological characteristics of active-layer detachment failures:(i) morphology,(ii)morphometry,(iii)geotechnical properties,(iv)calculations of slope stability,and(v) post-failure change.For each aspect,we compare the results from the Mackenzie Valley to those from Ellesmere Island.4.1.MorphologyActive-layer detachments can develop on foot-slope,midslope or crestslope segments or extend from slope crest to the valley bottom.Most can be classified morphologically as either compact or elongate(Fig.6),although intermediate and complex forms occasionally ndslide morphology was independent of permafrost conditions,and a full range of morphological types was present at the Mackenzie Valley and at the Fosheim Peninsula sites.pact formsCompact detachment failures are typically bell-shaped with a curved scar headwall and a fairly straight edge running across the downslope part of the toe(Fig.6A).These forms are small(generally b30m wide or long)and develop on convex slope segments-often next to an incised stream bed or floodplain—where there is little buttressing of the slope and little resistance is offered to teral compression ridges are low or nonexistent,and sliding distancesA.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris/Geomorphology69(2005)275–297281are often only a few metres,resulting in minimal internal deformation of the displaced mass.An example of a compact form is Failure 28at KP 182(Fig.7).This landslide is 14–16m wide,22–28m long,and is located on a NW-facing slope adjacent to the stream.Under the burnt organic mat,a silty sand layer of variable thickness with lenses of plastic clay,overlies clay containing rounded cobbles.AsimpleFig.6.Photographs of active-layer detachments over warm and cold permafrost.(A)Typical compact failures at BSC,Fosheim Peninsula.(B)Typical elongated failures at KP 182,Mackenzie Valley;a compact failure is shown in the lower left of the photo adjacent to the stream.(C)Typical elongated failures at BTC,Fosheim Peninsula.(D)Failure plane at Halfway Islands site,Mackenzie Valley;the slide plane consisted of about 20%ice lenses 3–4mm thick and 80%frozen soil in 10–20mm thick layers (pocket knife is 9cm long).Soil blocks attached to the rootballs of burnt trees were actively moving downslope over the thawing surface at the time of observation.(E)Failure plane at recent detachment slide south of Eureka Sound on the Fosheim Peninsula;ice in the failure plane had already thawed at the time of observation.(F)Complex detachment failure with conjoined toes,BSC,Fosheim Peninsula.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297282failure history is interpreted with the major downslope block moving first over a failure plane at an angle of 238and running out into the stream bed.This was followed by the release and sliding of smaller blocks because of the absence of downslope support.In total,the blocks moved 3–4m downslope.After the main failure event,thawing in the scar floor and headwall of Failure 28initiated a small retrogressive thaw slump that was active at the time of inspection in August 1995and had produced a mudflow fan.The additional loading from the mudflow and the water release caused minor move-ments of the main block:surface displacements of 2–3cm were measured over 4days.Thaw depths within the landslide were all N 90cm (the length of the probe),except in front of the thawing face in the SE corner where they were only a few cm.Thaw depths ranging from 45–80cm were measured in a few small hollows outside the failure boundary where the organic mat was largely unburnt.These values give an indication of pre-fire conditions on theslope.Fig.7.Plan and profile of a typical compact active-layer detachment:Failure 28,KP 182,Mackenzie Valley.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–2972834.1.2.Elongated formsElongated active-layer detachments usually have trapezoidal or hour-glass shapes (Fig.6B,C).They may be initiated anywhere on the slope and some-times extend from crest to base.Scar zones and tracks are bare or contain fragmented residual displaced blocks,and toe zones comprise severely deformed sediments suggesting higher velocities and greater inertia during failure (Harris and Lewkowicz,2000).Length-to-width ratios can exceed 20.Failure 33at KP 182,Mackenzie Valley,is about 90m long and 8–10m wide (Fig.8A).Beneath the burnt organic mat,the soils are dominantly sands with plastic silty clay at greater depths.The scar and track constitute about 60%of the landslide length,a much higher proportion than in compact type failures.Movement of the main displaced block appears to have started by sliding at the top of the slope where the gradient in the undisturbed terrain is about rge lateral compression ridges were created as the displaced mass ploughed downslope for 50m.After the main failure,secondary movements occurred in areas adjacent to the scar,giving rise to compression ridges and partially displaced masses.The thaw depth beneath trial pit 3in the main displaced block was almost 2m in August 1995.One of three elongated active-layer detachments at BSC that exceed 500m in length is shown in Fig.8B.Failure took place in 1987(Lewkowicz,1992).Silts and sands form a hard surface crust and are underlain by silty sandy clays.Slope gradients are 128at the top of the slope and decrease to 1.5–38inFig.8.Plans and profiles of typical elongated active-layer detachments.(A)Failure 33,KP 182,Mackenzie Valley.(B)Failure 1,BSC,Fosheim Peninsula.Note:downslope is to the left on pit diagrams.A.G.Lewkowicz,C.Harris /Geomorphology 69(2005)275–297284Fig.8(continued).the lower part,while the failure scar and track increase in width from b50m to~150m.The toe of the landslide is complex:on the south side,a resistant part of the slope was folded and sheared into transverse vegetated ridges up to0.3m high when impacted by a sliding mass from upslope(Test Pit4,Fig.8B);on the north side,the displaced block moved out onto the creek floor before stopping,and inertia from the trailing edge created similar ridges up to 1.5m high.The track contained individual blocks(Test Pits2and3,Fig.8B),tens of metres in length,as well as numerous small blocks less than a metre across,(the result of extension during move-ment)standing upright on the slide floor.Thermokarst development and downslope drainage in the scar floor destroyed some of the evidence needed to form a conclusive failure history.One possibility is that failure started near the base of the slope where the supra-permafrost groundwater table tends to be high.After movement of the lowermost soil masses,unsupported blocks upslope progres-sively failed.The problem with this hypothesis is that it requires the initial movement to take place on an extremely low-angled part of the slope.Alternatively, failure may have taken place on the steeper upper part of the slope with displaced blocks progressively overloading the slope below(e.g.,Mathewson and Mayer-Cole,1984).The evidence of overthrusting that would have been expected under this hypothesis was not observed,but it could have been destroyed by subsequent erosion of the scar.plex formsA small minority of active-layer detachments have complex morphologies that do not fit within the two main types.These include compact failures with cuspate scar headwalls that result from block move-ment into the pre-developed scar zone and elongated forms with more than one scar zone and conjoined toes(Fig.6F).Multiple movements occurred in medium to high plasticity clays containing lenses of fine sand at a failure site at the Halfway Islands and resulted in a particularly complex form(Fig.9).Thaw depths in the scar were38cm or less at the time of observation(3August1995)indicating that the initial movements had taken place several days to a week previously.The lowermost displaced mass moved about10m in about2min during field mapping and burnt fallen trees with soil attached to their rootballs were observed sliding down a thaw plane in the NE corner of the plex forms,therefore, represent multiple movements—some separated by a few minutes or hours,and others by several days or even weeks.4.2.MorphometryThe large numbers of detachment failures observed at the four main study sites allow descriptive statistics to be calculated for basic morphometric parameters. Such morphometric analyses can also be useful in differentiating the processes responsible for land-sliding(e.g.,Crozier,1973).The plan dimensions of detachment failures show considerable variation(Table1).Widths are log-normally distributed at all four sites,as are lengths on the Fosheim Peninsula.At KP182,lengths approximate a normal distribution.In terms of median sizes,KP182dimensions fall within the range of the Fosheim sites.Neither KP182nor HWC,however, have failures N160m long;and failure angles are greater at these sites,reflecting shorter and steeper valley sideslopes.Minimum failure angles at KP182 are2–3times greater than at the other sites,and none is b108.Median scar lengths,expressed as a propor-tion of the entire length of the detachment failure,are 35%at BTC and50%at the other three sites.The planform of active-layer detachments can be examined using ratios of length to mean width. Median values of these ratios range from2.4to3.6 (Table1)and distributions at all four sites are fairly similar except in the tails(Fig.10).KP182has the greatest percentage of compact active-layer detach-ments with lengths less than widths(i.e.,ratios b1) (Table1),while BSC has many more highly elongated failures with ratios z10(almost15%).The highest length-to-width ratio(41)was obtained at BSC for a 300-m-long landslide with a mean width of6.5m, which was partially confined by an ephemeral runoff channel.Correlation analysis was used to determine if statistically significant relationships exist between the main morphometric variables(Table2).Slope failures at BTC and HWC have similar interrelation-ships with statistically significant positive correlations between length and width and between percentagescar length and failure angle.Significant negative correlations are present between width and failure angle and between length and failure angle.The positive correlations demonstrate that active-layer detachments at these sites tend to enlarge in both planar dimensions and on steeper slopes,the displaced blocks move farther relative to total failure length. The negative correlations indicate that the widest and longest failures are found on the gentlest slopes. Taken together,these results show that displaced masses are greatest on gentler slopes;but in relation to overall failure length,these masses move shorter distances.BSC does not show the same relationships as the other two Fosheim sites,with the exception of the positive correlation between length and width.The KP182site also exhibits only one statistically significant correlation,a negative one between length and slope angle.The lack of congruence between the results for all four sites suggests that local mesoscale geomorphic factors(such as typical slope lengths,pre-existing cross-slope depressions,slope hydrology,and Fig.9.Plan and profile of complex detachment failure at Halfway Islands site,Mackenzie Valley.soil properties)are additional controls on the morpho-logical inter-relationships of detachment failures.An accurate assessment of the depth of thaw at the time of failure is problematic because of irreversible loss of ground ice on the failure plane,throughout the scar and beneath displaced blocks (Lewkowicz,1992).Such melt causes thaw settle-ment of an amount that is unknown even at the time of the next thaw season.Consequently,we did not make statistically valid measurements of this param-eter.Despite the ~158C difference in permafrost temperatures between KP 182and the Fosheim Peninsula,however,scar depth and block thickness vary relatively little in absolute terms,with typical values of 45–60cm on Ellesmere Island and 70–80cm at KP 182.The shallow,pre-fire active layer at KP 182was maintained by a thick organic mat,the destruction of which caused the active-layer detach-ment activity.The shallow active layer on the Fosheim Peninsula is a response to low summer air temperatures.The effect of climate alone,eliminating the influence of the organic mat,can be shown by comparing undisturbed thaw depths for Ellesmere Island (65–75cm)with the ashed values for the Mackenzie Valley (190cm)(Fig.11).Assuming a median depth of 0.55m for the Fosheim sites and 0.75m for KP 182gives median classification indices [depth/length expressed as a percentage;Crozier,1973]of about 2%at KP 182and 1–2%at the Fosheim Peninsula sites.In nonperma-frost areas,these values would be indicative of flow-type failures (Crozier,1973),not planar slides.These results demonstrate the special nature of active-layer detachment:it takes place when effective shear stress is very low (thin detached mass and low-angled slopes)because shear strengths in thawing soil over frozen ground are also extremely low.Thus,this index suggests that failure processes at the study sites are fundamentally similar even though planar dimensions and some inter-relationships vary.Table 1Dimensions of active-layer detachment failures a SiteNumber of detachment failures Median width (m)Maximum width (m)Median length (m)Maximum length (m)Median failure angle (8)Minimum failure angle (8)Median scar length (%total length)Median length-to-width ratio Length-to-width ratio b 1(%)KP 18245147834120201350 2.518Black Top Creek 23720954267012435 2.46Hot Weather Creek 15910483016024750 3.68Big Slide Creek 191138538680135503.07aWidths and failure angles are derived from averages for individual detachmentfailures.Fig.10.Histograms of detachment failure length-to-width ratios for the four main study sites.4.3.Geotechnical propertiesSoils subject to detachment failure were domi-nantly silty clays (Fig.12;Table 3).In the Mackenzie Valley,the highest clay contents were observed at the Halfway Islands site (54–63%)and the lowest atFailure 33at KP 182(24–28%)where soils contained up to 48%sand.On the Fosheim Peninsula,little difference was noted in the range of grain-sizes at BTC and BSC;but HWC had the most variable granulometry,including some sandier horizons within the dominantly silty pared to the Mack-enzie Valley,the soils on the Fosheim were inter-mediate between the Halfway Islands and KP 182sites.Atterberg Limits showed a close correspondence with granulometry,with higher plasticity observed in soils with higher clay contents.In the Mackenzie Valley,all the samples were classified as clays;whereas at the Fosheim sites,clays and silts and were present (Fig.12).Almost all samples were of medium or low plasticity.Laboratory samples were collected as close to the thaw front as possible and are considered to provide strength parameters corresponding to the zone of shearing during slope failure.Strength parameters were similar across all sites,with /V and cohesion values ranging from 238and 2.5kPa on Ellesmere Island to 298and 0kPa in the Mackenzie Valley (Table 4).In situ shear strengths (Table 5)generally reflected the granulometry and moisture status of the active layers,with lower values observed in wet clays and in low density sandy horizons.4.4.Calculations of slope stabilityFour main approaches have been used in the calculation of the stability of thawing slopes (Harris and Lewkowicz,2000).Three adopt an infinite slope model with a planar failure surface coincident with the thaw front (Chandler,1972;Hutchinson,1974;McRo-berts and Morgenstern,1974).A fourth approachTable 2Correlation coefficients for dimensions of active-layer detachment failures a SiteLength vs.width Width vs.failure angle Length vs.failure angle Ratio of length to width vs.failure angle Percentage scar length vs.failure angle KP 1820.02À0.02À0.40TT À0.28À0.19Black Top Creek 0.71TTT À0.45TTT À0.57TTT À0.37TTT 0.31T Hot Weather Creek 0.26TT À0.31TTT À0.35TTT À0.100.44TTT Big Slide Creek0.36TTT0.000.010.010.10aAll correlations carried out with log-transformed data;sample sizes are variable for different pairs of data;statistical significance:T p V 0.05;TT p V 0.01;TTT p V0.001.Fig.11.Instantaneous ground temperature profiles at sites in Mackenzie Valley and Fosheim Peninsula.All readings taken between 27July and 8August 1995.。

复杂地层内地铁联络通道冻结施工冻胀控制研究

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由表２可知，在相同外部条件下，淤泥质粉质粘土的抗压强度与抗拉强度均小于其他土层， ⑧：分别为３６ａ２ａ基于安全考虑，３６ａ２３ａ．和－ＭＰ，５ＭＰ３将．和－ＭＰ分别作为冻土体抗压强度和抗拉强度设计值，５ＭＰ
３冻胀对冻结效果影响的数值分析
３１三维计算模型及参数选取．ｔ建立三维有限元模型（如图２图３～所示）在对称界面约束其法向位移，，模型总尺寸为２２ｍｘ０５ｍ￣０５ｍ，采用空间８节点六面体单元进行离散，共计划分１４１１０５个单元。冻土体温度设定为一０不同土层的弹ｌ ℃，
性模量和泊松比等计算参数采用冻土特性和强度测试结果，对于主隧道管片结构，选取Ｃ０５钢筋混凝土参数，而对于联络通道结构，按联络通道设计取值，如表３所示。河床以上静水压力以附加面荷载施加，承压水头也以附加面荷载作用在承压含水层顶板和底板界面处。
图２有限元模型总体图
表１联络通道周边土层物理力学性质
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Holmgeirsson冰岛地热科学钻探

Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April 2010Drilling Operations of the First Iceland Deep Drilling Well (IDDP)Sveinbjörn Hólmgeirsson 1), Ásgrímur Guðmundsson 1), Bjarni Pálsson 1), Hinrik Árni Bóasson 2), Kristinn Ingason 2),Sverrir Þórhallsson 3)1)Landsvirkjun Power, Háaleitisbraut 68, 103 Reykjavik, Iceland,2) Mannvit Engineering, Grensásvegur 1, 108 Reykjavík, Iceland,3) Iceland GeoSurvey, Grensásvegur 1, 108 Reykjavík, Icelandsveinbjorn@lvp.is, asgrimurg@lvp.is, bjarnip@lvp.is, hab@mannvit.is, kristinn@mannvit.is, s@isor.isKeywords: IDDP, Geothermal, Drilling, Magma and Super Critical ConditionsABSTRACTLandsvirkjun (The National Power Company in Iceland) drilled the first IDDP science well of three proposed by the research project, in NE-Iceland at Krafla. The IDDP consortium is composed of Landsvirkjun, HS Orka and Orkuveita Reykjavíkur, Alcoa Inc. Cananda, StaoilHydro ASA, Norway, ICDP, US NSF, Orkustofnun. Preparation for the drilling initiated in the year 2000 and continued until the drilling activity started with a pre drilling in the mid year 2008 and a drilling to 800 m started later in the same year. Drilling to 4,5 km continued in March 2009 in the search for a supercritical fluid. However, after almost three months of drilling problems, getting stuck, having twist offs, and having to sidetrack two times, the source of these problems became clear at 2104 m depth when the drillbit had obviously drilled into a magma pocket of some size. Quenched volcanic glass was returned to the surface, estimated to have been about 1050°C before cooling.1. INTRODUCTIONHigh temperature geothermal resources in Iceland, at the volcanic rift zone, have been harnessed for decades for district heating and electricity production. Up to 200 high temperature wells have been drilled to depths of 2-3 km where temperatures above 300°C are found. Since 2000 preparations have been ongoing to drill to 4 - 5 km deep well with the aim of finding and investigating the feasibility to utilize supercritical fluid, where the temperature and the pressure are above the critical point for fresh water (374.15°C and 22.12 MPa).Exploration drilling at the Krafla geothermal field began in 1974 in and was followed the year after by construction of the power plant and concurrently with production drilling. The 20th of December 1975 a volcanic eruption occurred within the Krafla caldera, followed by volcanic unrest for the following nine years, including 9 volcanic eruption and about 15 swelling and subsidence events. The volcanic activity severely affected the geothermal reservoir severely and limited the steam production. It also influenced the installation of the 2nd power plant turbine, which was not commissioned until 1997, and it took to 1999 to reach full production of the 60 MW e installed.A Drilling Contract was signed in August 2008 with Jardboranir hf., an Icelandic Drilling Company. The Contract was a day rate contract, which is unusual in the Icelandic geothermal industry, which is more used to meter or footage rated contracts.References:Fridleifsson, G. Ó. and Pálsson, B., 2009, Þórhallsson,et al., 2009, Friðleifsson, et al., 2009, Guðmundsson,et al., 2009, Skinner, et al., 2009, Ingason, et al., 2009, Pope, et al., 2009, Freedman, et al., Christenson, et al., 2009, Marks, et al., 2009.2. WELL SCENARIOS, DESIGN AND DRILLING Several well designs, drilling and coring methods were evaluated (Þórhallsson et al 2009). This resulted in the following casing program:Figure 1. Well design•Surface casing to -100 m – 32” x ½” X56 welded.Wellbore drilled with 26” roller cone bit and 36”under-reamer. Rotary drilled.•Intermediate casing I to -300 m – 24 ½” 162 lb/ft K55, Tenaris/Hydril 563 threads. Wellbore drilledwith 26 ½” roller cone bit. Rotary mud-drilled.Hólmgeirsson, et al.•Intermediate casing II to 800 m – 18 5/8” 114 lb/ft K55 BTC. Wellbore drilled with 23” rollercone bit. Rotary mud-drilled.•Anchor casing to -2400 m – Top 300 m 13 5/8”88,2 lb/ft T95 Tenaris/Hydril 563 threads andfrom -300 m to -2400 m 13 3/8” 72 lb/ft K55Tenaris/Hydril 563 threads. Wellbore drilled with16 ½” roller cone bit. Drilled with a mud and amud motor.•Production casing to -3500 m – 9 5/8” 53,5 lb/ft K55 Tenaris/Hydril 563 threads. Wellbore drilledwith 12 1/4” roller cone bit. Rotary drilled.•Slotted liner to 4500 m – 7” 26 lb/ft K55 BTC.Wellbore drilled with 8 ½” roller cone bit. Rotarydrilled.Enel Italy contributed personnel to consult the casing cementation and cementing design. Personnel from Schlumberger Well Services were hired for mixing the chemicals, assist with the cementing job and to carry out laboratory cementing tests in cooperation with Enel.3. PRE DRILLINGPre drilling of IDDP-1 began in June 2008, with a Drillmec G55 truck mounted rig, “Saga” (Figure 3. The rig Saga.). The well was drilled with a ø26” roller cone bit and a ø36” under-reamer (Figure 6. The 36” under-reamer.) and was drilled with mud down to 87 m depth in nine days. At that depth the formation was stable for the casing shoe and a decision to run the casing was reached. The casing was cemented with 29,5 m3 of high temperature cement slurry. 4. DRILLING FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING I. Drilling for the Intermediate casing I began 1st of November 2008 with mobilization, maintenance and adjustments to fit the large diameter drilling assembly of the rig “Jötunn” (Figure 4. The rig Jotunn.). The drill string was inspected according to DS-1, Service Category 4 before RIH for the first time. Before each RIH after that the string was ultrasonic inspected. The rig, Gardner Denver 700 E, began drilling the 18th of November through cement at the bottom. The first section was drilled with ø26 ½” Hughes Christensen Roller cone rock bit and water based mud. No mud motor was used in this section.The drilling procedure was rather slow because of hard formation and the average ROP was 2.5 m/hr. No circulation losses were detected while drilling and the depth of this section was 275 m. The well was cased with ø24 ½” K55 casing and while running the casing it stopped at 260 m due to problems in the wellbore despite for wiper trips before pulling out. Several attempts were made to get the casing lower without any progress. The cementing job was done on the 24th of November.The cement slurry used was a standard high temperature blend and the density was 1.65 kg/l. The job was planned with a stab-in with a float shoe and a float collar 24 m above the shoe. Total volume of slurry pumped through the string was 37 m3 until acceptable density was returned.5. DRILLING FOR INTERMEDIATE CASING II.The drilling continued the 27th of November with a ø23” Hughes Christensen Roller cone bit. Arctic weather conditions were on the site, blizzard, and wind up to 52 m/s and temperature -8 °C. Drilling progressed rather slowly due to hard formation and the WOB was kept rather low in order to keep the hole as close to vertical as possible. The drilling works was delayed by four days due to a broken mud pump. Some losses were detected while drilling this section but the losses were healed by LCM. The well reached 788 m depth on the 8th of December. It was cased with ø18 5/8” 114 lb/ft K55, BTC and the casing shoe was set at 784 m.The 10th of December the cementing job was carried out. The cement slurry was the same as used for cementing intermediate casing I. The job was planned with a stab-in with a float shoe and a float collar 24 m above the shoe. Losses appeared while running the casing and the cementing job was planned to cement the well through inner string and up to the losses at 420 m and afterwards fill up the annulus from top through the kill-line. Total volume of slurry pumped through the string was 47 m3 and 55 m3 through the kill-line until the annulus was fully cemented. After the cementing the rig “Jötunn” was prepared for demobilization.6. DRILLING FOR ANCHOR CASING.The rig Týr Drillmec HH-300 (Figure 5. The rig Tyr.) was mobilized to the wellsite in middle of March 2009 and RIH commenced 24th of March. The drill string was inspected according to DS-1, Service Category 4 before RIH for the first time. Before each RIH after that the string was ultrasonic inspected. The BHA consisted of a ø16 ½” roller cone bit, ø9 ½” mud motor and a sleeve, two stabilizers, Anderdrift tool, ø9 ½” and ø8” drill collars, shock sub, jar and heavy wall drill pipes. The cement was drilled out to 788 m and drilled into formation to 803 m before replacing the water with drill-mud for circulation. A mud specialist and a mud engineer from AVA S.p.a. Italy were hired for mixing and maintain the properties of the circulation fluid.A sudden pressure drop on the stand pipe was observed the 29th of March at 1194 m depth and simultaneously the torque dropped dramatically. A float sub had twisted apart in the BHA and a fish was in the hole. The string was pulled out and what remained in hole was the bit, the mud motor, a stabilizer and the other part of the twisted float sub. Fishing tools were mobilized to the site but due to bad weather conditions and blocked roads the mobilization was delayed for 20 hours. Just before midnight on the 30th of March an over-shot was RIH and 23 hours later the fish was on surface. The mud motor was blocked and had to be replaced.In the morning 2nd of April drilling commenced again at 1194 m. ROP varied from 3-5 m/hr and small losses were detected at 1362 m and healed with LCM pills. ROP decreased and testing showed that either the bit or the mud motor was failing and at 1400 m a decision was made to POOH. The bit was 2/16” under-gauged but the stabilizers were in gauge. The mud motor was not working properly and had to be replaced. At 1432 m depth losses of 20 l/s were detected. LCM pills were pumped down hole without progress and at 1447 m it was decided to POOH and cement off the losses to minimize the mud losses and secondly to prevent interflow between loss zones during the casing procedure. The bit was in surprisingly bad condition after only 47 m drilling. Almost all carbides were broken off on the outer most rows of the cones (Figure 7. New roller cone bit. and Figure 8. Worn roller cone bit.). Temperature log was performed to locate the loss zones. At that time the well, however, appeared to be tight and no losses were detected probably due to previous LCM jobs and the cementing was abandoned. The 7th of April a Junk Basket was RIH trying to retrieve the missing carbides.Hólmgeirsson, et al.Eight hours later the junk bit was on bottom and two hours spent in the cleaning operation. Just before midnight the Junk basket was back on surface only containing formation cuttings and small amount of tiny metal fragments.The 8th of April BHA number 9 was RIH without a mud motor. No circulation losses were detected. The Anderdrift tool measured 1.5° inclination. POOH to replace the bit was on the 13th of April when the depth was 1907 m. The existing bit had already passed over one million revolutions. A few carbides were broken off the bit and the stabilizers were badly worn with almost no hard facing left. Drilling commenced 15th of April with rather slow ROP due to hard formation. At 2030 m a small loss of circulation was noticed (< 5 l/s) but at 2043 m total losses occurred (> 60 l/s). LCM pills were pumped down to plug it without progress. The mud was replaced with water as the losses could not be healed. High viscous pills were used to clean the hole before drilling continued.A sudden pressure drop on the stand pipe was observed the 18th of April at 2074 m and the torque dropped dramatically. A box of ø8” drill collar had twisted apart and a fish of 7 tons was in the hole. An over shot was run in hole and two hours were needed for freeing the fish. A new BHA was run in hole on the 20th of April and drilling commenced again at 2074 m.In the morning on the 21st of April at 2101 m the torque was fluctuating and three singles were pulled out for reaming. The bit was run to bottom again where the torque increased significantly and the string was pulled from bottom again. Three singles were pulled out and when pulling the last single the weight dropped by 20 tons and the standpipe pressure decreased. The BHA was broken again and the third fish was in the hole. The bit was at 2087 m depth and the top of the fish was at 1999 m depth. Freeing attempts of the fish for six days were carried out without any progress. The over shot used for the fishing could not be disengaged and explosive experts from the Icelandic Coast Guard arrived to the site to cut the collar below the over shot. On the 28th of April the bomb was placed at 2056 m. It was located at the connection of the XO sub between the 8” and the 9” collars. After the blast the torque had dropped to zero and a part of the fish was loose. The detonation had ripped the collar 2 m above the connection of the XO sub, but the connection between the collar and the sub remained unaffected (Figure 11. The 8” DC after the explosion.). The total length of the fish left in hole was 32 m. On the 1st of May it was decided to run in the hole again with heavy BHA and connect with the XO sub, furthermore jarring down and rotate. Connection to the XO sub was successful. However when the torque reached 2200 daNm and simultaneously the string was pulled the connection broke apart. Because of this poor connection it was impossible to reload the Jar and the fishing string was pulled out of hole. Left in hole was following equipment: ø16 ½” bit, 2 x Stabilizers, 3 x ø9 ½” DC, Anderdrift tool, Shock sub and a XO sub.For further drilling a side track passing the fish was necessary. A 100 m cement plug was arranged above the fish. Conditions in the well were difficult and complicated.A total loss of circulation made the cementing job difficult. Three attempts of cementing in ten days in total were needed before cement plug, hard enough for Kick Off process was in the well. The 12th of May the bit was in formation at 1934 m. The condition in the well had become difficult. Sufficient hole cleaning was hindered by washouts and circulation losses. It was decided to modify the casing program because of this and to have the anchor casing 2000 m instead of the 2400 m originally planned. This would make hole cleaning more effective and no hazards of cave in from surface to 2000 m.The drilling for the anchor casing was completed at 2005 m depth. The plan was to circulate for three hours with high viscous pills in between. Unfortunately the string got stuck after only 25 minutes of circulation. The torque increased suddenly while circulation was ongoing. At that time the bit was on the way down, approx. 8 m off bottom. Circulation was maintained and attempts for freeing the string were carried out for three days until the string was loose on the 15th of May. Several loggings were carried out, but the logging tools stopped at 1970 m. After the logging it was decided to run a wiper trip before running the anchor casing and also try to circulate the cuttings from the bottom to the fractures higher up in the well. While cleaning out the bottom fill the torque increased and few attempts were tried before it was decided to POOH and run the casing. It was evaluated to be safer to circulate the cuttings to surface after the casing had been installed and cemented.On the 18th of May the casing job started. The anchor casing consisted of tow section of different thickness. The top 300 m were ø13 5/8” 88 lb/ft T95 with Hydril/Tenaris 563 threads while the rest of the casing was ø13 3/8” 72 lb/ft K-55 with Hydril/Tenaris 563 threads. The casing shoe was set at 1949 m and 24 m above the shoe was a stab-in float collar. Because of known losses in the well it was planned to cement it in two steps, i.e. an inner string job up to the losses at 1600 m and fill up to surface through the kill-line. The cement slurry consisted of Dyckerhoff cement, 40% Silica, retarder and a water loss agent. The density was 1.9 kg/l. The drill string was stabbed into the float collar and thereafter the casing was filled with water to prevent collapse. 80 m3 of cement slurry were pumped through the string. At the top of the string a Peak cementing head was placed to pump a dart in the end of the first part of the cement job. It was released and displaced with water. The dart landed in the float collar and it was necessary to use to prevent the water inside the casing from washing the cement from the shoe when the stinger would be pulled out of the float collar. The water level outside the casing was estimated at 400 m. The well was CBL and temperature logged and the results showed that the top of cement was at 1600 m depth. The second cementing job was carried out. The calculated volume required was 100 m3 and the volume criterion was set at maximum 155 m3. The slurry was pumped through the kill-line. After the cementing CBL and a temperature logs were carried out indicating the top of cement at 100 m depth. The CBL log had to be stopped at 1600 m due to high temperature in the well. The log interpretation showed that no cement was in the annulus from 1410 m and down to 1600 m. The cement seems to have stopped at the feed zone at 1360 m. It was essential to run another CBL-log at an appropriate time to verify this measurement.7. DRILLING FOR PRODUCTION CASINGOn the 25th of May the wellhead flange was screwed on the anchor casing and an expanding gate valve (12” Class 1500) was installed. The BOP stack was also put on consisting of blind ram, pipe ram, shear ram, annular preventer and a rotating head. RIH with ø12¼” bit started on the 27th of May and the bit was on the float collar the day after and the cement was drilled out. The challengeHólmgeirsson, et al.ahead was to circulate the cuttings from the bottom with ø12¼” drill bit in a 16½” hole. The plan was to drill the fill carefully with high viscous pills with relatively low ROP and low pumping rate. Afterwards the pumping rate was increased and the string rotated and moved up and down. This process was repeated every 3 m of drilling until the bottom of the well was reached at 2005 m. The cleaning job by circulation was time consuming and difficult where spikes in the torque were frequently observed.The 29th of May at 2016 m depth circulation was totally lost (>50 L/s). It was decided to POOH and heal the losses as well as by cementing the ø16½” section below the casing shoe (from shoe 1957 m to 2005 m) to avoid problems caused by lower circulating velocity in the larger diameter hole. The well was circulated for two hours before POOH.A temperature log showed fractures close to the bottom. Fiberglass pipes, designed for use in cementing plug jobs, had arrived to the site. Those pipes can easily be twisted off and are easily drillable if the string becomes stuck while cementing in open hole. On the 30th of May the plug was cemented and the end of the string was pulled up to 1550 m. Four hours later a sinker bar was lowered down and located the top of the cement at 1892 m, 65 m above the casing shoe. The sinker bar was pulled out of the hole and water pumped in the well to check if losses still remained. The well was tight and the cementing string was POOH. RIH with a drilling assembly commenced the 31st of May and decision made to drill down to 2040 m depth and then drill a 9 m spot core in a known fracture zone, observed in previous track. A coring specialist from ROK-MAX (UK) Ltd. arrived to supervise the coring job. After having circulated the well clean on the 1st of June the string was POOH and the coring equipment was prepared. The bit was worn and marred on the skirts and the hard facing on the stabilizers were worn and the blades were also marred. On the 2nd of June the coring job started at 2040 m. The drilling progressed slowly and after 3½ hours only 2 m had been drilled. It was decided to POOH and checks the equipment. In the morning of the 3rd of June the POOH was completed. The core bit was completely worn down (Figure 9. New Core bit. and Figure 10. The Core bit after the coring attempt.) and some inserts of the core barrel stabilizers were broken off and along the barrel the surface was marred by grooves. No core was in the barrel, while the core catcher had been pressed approx. 70 cm up. Flaky chips of cement were found inside the core barrel probably from the last plug cementing. The flakes probably got the core catcher stuck which had unscrewed inside the barrel. Due to the worn equipment it was suspected that some junk was in the hole.Based on the suspicion that junk was in the hole it was decided to RIH with an ø12⅛” Mill tooth bit and a Junk Basket to retrieve the junk and the rest of the core bit. The plan was to drill down to 2060 m, pull out and cement the losses. On the 5th of June at 2054 m total loss of circulation occurred but the well was drilled to 2060 m before POOH. POOH finished on the 6th of June and the junk in the basket consisted of formation fragments, small metal shavings and diamond fragments from the core bit.The cementing string was RIH for cementing of losses and possible junk in the well. Initially 12 m3 of slurry were pumped and the top of cement was found at 2002 m. Another cementing job was carried out and 7.5 m3 were pumped and the string was POOH. RIH with ø12¼” drilling assembly started on the 7th of June. TOC was found at 1970 m. The cement was drilled out and drilling in formation commenced at 2060 m. Circulation losses became intermittent from 2067 m and from 2076 m total loss of circulation occurred.In the morning of the 8th of June at 2103 m a sudden rise in torque was observed and the string got stuck for two minutes. By pulling 160 tons the string was free. One single was pulled out and the well was circulated for one and a half hour. High viscous pills were frequently pumped down to circulate possible cuttings. Run to bottom was carefully performed during circulation. When the bit was back on the bottom the torque suddenly increased again and the bit was pulled up 13 m (one single) and few minutes later the torque increased again and the drill string was stuck. Almost immediately the stand pipe pressure increased and the string was blocked for circulation. For 24 hours attempts were made to free the string before it was decided to go for a blind back off as the jar was not working. On the 9th of June the string was gradually torqued up (made up) to the joint between the lowest Heavy Wall Drill Pipe and the uppermost DC. Back off was performed and the string was loose but part of the fish was missing as expected. On the 10th of June the string was on surface. The connection of the top sub of the Anderdrift tool had unscrewed. The fish left in hole consisted of the bit, 2 x stabilizers, 1 x 8” DC and the Anderdrift tool. The top of the fish was located at 2072 m. A fishing BHA was RIH to make connection to the Anderdrift tool which managed to perform.Fishing attempts with jarring and pulling were carried out for two days without progress. One of possible reason for the string being stuck was thought to be cementing cave in. It was decided to pump down two pills of hydrochloric acid to dissolve possible cement. The acid was diluted to 25% and an inhibitor was added to protect the drill string. The connection on the top sub of the Anderdrift tool was disconnected for opening the string to inject the acid. The acid pill was pumped inside the string and given two hours for working on the cement. Few hours were spent attempting to free the string without results. It was decided to inject the second acid pill and when the back off was performed as before a connection disconnected at 500 m depth. The string was POOH and three singles were laid out due to failure on the threads. On the 13th of June a new fishing assembly was RIH and connection made at 500 m. The string was torqued up as before and back off was performed which resulted in that the connection at the Anderdrift tool disengaged. The string was POOH.A second cementing plug for side tracking the well was planned. The aim was to cement from the top of the fish at 2072 m and up to 1927 m (30 m inside the casing). Two attempts were needed to get desired top of the cement and the job was completed on the 15th of June and same day the sidetrack BHA was in the hole. The cement was relatively soft for side tracking and the bit was pulled up few meters following waiting time of four hours. Below the shoe the cement got harder and of sufficient quality for a kick off. The motor was however not working properly and the directional drillers suggested to POOH and RIH with a new motor. On the 19th of June side track commenced again. At 1985 m depth the bit was in the formation and no cement was observed in the returns. The torque and the pressure were fluctuating and big chips of fine grained basalt were observed on the shakers. One way to explain these unexpected returns is the long time with an open hole below the casing shoe. The formation temperature at this location is above 340°C and has been cooled down repeatedly, which may result in thermal cracking of the formation. At 1992 m it was decided to POOH and lay down the mudHólmgeirsson, et al.motor before drilling further to minimize the financial risk if the string would get stuck.On the 23rd drilling commenced again at 1992 m. The ROP was rather low as before and irregular losses of circulation until 2071 m where total losses occurred. It was decided to pump high viscous pills two times on every single to keep the well perfectly clean before entering 2100 m depth. In the morning on the 24th of June the string was pulled up into the casing after having drilled down to 2100 m. High viscous pill was pumped down before running back down to bottom. The well was perfectly clean and drilling continued.At 2104.4 m the ROP doubled (from 2 m/hr to 4 m/hr), the torque increased and the string was stuck and had to be pulled (125 tons) to free it. A single was pulled out and the well was circulated for 1 ½ hour. The bit was run down to bottom again slowly and the torque increased again at the same depth as before and a single was pulled out again and waited for a few minutes. When running in again (2 m) the top drive and the single on the floor moved upwards and the weight decreased by 45 tons and immediately the string was stuck (Figure 14. The events from the rig´s data logging system when drilled into magma for the third time.). The crew managed to maintain the circulation and the returns were pulsating but in a short while it came steady. No smell of H2S gas was detected but the returns became red-brown in color and after that, cuttings of quenched glass were observed on the shakers. Circulation was maintained for 24 hours without moving the string, but after a while there was no return. After that the string was pulled and it was loose. POOH commenced and the bit was in excellent condition (Figure 12. The bit pulled out after having drilled into magma.). Nothing could be seen on the other parts of the BHA. After it came clear that it had been drilled into magma, further drilling was pointless and impossible.On the 26th of June the well was logged and injectivity tested to decide what to do with the well. The Injection Index was found out to be 2.5 l/s/bar, lowest number so far compared to previous measurements. A decision was taken to run in a ø9 5/8” casing to 1935 m and a ø9 5/8” slotted liner from there to 2072 m and attempt to flow test the well. The casing was conceived as a sacrificial casing due to possible acidic fluid and the liner to maintain the wellbore in the open hole section. The casing job started on the 29th of June. An annulus packer (Figure 13. The Annulus packer.) was set in between the ø9 5/8” casing and the slotted liner and above the packer a cementing stage tool was installed. The plan was to inflate the packer and cement with an inner string through the stage tool to surface. Because of the circulation losses below the casing it was possible maintain the well cool (temp. < 30°C). The cooling process would continue after the cementing job. The packer failed and could not be inflated. The options available were to pull the casing out of hole and order a new casing packer or do a balanced cementing from surface. The latter procedure was chosen. The plan was to make the cement slurry form a plug and displace the water in the annulus and therefore no water pockets should be between casings. By locating the water level in the well when pumping water at the same volumetric rate as the cementing, the balance in the well was found. Calculations were based on that the cement slurry would balance at 1800 m. The bottom of the cement slurry was not that critical thus the plug would be ideally within 1700 to 1950 m range.The first cementing job started on the 3rd of July. While cementing the pressure was logged real time and the water level was controlled by adjusting the pumping rate inside the casing. The challenge was not to having cement slurry in the open hole section. On the 4th of July a run of CBL-log was performed to locate TOC. The top was found at 725 m and the bottom at 1700 m. The second cementation started the same day and the annulus was filled up.The wellhead valve was to be replaced by ø10” special Class 1500 valve with Class 2500 flanges. Also a casing pack off and an expansion spool was to be installed. This work had to be carried out with the well open and before that was done it was necessary to know the behavior of the well. The pumps were shut in for ample of time taken to replace the wellhead. After the test the well was considered safe for changing the wellhead which was done on 6th of July. The well was closed on the 7th of July and the rig was prepared for demobilizing.8. CONCLUSIONSLandsvirkjun, was the leading company in drilling the first IDDP well in Iceland. The well was located in the high temperature geothermal area in Krafla and the drilling project executed during the years 2008-2009. Instead of 4500 m deep well it ended unexpectedly in magma at 2104m depth.Figure 2. “As built” drawing of the well.The main goal was to drill into supercritical conditions, but it failed. Nevertheless it is believed the feed zone is in a superheated environment. The well will be flow tested during the winter 2009/10.REFERENCESFridleifsson, G. Ó. and Pálsson, B., 2009. IDDP Status Report 09.02.2009. Re-Evaluation of the Drilling Plan for well IDDP-1 in view of recent experience at Krafla. Recommendation to Deep Vision. Compiled。

高铁路基冻胀机理及防治措施研究

高铁路基冻胀机理及防治措施研究摘要：城市发展中，高铁成为城市范围内交通轨道运营的重要组成部分。

但在建设高铁项目时，由于高铁建设环境的特殊性，项目施工中的难度较大。

基于此，本文主要对高铁路基冻胀机理及防治措施进行研究，详情如下。

关键词：精密工程测量技术；高铁工程；建设应用引言高速铁路目前已经遍布全国，促进了我国交通运输行业快速发展。

这种高速度、高舒适性以及高安全性的交通运输工具，满足了大众的交通需求。

我国寒冷地区的路基施工中，冻胀与翻浆是常见的问题，也是普遍存在的问题，其主要体现在路基施工中，水泥混凝土的错缝现象、短板和沥青路面的开裂现象等。

寒冷地区出现这种路基施工问题主要原因是随着时间的推移，气温不断下降，当温度下降至零摄氏度以下时，路基缝隙中的水分会逐渐形成冰晶体，而在温度持续下降过程中，受到引力与压力差的影响，冰晶体附近的土粒又会在充分吸附薄膜水后开始在道路层中由下至上的移动。

在移动的过程中还会受到未冻区域水源的供应，导致水源也开始运动，在冻界限促进聚冰区的形成。

这样一来，就会导致路面出现冻裂与隆起的现象，最终形成冻胀。

当寒冷地区进入3月份后，温度又会不断上升，路面开始解冻，但是其内部的水分不能有效排除，导致土基的强度逐渐变弱，最终在过往车辆特别是重车荷载的作用下出现翻浆的现象。

1路基冻胀影响因素回填土的压实度同样也是土体冻胀的影响因素之一。

土体压实度又称夯实度,是土或其他筑路材料压实后的干密度与标准最大干密度的比值。

它表示的是回填料压实后的密实状态以及土的其他物理特性,是控制路基填料压实质量的标准之一。

改变填料的压实度并不会影响其含水率,但是土颗粒间排列越紧密,其孔隙率就会相应越小。

当填料中含水量相同时,压实度小的土体,其孔隙率就相对较大,水分就更容易通过结构内的毛细孔道发生土层区域间的运动,当土体温度达到冻结温度时,水分会通过毛细孔道由高温区域向低温区迁移,结构内部的自由水向冻结面聚集,土颗粒间的孔隙被充满后不断膨胀,导致土体体积增大,从而引起路基冻胀的发生。

季节性冻土地区高铁路基冻胀规律及防治对策研究

石刚强：季节性冻土地区高铁路基冻胀规律及防治对策研究・99・DOI：10.13379/j.issn.1003-8825.2019.03.19季节性冻土地区高铁路基冻胀规律及防治对策研究石刚强(中国铁路总公司工程质量监督管理局，北京100844)摘要：哈大高铁是世界上首条投入运营的新建高寒季节性冻土地区高速铁路。

通过对哈大高铁路基冻胀监测数据综合分析，研究了路基冻胀发展变化规律，结果表明：路基冻胀发展包括初始波动、快速发展、稳定维持和融化回落期4个阶段，最大冻结深度普遍大于标准冻深；冻胀变形总体可控并趋于稳定，冻胀变形主要集中在表层级配碎石层，较高的路基含水率加剧了冻胀变形。

建议后续路基冻胀防治应对设计冻深根据填料类别等因素进行修正，采用路基基床级配碎石掺水泥不冻胀整体结构，将冻胀观测结果作为沉降评估的重要依据。

关键词：高寒季节性冻土地区；高速铁路；路基工程；冻胀；防治对策；工程质量中图分类号：U416.1+68文献标志码：A文章编号：1003-8825(2019)03-0099-050引言我国季节性冻土主要分布在东北、华北、西北等高纬度地区，占国土面积的53.5%⑴，其中冻深超过1.5m的季节性冻土区域约占国土面积的37%o季节性冻土区的铁路路基因处于开放的大气环境中，经受周期性冻融循环作用，随着寒季填料中水结成冰和暖季冰融化成水，路基面会产生冻胀抬升或融化下沉现象。

当不均匀的冻胀引起轨道几何尺寸超过容许偏差时就形成了冻害，严重影响线路的正常运营。

穿越我国东北地区的哈大高速铁路是我国在高纬度严寒地区设计建设的标准最高的无祚轨道高速铁路，于2012年12月1日开通运营，线路全长903.939km,正线路基长231.245km,其中无祚轨道路基长181.97km。

沿线最冷月平均气温-3.9~ -23.2咒，极端最低温度-39.9最大季节冻土深度93-205cm,每年从10月底开始冻结，次年4 ~5月全部融化。

季节性冻土区铁路路基冻害研究现状

运营管理季节性冻土区铁路路基冻害研究现状朱志有，王磊，刘振奇，李雄锐（中国建筑土木建设有限公司西南分公司，重庆404100）摘要：近年来，我国季节性冻土区铁路路基冻害研究积累了诸多经验，也取得了良好的工程实践效果。

但是，在地质、气候、冻融循环等诸多因素共同影响下，季节性冻土区铁路路基冻害问题仍然突出。

在交通强国、东北老工业基地振兴、西部大开发等新时代战略驱动下，越来越多的铁路工程向季节性冻土区推进，我国铁路网也将进一步完善。

基于现有研究基础及成果，分别从土体路基、涵顶及桥涵过渡段路基、石质路基等方面，讨论季节性冻土区引发路基冻害的主要因素，对在建铁路和既有铁路的路基冻害治理措施研究现状进行分析与总结，并提出有针对性的深化研究建议。

关键词：季节性冻土区；铁路路基；冻害；填料；排水；注浆；地温控制中图分类号：U213.1文献标识码：A文章编号：1001-683X（2022）03-0124-07 DOI：10.19549/j.issn.1001-683x.2021.09.09.0010引言我国多年冻土面积约2.060×106km2，占陆地面积的21.5％；季节性冻土面积约5.137×106km2，占陆地面积的53.5％［1-2］。

在冻结状态下，冻土强度较大、压缩模量高，具有弹性体的工程性质特征；当温度升高时，其冻结状态逐渐消失，土体强度急剧下降，并产生冻土蠕变和流变现象［3］。

在“交通强国”“东北老工业基地振兴”“西部大开发”等新时代战略驱动下，我国冻土区铁路网进一步完善。

但是，冻土地区特有的地理位置、气候特征及地质条件等因素，导致了基础设施建设过程中的诸多问题，铁路路基冻害就是其中一项较严重的问题。

由于季节性冻土区冬季温度低、夏季温度高，土体常年处于冻融循环过程中，导致该类土体在不同季节其结构受力存在极大差异。

同时，土体冻融循环还可能造成土体出现塌陷及鼓包现象，导致季节性冻土区常出现路基冻害。

渠道衬砌结构冻胀破坏力学模型及冻胀数值模拟PPT课件

C0 mnkl
1
因此，N 可表示为
N
V* V
C* C0
1
P
1
第11页/共61页
假定2
夹杂于各向同性土中的冰颗粒具有如下性质：回转轴方向相互平行；冰颗粒材料为各向同性材料。
横观各向同性冻土弹性模型
综合可得，对四阶张量的拉伸结果：
1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
I
I
拉
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
※结论一：与梯形渠道相比较，由于准梯形渠道衬砌体整体性强，并且由于垂直段的约束，从而使坡板与底板之间的内力相互影响更为显著。 ※结论二：理论分析表明，准梯形断面比梯形断面坡板、底板最大弯矩绝对值小得多，这也就是准梯形抗冻胀力强的原因之一。
弧底梯形渠道混凝土衬砌冻胀破坏力学模型
（3）剪力(N：sinQd (x)RA
cos )x N cos
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sin
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（4）从渠底板内力计算关系式中可以
看出，渠道弯矩最大处在渠底中
间略微靠近阴坡的地方。
第16页/共61页
准梯形渠道受冻胀力学模型
根据静力平衡条件，建立平衡方程有：
图2-5 准梯形法向冻胀力
对称
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哈大高速铁路路基冻胀问题及其对策探讨

表2－ 3
我国铁路线路等级和轨道类型对路基冻胀变形控制要求线路等级 200～250km/h、300～ 350km/h 300～350km/h 200～250km/h 冻胀变形控制（mm） 5 5 5 8 10 12
轨道类型无砟
有砟
200km/h客货共线 160km/hⅠ级线路 120km/h II级线路

3.1 季节性冻土的冻胀分级现行《铁路特殊路基设计规范》中的季节性冻土的冻胀分级见表3.1。

表3.1 季节性冻土的冻胀分级（部分）
冻结期间地下水位距冻结面的最小距离hw（m）
土的类别
粉黏粒质量不大于15％的粗颗粒土（包括碎石类土、砾、粗、中砂，以下同），粉黏粒质量不大于10％的细砂粉黏粒质量大于15％的粗颗粒土，粉黏粒质量大于 10％的细砂

表2－ 2
轨道动态质量允许偏差管理值（高低偏差mm） Ⅰ级 3 4 5 6 8 Ⅱ级 5 5 8 10 12 12 15 20 15 20 24 Ⅲ级 Ⅳ级
线路等级 300、350km/h 250km/h 200km/h客货共线 160km/hⅠ级线路 120km/h II级线路

中国铁道科学研究院研究报告《寒区铁路路基防冻胀结构及设计参数研究》，根据表2－2 轨道动态质量允许偏差管理值（高低偏差 mm），提出我国铁路不同等级线路路基冻胀变形控制要求值，对于 200～250km/h、300～350km/h铁路采用Ⅱ级标准，保证列车的舒适性要求；对于200km/h客货共线、160km/hⅠ级线路、 120km/h II级线路由于速度较低，冻胀变形控制考虑最不利情况，即秋后连续降雨，完全渗透路基，在这种极端情况下，轨道动态质量允许偏差管理值采用Ⅲ级，而在一般年份轨道动态质量允许偏差管理值采用Ⅱ级，可保证铁路舒适性要求，据此提出了我国铁路线路等级和轨道类型对路基冻胀变形要求建议值，可参考表2－3 我国铁路线路等级和轨道类型对路基冻胀变形控制要求。

地质学报.英文版.

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KEENE11.REE Geochemistry of Sulfides from the Huize Zn-Pb Ore Field, Yunnan Province: Implication for the Sources of Ore-forming MetalsLI Wenbo，HUANG Zhilong，QI Liang12.In, Sn, Pb and Zn Contents and Their Relationships in Ore-forming Fluids from Some In-rich and In-poor Deposits in ChinaZHANG Qian，ZHU Xiaoqing，HE Yuliang，ZHU Zhaohui13.Burial Records of Reactive Iron in Cretaceous Black Shales and Oceanic Red Beds from Southern TibetHUANG Yongjian，WANG Chengshan，HU Xiumian，CHEN Xi14.Modes of Occurrence and Geological Origin of Beryllium in Coals from the Pu'an Coalfield, Guizhou, Southwest ChinaYANG Jianye15.40Ar/39Ar Dating of the Shaxi Porphyry Cu-Au Deposit in the Southern Tan-Lu Fault Zone, Anhui ProvinceYANG Xiaoyong，ZHENG Yongfei，XIAO Yilin，DU Jianguo，SUN Weidong16.Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy of a Back-Arc Basin: A Case Study of the Qom Formation in the Kashan Area, Central IranXU Guoqiang，ZHANG Shaonan，LI Zhongdong，SONG Lailiang，LIU Huimin17.Genetic Relationship between Natural Gas Dispersal Zone and Uranium Accumulation in the Northern Ordos Basin, ChinaGAN Huajun，XIAO Xianming，LU Yongchao，JIN Yongbin，TIAN Hui，LIU Dehan18.Occurrences of Excess 40Ar in Hydrothermal Tourmaline:Interpretations from 40Ar-39Ar Dating Results by Stepwise HeatingQIU Huaning，PU Zhiping，DAI Tongmo19.Removal of Cadmium Ions from Aqueous Solution by Silicate-incorporated HydroxyapatiteSHI Hebin，ZHONG Hong，LIU Yu，DENG Jinyang20.GUIDANCE FOR CONTRIBUTORS1.A New Titanosauriform Sauropod from the Early Late Cretaceous of Dongyang, Zhejiang ProvinceL(U) Junchang，Yoichi AZUMA，CHEN Rongjun，ZHENG Wenjie，JIN Xingsheng2.New Fossil Beetles of the Family Elateridae from the Jehol Biota of China (Coleoptera: Polyphaga)CHANG Huali，REN Dong3.New Record of Palaeoscolecids from the Early Cambrian of Yunnan, ChinaHU Shixue，LI Yong，LUO Huilin，FU Xiaoping，YOU Ting，PANG Jiyuan，LIU Qi，Michael STEINER4.Three New Stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera) from the Yixian Formation of Liaoning, ChinaLIU Yushuang，RENDong，Nina D. SINITSHENKOVA，SHIH Chungkun5.Annelid from the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation in Northeastern Guizhou, ChinaWANG Yue，WANG Xunlian6.A New Female Cone, Araucaria beipoiaoensis sp. nov. from the Middle Jurassic Tiaojishan Formation, Beipiao, Western Liaoning, China and Its Evolutionary SignificanceZHENG Shaolin，ZHANG Lidong，ZHANG Wu，YANG Yajun7.The Most Complete Pistosauroid Skeleton from the Triassic of Yunnan, ChinaZHAO Lijun，Tamaki SATO，LI Chun8.Chitinozoans from the Fenxiang Formation (Early Ordovician) of Yichang, Hubei Province, ChinaCHENXiaohong，Florentin PARIS，ZHANG Miao9.Sedimentary Features and Implications for the Precambrian Non-stromatolitic Carbonate Succession: A Case Study of the Mesoproterozoic Gaoyuzhuang Formation at the Qiangou Section in Yanqing County of BeijingMEI Mingxiang10.Jurassic Tectonics of North China: A Synthetic ViewZHANG Yueqiao，DONG Shuwen，ZHAO Yue，ZHANG Tian11.Thick-skinned Contractional Salt Structures in the Kuqa Depression, the Northern Tarim Basin: Constraints from Physical ExperimentsYU Yixin，TANG Liangjie，YANG Wenjing，JIN Wenzheng，PENG Gengxin，LEI Ganglin12.Jurassic Tectonic Revolution in China and New Interpretation of the "Yanshan Movement"DONG Shuwen，ZHANG Yueqiao，LONG Changxing，YANG Zhenyu，JI Qiang，WANG Tao，HU Jianming，CHEN Xuanhuate Mesozoic Thermotectonic Evolution of the Jueluotage Range,Eastern Xinjiang, Northwest China: Evidence from Apatite Fission Track DataZHU Wenbin，WAN Jinglin，SHU Liangshu，ZHANG Zhiyong，SU Jinbao，SUN Yan，GUO Jichun，ZHANG Xueyun14.Basin-and Mountain-Building Dynamic Model of "Ramping-Detachment-Compression" in the West Kunlun-Southern Tarim Basin MarginCUI Junwen，LI Pengwu，GUO Xianpu，DING Xiaozhong，TANG Zhemin15.High Pressure Response of Rutile Polymorphs and Its Significance for Indicating the Subduction Depth of Continental CrustMENG Dawei，WU Xiuling，FAN Xiaoyu，ZHANG Zhengjie，CHEN Hong，MENG Xin，ZHENG Jianping HtTp:// 16.Exsolutions of Diopside and Magnetite in Olivine from Mantle Dunite, Luobusa Ophiolite, Tibet, ChinaRENYufeng，CHEN Fangyuan，YANG Jingsui，GAO Yuanhong17.SAED and HRTEM Investigation of PalygorskiteCHEN Tao，WANG Hejing，ZHANG Xiaoping，ZHENG Nan18.Petrologic and REE Geochemical Characters of Burnt RocksHUANG Lei，LIU Chiyang，YANG Lei，ZHAO Junfeng，FANG Jianjun19.Precise Dating and Geological Significance of the Caledonian Shangyou Pluton in South Jiangxi ProvinceMAO Jianren，ZENG Qingtao，LI Zilong，HU Qing，ZHAO Xilin，YE Haimin20.SHRIMP U-Pb Zircon Dating of the Tula Granite Pluton on the South Side of the Altun Fault and Its Geological ImplicationsWU Suoping，WU Cailai，WANG Meiying，CHEN Qilong，Joseph L. WOODEN21.Geochemistry and SHRIMP Zircon U-Pb Age of Post-Collisional Granites in the Southwest Tianshan Orogenic Belt of China: Examples from the Heiyingshan and Laohutai PlutonsLONG Lingli，GAO Jun，WANG Jingbin，QIANQing，XIONG Xianming，WANG Yuwang，WANG Lijuan，GAO Liming22.Zircon LA-ICP MS U-Pb Age, Sr-Nd-Pb Isotopic Compositions and Geochemistry of the Triassic Post-collisional Wulong Adakitic Granodiorite in the South Qinling, Central China, and Its PetrogenesisQIN Jiangfeng，LAI Shaocong，WANG Juan，LI Yongfei23.Estimating Influence of Crystallizing Latent Heat on Cooling-Crystallizing Process of a Granitic Melt and Its Geological ImplicationsZHANG Bangtong，WU Junqi，LING Hongfei，CHEN Peirong24.Archean Mass-independent Fractionation of Sulfur Isotope:New Evidence of Bedded Sulfide Deposits in the Yanlingguan-Shihezhuang area of Xintai, Shandong ProvinceLI Yanhe，HOU Kejun，WAN Defang，YUE Guoliang 25.Geochemical Mapping: With Special Emphasis on Analytical RequirementsXIE Xuejing，CHENG Hangxin，LIU Dawen1.A Baby Pterodactyloid Pterosaur from the Yixian Formation of Ningcheng, Inner Mongolia, ChinaL(U) Junchang2.A New Theropod Dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of Lufeng, Yunnan, ChinaWU Xiao-chun，Philip J.CURRIE，DONG Zhiming，PAN Shigang，WANG Tao3.Aerodynamic Characteristics of the Crest with Membrane Attachment on Cretaceous Pterodactyloid NyctosaurusXING Lida，WU Jianghao，LU Yi，L(U) Junchang，JI Qiang4.New Fossil Palaeontinids from the Middle Jurassic of Daohugou, Inner Mongolia, China(Insecta, Hemiptera)WANG Ying，REN Dong5.Evolution of Dentary Diastema in Iguanodontian DinosaursKatsuhiro KUBOTA，Yoshitsugu KOBAYASHI6.Revision of the Clam Shrimp Genus Magumbonia from the Upper Jurassic of the Luanping Basin,Hebei,Northern ChinaLI Gang，SHEN Yanbin，LIU Yongqing，Peter BENGTSON，Helmut WILLEMS，Hiramichi HIRAN07.Yarlongite:A New Metallic Carbide MineralSHI Nicheng，BAI Wenji，LI Guowu，XIONG Ming，FANG Qingsong，YANG Jingsui，MA Zhesheng，RONG He8.Phase Equilibria of Hornblende-Bearing Eclogite in the Western Dabie Mountain,Central ChinaZHANG Jingsen，WEI Chunjing，LOU Yuxing，SU Xiangli9.Diagenesis and Evolution of the Holocene Coquinite from the Haishan Island,Eastern Guangdong,ChinaSUNJinlong，XU Huilong，QIU Xuelin，ZHAN Wenhuan，LI Yamin10.Structural Characteristics and Formation Mechanism in the Micangshan Foreland,South ChinaXU Huaming，LIU Shu，QU Guosheng，LI Yanfeng，SUN Gang，LIU Kang11.Tectonic Evolution of the Middle Frontal Area of the Longmen Mountain Thrust Belt, Western Sichuan Basin, ChinaJIN Wenzheng，TANG Liangjie，YANG Keming，WAN Guimei，L(U) ZhiZhou，YU Yixinx12.Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes of Waters in the Ordos Basin,China: Implications for Recharge of Groundwater in the North of Cretaceous Groundwater BasinYANG Yuncheng，SHEN Zhaoli，WENG Dongguang，HOU Guangcai，ZHAO Zhenhong，WANG Dong，PANG Zhonghe13.Variations of Microbial Communities and the Contents and Isotopic Compositions of Total Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen in Soil Samples during Their PreservationTAO Qianye，LI Yumei，WANG Guo'an，QIAO Yuhui，LIU Tung-Sheng14.Tectonic Landform of Quaternary Lakes and Its Implications for Deformation in the Northern Qinghai-Tibet PlateauWANG An，WANG Guocan，LI Dewei，XIE Defan，LIU Demin15.A Climatic Sequence Stratigraphic Model in the Terrestrial Lacustrine Basin:A Case Study of Green River Formation,Uinta Basin,USAWANG Junling，ZHENG Herong，XIAO Huanqin，ZHONG Guohong，Ronald STEEL，YIN Peigui16.Accumulation Mechanisms and Evolution History of the Giant Puguang Gas Field, Sichuan Basin, ChinaHAOFang，GUO Tonglou，DU Chunguo，ZOU Huayao，CAI Xunyu，ZHU Yangming，LI Pingping，WANGChunwu，ZHANG Yuanchun17.Origin and Accumulation of Natural Gases in the Upper Paleozoic Strata of the Ordos Basin in Central ChinaZHU Yangming，WANG Jibao，LIU Xinse，ZHANG Wenzheng18.Differential Tectonic Deformation of the Longmen Mountain Thrust Belt,Western Sichuan Basin,ChinaTANG Liangjie，YANG Keming，JIN Wenzheng，WAN Guime，L(U) Zhizhou，YU Yixin19.Tectonic Framework and Deep Structure of South China and Their Constraint to Oil-Gas Field DistributionWANG Qingchen，LIU Jinsong，DU Zhili，CAI Liguorge-scale Tazhong Ordovician Reef-fiat Oil-Gas Field in the Tarim Basin of ChinaZHOU Xinyuan，WANG Zhaoming，YANG Haijun，ZHANG Lijuan，HAN Jianfa，WANG Zhenyu注：本⽂为⽹友上传，不代表本站观点，与本站⽴场⽆关。

地质学专业英语词汇(DOC)

地质学专业英语词汇(1)阿巴克运动；海西运动Arbuckle阿般火山岩albani stone阿贝折射计Abbe refractometer阿布沙玄武岩absarokite阿当运动Ardennic阿丁斯克期〔二叠纪〕Artinskian age阿丁新克〔早二叠纪〕Artinskian阿尔卑斯地槽Alpine geosyncline阿尔卑斯三叠系Alpine Triassic system (Alpine triassy system) 阿尔卑斯闪岩带Alpine amphibolite zone阿尔卑斯式脉Alpine type vein阿尔卑斯式褶皱Alpine type of folding阿尔卑斯型褶皱Alpine fold阿尔卑斯造山运动Alpine orogeny阿尔必世〔中期白堊纪〕Albian阿尔冈纹造山运动Algoman orogeny阿尔帕三叠系system triassique alpin阿夫顿间冰期Aftonian-interglacial stage阿富汗蜓Afghanella阿克殿期Acadian阿克殿造山运动Acadian Orogeny阿拉伯沙漠Arabian desert阿莱干尼〔晚期石炭纪〕Allegheny阿力山得统〔早志留纪〕Alexandrian阿利尼克〔早奥陶纪〕Arenigian阿马逊古陆Amazonia阿门虫Ammonia阿摩力运动〔古生代后期〕Armorican阿姆塞石Amssacia阿帕拉阡〔古陆〕Appalachia阿帕拉阡造山运动Appalachian movement阿普第〔早期白堊纪〕Aptian阿啟坦〔新生代〕Aquitanian阿斯蒂〔第三纪〕Astian阿斯突里运动〔晚石炭纪〕Asturian阿提克运动〔中新世后期〕Attic阿西极〔晚期上奥陶系〕Ashgillian阿席林〔旧石器时代〕Azilian埃及碧石Egyptian jasper(agate)矮小动物群depauoerate fauna矮小动物种dwarf fanua艾俄瓦〔期〕Iowan艾俄瓦冰期Iowan glacial stage艾非里(统)〔早期中泥盆纪〕Eifelian艾家层〔中奥陶纪〕Neichia [formation] 艾克曼螺旋风层Ekman spiral艾氏螺旋Airy's spiral艾氏珊瑚Edwardsia隘〔口〕；埡〔口〕；坳〔口〕pass隘路；穴道passage爱丽斯木角石Ellesmeroceras爱氏单位Eutvos(unit)瞹昧石griphite安大略〔志留纪〕Ontario安得尔石endellite安定地块tessera安沸石arduinite安夫虫；双凹虫Amphoton安加拉〔古陆〕Angara (land)安勒杉Ernestiodendron安尼迷基〔元古代〕Animikian安尼託陨石Anighto metrorite安尼西(统) Anisic安尼西〔三叠纪〕Anisian安琪兽Anchitherium安全產量safe yield安山斑岩andesite-porphyry安山玻璃shastalite安山二长安山岩andelatite安山拉长石andesilabradorite安山凝灰岩andesite-tuff安山坡基斑岩andesite-vitrophyre安山玄武岩andesitic basalt安山岩andesite安山岩线andesite line安山岩线Marshall line安装钻机时间rig time鞍；〔菊石类〕saddle(in ammonoids) 鞍背saddle back鞍部saddle鞍轴saddle axis鞍状矿脉saddle vein鞍状褶曲saddle fold銨基苯石kladnoite銨钾石膏ammonium-syngenite銨镁矾boussingaultite銨明矾ammonia-alum銨明矾tschermigite銨硼石ammonioborite銨砷钙铀矿ammonium uranospinite 銨水晶石ammonium cryolite銨碳石teschemacherite銨云母ammonium-mica岸；滩；砂洲bank暗沸绿岩bogusite暗玢火山砾凝灰岩melaphyre-lapillituff 暗玢凝灰岩melaphyre-tuff暗橄白榴岩ugandite暗橄辉玄武岩sch?nfelsite暗辉正长斑岩shonkinite-porphyry暗辉正长岩shonkinite暗帘石arendalite暗亮煤岩duroclarite暗榴硷玄岩kivite暗绿石rhodochrome暗绿玉chloromelanite暗绿玉岩chloromelanitite暗绿云母adamsite暗煤attritus (durain)暗煤dull coal暗煤durain暗煤基matrosite暗煤岩durite暗煤质durinite暗色melanic暗色〔接头语〕mela-暗色矿物dark mineral暗色蓝方碧玄岩heptorite暗色粒变岩trapgranulite暗色流纹英安石melarhyodacite暗色石英苏长岩mela-quartz-norite暗色石英岩melasilexite暗色网状片麻岩trap-shotten gneiss 暗色玄武岩mela-basalt暗色岩trap rock暗色岩脉trap dike暗色岩脉trap dyke暗色岩状trappoid暗色英闪岩melatonalite暗色正长辉长岩melasyenogabbro暗色正长闪长岩melasyenodiorite暗色正长岩hortite暗色正长岩melasyenite暗闪辉长岩issite暗霞玄武岩tannbuschite暗霞正长岩malignite暗硬煤splint coal凹岸concave bank凹低下部份negative element凹地hollow凹顶的emarginate凹角reentrant凹扭形贝Sulcatostrophia凹坡concave slope凹凸形concave-convex凹向沙丘upsiloidal dune奥层构造infrastructure奥长安山岩kohalaite奥长班岩oligophyre奥长刚玉岩plumasite奥长花岗璃岩trondhjemite porphyrite 奥长花岗伟晶岩trondhjemite pegmatite 奥长花岗细晶岩trondhjemite aplite奥长花岗岩trondhjemite(trondjemite)奥长环斑花岗岩rapakivi granite奥长环斑花岗岩rapakiwite(rapalcivite) 奥长环斑花岗岩wiborgite奥长环斑细晶岩rapakivi aplite奥长环斑岩rapakivi奥长环斑正长岩rapakivi syenite奥长环斑组织rapakiwi texture奥长闪长岩laugenite奥长岩oligoclasite奥长岩oligosite奥长英安岩ungaite奥地利运动〔中期白堊纪〕Austrian奥纪虫Ogygites奥利岗运动〔早白堊纪末〕Oregonian 奥列斯堪统〔泥盆纪〕Oriskanian奥球闪长岩esboite奥散公式Osann's formula奥散三角图Osann's triangle奥散值Osann's value奥闪闪长细晶岩orn?ite-aplite奥闪闪长岩orn?ite奥氏虫Olenellus奥氏沉〔降〕速〔度定〕律Ossan's law of settling velocity 奥陶〔纪〕〔系〕Ordovician奥陶纪Ordovician period奥陶系Ordovician system奥霞正长岩raglanite奥札克〔统〕〔奥陶纪〕Ozarkian澳底层Aoti formation澳松石fichtelite澳洲曜石australite八半面对称的ogdosymmetric八半面类ogdohedral class八半面体ogdohedon八半面体ogdohedry八分区octant八连晶eightlings八面沸石faujasite八面石〔锐鈦矿〕；八面铁陨石octahedrite(anatase)八面体octahedron八面体解理octahedral cleavage八面硅钙铝石hibschite八目鰻(七鳃鰻) Petromyzon八射珊瑚类亚目Alcyonaria (Octocorallia)八射珊瑚亚纲Octocorallia八射亚纲Octoseptata八腕亚目Octopoda八原云母octophyllite巴登石badenite巴东统Batung series巴东统Patung series巴尔顿(晚始新世) Bartonian巴尔特介Bairdia巴克龙Bactrosaurus巴兰猿人Parantheropus巴若桑(侏罗纪) Bajocian巴萨丁运动〔晚新世〕Pasadenian巴氏蕨Barrandeina巴氏龙Basilosaurus巴斯勒氏介Basslerites巴通统〔中侏罗纪〕Bathonian巴西纯绿宝石Brazilian emerald巴西橄欖石Brazilian chrysolite巴西红宝石Brazilian ruby巴西蓝宝石Brazilian sapphire巴西卵石Brazilian pebble巴西石brazilite疤木Ulodendron拔蚀；挖蚀plucking把基鱟Burgessia把基斯页岩Burgess shale鈀金palladium gold鈀金porpezite(porpecite)霸王龙Tyrannosaurus白堊chalk白堊纪〔系〕Cretaceous白堊凝灰岩chalk tuff白堊质燧石chalky chert白堊质燧石dead chert白沸石echellite白沸石laubanite白钙层Tierra blana白岗斑岩alaskite porphyry白岗细晶岩alaskite aplite白岗岩alaskite白辉石leucaugite白胶介Bythoceratina白金介Paijenborchella白晶石rhaetizite白浪头white cap白冷陆桥Bering land bridge白粒鈦矿titanomorphite白粒岩whitestone白磷铁矿tintcite白榴斑岩leucitophyre白榴碧玄岩murambite白榴等色岩vicoite白榴二长安山岩columbretite白榴橄辉二长岩sommaite白榴橄辉煌斑岩cocite白榴橄辉岩missourite白榴辉长岩puglianite白榴火山灰pozzuolan白榴火山灰puzzolane(puzzolana;puzzolano) 白榴硷玄岩vesuvite白榴霓霞岩niligongite白榴熔岩amphigenite白榴闪辉斑岩mondhaldeite白榴石leucite白榴石leucogarnet白榴石white garnet白榴石硷玄岩ottejanite白榴石体leucitohedron白榴石岩leucitite白榴石状leucitoid白榴霞斑岩arkite白榴霞霓斑岩katzenbuckelite白榴霞石岩etindite白榴霞玄岩campanite白榴玄武岩cecilite(cecelite)白榴玄武岩leucite basalt白榴玄武岩leucitoid basalt白榴岩albanite白榴质leucitic白氯铅矿mendipite白玛瑙玉髓white agate白锰矾mallardite白钠镁矾astrakanite白钠镁矾astrakhanite白硼钙石pandermite白硼钙石priceite白铅矿cerusite(ceruse)白铅矿cerussite白铅矿white lead白铅矿white lead ore白热的incandescent白热灰流glowing avalanche白热灰流incandescent tuff flow 白热岩屑incandescent detritus 白色粗霞岩congressite白色英斑岩elvan白色英斑岩elvan-course白色英斑岩elvanite白砂white sand白砷石claudetite白湿气white damp白霜surface hoar白水蛋白石hydrophane白鈦石leucosphenite白鈦石；白榍石leucoxene白铁矿marcasite(marchasite)白铁矿white pyrite白铁矿层cat claw白微斜长石chesterlite白钨矿scheelite白硅钙石centrallasite白硅钙石；白钙沸石gyrolite白硒铅矿molybdomenite(molibdomenite)白霞石liebenerite白霞玄岩braccianite白霞正长石deldoradoite白纤维素sapperite白锌矿white zinc ore白氧化物类leucoxides白云大理石dolomite-marble白云花岗斑岩muscovite-granite porphyry白云花岗岩muscovite-granite白云砾岩dolorudite白云绿泥分相〔绿片岩〕muscovite chlorite subfacies(green schist) 白云母muscovite白云母化〔作用〕muscovitization白云母片岩muscovite-schist白云泥灰岩dolomite-marl白云砂岩dolarenite白云砂岩dolomite-sandstone白云石pearl spar白云石；白云岩dolomite白云石化(作用) dolomitzation(dolomization)白云碳酸岩rauhaugite白云碳酸岩beforsite白云碳酸岩dolomite carbonatite白云像的dolomorphic白云岩dolomitite白云岩dolostone白云岩质石灰岩；白云灰岩；白云石灰岩dolomitic limestone白云英岩muscovite-quartz rock白云质胶结物dolomitic cement白针柱石leifite白中性针沸石harringtonite白侏罗〔晚侏罗纪〕White Jura白柱石goshenite白柱岩white beryl百万分之一公釐micromillimeter柏朗液Braun's solution柏林蓝Berlin blue柏型木Cupressinoxylon摆痕swing marks摆线波cycloidal wave本版附件要求您登录后才可见∙ 2来顶一下∙ 5快速回复∙复制地址没有最懒只有更懒!楼主Date: 2006-07-22 20:00:40最懒的珊看我其他帖子看我的日志地质学专业英语词汇(28)巨角砾岩megabreccia巨角鹿；肿骨鹿Megaceros巨晶花岗岩giant granite巨晶石灰岩pseudosparite巨睛蜓Meganeura巨孔型megathyrid巨矿脉champion lode巨雷兽Titanotherium巨砾boulder(bowlder)巨砾滩boulder gravel巨砾岩chaos巨流痕megaflow mark巨人杉；世界爷Sequoia巨人性质；巨体状态gigantism巨石器时代megalithic age巨体古生物学megapaleontology巨体化石；大化石macrofossil巨头龙亚目Dinocephalia巨相；粗相macrofacies巨蟹星云Crab nebula巨型构造megatectonics巨岩相megafacies巨岩组megafabric巨猿Gigantopethecus巨植物群megaflora具胶结性的cementitious具较小页的meiophyllous具良好劈理的spathic具两原木质群的diarch具胚槽的colpate具顺序的paragenetic具细齿状denticulate具有擦痕的striated炬木Dodoxylon距骨astragalus (askle(bone)聚光镜condensing lens聚合polymerize聚合；趋向；匯合convergence聚合斑状glomeropheric(C.I.P.W.)聚合斑状〔结构〕glomeroporphyritic 聚合分散花构造cymoid structure聚合界线convergent juncture聚合囊synangium聚合物种collective species聚合作用polymerization聚黑沥青polynigritite聚环藻Collenia聚集aggregation聚晶状synneusis聚片晶polysynthetic crystal聚片双晶multiple twin聚片双晶polysynthetic twin聚片双晶作用polysynthetic twinning聚束状〔结构〕glomeroplasmatic聚形combination聚族石pleonectite剧变cataclysm剧烈变动期的orocratic剧烈的violent锯齿断口hackly fracture锯齿封木Favularia锯齿构造hacksaw structure锯齿山脊；岭sierra锯齿状hackly锯齿状serrate锯齿状断层zig-zag fault锯齿状褶皱zig-zag fold锯切峡岩；深谷saw-cut锯牙纹缘denticulate hinge锯状山脊comb-ridge颶风hurricane颶浪三角洲hurricane delta卷柏目Selaginellales卷心珊瑚Dinophyllum卷云状cirriform捲浪roller捲曲层curly bedding绢石bastite绢石schioler-apar绢丝光泽silky luster绢云母didymite(didrimite)绢云母sericite绢云母化〔作用］；绢云化〔作用〕sericitization 绢云片麻岩sericite-gneiss绢云片云sericite schist绢云千枚岩sericite-phyllite绢针铁矿sammel blende(samthlende)掘井dug well掘足纲Scaphopoda掘足类scaphopod绝壁palisade绝对地层单位absolute stratigraphic unit 绝对年龄absolute age绝灭die out绝热的adiabatic绝热的adiathermic绝热梯度adiabatic gradient绝热作用adiabatic process绝崖源头steephead绝缘石micanite绝种动物extinct animals蕨纲Filicinata蕨类植物Pteridophyta均变说uniformitarianism均变原理principal of uniformity均分；歧出dichotomy均分笔石Dichograptus均衡常数equilibrium constant均衡带zone of equilibrium均衡海滨线graded shoreline均衡力equilibrant均衡坡面graded slope均衡深度depth of compensation;isostatic 均衡校正isostatic correction均衡作用isostatic compensation均粒结构granule texture均密石英岩arkansas stone均密石英质岩novaculite均蚀平原cut plain均相homogeneous phase均相平衡homogeneous equilibria均夷；粒级；品位grade均夷的graded均夷河流graded stream均夷面grade level均夷期base-level epoch均夷期gradation period均夷起伏available relief均夷作用planation均夷作用；粒级作用；分粒作用gradation 均匀係数uniformity coefficient均匀岩床homogeneous sill均匀岩盖homogeneous laccolith均匀岩干homogeneous stock均匀岩基homogeneous batholith均匀岩脉homogeneous dike均匀应变affine strain均匀作用metabolism of rocks均质；各向同性isotrope均质；各向同性的；等向性的isotropic均质变形affine deformation (homogeneous deformation) 均质对称；等向对称isotropic symmetry均质光性optic isotrope均质砂岩liver rock均质体；各向同性体isotropic body均质性isotropy均质岩组homogeneous fabric均质岩组isotropic fabric军事地质学military geology军事山脊military crest菌煤素sclerotinite菌丝hypha菌丝体mycelium菌状石demoiselle(mushroom rock)喀拉多克〔晚奥陶纪〕Caradoc喀列夫〔前寒武纪〕Kalevisk喀尼克〔三叠纪〕Carnic喀士基〔山区〕Catskill喀士米菊石Kashmirites喀斯地形causse喀斯特karst喀斯特窗karst fenster喀斯特窗karst window喀斯特的karstic喀斯特地形karst topography喀斯特地沼karst ponds喀斯特河谷karst valley喀斯特平原karst plain喀斯特侵蚀基準karst base level(base of corrosion)喀赞斯基统Kazanski卡拉不期〔更新世早期〕Calabrian age卡拉拉大理岩carrara marble卡路〔系〕Karoo(system)卡洛夫〔中侏罗纪〕Callovian卡氏蜥脚鱼龙Morosaurus camperi卡斯巴定律Carlsbad law卡斯巴双晶Carlsbad twin卡斯卡底古陆Cascadia卡尤加统〔晚志留纪〕Cayugan开发井development well开发矿石developed ore开放系统open system开花植物flowering plants开键构造；碳氢化合物aliphatic hydrocarbons 开口湖open lake开濶岸沼open coast marsh开濶海岸open coast开濶湾open sound开裂cleft开裂浮冰open pack ice开濼角石Kailanoceras开平角石Kaipenoceras开通花Caytonanthus开通介Kaitunia开通介Kastunia开通尼亚Caytonia开通叶Sagenopteris开挖；发掘excavation开形open form开旋式evolute开展山足冰川expanded-foot glacier开张断层open fault堪萨冰期Kansan glacial stage坎佩尼〔白堊纪〕Campanian坎披〔层〕〔早三叠系〕Campiler(beds)康尼茂〔晚石炭纪〕Conemauch康寧氏珊瑚Koninckophyllum糠虾目Mysidacea抗磁性diamagnetic抗火石pyrosclriite抗剪强度shear strength抗张强度tensile strength鈧釔石thortveitite考古学Archaeology考依波〔晚三叠纪〕Keuper(Keuperian)烤杯；灰皿cupel烤杯冶金法cupellation苛性钠；火硷caustic soda苛性石灰caustic lime苛性银caustic silver柯布兰兹〔层〕〔上部下泥盆系〕Coblenz beds 柯地莱拉地槽Cordilleran geosyncline柯氏虫Kolesnikovella柯式法则Cope's law科family科布仑兹〔泥盆纪早期的后半〕Koblenz科罗拉多〔早白堊纪〕Coloradian科曼齐系〔早白堊纪〕Comanchian system科氏菊石Columbites科氏力Coriolis force鈳鉺矿sipylite鈳矿；鈮矿niobium ore鈳酸铁锰矿adelpholite鈳酸盐类columbates鈳酸盐类niobate(columbate)鈳鈦铁铀矿ampangabeite鈳鈦铀矿；黑鈦钙铀矿betafite鈳鈦铀矿；黑鈦钙铀矿ellsworthite鈳鉭锑矿stibiotantalite鈳鉭铁矿；锰銲矿ixiolite(ixionolite)鈳铁矿baierine(columbite)鈳铁矿；鈮铁矿columbite鈳铁矿；鈮铁矿niobite鈳釔铀矿annerodite颗粒成长；矿粒再晶grain growth颗粒关公蟹Galene granulifera可剥的fissile可剥性层理fissile bedding可採的minable可传性係数coefficient of transmissibility可煅烧的calcinable可混度miscibility可计矿量measured ore可裂性fissility可能储量possible reserve可能矿量possible ore可能矿石future ore可能误差probable error可逆反应过程reversible process可切性的sectile可曲海百合目Flexibilia可燃性动物岩causto-zoolith可燃性挥发气体volatile combustible可燃性生物岩caustobiolith可燃性生物岩kaustobiolite可燃性植物岩causto-phytolith可燃页岩combustible shales可溶硬石膏soluble anhydrite可塑的plastic可塑限plastic limit可塑性plasticity可塑性变形plastic deformation可塑性流动plastic flow可塑性应变plastic strain可塑性指数plastic index可塑性指数plasticity index可透性係数transmissibility coefficient可弯砂岩flexible sandstone可弯砂岩itacolumite可信储量probable reserve可信矿量probable ore可压缩性compactability可压性compressibility可延长的malleable可疑跡fucoid克、伊、丕、华四氏岩石分类法C.I.P.W.system of rock classification 克分子份数mole fraction克分子体积molecular volume克拉〔宝石重量单位〕carat克灵顿矿石；染石；亚麻仁矿clinton ore克令顿〔志留纪〕Clinton克鲁马儂人Cro-magnon man克氏重液Klein's solution克维诺〔前寒武纪〕Keweenawan刻划生长glyptogenesis肯氏龙Kentrosaurus垦丁层Kenting坑底潭sump坑口；河口entry坑穴冰水平原pitted outwash plain坑穴状；麻点状的foveolate空鞍air saddle空测地磁仪；空中磁测air borne magnetometer空棘亚目；盾刺类；空棘鱼类Coelacanthini空间变化spatial variation空间分析spatial distribution空间晶格；晶子格space-lattice空晶negative crystal空晶板岩chiastolite-slate空晶石chiastoline空晶石chiastolite空晶石片岩chiastolite-schist空气推举作用air heave空气制动air damping空时单位space-time unit空隙void空隙比void ratio空隙水；孔隙水interstital water空心结核box空照测量学photogrammetry空照地形学photogeomorphology空照地质学photogeology空中磁力探测aeromagnetic prospecting空中闪光计数器airborne scintillation counter 空中闪光计数器ariborne scintillation counter 空中雪流snow banner空椎亚纲Lepospondyli崆古尔斯基统〔二叠纪〕Kungurski series孔pore孔槽〔孢粉学〕；螺顶apex孔菱目Rhombifera孔嚙贝Rhynchotrema孔雀石green malachite孔雀石mountain green孔雀石peacock stone孔雀石〔石绿；青琅玕〕malachite孔雀铜矿peacock copper ore孔隙度；孔隙率porosity孔隙计porosimeter孔隙量pore space孔隙性封闭porosity trap恐角目Dinocerata恐龙蛋Dinosaurian egg恐龙目Dinosauria恐鸟Dinornis恐兽；巨兽Dinotherium恐兽亚目；巨兽类Dinotherioidea控留水retained water控制control控制崩解controlled disintegration控制镶嵌图controlled mosaic控制站control station地质学专业英语词汇(29)口板oral plate(orals)口部oral area口盖；鳃盖；孔盖〔孢松〕；鲜帽operculum 口环；旋脊choma口孔osculum口孔；壳口aperture口面oral surface口器顎頜janis口围peristome窟穴生物inbiota苦臭石picrosmine苦橄斑岩picrite-porphyry苦橄玢岩picrite-porphyrite苦橄玄武岩picrite-basalt苦橄岩picrite苦闪橄欖岩olivinite苦水湖bitter lake库尔木统〔早石炭纪〕Culm[Kulm]库啦安〔晚寒武纪〕Croixian库伦堡岩心机Kullenberg corer库齐钦(前寒武纪) Kuchichin跨代diachronism跨代的diachronic跨代的diachronous跨覆overstep跨时代的time transgressive块lump块冰pan-ice(floe-ice)块方硼石stassfurtite块海绿石skolite块黑铅矿plattnerite块滑石steatite块滑石化steatitization块黄铜矿barnhardtite块辉铅鉍矿retzbanyite块辉铅鉍矿rezbanyite块辉铅鉍银矿schirmerite块辉锑铅矿kilbrickenite块集熔岩aphrolithic lava块结大理石ruin marble块结玛瑙ruin-agate块金nugget块裂地槽taphrogeosyncline块裂运动taphrogenesis块裂运动taphrogeny块硫鈷矿jaipurite块硫鈷矿jeypoorite(jaipurite)块硫砷铅矿guitermanite块绿霞石pinitoid块磧block-moraine块蔷薇辉石klipsteinite块熔岩地clinker field块体运动mass movement块铜矾antlerite块硅镁石norbergite块硅镁石prolectite块雪崩；冰底崩ground avalanche 块岩丘block-dome块云斑岩regenporphre块云母pinite块云母斑岩pinite-porphyry块状massive块状断层作用block faulting块状泥炭amorphous peat块状逆断层block thrust块状群体massive colony块状熔岩aa-lava块状熔岩；块熔岩black lave块状熔岩；块熔岩block lava块状岩massive rock宽谷open valley宽河谷plaza宽展褶皱open fold眶后骨postorbital矿；採矿mine矿层ore beds矿层；矿石建造ore formation矿產minerals product矿巢nest of ore矿巢ore nest矿成时代minerogenetic epoch矿储藏量ore reserve矿床mineral deposit矿床ore deposit矿床成因论metallogeny矿床顶back of ore矿床分带学说zonaltheory矿床分化学说abyssal theory矿丛ore cluster矿袋ore bunch矿袋ore pocket矿华bloom矿华mineral bloom矿化mineralize矿化带mineralized zone矿化断层mineralizing fault矿化灰岩mineralized limestone矿化剂mineralizers(mineraliser)矿化剂mineralizing agent矿化下限(底线) dead line矿化作用mineralization矿界碑mineral monument矿块clot矿粒密度grain density矿流ore current矿路ore channel矿脉lead矿脉mineral vein矿脉ore vein矿脉；含矿脉lode矿脉层；矿脉建造lode formation矿脉吊床状构造hammock structure of veins 矿脉顶back of lode矿脉交切intersection of veins矿脉区lode claim矿脉区vein claim矿脉岩墙；岩墙矿脉vein dike(vein dyke)矿脉柱columns-of ore矿脉组织vein texture矿囊pocket矿囊；壳房chamber矿盘flat of ore矿壳层crustification矿区交界井offset well矿泉mineral spring矿泉井mineral well矿泉医学balneology矿石ore矿石带状沉积zonal deposition of ore矿石橄欖岩ore peridotite矿石矿物ore mineral矿石面ore faces矿石泻槽ore chute矿蚀变形tectomorphic矿水mineral water矿胎；胚胎矿protore矿体ore body矿体treasure box矿体；岸外隄；礁；暗礁reef矿体藏量ore stock矿填节理glass seam矿筒ore chimney(chute)矿筒ore-pipe矿物mineral矿物白mineral white矿物分离mineral separation矿物化学mineral-chemistry矿物解理mineral cleavage矿物界mineral kingdom矿物聚合；矿物共生mineral association 矿物棉mineral cotton矿物权mineral right矿物时mineral time矿物树脂mineral resin矿物填料mineral fillers矿物条痕mineral streaking矿物物理学mineral physics矿物系统学systematic mineralogy矿物纤维mineral wood矿物相mineral facies矿物相律mineralogical phase rule矿物楔裂作用mineral wedging矿物形态学morphology of minerals矿物学mineralography矿物学mineralogy矿物学家mineralogist矿物顏料mineral paint矿物顏料mineral pigments矿物顏料sienna矿物种mineral species矿物紫mineral purple矿物组合mineral combination矿相学mineragraphy矿业地质学mining geology矿域lode country矿柱ore column矿柱ore pillar盔菊石Hoplites盔形虫〔有孔虫〕Cassidulina魁蛤Arca魁兽亚目；黑格兽亚目Hegetotheria昆虫纲Insecta昆明兽Kumminia昆明运动Kunming movement昆阳〔统〕Kunyang series蛞蝓Aeolis扩裂transverse fracture扩容现象dilatancy扩散divergence扩散(作用) diffusion扩散係数diffusion coefficient扩张矿脉divergent lode扩张速率spreading rate濶弓纲；广弓亚纲Euryapsida濶石燕Euryspirifer濶湾open bay(bight)濶线石燕Platyspirifer濶锥状turbinate阔盃珊瑚Acanthophyllum垃圾黏土throwing clay拉布拉多海〔洋］流Laborador current拉长角闪质岩lavialite拉长石calc oligoclase拉长正长斑岩elkhornite拉虫筵Reichelina拉丁尼克〔三叠纪中期］Ladinic拉多格〔前寒武纪］Ladogisk拉多兽Letoverpeteron拉橄玄武岩tokeite拉辉玻玄岩weiselbergite拉辉煌斑岩odinite拉裂构造pull-apart拉榴粗面岩viterbite拉峦迈运动〔白堊纪末期〕Laramide revolution 拉马克学说Lamarckism拉马人猿Ramapithecus拉姆稍白云岩〔中三叠纪〕Ramsau dolomite 拉线drag-line拉展面planes of stretching拉直作用；改正作用rectification喇安角斑岩lahnporphyry喇叭角石Lituites喇叭珊瑚Codonophyllum喇叭蜓；喇叭纺锤虫Codonofusiella喇长安山岩labradorite-andesite喇长斑岩labradophyre喇长斑状labradophyric;labradoritic喇长石〔岩］labrador feldsparstone labrador stone;labradorite喇长斜长岩labradorite-anorthosite喇长岩labradite喇长岩labradoritite喇长英安岩labradorite-dacite剌笔石Acanthograptus剌菊石Acanthocoras剌蕨Arthrostigma剌尾虫Dorypyge剌蝟Erinaceus腊肠状构造sausage structure腊蛇纹石cerolite(kerolite)蜡蛋白石wax opal蜡光泽waxy luster蜡褐煤leucopetrite蜡岭石steagillite蜡煤pyropissite蜡蛇纹石kerolite蜡质褐煤pyropissitic brown coal来源不明体cryptogemic form来源地provenance来源地provenience莱阳层〔下白堊纪］Laiyang formation赖夫林灰岩〔中三叠纪〕Reiflinger limestone(Reifling limestone)赖兴哈灰岩〔三叠纪〕Reichenhaller limestone(Reichenhall limestone) 蓝宝石saphire蓝宝石sapphire蓝蛋白石blue opal蓝电气石indicolite蓝电气石indigolite蓝方安山岩hauyne-andesite蓝方斑岩hauynophyre蓝方碧玄岩hauyne-basanite蓝方粗安岩tahitite蓝方黄长硷煌岩luhite蓝方辉长岩mareugite蓝方辉石岩hauynitite蓝方榴辉白榴岩tavolatite蓝方闪辉长斑岩kassaite蓝方石hauyne蓝方石hauynite蓝方石岩hauynolite蓝方细晶岩hauyne-aplite蓝方玄武岩hauyne-basalt蓝方玄武岩hauynite(hauyne-basalt)蓝高岭石miloschite蓝滑石blue talc蓝辉镍矿kallilite蓝堇青石〔水蓝宝石〕water sapphire蓝晶片岩相kyanite schist facies蓝晶石cyanite蓝晶石disthene蓝晶石kyanite蓝晶石zianite蓝晶石带kyanite zone蓝晶云片岩disthene-mica schist蓝磷灰石moroxite蓝磷铝铁矿vauxite蓝磷铜矿cornetite蓝氯铜矿tallingite蓝绿藻Cyanophyceae(bluegreen algae) 蓝鉬矿ilsemannite蓝片岩blue schist蓝片岩变质作用blueschist metamorphism 蓝珊瑚Heliopore蓝闪绿泥片岩glaucophane-chlorite schist 蓝闪片岩glaucophane-schist蓝闪片岩相glaucophane schist facies蓝闪石glaucophane蓝闪云片岩glaucophane mica schist蓝石英sapphire quartz蓝田人Sinanthropus lantienensis蓝铁矿mullicite蓝铁矿vivianite蓝铁石blue-iron stone蓝铁土blue-iron earth蓝铜矾langite蓝铜矿；蓝孔雀石blue malachite蓝铜矿；铜蓝blue copper(azurite)蓝铜硒矿chalcomenite蓝透辉石canaanite蓝土；青土blue ground蓝硅硼钙石serendibite蓝线石dumortierite蓝萤石blue john蓝柱石euclase蓝柱石euclasite蓝锥矿；硅鉬鈦矿benitoite拦河坝barrage拦击玻璃impactite拦击陨弹impact bomb兰代洛统〔中奥陶纪〕Llandeilo兰多维列统〔早志留纪〕Llandovery series兰尼岩llanite兰诺拉地槽Llanorian geosyncline鑭石lanthanite郎氏定律Landolt's law郎氏花珊瑚Lonsdaleia狼翅鱼Lycoptera狼獾Gulo狼尾目Hyeniales狼尾藻Hyenia廊；走廊corridor浪向风following wind劳伦〔统〕；前寒武纪Laurentian(series)劳伦造山运动〔太古代元古代间〕Laurentian orogenesis 劳氏笔石Loganograptus劳氏绕射型Laue pattern劳氏绕射照相仪Laue camera劳氏效应Laue effect劳亚古陆Laurasia老河统Kolaoho series老红砂岩〔泥盆纪〕Old Red Sandstone[series]老年的senile老年地形topographic old age老年河old river老年期gerontic老年期old age老年期senescence老年期senility(old stage)老雪old snow銠金矿rhodium gold(rhodite)潦季；洪水季flood season勒巴杉Lebachia勒兰肯布尔格层Blankenburg Schich 乐平统〔晚二叠纪〕Loping series 乐氏珊瑚Yohophyllum雷管cap雷龙Brontosaurus雷士贝Resserella雷氏虫Redlichia雷兽Brontotherium肋；隔壁脊；外隔壁；壳粗线costa 肋〔骨〕脊rib肋笔石Pleurograptus肋部；侧剖pleura肋刺目Pleuracanthodii肋刺鱼Pleurocanthus肋条介Costa肋线贝Pleurodium肋叶蜿；蕉纹蜿Oldhamina肋鸚鵡贝Pleuronantilus泪骨lacrimal;lachrymal bone泪珠形火山弹tear-shaped bomb累积火山；积丘cumulo-volcano累积误差discrepancy;accumulated 地质学专业英语词汇(56)氧化物类oxides氧化锌zinc oxide氧化锌；锌华flowers of zinc氧化焰oxidizing flame氧减少度clinograde氧角闪石oxyhornblende氧磷灰石oxidapatite氧硫鉍矿bolivite氧硫化物oxysulfides氧卤化物oxyhalides氧圈；砂石圈oxysphere氧童顏石oxychildrenite样品；标本sample腰带pelvic girdle摇石rocking stone遥测remote sensing遥震teleseism遥震学teleseismology药材土sphragidite(sphragide)耀长石aventurine feldspar耀石英aventurine quartz耶杜里〔前寒武纪〕Jatuliskian冶金学metallurgy冶里〔层〕〔下奥陶纪〕Yehli(formation) 冶里高地Yehli uplift冶里角石Yehlioceras野居虫Agraulus野猫井wildcat well野猫井；探井wildcat野外地质学field geology页硅酸盐phyllosilicates页岩shale页岩层状的shaly bedded页岩化作用shalification页岩夹层shale break页岩油shale oil页岩质shaly页状exfoliate页状构造sheet(slab)structure页状节理sheet joint页状矿带sheeted zone液成的hydato液成的hydatogenic液成的hydatogenous液成矿物hydatogenetic minerals液成沉积hydatogen sediment液成岩hydrogenous rock液地球化学hydrogeochemistry液化liquefaction液化；流体化fluidization液化学探勘hydrochemical prospecting 液晶liquid crystal液流liquid flow液囊bladder液熔时期liquid fusive phase液体包裹inclusions fluid液体比重计hydrometeor液体不混合性liquid immiscibility液体放散liquid emanation液体天然气natural-gas liquids液限liquid limit液相线liquidus叶lobe叶笔石Phyllograptus叶边参差的erose叶层；纹理lamination叶层泥炭paper peat叶碲矿nagyagite叶沸石zeophyllite叶痕leaf scar叶跡leaf trace叶尖突出的excurrent叶脚目Phyllopoda叶茎*叶茎植物Cormophyta叶菊石Phylloceras叶蜡石phyrophyllite叶蜡石pyrauxite叶理；剥理foliation叶理裂缝foliation fissure叶绿矾copiapite叶绿矾knoxvillite叶绿泥石pennine叶绿泥石penninite叶绿素煤chlorophyll coal叶煤schistose coal叶面蒸发vegetal discharge叶钠长石cleavelandite叶片状的foliated叶片状构造foliated structure叶片状贯入leaf injections叶舌ligule叶舌穴ligular pit叶蛇纹石antigorite叶双晶石fremontite叶隙leaf gap叶序phyllotaxy叶肢介Estheria叶状泥炭leaf peat叶状黏土leaf clay叶子植物亚纲Phyllospermae一级隔壁；长隔major septum一价酸monobasic acid一日的diurnal一水铁矾ferropallidite一元岩浆unicomponent magma一致熔融congruent melting一轴干涉像monoaxial interference figure一轴晶光率体indicatrix of optic uniaxial crystal 伊丁安山岩iddingsite-andesite伊丁石iddingsite伊丁玄武岩carmeloite伊里诺冰期Illinoia(Illinoisian)gracial stage伊里诺冰期Illinoian(Illinoisian)gracial伊里亚古陆Eria land伊里亚运动〔中泥盆纪〕Erian伊利石illite(hydromica)伊利石；水云母glimmerton伊利水云母illite hydromica依利萨伯层Elizabeth beds铱铂iridioplatinita铱鋨矿iridosmine(iridosmium)铱鋨矿osmiridium铱金iraurita铱铁irosite(iridosmine)医疗泉medicinal spring夷流袭夺planation stream piracy夷平作用deplanation宜昌灰岩〔早奥陶纪〕Ichang limestone移动波wave of translation移动进潮口migrating inlet移动沙丘travelling dune移栖；迁移migration移填矿脉immigrant vein移位transport移置；移积allochthonous deposit移置；移位translation移置的allochthonous移置河流allochthonous stream移置煤allochthonous coal移置岩allochthonous rocks移置岩体allochthon移置作用transfer移转百分比transfer percentage貽贝Mytilus貽贝；壳荣蛤mussel疑龟目；双龟目Amphichelydia遗传heredity(inheritance)遗传〔性〕变异hereditary variation遗传单位hereditary unit遗传谷；叠置谷superimposed valley遗传学genesiology遗传之种群gens遗留superposition遗体堆necrocoenosis乙型单斜硫；单斜硫磺garibaldite(sulfurite) 乙型海泡石B(beta)-sepiolite乙型辉铜矿B(beta)-chalcocite乙型辉银矿B(beta)-argentite乙型蜡蛇纹石B(beta)-cerolite乙型硅钙铀矿B(beta)-uranotile乙型硅钙铀矿B-urantile乙型铀灰石B(beta)-uranopilite乙型紫苏石B(beta)-hypersthene已勘矿量；待採矿量block-out ore已氧化硫化物；脉石capping釔氟石yttrofluorite釔褐帘石yttrium orthite釔磷灰石yttocalcite釔榴石yttrogarnet釔铝矾yttroalumite釔鈮矿kochelite釔铅铀矿yttrogummite釔鈰榍石keilhauite釔鈦矿yttroilmenite釔鉭矿yttrotantalite釔钨华yttrotungstite釔榍石yttrotitanite釔易解石priorite易变辉石pigeonite易变辉石岩pigeonite-augitite易变砂岩labile sandstone易潮解的deliquescent易潮石trudellite易成粉末的pulverulent易解石aeschynite易解石eschynite易裂钙铁辉石baikalite易裂海胆目Perischoechinoidea易侵蚀的erodible易溶土；易滑土slip clay易熔石eulite易生向blastotrix易碎的friable易碎砂岩freestone异hetero-异孢植物Heterosporophytes异剥钙榴辉长岩rodingite异剥橄欖岩diallage-peridotite异剥橄欖岩；叶碲鉍石wehrlite异剥古铜橄欖岩diallage bronzite peridotite 异剥辉长片麻岩zobtenfels(zobtenite)异剥辉长片麻岩zobtenite异剥石；剥辉石diallage异剥顽火透辉岩niklesite异剥岩diallagite异常anomaly异常试金值erratic assay异常岩浆型anomalous magma types异齿龙Dimetrodon异齿型diagenodont异地区的heterotopic"异盖虫" Heterostegina异橄蛇纹岩stubachite-serpentine异关节类Xenarthra异基晶簇heterochton druse异极的hemimorphic异极矿calamine异极矿hemimorphite异极像hemimorph异极像族hemimorphic class异极形hemimorphic form异极性hemimorphism异极轴axis of hemimorphism异极轴hemimorphic axis异甲目Heterostraci异金星介Hemicytherura异离的schlieric异离体；矿条schlieren异粒的hiatal异龙；异特龙Allosaurus异媒介沉积物heteromesical deposits异木Xenoxylon异区沉积物heterotopical deposits异时的heterochronous异时趋同heterochronous convergence异体接合adnate异物同名homonym异物同形homeomorphy异霞玄武岩eudialyte-nepheline basalt异相沉积物heteropical deposits异相性的heteropic异向生长distary异向拖曳褶皱incongrous drag folds异向性；非均质性aelotropy (anistropy;anisotropy) 异向性的aelotropic (anistropic;anisotropic)异向性的；非均质体的anisotropic异向性体；非均质体anisotropic body异像heteromorphism异像共生heteromorphic paragenesis异像岩heteromorphic rocks异性石eudialite(eudyalite)异性石eudialyte异性霞石正长斑岩lujavrite porphyry异性霞石正长岩lujaurite(lujavrite)异性异霞正长岩eudialyte-lujavrite异性正长岩eudialyte-syenite异序heterotaxy异序沉积物heterotaxial deposits异牙目(瓣鳃类) Heterodonta(pelecypods)异牙系；异齿系heterodent dentition异养生物heterotrophic organism异羽叶Anomozamites异之熔点incongruent melting point异之熔液incongruent solution异质变晶的heteroblastic异质变晶构造heteroblastic sturcture异质的；非均质的heterogeneous异质均衡；多相均衡heterogeneous eguilibria异质同晶allomerism异柱目Heteromyaria异柱总目Anisomyaria溢道；溢洪道spillway溢点spill point溢点spilling point溢晶石tachydrite溢晶石tachyhydrite溢晶石；苦石灰盐；镁钙盐tachhydrite溢浪三角洲washover fan溢流over-flow溢流河overflow stream溢流河道overflow channel溢流面bleeding surface。

水利水文术语表中英对照

水圈hydrosphere水体water body水科学water science水文学hydrology陆地水文学land hydrology应用水文学applied hydrology工程水文学engineering hydrology水汽water vapour水文要素hydrologic elements积雪snow cover终雪latest snow融雪snowmelt冰雹hail截留interception填洼depression detention地面滞留surface detention陆面蒸发evaporation of land水面蒸发evaporation of water surface 土壤蒸发evaporation from soil散发（植物蒸腾）transpiration蒸发能力evaporation capability下渗（入渗）infiltration稳渗steady infiltration下渗能力infiltration capability河川径流river runoff降雨径流rainfall runoff暴雨径流storm runoff融雪径流snowmelt runoff枯季径流dry season runoff基流base flow阴塞高压blocking high低空急流low－level jet低涡vortex反气旋（高压）anticyclone气旋（低压）cyclone热带气旋tropic cyclone热带低压tropic depression热带风暴tropic storm强热带风暴severe tropic storm气团air mass锋（锋面）front气象meteorology气候区划climatic regionalization气候带climatic zone 小气候microclimate副热带（亚热带）subtropic zone比湿specific humidity蒲福风级Beaufort wind scale霜点frost point霜冻frostbite无霜期frost－free period流域watershed (basin)闭合流域enclosed basin不闭合流域non－enclosed basin闭流区（内流区）bling drainage area分水线（分水岭）divide流域几何特征basin geometric characteristics 河道复流（河道再生）resurgence常年河perennial stream间歇河intermittent stream悬河（地上河）elevated stream夺流河（断头河）captured river盈水河gaining stream亏水河losing stream暴洪河流flashy stream界河boundary river废河道（古河道）dead river凹岸concave bank凸岸convex bank岸壁land wall水边线（岸线）water line堤防levee河长river length河弯river bend弯曲率tortuosity航道navigable channel河段reach潜洲submerged bar水利学hydraulics明渠水力学open channel hydraulics水静力学hydrostatics水动力学hydrodynamics明渠水流open channel flow恒定流steady flow非恒定流unsteady flow均匀流（等速流）uniform flow非均匀流（变速流）non－uniform flow急流supercritical flow缓流subcritical flow异重流density current临界流critical flow临界水深critical depth临界流速critical velocity临界流量critical discharge水头head位置水头（位能）elevation head低强水头（压能）pressure head流速水头（动能）velocity head雷诺数Reymold number韦伯数Weber number水力因素hydraulic factor湿周wetted perimeter水力半径hydraulic radius宽深比width－depth ratio落差fall驻波standing wave移动波translation wave河流动力学river dynamics山洪侵蚀torrential erosion流域产沙量watershed sediment yield溶解性总固体total dissolved solids离子含量ion concentration离子总量total ion concentration离子流量ion discharge矿化度mineral content盐度salinity碱度alkalinity酸度acidity电导率electric conductivity混浊度（浊度）turbidity总需氧量total oxygen demand溶解氧dissolved oxygen需氧量oxygen demand生化需氧量biochemical oxygen demand滑雪需氧量chemical oxygen demand硬度hardness非碳酸盐硬度（永久硬度）non－carbonate hardness浮冰floating ice锚冰anchor ice封冻期freeze－up period封冻（封河）freeze－up 平封flat freeze－up立封upright freeze－up冰盖ice cover连底冻grounded ice cover冰丘ice mound封冻冰缘ice edge of freeze－up清沟lead初生清沟primary lead再生清沟secondary lead冰花路毡sludge road felt冰上覆雪snow cover over ice冰脊ice ridge冰缝crack悬冰suspended ice cover冰堆ice pack冰塞ice jam冰上结冰aufeis解冻期break－up period冰变色color change of ice cover冰上有水accumulation of melt water 月中天lunar transit引潮力tidal generation force天文潮astronomic tide气象潮metorologic tide潮汐周期tidal cycle半日潮semidiurnal tide全日潮diurnal tide混合潮mixed tide大潮spring tide小潮neap tide中潮moderate tide太阴月lunar day潮期duration of tide涨潮历时duration of tidal rise落潮历时duration of tidal fall潮流tidal current涨潮流flood tidal current落潮流ebb tidal current憩流slack tide潮流速tidal velocity往复流reversing current旋转流rotary current潮流期duration of tidal current涨潮流历时duration of flood current地下水流速velocity of groundwater flow地下水坡度（地下水水面坡度）hydraulic gradient of groundwater地下水等水位线图water－table contour map 含水层aquifer含水岩系water－content rock series含水岩组water－content rock formation含水岩性water－content rock property含水介质water－hearing medium均匀介质homogeneous medium非均匀介质inhomogeneous medium含水层边界aquifer boundary透水边界permeable boundary隔水边界confining boundary弱透水边界acquitted boundary透水层permeable bed隔水层confining bed弱透水层acquitter水文地质参数hydrogeological parameters渗透系数permeability coefficient导水系数(释水系数）coefficient of transmissivity贮水系数storativity水位传导系数（水力扩散系数）coefficient of water table conductivity压力传导系数coefficient of pressure conductivity持水度water－holding capacity土壤水分常数soil moisture constants土壤吸湿系数absorption coefficient of soil moisture凋萎系数wilting coefficient田间持水量field capacity毛管断裂含水量moisture content at capillary rupture最大水分吸水量maximum molecular moisture content零通量面法zero flux plane method潜水phreatic water降水入渗补给precipitation recharge降水入渗补给系数coefficient of precipitation recharge地表水补给surface water recharge凝结水补给condensation recharge 侧向补给lateral recharge越流补给leakage recharge灌溉补给系数irrigation recharge coefficient of groundwater潜水蒸发phreatic water evaporation潜水蒸发临界深度critical depth of phreatic water evaporation潜水溢出量phreatic water overflow to surface 潜水位phreatic water level潜水埋深buried depth of phreatic water level 潜水含水层厚度thickness of phreatic water aquifer内流湖endorheic lake淡水湖fresh lake咸水湖salt lake盐湖saline lake季节性湖泊seasonal lake富营养湖泊eutrophic lake贫营养湖泊poornutrient lake湖流lake current梯度流gradient current漂流current of friction湖泊波漾（假湖）lake seiche湖泊增减水lake wind denivellation湖泊率lake ratio湖泊补给系数recharge coefficient of lake湖泊换水周期lake residence period湖盆lake basin湖面高程elevation of water level in lake岛屿率insulosity湖泊分层lake layering正温层direct thermal stratification逆温层inverse thermal stratification湖泊形态参数morphometric parameter of lake 高位沼泽（贫营养沼泽）main level mire中位沼泽（中营养沼泽）medium level mire 沼泽水量平衡water balance of mire沼泽水mire water沼泽蒸发mire evaporation沼泽径流mire runoff沼泽表面流surface flow of mire沼泽表层流surface layer flow of mire沼泽含水性moisture property of mire沼泽持水性water retention of mire沼泽透水性perviousness of mire沼泽率mire ratio冰川glacier山地冰川（山岳冰川）mountain glacier 谷冰川valley glacier宽尾冰川broad－tail glacier冰斗冰川cirque glacier悬冰川hanging glacier贯通冰川（山麓冰川）penetrating glacier 冰原ice field冰川平衡线equilibrium line of glacier委托观测entrust gauging水文仪器hydrologic instrument直读仪器direct－reading instrument自记仪器automatic－recording instrument 遥测仪器remote telemetry unit固态存贮器solid storage计数器counter记录器recorder显示器display unit平均无故障工作时间mean time between failures相应水位equivalent stage水文测站hydrometric station基本站basic station辅助站auxiliary station专用站special station水文试验站hydraulic experimental station 基准水文站bench mark hydrologic station 水文气象站hydrometeorology station巡测站tour gauging station水文站gauging station雨量站网rain gauging network水面蒸发站网water surface evaporation network水位站网stage gauging network泥沙站网sediment gauging network水质站网water quality network地下水观测井网groundwater voservation well network站网规划hydrologic network planning水文分区hydrologic regionalization站网布设network layout容许最稀站网minimum network 设站年限station required age基面datum临时水准点temporary benchmark测验断面measuring cross－section基本水尺断面basic gauge cross－section流速仪测流断面current－meter measuring cross－section浮标测流断面float measuring cross－section 比降水尺断面slope measuring cross－section 辅助水尺断面secondary gauging cross－section临时测流断面temporary measuring cross－section水文缆道hydrometric cableway悬索缆道suspended cableway悬杆缆道suspended rod cableway机动缆道motorized cableway手动缆道hand－operating cableway循环索loop cable起重索suspension cable水文缆车hydrometric cable car吊船过河索cableway for anchoring boat缆道测验仪cableway measuring device水文测船hydrometric boat水文测桥hydrometric bridge桥测车gauging vehicle on bridge水文巡测车tour gauging vehicle for hygrometry雨量器raingauge承水器raingauge receiver量杯measuring glass渠积雨量器accumulative raingauge雨量计rainfall recorder虹吸式雨量计siphon rainfall recorder翻斗式雨量计tipping－bucket rainfall recorder长期雨量计long－term rainfall recorder遥测雨量计telemetering rainfall recorder测雨雷达precipitation－monitoring radar雪量线snow gauge雨雪量计rain and snow recorder蒸发量evaporation蒸发量观测evaporation observation蒸发量折算系数reduction coefficient of evaporation遮挡率screen ratio蒸发器evaporation pan小型蒸发器（蒸发皿）small evaporation pan E－601型蒸发器evaporation pan of type E－601漂浮蒸发器floating evaporation pan蒸发计evaporimeter遇测蒸发计telemetering evaporimeter钩形水尺hook gauge最高水位水尺crest stage gauge校核水尺check gauge基本水尺断面basic gauge辅助水尺断面auxiliary gauge比降水尺断面slope gauge临时水尺temporary gauge水位计stage gauge自记水位计stage recorder浮子式水位计float－type stage recorder压力式水位计pressure－type stage recorder 超声波水位计ultrasonic stage recorder遥测水位计telemetering stage recorder接触试水位计contact－type stage recorder远传水位计telecontrol stage recorder自记水位计台stage recorder installation静水井stilling well测得水深measured depth有效水深effective depth相对水深relative depth断面平均水深mean depth at a cross－section 干绳改正air line correction湿绳改正wet line correction测点流速velocity measurement测速垂线surface velocity水面流速velocity at a point测点流速maximum point velocity最大测点流速velocity－measuring vertical垂线平均流速mean velocity at a vertical部分平均流速mean velocity at a segment断面平均流速cross－section velocity distribution浮标流速point velocity coefficient中泓流速surface velocity coefficient流速分布velocity distribution 流速梯度velocity gradient垂线流速分布vertical velocity distribution断面流速分布cross－section velocity distribution水面流速分布surface velocity coefficient顺流downstream flow逆流upstream flow流速脉动velocity pulsation中泓流速midstream流向测量flow－direction measurement体积法cubature流速仪current－meter转子式流速仪rotating－element current－meter旋杯式流速仪cup－type current－meter旋桨式流速仪propeller－type current－meter 电波流速仪electric wave current－meter超声波剖面流速仪ultrasonic profile current－meter多普勒流速仪Doppler current－meter参证流速仪reference current－meter流量计flow meter文杜里水流计Venturi flow meter毕托管Pitot tube流速仪检定current－meter calibration检定槽calibration tank检定车calibration carriage水面浮标surface float小浮标small float双浮标double float浮杆float－rod堰顶高程elevation of weir crest堰顶水头weir head水工建筑物测流flow measurement by hydraulic structure闸门开启高度gate opening行近河槽approach channel行近流速approach velocity堰流weir flow流态flow regime自由流free flow淹没流submerged flow半淹没流half－submerged flow孔流sluice flow射流jet flow淹没比submergence ratio淹没系数submergence coefficient流速系数velocity coefficient流量系数discharge coefficient稀释法测流dilution method for discharge measurement示踪剂tracer标准溶液standard solution背景浓度background concentration solution 稀释比dilution ratio推移质输沙率测验bed load discharge measurement器策法sampling method坑测法pit method沙波法dune tracking method床沙测验bed material measurement照相法photographic method打印法stamp pad method床沙采样器bed material sampler悬移质采样器suspended sediment sampler瞬时式采样器instantaneous sampler积时式采样器time－integrating sampler瓶式采样器bottled sampler皮囊式采样器collapsible sample泵式采样器pumping sampler调压式采样器pressure adjustable sampler同位素测沙仪radioisotope sediment concentration meter光电测沙仪photoelectric sediment concentration meter振动式测沙仪vibrational sediment concentration meter推移质采样器bed load sampler网式采样器basket－type sampler吸管pipet光电颗分仪photoelectric particle size meter 比重计（密度计）hydrometer泥沙沉降sediment settling沉降速度settling velocity平均沉速mean settling velocity絮凝flocculation反凝剂defloeculant粒径particle diameter 中数粒径median particle diameter平均粒径mean particle diameter等容粒径nominal diameter投影粒径projected diameter三轴平均粒径triaxial mean particle diameter 几何平均粒径geometric mean particle diameter筛析粒径sieve diameter沉降粒径settling diameter粒径组fraction of particle size颗粒级配grain－size distribution颗粒级配曲线grain－size distribution curve 单样颗粒级配index sample grain－size distribution垂线平均颗粒级配mean grain－size distribution in a vertical对照断面check cross－section控制断面control cross－section消减断面attenuation cross－section水样保存water－sample preservation检出率detected ratio超标率over－limit ratio痕迹量trace未检出nonreadout回收率recovery ratio溶解气体采样器dissolved gases sampler冰情观测ice－regime observation固定点冰厚测址fixed－point ice thickness measurement冰情目测visual observation of ice regime冰情符号ice code冰情图ice－regime charta初冰日期first－ice date封冰日期freeze－up date解冻日期break－up date终冰日期end ice date封冻历时freeze－up duration水浸冰厚thickness of immersed ice敲露水面宽open－water width冰流量ice discharge等深点流速改正法revised isobath－velocity method流速过程线改正法revised velocity－hydrograph method有效潮差significant tidal range负波高negative wave height水库水文测验hygrometry of reservoir入库水量reservoir inflow出库水量reservoir outflow水库供水reservoir water supply水库弃水surplus water released frome reservoir水库渗漏量reservoir seepage volume水库蓄水变量variation of reservoir storage水库蓄水变率rate of reservoir storage change 坝上水位stage behind dam库区水位stage in reservoir region水库淤积测量reservoir sedimentation survey 水库淤积量reservoir sedimentation volume地形法method of topographic survey断面法method of cross－section survey淤积形态morphology of reservoir deposition 淤积三角洲sedimentation delta淤积物密度dry density of reservoir deposition 岩溶地区水文调查hydrologic investigation in karst areas实际地表集水面积actual surface colleting area水文实验研究experimental research in hydrology代表流域representative basin实验流域experimental basin相似流域similar basin径流实验研究experimental research in runoff 径流场runoff plot人工降雨装置artificial rainfall device蒸发实验研究experimental research in evaporation蒸发池evaporation tank土壤蒸发器soil evaporator蒸散器evapotranspirometer农田蒸发器evaporator for agricultural land蒸渗仪lysimeter地下水均衡场groundwater balance plot合理性检查rational examination电算整编processing by computer水文年鉴water year－book测站考证station examination 站年station year极值extreme value加权平均法weighted mean method断流水位stage of zero flow河干river of zero flow水文过程线hydrograph水文综合过程线synthetic hydrograph等值线isopleth分布曲线distribution curve水文特征值hydrologic characteristic value径流总量total runoff径流模数runoff modulus径流系数runoff coefficient洪峰flood peak洪水流量peak discharge洪水总量flood volume输沙模数modulus of sediment runoff水位流量关系stage－discharge relation连时序法chronological method绳套曲线loop curve流量过程线法discharge hydrograph method 潮汐要素法tidal factor relation method定潮汐要素法constant tidal factor relation method合轴相关法coaxial correlation method一潮推流法method of discharge computation for a single tide水位流量关系single－valued processing of stage－discharge relation关系曲线延长extension of relation curve流率表rating table单断沙关系index and cross－section average sediment concentration relation单断沙关系曲线法index and cross－section aerage sediment concentration relation curve method水位单断沙比关系曲线法stage versus ratio of index and cross－section average sediment concentration relation curve method单断沙比过程线法hydrograph method of index and cross－section average sediment concentration ratio单样过程线法hydrograph method of index sediment concentration真值true value测量值（实测值）measured value最或然值most probable value绝对误差absolute error相对误差relative error插机误差（偶然误差）random error允许误差permissible error伪误差（粗差）spurious方差variance标准差standard deviation相对标准差relative standard deviation离差（偏差）deviation闭合差closure error平差adjustment精密度precision准确度correctness垂线抽样误差（M型误差）measuring vertical sampling error分布式数据库distributed type data base集中式数据库concentrated type data base网络式数据库network type data base层次数据库laminarization data base层次数据模型laminarization data model网状数据模型network data model数据量data bulk结点node水文数据库hydrologic data base水文基本数据库hydrologic basic data base湖泊水文预报hydrologic firecasting of lake 施工水文预报hydrologic forecasting for construction period 潮汐预报tidal prediction旱情预报soil moisture forecasting地下水动态预报groundwater regime forecasting预见期forecast lead time超长期水文预报extended long－term hydrologic forecasting作业预报operational forecasting预报方案forecast scheme评定标准accuracy standard方案合格率qualified ratio of scheme确定性系数deterministic coefficient汛seasonal flood 伏汛summer flood汛期flood season防汛flood defence报汛站flood－reporting station报汛站网flook－reporting network常年水情站perennial hydrologic reporting station汛期水情站hydrologic reporting station inflood season辅助水清站网auxiliary hydrologic reporting network洪水警报flood warning点雨量point rainfall面雨量areal rainfall泰森多边形Thiessen polygon等雨量线法isohyetal method产流runoff yield蓄满产流runoff yield at natural storage超渗产流runoff yield in excess of infiltration 产流面积area of runoff yield地表径流（直接径流）direct runoff地面流（坡面流）surface flow of mire壤中流prompt subsurface flow前期影响雨量antecedent rainfall土壤缺水量soil moisture deficit下渗能力曲线（下渗曲线）infiltration capability curve初损initial losses后损（后渗）continuing losses坡面汇流overland flow concentration河网汇流（河槽汇流）river network flow concentration地下汇流groundwater flow concentration汇流曲线flow concentration curve流域汇流曲线basin flow concentration curve 坡面汇流曲线overland flow concentration curve河网汇流曲线river network flow concentration curve地下汇流曲线groundwater flow concentration curve流域汇流时间basin flow concentration time 洪峰滞时peak time lag流域滞时basin time lag等流滞时isochrone单位线unit hydrograph经验单位线empiricat unit hydrograph综合单位线synthetic unit hydrograph瞬时单位线instantaneous unit hydrograph地貌瞬时单位线geomorphologic instantaneous unit hydrograph 坡地单位线slope unit hydrograph河网单位线river network unit hydrographS－曲线S－curve无因次单位线dimensionless unit hydrograph 退水曲线recession curve水文模型hydrologic model水文物理模型（水文实体模型）hydrophysical model比尺模型scale model比拟模型analogue model水文数学模型hydrologic mathematic model 水文概念模型physically－based hydrologic mathematic model水文数学物理模型deterministic hydrologic model确定性水文模型stochastic hydrologic model 分散式模型distributed model集总式模型lumped model线性水温模型linear hydrologic model非线性水文模型nonlinear hydrologic model 时不变水文模型time－invariant hydrologic model时变水文模型time－variant hydrologic model 流域水文数学模型hydrologic mathematic model of watershed模型结构model structure模型参数model parameter模型误差model error模型率定model calibration模型检验model verification水文模拟hydrologic simulation遥测终端机telemetry terminal meter中继机relay meter前置通信控制机preset communication controller自报式系统self－reporting system查询－应答式系统polling－answerback system混合式系统mix system时分制遥测系统time－division telemetry system频分制遥测系统frequency－division telemetry system误码率probability of word error接受率receiving probability设计站design station设计流域design watershed代表站representative station参证站bench－mark station典型年（代表年）typicyear水文系列hydrologic series同步系列synchronous series系列代表性series representativeness柱状图histogram诺谟图monogram输沙量计算（固体径流计算）computation of sediment runoff水库回水计算computation of reservoir backwater水库淤积计算computation of reservoir sedimentation水库下游河道冲刷计算computation of degradation below reservoir溃坝洪水计算evaluation of dam break flood 感潮河段水力计算hydraulic calculation for tidal reach样本容量sample size随机变量random variable随机系列random series累计频率（频率）cumulative frequency经验频率empirical frequency水文频率分布曲线（水文频率曲线）hydrologic frequency distribution curve皮尔逊分布Pearson distribution对数正态分布log normal distribution频率分析frequency analysis随机模拟stochastic simulation时间序列time series随机水文分析hydrologic stochastic analysis 趋势项trend term周期项cycle term随机项stochastic term调和分析（谐波分析）harmonic analysis潜分析spectrum analysis回归分析（相关分析）regression analysis 相关系数correlation coefficient自回归分析autoregression analysis逐步回归分析stepwise regression analysis设计供水design flood溢洪道设计洪水spillway design flood分期设计洪水stage design flood施工设计洪水design flood for construction period校核洪水check flood实测洪水observed flood调查洪水investigated flood古洪水paleoflood坝址洪水dam－site flood入库洪水reservoir inflow flood分项调查法item－by－item investigation method降雨径流模型法rainfall－runoff model method蒸发差值法evaporation difference method径流年内分配annual distribution of runoff径流多年变化multiyear variation of runoff丰水期high－water period平水期normal－water period枯水期（枯季）low－flow period丰水年wet year平水年（中水年）normal year枯水年dry year特枯水年extraordinary dry year连续丰水年continuous wet years连续枯水年continuous dry years水文年鉴water year设计雨型design storm pattern暴雨路径storm track暴雨时程分配time distribution of storm暴雨地区分布special distribution of storm暴雨参数等值线storm parametric isoline map 点面换算系数point－area conversion coefficient定点定面关系fixed point－fixed area relationship 可能最大露点probable maximum dew point 暴雨移置改正storm transposition correction 流域形状改正watershed shape correction水汽改正moisture correction入流障碍改正inflow obstacle correction综合改正synthetic correction暴雨幅合分量convergence component of storm地形增强因子topographic increasing factor等百分数法isopercental method可能最大洪水probable maximum flood涝surface water logging渍subsurface waterlogging排涝surface waterlogging control排渍subsurface waterlogging control排涝规划waterlogging control planning排涝标准standard for waterlogging control排涝计算computation of waterlogging control 设计排涝流量design discharge for surface drainage设计排渍流量design drainage discharge of subsurface waterlogging control设计排涝水位design water level for surface drainage水荒water famine水资源评价water resources assessment水资源基础评价water resources basic assessment水量评价water quantity assessment水质评价water quality assessment地表水资源评价surface water resources assessment水资源评价指标indexes of water resources assessment水资源总量total amount of water resources地表水资源量surface water resources amount 地下水资源量groundwater resources amount 可利用量utilizable water地下水可开采量groundwater available yield 可供水量available water supply径流调节runoff regulation综合利用水库调节（多目标水库调节）reservoir regulation for comprehensive utilization水库调洪reservoir flood routing水库供水调节reservoir regulation for water supply水电站径流调节runoff regulation of hydropower regulation水库反调节reregulating reservoir水库群调节multi－reservoir regulation径流调节计算computation of runoff regulation时历法（长系列操作法）chronological series method概率法（数理统计法）probability method随机模拟法stochastic simulation method调节周期regulating period目标函数objective function约束方程constraint equation状态变量state variable决策变量decision variable数学规划mathematic programming线性规划linear programming非线性规划nonlinear programming水库防洪调度flood control scheduling of reservoir水库实时调度real－time reservoir scheduling 水库群调度multi－reservoir scheduling水库预报调度reservoir scheduling based on forecast抽水蓄能pumped storage水沙调度scheduling of water and sediment水环境water environment水环境要素（水环境基质）water environment elements水环境背景值（水环境本底值）water environmental background value水生态系统aquatic ecosystem化学径流chemical runoff环境用水environmental water环境水文学environmental hydrology环境水力学environmental hydraulics环境水化学environmental hydrochemistry地下水超量开采groundwater overdraft人工补给（人工回灌）artificial recharge地下水降落漏斗groundwater depression cone 化学水污染chemical water pollution 无机物水污染water pollution by inorganic substances有机物水污染water pollution by organic substances有毒物质水污染water pollution by toxic substances放射性水污染radioactive water pollution热污染thermal pollution生物水污染water pollution by organism富营养化eutrophication次生水污染secondary water pollution地下水污染groundwater pollution水污染常规分析指标index of routine analysis for water pollution水污染遥感监测remote－sensing monitoring of water pollution 污染物pollutant污染物迁移transport of pollutant机械迁移physical transport物理－化学迁移physicochemical transport人为污染源artificial pollution source天然污染源natural pollution source污染源调查investigation of pollution sources 污染源控制pollution source control水质参数water quality parameters水质模型water quality model水温模型water temperature model水质生物评价biologic assessment of water quality水环境效益water environmental effect水污染环境效应environmental effect of water pollution水环境保护water environmental protection水质规划water quality planning河流水质规划river water quality planning水库水质规划reservoir water quality planning 水污染综合防治规划planning of comprehensive water pollution control水源保护区protection zone of water source蒸发evaporation水位stage流速velocity流量discharge含沙量sediment concentration输沙率sediment discharge水温模型water temperature冰凌ice run水质water quality下垫面underlying surface水文情势hydrologic regime水文效应hydrologic effect水文循环（水循环）hydrologic cycle水量平衡water balance热量平衡heat balance盐量平衡salt balance大气水汽含量atmospheric water vapour content大气水汽输送atmospheric water vapour transport水汽输送通量atmospheric water vapour flux 降雨面积rainfall area降雨分布rainfall distribution暴雨洪水storm flood冰凌洪水（凌讯）ice flood冰雪洪水ice－snow melt flood雨雪混合洪水rain and snowmelt flood山洪flash flood溃坝洪水dam－break flood大气环流atmospheric circulation行星尺度天气系统planetary scale weather system天气尺度天气系统synoptic scale weather system中小尺度天气系统meso and micro－scale weather风暴潮storm surge风暴中心storm center西风槽westerly trough东风波easterly wave低压槽trough高压脊ridge副热带高压subtropic high温带extratropic zone寒带frigid zone季风monsoon梅雨（霉雨）plum rains阵雨showery rain地形雨aerographic rain 热带气旋雨rainfall in tropic cyclone卫星云图satellite cloud picture气压（大气压强）atmospheric pressure海平面气压sea－level pressure湿球温度wet－bulb temperature水汽压vapour pressure饱和水汽压saturation vapour pressure绝对湿度absolute humidity相对湿度relative humidity饱和差saturation deficit流域长度basin length流域平均高程basin elevation mean流域平均宽度basin width mean流域平均坡度basin slope mean流域不对称系数coefficient of basin nonsymmetric流域面积增长率growth ratio of drainage area 流域自然地理特征physiographic characteristics of basin水系（河系）hydrographic net人工河网artificial drainage network河网密度drainage density明渠open channel河源headwaters冲沟gully溪流brook分支fork串沟bifurcation channel外流河exoreic river内陆河endothecia river减河relief channel控制河段control reach顺流河段straight reach弯曲河段bent reach扩散河段expanding reach收缩河段converging reach游荡河段wandering reach感潮河段tidal reach裁弯河段channel cutoff稳定河槽stable channel不稳定河槽（冲淤河槽）unstable channel 主槽main channel单式河槽single channel复式河槽compound channel河道横断面river cross－section河道纵断面river longitudinal profile断面特性cross－section characteristics河床形态channel morphology浅滩thoal急潭cataract河漫滩flood plain江心湖channel island有效水头effective head水头损失head loss沿程水头损失frictional head loss局部水头损失local head loss能面比降energy slope水面比降surface slope摩阻比降friction slope附加比降（加速比降）add slope河道比降（河床比降）channel slope水面横比降transverse slope of water surface 倒比降inverse slope总水头线total head line水面线water surface profile糙率roughness谢才系数Chezy coefficient谢才公式Chezy formula曼宁公式Manning formula输水因数（输水率）conveyance factor水跃hydraulic jump水舌nappe回水曲线（壅水曲线）hackwater curve弗汝德数Froude number悬移质suspended load推移质bed load床沙bed material床沙质bed material load冲泻质wash load河流泥沙运动sediment transport in river泥沙起动incipient motion of sediment起动流速competent velocity造床流址dominant discharge泥沙密度density of sediment高含沙水流flow with hypereoncentration of sediment泥石流debris flow水流挟沙能力sediment transport capacity of flow河床演变fluvial process冲刷scar淤积sedimentation沙量平衡sediment balance泥沙输移sediment transport泥沙输移比sediment delivery ratio浆河现象clogging of river sediment flow揭河底现象tearing of river bed天然水质natural water quality水化学hydrochemistry冰清ice regime结冰河流ice－frozen stream封冻河流freeze－up stream稳定封冻河流stable freeze－up stream非稳定封冻河流unstable freeze－up stream 结冰期ice－frozen period初生冰initial ice冰针ice specula冰凇rime ice圆扁冰pan－cake ice冰花frazil slush岸冰border ice初生岸冰initial border ice固定岸冰fixed border ice冲击岸冰agglomerated border ice再生岸冰regenerative border ice残余岸冰residual border ice雪冰slush ice水内冰underwater ice冰屑shuga冰底边ice base boundary冰礁ice reef冰桥ice bridge流冰花slush ice run冰上流水water flow over ice层冰层水ice cover with intercalated water layers融冰thawing冰层塌陷ice sheet depression冰层浮起floating ice cover冰滑动dislodging of ice cover解冻（开河）break－up文开河tranquil break－up。

土木工程专业英语第二版段兵延第7课省名师优质课赛课获奖课件市赛课一等奖课件

这种类型旳某些石桥，被称为clapper bridges，依然能在英国旳达特姆尔高原发觉；但是，它们却只始于中世纪或更晚。
The first innovation beyond the primitive bridge forms is believed to have occurred in ancient China and then spread to India.
桥梁是跨越障碍（例如河流和峡谷）旳构造物，为通行提供道路。
By far the majority of bridges are designed to carry automobile or railroad traffic, but some are intended for pedestrians only.
土木工程专业英语
New words and phrases
gap n. 缺口, 裂口, 间隙, 缝隙, 差距, 隔膜 aerialist n. 高空杂技师 tightrope n. 拉紧旳绳索 cable n. 电缆, 海底电报, 缆, 索 v. 打(海底)电报 abutment n. 邻接, 桥礅，桥台，拱座 Anchorage 锚地；碇泊处；靠山；寄托 stretch v. 伸展, 伸长 n. 一段时间, 一段旅程, 伸展 girder n. 梁, 钢桁旳支架 overlap v. (与...)交迭 intersect vt. 横断 vi. (直线)相交, 交叉 corbel arch 突拱 intermediate pier 中间墩
早期人类使用旳工具和建桥旳技术就像原始人类旳一样低档，以至于无庸置疑地他得被迫使用轻易运送旳材料，这些材料经过少许旳加工成形和修整即可实施安装。
土木工程专业英语

(完整版)有关隧道方面外文文献与翻译

A convection-conduction model for analysis of the freeze-thawconditions in the surrounding rock wall of atunnel in permafrost regionsHE Chunxiong（何春雄），（State Key Laboratory of Frozen Soil Engineering, Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology andGeocryology,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; Department of Applied Mathematics,South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China）WU Ziwang（吴紫汪）and ZHU Linnan（朱林楠）（State key Laboratory of Frozen Soil Engineering, Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology andGeocryologyChinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China）Received February 8, 1999AbstractBased on the analyses of fundamental meteorological and hydrogeological conditions at the site of a tunnel in the cold regions, a combined convection-conduction model for air flow in the tunnel and temperature field in the surrounding has been constructed. Using the model, the air temperature distribution in the Xiluoqi No. 2 Tunnel has been simulated numerically. The simulated results are in agreement with the data observed. Then, based on the in situ conditions of sir temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind force, hydrogeology and engineering geology, the air-temperature relationship between the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall and the air temperature at the entry and exit of the tunnel has been obtained, and the freeze-thaw conditions at the Dabanshan Tunnel which is now under construction is predicted.Keywords: tunnel in cold regions, convective heat exchange and conduction, freeze-thaw.A number of highway and railway tunnels have been constructed in the permafrost regions and their neighboring areas in China. Since the hydrological and thermalconditions changed after a tunnel was excavated，the surrounding wall rock materials often froze, the frost heaving caused damage to the liner layers and seeping water froze into ice diamonds，which seriously interfered with the communication and transportation. Similar problems of the freezing damage in the tunnels also appeared in other countries like Russia, Norway and Japan .Hence it is urgent to predict the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock materials and provide a basis for the design，construction and maintenance of new tunnels in cold regions.Many tunnels，constructed in cold regions or their neighbouring area，s pass through the part beneath the permafrost base .After a tunnel is excavat，edthe original thermodynamical conditions in the surroundings are and thaw destroyed and replaced mainly by the air connections without the heat radiation, the conditions determined principally by the temperature and velocity of air flow in the tunnel ，the coefficients of convective heat transfer on the tunnel wall，and the geothermal heat. In order to analyze and predict the freeze and thaw conditions of the surrounding wall rock of a tunnel，presuming the axial variations of air flow temperature and the coefficients of convective heat transfer, Lunardini discussed the freeze and thaw conditions by the approximate formulae obtained by Sham-sundar in study of freezing outside a circular tube with axial variations of coolant temperature .We simulated the temperature conditions on the surface of a tunnel wall varying similarly to the periodic changes of the outside air temperature .In fact，the temperatures of the air and the surrounding wall rock material affect each other so we cannot find the temperature variations of the air flow in advance; furthermore，it is difficult to quantify the coefficient of convective heat exchange at the surface of the tunnel wall .Therefore it is not practicable to define the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall according to the outside air temperature .In this paper, we combine the air flow convective heat ex-change and heat conduction in the surrounding rock material into one mode，l and simulate the freeze-thaw conditions of the surrounding rock material based on the in situ conditions of air temperature，atmospheric pressure，wind force at the entry and exit of the tunnel，and the conditions of hydrogeology and engineering geology. MathematicalmodelIn order to construct an appropriate model, we need the in situ fundamental conditions as a ba-sis .Here we use the conditions at the scene of the Dabanshan Tunnel. The Dabanshan Tunnel is lo-toted on the highway from Xining to Zhangye, south of the Datong River, at an elevation of 3754.78-3 801.23 m, with a length of 1 530 m and an alignment from southwest to northeast. The tunnel runs from the southwest to the northeast.Since the mon thly-average air temperature is ben eath O'}C for eight mon ths at the tunnel site each year and the construction would last for several years，the surrounding rock materials would become cooler during the construction .We conclude that, after excavation, the pattern of air flow would depend mainly on the dominant wind speed at the entry and exit，and the effects of the temperature difference between the inside and outside of the tunnel would be very small .Since the dominant wind direction is northeast at the tunnel site in winter, the air flow in the tunnel would go from the exit to the entry. Even though the dominant wind trend is southeastly in summer, considering the pressure difference, the temperature difference and the topography of the entry and exi，tthe air flow in the tunnel would also be from the exit toentry .Additionally，since the wind speed at the tunnel site is low，we could consider that the air flow would be principally laminar.Based on the reasons mentione，dwe simplify the tunnel to a round tube，and consider that theair flow and temperature are symmetrical about the axis of the tunnel，Ignoring the influence of the air temperature on the speed of air flow, we obtain the following equation:ra (/ v a v 亠X + 7 ★亦…at/ TI ^ u -z — + (/ — +d t % where t, x, r are the time, axial and radial coord in ates; U, V are axial and radial wind speeds; T is temperature; p is the effective pressure(that,isair pressure divided by air den sity); v is the kin ematic viscosity of air; a is the thermal con ductivity of air; L is the len gth of the tunn el; R is the equivale nt radius of the tunnel secti on; D is the len gth of time after the tunnel con structi on ;S f (t), S u (t) are frozen and thawed parts in the surrounding rock materials respectively; f , u and C f ,C u are thermal conductivities and volumetric thermalcapacities in frozen and thawed parts respectively; X= (x , r) , (t) is phase change front; Lh is heat late nt of freez ing water; and To is critical freez ing temperature of rock ( here we assume To= -0.1C).2 used for sol ving the modelEquation( 1)shows flow. We first solve those concerning temperatureat that thetemperature of the surrounding rock does not affect the speed of air equationsconcerning the speed of air flow, and then solve those equations every time elapse. 2. 1 Procedure used for sol ving the continu ity and mome ntum equati onsSince the first three equati ons in(1) are not in depe ndent we derive the sec ondequati on by xand the third equation by r. After preliminary calculation we obtain the followingelliptic equation concerning the effective pressure p:「艺p ,丄空仃肚、J 裂工 r 3r\ dr) ~ t 卄升 1 0 < x < A 3U av\ 2V Z nJ" Q ・ (2)» 0 < r < R .0 < x < L, O < r < fi j <? V rr 3V 丽4 □齐 <7*3? tl/亦("狂丿 + 7 a?J-产' 0 < t < 77, 0 < x < fj’Oc r < /? j 3 / R T\ 1 3 f ^r\ a?=芥2右八7芥(s 苏n 0 < t < D , 0 < jr < £ T O < 尸吃 K* -iff 入己art d s at 亠张［仏c= r u ( (ar r 3 TA-九昇）1 小弓訂⑺丹，0 < f < Z> f ( i r > € S f { t ):0 < l <. ( x ( r ) 6 S u (< )； f * « r o t 0 t Di = “屠 O W Y 6+) I乔*左石r(R-)»Then we solve equatio ns in(1) using the follow ing procedures:(i ) Assume the values for U0 V0;(ii ) substituting U0 , V0 into eq. (2), and solving (2), we obtain p0;(iii) solving the first and second equations of(1), we obtain U0, V1;(iv) solving the first and third equations of(1), we obtain U2, V2;(v) calculating the momentum-average of U1, v1 and U2, v2, we obtain the new U0, V0;the n return to (ii);(vi) iterating as above until the disparity of those solutions in two consecutive iterations is sufficiently small or is satisfied, we then take those values of p0 U0 andV0 as the in itial values for the n ext elapse and solve those equati ons concerning the temperature..2 .2 En tire method used for sol ving the en ergy equati onsAs mentioned previously, the temperature field of the surrounding rock and the air flow affect each other. Thus the surface of the tunnel wall is both the boun dary of the temperature field in the surrounding rock and the boundary of the temperature field in air flow .Therefore , it is difficult to separately identify the temperature on the tunnel wall surface , and we cannot independently solve those equations concerning the temperature of air flow and those equations concerning the temperature of the surrounding rock .In order to cope with this problem, we simultaneously solve the two groups of equati ons based on the fact that at the tunnel wall surface both temperatures are equal .We should bear in mind the phase cha nge while sol ving those equati ons concerning the temperature of the surro unding rock a nd the convection while solvi ng those equations concerning the temperature of the air flow, and we only need to smooth those relative parameters at the tunnel wall surface .The solvi ng methods forthe equati ons with the phase cha nge are the same as in refere nee [3].2.3 Determ in ati on of thermal parameters and in itial and boun dary con diti ons2.3.1 Determination of the thermal parameters. Using p= 1013.25-0.1088 H , wecalculateP air pressure p at elevati on H and calculate the air den sity using formula , where T is the yearly-average absolute air temperature and G is the humidity constant of air. Letting C P be the thermal capacity with fixed pressure, the thermal con ductivity , and the dyn amic viscosity of air flow, we calculate the thermal con ductivity and of the surro unding rock are determ ined from the tunnel site.2 .3.2 Determ in ati on of the in itial and boun dary con diti ons .Choose the observed mon thly average wind speed at the entry and exit as boun dary con diti ons of wind speed and choose the relative effective pressure p=0 at the exit ( that,isthe entry of 2 [5]the dominant wind trend) and p (1 kL/ d) v /2 on the section of entry ( thatis , the exit of the dominant wind trend ), where k is the coefficie nt of resista neealong the tunnel wall, d = 2R , and v is the axial average speed. We approximate T varying by the sine law accord ing to the data observed at the sce ne and provide a suitable boundary value based on the position of the permafrost base and thegeothermal gradie nt of the thaw rock materials ben eath the permafrost base.3 A simulated exampleUsing the model and the solving method mentioned above , we simulate thevarying law of the air temperature in the tunnel along with the temperature at the entry and exit of the Xiluoqi No.2 Tunnel .We observe that the simulated results are close to the data observed[6].The Xiluoqi No .2 Tunnel is located on the Nongling railway in northeastern Chinaand passes through the part ben eath the permafrost base .It has a len gth of 1kinematic viscosity using the formulas aC p and —.The thermal parameters160 m running from the northwest to the southeast, with the entry of the tunnel in the no rthwest, and the elevati on is about 700 m. The dominant wind direct ion in the tunnel is from no rthwest to southeast, with a maximum mon thly-average speed of 3 m/s and a minimum monthly-average speed of 1 .7 m/s . Based on the data observed we approximate the varying sine law of air temperature at the entry and exit with yearly averages of -5°C, -64C and amplitudes of 189C and 176C respectively. The equivalent diameter is 5 .8m, and the resista nt coefficie nt along the tunnel wall is 0.025.Sineethe effect of the thermal parameter of the surrounding rock on the air flow is much smaller than that of wind speed , pressure and temperature at the entry and exit, werefer to the data observed in the Dabanshan Tunnel for the thermal parameters.Figure 1 shows the simulated yearly-average air temperature in side and at theentry and exit of the tunnel compared with the data observed .We observe that the differenee is less than 0 .2、C from the entry to exit.4 Predict ion of the freeze-thaw con diti ons for the Daba nsha n Tunnel4 .1 Thermal parameter and in itial and boun dary con diti onsUsing the elevation of 3 800 m and the yearly-average air temperature of -3 C , we ues: 2, dbaervccl rdijea»Disuse from theemr>/m1；阿严1 龄n o( simulAted and drived air 左血呼存afurr in Xihioqa g 2 Tunnel in 1979, I、SicmilMed vibFigure 2 shows a comparis on of the simulated and observed mon thly-averageair temperature in-side (dista nee greater tha n 100 m from the en try and exit) thetunn el. We observe that the principal law is almost the same, and the main reason forthe differe nee is the errors that came from approximat ing the vary ing si ne law at the entry and exit; especially , the maximum monthly-average air temperature of 1979was not for July but for August.Tic 凹聽阿弊口of sitnuhied and abserv回«ir lera-peraruir inaide the Xihi呦No, 2 Twind in 1979 1 * Simi- hlrdvdu£A； 2, uLMrved vadiii^.calculate the air density p=0 .774 kg/m 3.Sinee steam exists In the air, we choose the thermal capacity with a fixed pressure of air C p 1.8744kJ/(kg.°C), heat conductivity 2.0 10 2W/(m.0C) and6 and the dynamic viscosity 9.218 10 kg /(m.s). After calculation we obtain the5 2 thermal diffusivity a= 1 .3788 10 m / s and the kinematic viscosity ,1.19 10 5m 2 /s .Con sideri ng that the sect ion of automobiles is much smaller tha n that of thetunnel and the auto-mobiles pass through the tunnel at a low speed , we ignore the piston effects, coming from the movement of automobiles, in the diffusion of the air.We con sider the rock as a whole comp onent and choose the dry volumetric cavity d 2400kg / m ‘content of water and unfrozen water W=3% and W=1%, and the thermalcon ductivity u 1.9W/m.°c , f 2.0W /m.o c ,heat capacityAccording to the data observed at the tunnel site the maximum monthly-average wind speed is about 3 .5 m/s , and the minimum monthly-average wind speed is about 2 .5 m/s .We approximate the wind speed at the entry and exit as一 2v(t) [0.028 (t 7) 2.5](m/s), where t is in mon th. The in itial wind speed in the tunnel is set to ber 2 U (0,x,r) U a (1 (R )2),V(0,x,r) 0.The initial and boundary values of temperature T are set to beT(x = .1 ■+ 耐血(洁和-y) T ,T(O t x,/t a ) = - Jt 0) x O.OJ-C , f - r ) x O. D3・ t. /i r F W K wwhere f(x) is the distanee from the vault to the permafrost bas , and R0=25 m is the radius of do-main of solution T. We assume that the geothermal gradient is 3%, the yearly-average air temperature outside tunnel the is A=-3 0C , and the amplitude is B=12 0C .C V 0.8kJ /kg.o c and C f(0.8 4.128w u )1 W (0.8 4.128w u ) 1 WAs for the boundary of R=Ro，we first solve the equations considering R=Ro as the first type of boundary; that is we assume that T=f(x) 3%0C on R=Ro. We find that, after one year, the heat flow trend will have changed in the range of radius between 5 and 25m in the surrounding rock.. Considering that the rock will be cooler hereafter and it will be affected yet by geothermal heat, we appoximately assume that the boundary R=Ro is the second type of boundary; that is，we assume that the gradient value，obtained from the calculation up to the end of the first year after excavation under the first type of boundary value, is the gradient on R=Ro of T.Considering the surrounding rock to be cooler during the period of constructio，n we calculate from January and iterate some elapses of time under the same boundary. Then we let the boundary values vary and solve the equations step by step(it can be proved that the solution will not depend on the choice of initial values after many time elapses ).4 .2 Calculated resultsFigures 3 and 4 show the variations of the monthly-average temperatures on the surface of the tunnel wall along with the variations at the entry and exit .Figs .5 and 6 show the year when permafrost begins to form and the maximum thawed depth after permafrost formed in different surrounding sections.4 .3 Prelimi nary con clusi onBased on the in itial-bo un dary con diti ons and thermal parameters men tioned above, we obtai n the followi ng prelimi nary con clusi ons:1) The yearly-average temperature on the surface wall of the tunnel isapproximately equal to the air temperature at the entry and exit. It is warmer duri ng the cold seas on and cooler duri ng the warm seas on in the internal part (more tha n 100 m from the entry and exit) of the tunnel than at the entry and exit . Fig .1 shows that the internal mon thly-average temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall is1.2°C higher in January, February and December, 1C higher in March and October, and1 .6C lower in June and August, and 2qC lower in July than the air temperature at the entry and exit. In other mon ths the infernal temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall approximately equals the air temperature at the entry and exit.2) Since it is affected by the geothermal heat in the internal surrounding section,>oz □『enf X 2x < 3S £上 £«『M 除 Mirf^ce 垃 tiiiubel *rtk th 盘亚ut 込 ihc h^ntl . 1, JnFig, 6. Tk ； KJiimiflE thwed depih H!!e (T pennatrafit frrfuwd in y*snjDrs^ncr fnwr irwiy m Hf V TT IP 胴列h/iHT 替砖卩皿巾冲 ftp ihf Bijrhfi* rtf iMwidt^hTumi . J .山甲 Jtli f = l 52h "\l2. 【尸匚gtjnt-nj*11X- £ gy 2即 ncu产«药-工一匚t ^fwrwr df tkr fmnh 】厂肌'**i 芦 P EI 严Mfewr [he- jeu wrieo pemafrffil bepu tc farm LFI i±d-□hsun 氐 fromcniry/n“ H m昭巧 Q j O m V".总町 L h ■ — Z 0 5 G 小二研 SNuance Mim em^ m nti (JiMancc A 100 a fram cfUi} 血 eiLl) tcviperatmc on rfcr<ufiic<*i 2 . uwHr ur lemperifuft. 5 4 3 2 I o LJ/qlsp ■■u.%l£ily uduylil -餌也IT*especially in the central part, the internal amplitude of the yearly-average temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall decreases and is 1 .(6 lower than that at the entry and exit.3 ) Under the conditions that the surrounding rock is compact , without a great amount of under-ground water, and using a thermal insulating layer(as designed PU with depth of 0.05 m and heat conductivity =0.0216 W/m°C, FBT with depth of0.085 m and heat conductivity =0.0517W/m C), in the third year after tunnel construction, the surrounding rock will begin to form permafrost in the range of 200 m from the entry and exit .In the first and the second year after construction, the surrounding rock will begin to form permafrost in the range of 40 and 100m from the entry and exit respectively .In the central part, more than 200m from the entry and exit, permafrost will begin to form in the eighth year. Near the center of the tunnel, permafrost will appear in the 14-15th years. During the first and second years after permafrost formed, the maximum of annual thawed depth is large (especially in the central part of the surrounding rock section) and thereafter it decreasesevery year. The maximum of annual thawed depth will be stable until the 19-20th years and will remain in s range of 2-3 m.4) If permafrost forms entirely in the surrounding rock, the permafrost will providea water-isolating layer and be favourable for communication andtransportation .However, in the process of construction, we found a lot of underground water in some sections of the surrounding rock .It will permanently exist in those sections, seeping out water and resulting in freezing damage to the liner layer. Further work will be reported elsewhere.严寒地区隧道围岩冻融状况分析的导热与对流换热模型何春雄吴紫汪朱林楠（中国科学院寒区旱区环境与工程研究所冻土工程国家重点实验室）（华南理工大学应用数学系）摘要通过对严寒地区隧道现场基本气象条件的分析，建立了隧道内空气与围岩对流换热及固体导热的综合模型;用此模型对大兴安岭西罗奇 2 号隧道的洞内气温分布进行了模拟计算，结果与实测值基本一致;分析预报了正在开凿的祁连山区大坂山隧道开通运营后洞内温度及围岩冻结、融化状况.关键词严寒地区隧道导热与对流换热冻结与融化在我国多年冻土分布及邻近地区，修筑了公路和铁路隧道几十座.由于隧道开通后洞内水热条件的变化;，普遍引起洞内围岩冻结，造成对衬砌层的冻胀破坏以及洞内渗水冻结成冰凌等，严重影响了正常交通.类似隧道冻害问题同样出现在其他国家（苏联、挪威、日本等）的寒冷地区.如何预测分析隧道开挖后围岩的冻结状况，为严寒地区隧道建设的设计、施工及维护提供依据，这是一个亟待解决的重要课题.在多年冻土及其临近地区修筑的隧道，多数除进出口部分外从多年冻土下限以下岩层穿过.隧道贯通后，围岩内原有的稳定热力学条件遭到破坏，代之以阻断热辐射、开放通风对流为特征的新的热力系统.隧道开通运营后，围岩的冻融特性将主要由流经洞内的气流的温度、速度、气—固交界面的换热以及地热梯度所确定.为分析预测隧道开通后围岩的冻融特性，Lu-nardini借用Shamsundar研究圆形制冷管周围土体冻融特性时所得的近似公式，讨论过围岩的冻融特性.我们也曾就壁面温度随气温周期性变化的情况，分析计算了隧道围岩的温度场[3].但实际情况下，围岩与气体的温度场相互作用，隧道内气体温度的变化规律无法预先知道，加之洞壁表面的换热系数在技术上很难测定，从而由气温的变化确定壁面温度的变化难以实现.本文通过气一固祸合的办法，把气体、固体的换热和导热作为整体来处理，从洞口气温、风速和空气湿度、压力及围岩的水热物理参数等基本数据出发，计算出围岩的温度场.1数学模型为确定合适的数学模型，须以现场的基本情况为依据•这里我们以青海祁连山区大坂山公路隧道的基本情况为背景来加以说明.大坂山隧道位于西宁一张业公路大河以南，海拔3754.78~3801.23 m全长1530 m，隧道近西南一东北走向.由于大坂山地区隧道施工现场平均气温为负温的时间每年约长8个月，加之施工时间持续数年，围岩在施土过程中己经预冷，所以隧道开通运营后，洞内气体流动的形态主要由进出口的主导风速所确定，而受洞内围岩地温与洞外气温的温度压差的影响较小；冬季祁连山区盛行西北风，气流将从隧道出曰流向进口端，夏季虽然祁连山区盛行东偏南风，但考虑到洞口两端气压差、温度压差以及进出口地形等因素，洞内气流仍将由出口北端流向进口端•另外，由于现场年平均风速不大，可以认为洞内气体将以层流为主基于以上基本情况，我们将隧道简化成圆筒，并认为气流、温度等关十隧道中心线轴对称，忽略气体温度的变化对其流速的影响，可有如下的方程其中t为时间，x为轴向坐标，r为径向坐标；U, V分别为轴向和径向速度，T 为温度，P为有效压力(即空气压力与空气密度之比少，V为空气运动粘性系数，a为空气的导温系数，L为隧道长度，R为隧道的当量半径，D为时间长度S f(t),(1)S u(t)分别为围岩的冻、融区域• f, u分别为冻、融状态下的热传导系数，C f,C u分别为冻、融状态下的体积热容量，X=(x,r) , (t)为冻、融相变界面,To为岩石冻结临界温度(这里具体计算时取To=-0.10°C), L h为水的相变潜热2求解过程由方程(1)知，围岩的温度的高低不影响气体的流动速度，所以我们可先解出速度，再解温度•2.1连续性方程和动量方程的求解由于方程((1)的前3个方程不是相互独立的，通过将动量方程分别对x和r求导，经整理化简，我们得到关于压力P的如下椭圆型方程：3U BV 3(J dV\ 2严升dr dxi r20<i<Z f>0<r<J R.于是，对方程(1)中的连续性方程和动量方程的求解，我们按如下步骤进行⑴设定速度U0,V0;(2) 将U 0,V0代入方程并求解，得P0(3) 联立方程(1)的第一个和第二个方程，解得一组解U1,V1;(4) 联立方程((1)的第一个和第三个方程，解得一组解U2,V2;(5) 对((3) ,(4)得到的速度进行动量平均，得新的U 0,V0返回⑵;(6)按上述方法进行迭代，直到前后两次的速度值之差足够小•以P0,U0,V0作为本时段的解,下一时段求解时以此作为迭代初值•2. 2能量方程的整体解法如前所述，围岩与空气的温度场相互作用，壁面既是气体温度场的边界，又是固体温度场的边界，壁面的温度值难以确定，我们无法分别独立地求解隧道内的气体温度场和围岩温度场•为克服这一困难，我们利用在洞壁表面上，固体温度等于气体温度这一事实，把隧道内气体的温度和围岩内固体的温度放在一起求解，这样壁面温度将作为末知量被解出来•只是需要注意两点：解流体温度场时不考虑相变和解固体温度时没有对流项；在洞壁表面上方程系数的光滑化•另外，带相变的温度场的算法与文献［3］相同.2. 3热参数及初边值的确定热参数的确定方法：用p=1013.25-0.1088H计算出海拔高度为H的隧道现场的大气P压强，再由P计算出现场空气密度，其中T为现场大气的年平均绝对温GT度，G为空气的气体常数•记定压比热为C p,导热系数为，空气的动力粘性系数为•按a 和一计算空气的导温系数和运动粘性系数.围岩的热物理C p参数则由现场采样测定.初边值的确定方法：洞曰风速取为现场观测的各月平均风速.取卞导风进曰的相对有效气压为0，主导风出口的气压则取为p (1 kL/d) V2/2［5］，这里k为隧道内的沿程阻力系数，L为隧道长度，d为隧道端面的当量直径，为进口端面轴向平均速度.进出口气温年变化规律由现场观测资料，用正弦曲线拟合，围岩内计算区域的边界按现场多年冻土下限和地热梯度确定出适当的温度值或温度梯度.3计算实例按以上所述的模型及计算方法，我们对大兴安岭西罗奇2号隧道内气温随洞曰外气温变化的规律进行了模拟计算验证，所得结果与实测值⑹相比较,基本规律一致.西罗奇2号隧道是位十东北嫩林线的一座非多年冻土单线铁路隧道，全长1160 m，隧道近西北一东南向，高洞口位于西北向，冬季隧道主导风向为西北风.洞口海拔高度约为700 m ,月平均最高风速约为3m/s,最低风速约为1.7m/s.根据现场观测资料，我们将进出口气温拟合为年平均分别为-50C和-6.40C，年变化振幅分别为18.90C和17.60C的正弦曲线.隧道的当量直径为5.8 m,沿程阻力系数取为0.025.由于围岩的热物理参数对计算洞内气温的影响远比洞口的风速、压力及气温的影响小得多，我们这里参考使用了大坂山隧道的资料.图1给出了洞口及洞内年平均气温的计算值与观测值比较的情况，从进口到出口，两值之差都小于0.20C .图2给出了洞内（距进出口 100m 以上）月平均气温的计算值与观测值比较的情况，可以看出温度变化的基本规律完全一致，造成两值之差的主要原因是洞口气温年变化规律之正弦曲线的拟合误差，特别是 1979年隧道现场月平均最高气温不是在7月份，而是在8月份.4对大坂山隧道洞内壁温及围岩冻结状况的分析预测4. 1热参数及初边值按大坂山隧道的高度值 3 800 m 和年平均气温-30C ，我们算得空气密度0.774kg/m 3 ；由于大气中含有水汽，我们将空气的定压比热取为[7]C p 1.8744kJ/m s 导热系数 2.0 102W/m °C ，空气的动力粘性系数取为9.218 10 6 kg/m s ,经计算，得出空气的导温系数a 1.3788 10 5m 2 /s 和运动粘性系数1.19 10 5m 2/s .考虑到车体迎风面与隧道端面相比较小、车辆在隧道内行驶速度较慢等因素，我们这里忽略了车辆运行时所形成的活塞效应对气体扩散性能的影响. 岩体的导热系数皆按完好致密岩石的情况处理，取岩石的干容重3d 2400kg/m 时，含水量和末冻水含量分别为W=3%和 W=1 %，s-- cs 釜09 Irum mt? entry/mFig. I. Cpnpajriion of s^nwlated «nd cbwrwd air ten-p*r- 也uiz in Xilwoqi Nu ・ 2 Tumcl in l 切0+ I . Einmhkad val- UPi 2T cjbMrral values .Fig. 2 B The 普咖抨占阿■ of tiitiLkled And rdbtprved «r twr- perifurr inAide llw Xiluoqi No. 2 Tunnd in 11974 1. Simb-laJfed Talu«{ 2, oEwmxd raJufa . Y-5fT MglloJ 签EMJfl nu盘Su1.9W/m.o c , f2.CW/m.o c 岩石的比热取为 C V 0.8kJ/kg.°C ,「 (0.8 4.128W u ) d , C u d . 1 W另外，据有关资料，大坂山地区月平均最大风速约为3.5 m/s ,月平均最小大风速约为2.5m/s 我们将洞口风速拟合为V(t) [0.028 (t 7)22.5](m/s)，这里t 为月份.洞内风速初值为：U(0,x,r) U a (1(―)2), V (0, x, r) 0.这里取 RU a 3.0m/s .而将温度的初边值取为r( E r > = 丁(—旷)三 A + 甘至"-号)弋・/XO” 工* ff Q > m (Z<^) 一 «o> x 0-03%： ” r x y 一尸〉>：o .0-3» 尺 c 尸 w 尺叮 lx - H, 旷w这里记f (x)为多年冻土下限到隧道拱顶的距离，Ro = 25m 为求解区域的半径.地热梯度取为3%,洞外天然年平均气温 A=-3 0C ，年气温变化振幅B=120C .对于边界R = Ro ,我们先按第一类边值(到多年冻土下限的距离乘以3 %)计算，发现一年后，在半径为 5m 到25m 范围内围岩的热流方向己经发生转向.考虑到此后围岩会继续冷却，但在边界 R=R 0上又受地热梯度的作用，我们近似地将边界R= Ro 作为第二类边界处理，即把由定边值计算一年后R=R 。

季冻区路基冻胀置换深度的计算方法

季冻区路基冻胀置换深度的计算方法张玉富;于天来【摘要】To prevent from damages of frost heaving on highway subugrade in the Seasonal Frozen Zone,the law of frost heaving values distributing along the frozen depth is analyzed according to the re-sults of tests and observations .Based on the allowed deformation value of pavement,by the way of math-ematical statistics and analysis of observed data,the calculation method of allowed frozen thickness for cement and asphalt concrete pavement is proposed,too.Finally,the semi-experimental and semi-theo-retical calculation method for replacement depth of highway subgrade is proposed.In this way,the calcu-lation process is simplified conveniently to recommend the replacement depth values of subgrade under different conditions.The research achievement can provide theoretical base and practical design method for highway subgrade design and for preventing the frozen damages on pavement in Seasonal Frost Zone.%为防止季东区公路路基产生冻胀病害，依据试验和观测结果，分析了路基土冻胀量沿冻深的分布规律。

多年冻土区表层土壤冻融的季节动态

多年冻土区表层土壤冻融的季节动态Peter Permyakov;Georgy Popov;Stepan Varlamov【摘要】建立了考虑地基孔隙溶液迁移因素影响的冻胀计算数学模型。

提出了管道下方土壤季节性冻融的数值试验结果。

%A mathematical model is proposed for calculating frost heave considering migration of ground poresolution .Results of numerical experiment with seasonal freezing and thawing beneath the pipeline are presented .【期刊名称】《黑龙江大学工程学报》【年(卷),期】2014(000)003【总页数】5页(P202-205,214)【关键词】冻土;季节性冻融;数学模型【作者】Peter Permyakov;Georgy Popov;Stepan Varlamov【作者单位】俄罗斯科学院西伯利亚分院北极物理技术研究所，雅库茨克677010，俄罗斯; 俄罗斯科学院西伯利亚分院麦尔尼科夫冻土研究所，雅库茨克677010，俄罗斯;俄罗斯科学院西伯利亚分院北极物理技术研究所，雅库茨克677010，俄罗斯;俄罗斯科学院西伯利亚分院麦尔尼科夫冻土研究所，雅库茨克677010，俄罗斯【正文语种】中文【中图分类】P642.140 IntroductionConstruction and operation of large-scale linear engineering structures(oil and gas pipelines，railways，roads，power lines，etc.)are accompanied by undesirable cryogenic processes:heave，thermokarst，settlement，solifluction etc.In this work［1］based on an approximate analytic solution of the problem of heat and moisture transfer in freezing soil developed the determination technique of heave.According to the authors，a comprehensive approach to the study of deformation of freezing and thawing soils allows to consider a common position of the development of heave deformation and settlement during phase transitions in soils that is heave is determined by a combination of development of deformations due to migration ice-accumulation，massive heaving out and shrinkage soils.Then to estimate the magnitude of de-formation it is applied the formula［1］:where hvol——the magnitude soil heave due to volume growth，in 9%of pore water during freezing(heaving due to the massive heaving out)，m;hJw—the magnitude of heaving due to migrating moisture to the frozen zone，m;hsettl—the magnitude of settlement of the thawed part of soil，due to dehydration，m.This formula takes into account the joint process of heaving and shrinkage.The formula of frost heaving contains a lot of hard-defined empirical parameters being has not been brought to a final decision，it does not account for the main features of the freezing-thawing soil disperse systems，and therefore it reflects the process not enough adequately and completely.Therefore in this paper，it is provided a mathematical model of frost heave in frozen soil and the results of the numerical experiment on forecast of frost heaving.1 Materials and methodsMathematical model of heave is based on the assumption that the expansion of the soil volume occurs in height(in the direction to the soil surface)due to an increase in pore substance due to the transition of water into ice，that is without the possibility of lateral expansion，as it is assumed in the problem of compression of compacted soil.The magnitude of heaving S1，using the total volumetric moisture content θ，and porosity n can be described as follows:Parameter θ，which is in the formula(2)，is determined from the solution of a system of simultaneous equations of heat and moisture exchange. Mathematical model，taking into account the process of moisture transfer in soils，is described by the following system of equations［2］:The system of equations(3)-(4)is closed by the equation of the amount of unfrozen water:here c，cw—volumetric heat capacity of soil and water，J/(m3·K);T—temperature，K;τ—time，s;λ—the thermal conductivity of soil，W/(m·K);r，z—spatial coordinates(z—downward)，m;L—volume heat of phase transition，J/m3;W，Wi，Ww—total weight moisture in the form of iceand water;V=(Vr，Vz)—hydraulic rate，m/s;θ=θπ+θb— total volumetric moisture，the content of volumetric ice and water;kh—hydraulic coefficient，m/s;H=P－z—pressure，m; P—suction pressure，m;k—diffusion coefficient，m2/ s;v=0.1(v=0—decartesian and v=1－a cylindrical coordinate system);R，l—the width and depth of the area under consideration，m.Conduction of heat equation contains convective summand that may be presented in non-divergence (non-conservative)anddivergent(conservative) forms.In the numerical solution it is given the main consideration on approximation of the convective summand.It should be noted that schemes with directed differences of convective terms，taking into account the sign of the rate of filtration，are widely put into practice.Heaving of freezing rocks may occur in conditions of"open one"(with moisture inflow from the aquifer) and"closed"(without the inflow of moisture from the outside)systems.On the surface(upper boundary)can be specified condition of infiltration snow water(effluent)or evaporation at the base of the boundary condition of the same type.On the left and right boundary of area sit is set conditions of impermeability.2 Numerical experimentThe area of numerical simulation is two-dimensional-a vertical section ofsoil with coordinates(r，z).The initial parameters for the calculating experiments on heat and moisture transfer at the base of the pipeline are defined in relation to the climatic conditions of Central Yakutia.The outer diameter of the pipe is 0.53 m，of thickness of the walls of the pipe －0.008，0.01，0.014 m，depending on the permafrost hydrogeological conditions.As anticorrosive coating pipeline it was made two layers of domestic materials"Polylen".To protect insulated pipeline against mechanical damage it was made solid lining by wooden antiseptic rack.Capacity of the pipeline－528 million m3/year and rated working pressure of 5.5 MPa.On the surface it is given the boundary condition of the third kind for the thermal conductivity with effective heat transfer coefficient，which takes into account the vegetation layer and the thickness of the snow cover.Maximum snow depth is 0.4 m.Average monthly ambient temperature and effective heat transfer coefficient，evaporation，atmospheric precipitation data are taken from the amended and rain gauge readings.Ground lithology and the linear part of the pipeline data are selected according to engineering research.The numerical calculations(with and without the pipeline)in ten year in April show that only a change in the moisture content of a field，and the temperature is almost constant.The pipeline，buried at a depth of 1 m，takes the temperature of the surrounding soil and impacts minimal on the environment.Fig.1 shows，calculated by the numerical method，the dynamics of heaving of seasonally thawed soil (soil)and pipeline(pipe)，laid at a depthof 1 m.Fig.1 Seasonal dynamics of heaving of the active layer of the soil and the pipeConsider the annual cycle of the dynamics of the surface active layer and the pipeline with frost heave.In the autumn and winter months(November-March) it occurs freezing of the top active layer，which is accompanied by migration of pore water.Winter low temperatures give birth ice crystals in free water of wet ground.When it enters the whole ice under the action of forces of crystallization it attracted loosely coherent first，and then some portion of the water film.Thus on mineral particles coated with a thin layer of water film it occurs surface unrealized energy through which water comes close to strongly bound thin film of water from the downstream wet ground.The process of moving the film and capillary water to the freezing front is called by the suggestion of M.I.Sumgin［3］，the migration of moisture during seasonal freezing of ground.The magnitude of heaving is due to increase in volume in 9%of pore water freezing.This process plays a major role in the formation of frost heave.The magnitude of heaving during the winter increases monotonically due to the migration of pore water to the freezing front.In May when snow water enters there is a sharp increase in volume(heaving)of the upper layers of the active layer.In the summer months(June-August)，when there is an intensive evaporation due to drying of the upper ground layers it shrinks the active layer.It should be noted that in Central Yakutia in average annual balance the evaporation dominates over precipitation.Autumnrains(September)stop the process of settlement from drying out.All of the above process is repeated cyclically every year."Seasonal shaking"of gas pipeline in comparison to the surface of the ground is a little late.The amplitude of the seasonal fluctuations of the pipeline is 3.8 cm，and the ground surface is 5 cm.Peak value of loosening is observed in late May-the maximum，and in early November-the minimum.The general course of this numerical experiment agrees well with the field observations.Perennial cyclical"seasonal shaking"pushes up gas pipeline in winter，resulting in emergency condition.Fig.2 Dynamics of heavingThe study examined the distribution of temperature and total humidity in the section of the two-dimensional area of model problem for 50 years.The depth and width of the area is respectively 16 and 36 m.The ground consists of three layers:0～4.5 m-loam;4.5～8 m-clay，8～16 m-sand.In the lower right corner on the depth of 16 m ground water flows with positive temperature 0.8 degrees by Celsius(open system).Top is the usual cyclical seasonal freezing and thawing of the ground based on precipitation and evaporation.Availability of ground water is warm influence of the temperature regime of rock massif.Cyclic freezing-thawing on the surface causes the migration of groundwater，the formation of injection ice on the depth of 8～15 m.This process is known as permafrost heaving mounds(bulgunnyakhi-Yakut name).Fig.2 shows the dynamics of heaving on the right end for 50 years.Over time，the process of frost heaving increases，and the growth rategradually decays.The magnitude of heaving on the right end of the field are，respectively，0.56(in a year)，1.49(in 20 years)and 1.72 m(in 50 years). If the difference of the maximum and minimum values is more than 0.5 m heave，the ground belongs to highly dangerous heaving and creates unfavorable conditions on the stability of engineering structures.Similar results were obtained during the field observation experiment on gas pipelines，which are given in the works［4-5］.Fig.3 Coefficient's dynamics of change of irregularity factor for different values of the diffusion coefficientFig.3 shows the irregularity factor of heaving wet soil kirreg.The numerical value of this ratio is expressed by following formula: Where hmax，hmin—the maximum and minimum values of heaving，m;L—the calculated distance between the points of maximum and minimum heaving，m.The figure shows that each year the irregularity factor heave of the gas pipeline increases monotonically and reaches a maximum value and then gradually damps.This is due to the fact that the zone extends along the length of the heaving.The maximum value of the coefficient of irregularity equals 0.24 m/m in 35 years by the diffusion coefficient 100·k.Growth factor affects negatively the stress-strain state of engineering structures.3 ConclusionsThus，the numerical prediction can draw the following conclusions:1)Within ten years around the gas pipeline with underground pro-laying it occurs changes in humidity field，although the transported gas takes thetemperature of the surrounding soil;2)It was considered a"seasonal shaking"of gas pipeline.The magnitude of heaving increases during the winter monotonically due to the migration of pore water to the front of the freezing.In May admission snow water there is a sharp increase in volume(heaving)of the upper layers of the active layer.In the summer months(June-August)，when there is an intensive evaporation due to drying of the upper soil layers it shrinks the active layer.3)Availability of ground water in the lower horizons has a warm influence of the temperature regime rock massif.Cyclic freezing-thawing from the surface causes the migration of groundwater，the formation of ice injection.Depending on the degree of heaving ground there is an increase in the difference between the maximum and minimum values of heaving，which affects negatively the tension-strain state but linear engineering structures.References［1］ Shesternev D M，Shesternev D D.Heaving rocks under conditions of cryolithozone degradation［M］.Yakutsk:Per-mafrost Institute，2012. ［2］ Permyakov P P，Ammosov A P.Mathematical simulation of technogenic pollution in cryolithozone［M］.Novosibirsk:Nauka，2003. ［3］ Sumgin M I.Physical and mechanical processes in wet and frozen soils in connection with the formation of the heave on the roads［M］.Moscow:Transpechat NKPS，1929.［4］ Akagawa S，Huang S，Ono T，et al.Sudden up-lift of buried child gas pipeline monitored at the boundary of permafrost and non-permafrost［J］.Permafrost engineering.Fifth internationalsymposium.Proceeding.Yakutsk，2002，(1):125-129.［5］ Pazinyak V V，Kutvitskaya N B，Minkin M A.Experimental studies of stability of pipelines on large-scale groundwater models［J］.Earth's Cryosphere，2006，(1):51-55.。

季节性冻土地区路基冻结深度试验研究_张聪颖

建设中的哈齐客运专线为无砟轨道铁路，位于松嫩平原。沿线地势低洼，河流水系发育，地下水丰富。沿线最冷月平均气温－ 23. 8 ～－ 27. 3 ℃ ，极端最低温度－ 36. 8 ～－ 39. 3 ℃ ，最大冻结深度 1. 89 ～ 2. 72 m，路基冻胀变形控制难度极大。
本文依托哈齐客运专线路基试验段，通过一个冻融周期的冻胀和温度监测，对比天然地基、粗颗粒填料填筑路堤及铺设保温板的路基的冻结深度及冻胀变形情况，分析冻结深度与路基结构、冻结指数的关系，探讨合理的防冻路基结构形式。
1 监测系统
1. 1 温度监测为观测温度分布及发展状况，在不同位置及深度
安装温度传感器，其深度分别为路基或地基表面下 0. 2 m，0. 6 m，0. 8 m，1. 0 m，1. 2 m，1. 6 m，1. 7 m 至 4. 1 m 共计 20 个温度计。
温度传感器测温精度为 0. 1 ℃ 。 1. 2 变形监测
Abstract： Where ballastless track is constructed in the area with seasonal frozen soil，the embankment deformation control is a prominent problem． The test of subgrade filled with coarse grain soil and the test of temperature and deformation of the natural foundation and insulated embankment are conducted to determine the relationship between different soil frozen index and frozen depth． Test results show that

冰上丝绸之路 Polar Silk Road

冰上丝绸之路Polar Silk RoadChina's Belt and Road Initiative will bring opportunities for parties concerned to jointly build a "Polar Silk Road", and facilitate connectivity and sustainable economic and social development of the Arctic, said a whitepaper issued on Friday.26日发表的白皮书表示，中国的“一带一路”倡议将为有关各方带来机遇，共建“冰上丝绸之路”，有利于北极地区的互联互通以及可持续经济社会发展。

《中国的北极政策》白皮书（China's Arctic Policy whitepaper）共包括四个部分，分别为北极的形势与变化（The Arctic Situation and Recent Changes）、中国与北极的关系（China and the Arctic）、中国的北极政策目标和基本原则（China's Policy Goals and Basic Principles on the Arctic）、中国参与北极事务的主要政策主张（China's Policies and Positions on Participating in Arctic Affairs）。

白皮书说：北极资源丰富，但生态环境脆弱。

中国倡导保护和合理利用北极，鼓励企业利用自身的资金、技术和国内市场优势，通过国际合作开发利用北极资源。

The Arctic has abundant resources, but a fragile ecosystem. China advocates protection and rational use of the region and encourages its enterprises to engage in international cooperation on the exploration for and utilization of Arctic resources by making the best use of their advantages in capital, technology and domestic market.中国鼓励企业参与北极航道基础设施建设，依法开展商业试航，稳步推进北极航道的商业化利用和常态化运行。

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第26卷增刊2004年8月冰川冻土JO UR NAL OF G LACIOL OGY AN D GEO CRY OLO GYV ol.26 Suppl.A ug.2004Article ID:1000-0240(2004)Suppl.-0104-04Freeze and Heave Studies on TransbaikaliaRailway Embankments(横穿贝加尔湖铁路路基的冻胀性研究)V.M.U litsky, A.G.Shashkin, S.A.Kudryvtsev, M.B.Lisyuk (Russia)(Georec onstr uction Engine er ing Co,Iz maylov sky Pr.4,Saint Pe tersbur g,198005,R ussia )Abstract:T he paper features the results of field measurements and numerical research of embankment be -haviour in per mafrost soils of T ransbaikalia railw ay section following implementation of prevent ive w orks to e -liminate action of heaving forces o n the main area of embankment subg rade.Key words :frost heave;thaw ing;deformation;embankment ;T ransbaikalia Railw ay C LC number:U 213.1+4:P642.14Document code:A1 IntroductionExorbitant proportions of railw ay funds are spent on implementation of anti-heave m easures intended to protect railway embankments from deep seasonal freezing conditions of the T ransbaikalia and Russian Far East.These measures,how ever,prove ineffec -tive in certain cases throug hout deep seasonal freeze-throug h areas in higher temperature insular per -mafrost soil [1,2].2 Method to C alculate the Thermal Conduc -tivity of S oil in Unfrozen and FrozenStatesT he trial area of the Transbaikalia section of the T rans -Siberian railw ay being 900m long is positioned on a 2m high embankment situated in the water -logged valley of river Aleur w ith levels fluctuation in the embankment base reaching 0.7m.T he sloping surface of the valley is conducive to accumulation of precipitation and thaw w aters around the subgrade thereby creating a dam -like effect during the spate pe -riod.T his section of the railw ay is subject to seasonal frost heave deformations in w inter time and thaw ing related settlement in the summer.To identify the causative factors leading to defor -mation a geocryological investig ation w as conducted on the subgrade and base so ils,using 9boreholes of max 3m depth (Fig.1)[1].F ig.1 T rial area profile1.stone bedding 015m thick;2.slag counter -heave cush i on 016m thick;3.underlying semisolid l oam max 1m thick;4.subgrade compounded of silty soft -to -plastic loam max 013m thick;5.subsoil com pounded of peaty clay s and max 1.0m thick;6.coarse saturated sand w ith pebble and gravel admixtures max 410~510m ;7.plastic clay sand with admixtures ofgruss an d crushed stoneSite investigation in the trial area highlighted thefollow ing stratification in the embankment and the subg rade (Fig.1).Hydrogeology of the area in question features an eve-r active aquifer located in the stratum of alluvial deposits of coarse sand w ith pebble and gravel.The results of trial measurements show the ground w ater level to vary in the region of013to017m from the embankment subsoil.Outside temperature range for the period of mon-itoring in the trial area w as measured to fluctuate be-tw een+36e in the summer and-63e in the w inter.The subgrade is directed north-west to south-east w hereat the exposure of the solar reaction is lo-cated on the rig ht slope of the embankment facing Chita-Khabarovsk direction.The slope on the north part(boreholes3,6,9)is less exposed to sunlight and is therefore liable to higher freeze ex posure.Surface deformations w ere measured on setting out points installed on the side and the centre line of the track to establish heave values.Based on the archives of the track m aintenance department and the setting out data it w as established that prior to the provision of the counter-heave slag-based cushion the g iven area would develop heaves in excess of200mm under the below zero temperatures, dropping to heaves in excess of100-150m m follow-ing construction of the cushion.3Results and DiscussionDevelopment of frost heave deform ations w as provoked by a high ground w ater level and constant overdampening of heaving peaty clay sands in the em-bankment subsoil.Provision of60cm high counter-heave cushion was furnished by20~25cm layers. Follow ing construction of the cushion the track w as raised onto a crushed stone layer of50~70cm. Bunch-ty pe electric thermometers were installed into thermometric boreholes to establish the nature of temperature distribution in the embankment and the subgrade.The temperatures w ere measured monthly over the period of one year.Field measurements show that follow ing prov-i sion of counter-heave cushion the embankment freezes throug hout in late November on either slope but only halfway through on its central ax is.By early April the freezing depth is located below the g round w ater level.The most intensive g row th of the frost heave de-formations is observed throughout November-Decem-ber at freezing depths not exceeding1.5m;in Jan-uary-M arch the steady grow th of heave in excess of 30mm is observed,being associated w ith g radual frost penetration into the subsoil.Maximum freezing rate is identified all over the month of November.A slack of heav ing rate at max imum freeze-through va-l ues in the month of April is to be attributed to an in-crease of ambient air tem peratures and thawing of surface ground,particularly increasing throughout the month of May.The conducted investigation show ed the counter-heave cut-in cushion in the trial area to reduce freez-ing depth on the track ax is;however,the freezing process affects the heaving subsoil strata and is con-ducive to intensive humidity mig ration from the satu-rated coarse sand,hence the persistent quite consider-able heav ing values of up to150mm.To render com plex solution of thermo-physical and deformational problem regarding embankment behaviour under conditions of deep seasonal frost pen-etration the above geotechnical cases underwent nu-merical modelling by a FE method in spatial setting.For solution of such problems the authors deve-l oped their ow n Thermoground softw are incorporated into FEM models softw are package,the latter created by Georeconstruction-Fundamentprojekt under super-vision of Prof.V.Ulitski[2].It allow s solution of freeze-thaw problems by means of a thermal conduc-tivity equation w ith consideration for phase transfor-mations in below zero temperatures range for un-steady heat conditions in3-D ground medium.T he stressed-strained state is assessed relative to estab-lished temperature and moisture fields.This allow s season-related definition of loads and deformations in subg rade structures,as w ell as envisag ing preventive measures to rule out subversive frost heave influence on railw ay structures.Thereat it becomes possible to establish not only ground freeze-thaw development,105Suppl.V.M.U litsky et al.:横穿贝加尔湖铁路路基的冻胀性研究but also heave -conditioned uplift deformation values and thaw -conditioned settlement values for any struc -ture associated w ith the g round bulk under considera -tion.Problems illustrative of freezing and thaw ing processes with account of moisture m igration are v iewed in relation to freezing front advancement ve -locity.T o investigate freezing,heaving and thawing se -quence various aspects of embankment behaviour throug hout the year w ere looked into:1)prior to prov ision of counter -heave measures;2)w ith prov-i sion of cut -in slag cushion;3)with placement of in -sulation materials.Fig.2features isolines and epures of tempera -tures for the month of April prior to provision of counter -heavemeasures.Fig.2 Isolines and epures of temperaturesfor the month of Aprila.prior to provision of counter -heave measures;b.with provision of cut -in sl ag cushion;c.w ith provision ofcut -in slag cushion and w i th placement ofextruded foam polystyreneNumerical modelling m ade evident that for the trial area in question tw o types of hydrothermal con -dition w ere prevalent in w arm w eather:that w ithmovement of ground w ater in the aquifer and that w ith complete freeze -through of a saturated sample.Fig.3 Isolines and epures of moisture for the month of Apr ila.prior to provision of counter -heave measures;b.with provisi on of cut -in slag cush i on;c.w ith provi sion of cut -i n slag cushionand w ith placem ent of extruded foam polystyreneConstant seepage in the aquifer renders thermal action on the subsoil throughout the year.Absence of seepage and complete freezing of coarse sand is con -ducive to preservation of spots and inclusions of frozen ground both in the subsoil and embankment during w arm periods.Condition one creates complete thaw in the em -bankm ent body and subsoil in w arm weather.Add-i tional provision of extruded foam insulation in such an area reduces below -zero temperature range in the em -bankm ent on the w ay ax is dow n to values being inca -pable of rendering a considerable impact on heave de -formation (Fig.2,c).Increase of ground moisture106 冰川冻土 26卷content in the freezing area located in the main sec -tion of em bankment was w ithin the range of 5%(Fig.3,c).This measure has been show n to have hada positive impact on freezing,heaving and thaw ing processes,reducing values of heave deformations to 10~15mm (Fig.4).F ig.4 Heave and thaw defor matio ns along the railway ax is1.embankment prior to reconstruction under condition one;2.embankment w ith foam polys tyrene under condition on e;3.embankment with provisi on of cut -in slag cushion under condition tw o;4.embankm ent w ith provisionof cut -i n slag cushion and placement of foampolystyrene under con dition twoCondition two insignificantly reduces heave values.Soil moisture increa se in the frozen area occ urred within the range of 25%(Fig.3,a,b).Provision of slag c ush -ion doe s not rule out development of below zero tempera -tures in the embankment body (Fig.2,b)and,c orre -spondingly,is only capable of reducing heave -related de -formations to 100~150mm (Fig.4).The positive point here is that in warm weather underneath the insulating e-l ement certain areas and inclusions of frozen ground linger,a s shown in Fig.5.Fig.5 T emperatur e epures in the embankment andsubsoil for the month of September:1.extruded foam polystyrene;2.froz en ground;3.thawed groundThis leads to not otherw ise so serious thaw ing of the ground and corresponding settlement of the areasin question (Fig.4).Generally ,the track suffers profile an plan dis -tortions throughout its entire leng th ow ing to varying heave deform ation values.Cut -in slag cushion failed to render positive effect in the given climatic and ground conditions.For the inclement conditions of the Transbaikalia region exchange of heav ing soil w ith heave -free material has proved insufficient.To furnish the complete picture of thermo -physical cond-i tion of the embankment throug hout the year along the entire leng th of deformed track section it seems ex pe -dient to carry out geophysical investigation in addition to a directly geocryological investig ation.Geophysical methods render the actual qualitative assessment of the afflicted embankment area for various seasons.Numerical assessment through analysis of various op -tions of embankment structure during reconstruction by these profiles allow s development of an embank -ment option capable of ruling out the adverse conse -quences of heave and thaw.4 ConclusionsIn the given area of the T ransbaikalia section of the Trans -Siberian railway it is adv isable to install ex -truded foam polystyrene insulation under condition one of embankment subsoil.For condition tw o of em -bankm ent it w ould be reasonable to construct either a filtering embankment or drainage slots of large -frag -ment ground throughout the entire depth of embank -ment and subsoil thereof dow n to the stratum of coarse saturated sand.Such solution shall com pletely eliminate moisture migration tow ards freezing front thus ruling out heave related deform ation in the rai-l w ay section in question.References:[1]Primak V A,Polevichenko A G.A study of freezi ng modes of railway subgrades under slag insulation.Is sues of Stability i n Transport Related Structures.W orks of Khabarovsk Institute of Railw ay Engineers,Issue 28.M oscow :Transport Publi shers,1967.20-25(i n Russian).[2]U li tsky V M ,Paramonov V N,Kudryavtsev SA,et al ..Con -temporary geotechnologies providing safe operation of railway embankments i n permafrost con ditions.8th Internati onal Confer -ence on Permafrost.Extended Abstracts,Reporting Current Re -search and New ly Avail able Informati on.Zurich,Sw itzerland,20-25July,2003.167-168.107Suppl. V.M.U litsky et al.:横穿贝加尔湖铁路路基的冻胀性研究。