托福写作概论

综合写作范文学习（话题：鸟类的导航能力）The lecturer states that, although the commonly accepted three theories of birds’ navigation sounds convincing, it suffers from several flaws on various grounds, as is presented below.首段，表明lecturer的立场观点，用转折句巧妙反驳阅读观点。

The first problem with the navigation theory presented in the text is the lack of substantial evidence. As is stated in the lecture, many birds could still navigate at night; therefore they could not navigate by using the sun as compass, since there is no sunlight at night for their reference. And stars do not help either, as there is only one bird species that is known to navigate by using stars. Therefore the sun and the star could not be birds’ compasses.对阅读分论点一的反驳：鸟类通过太阳和星辰导航的理论缺乏实质性证据。

首句指出阅读分论点的问题所在，第二句则提出听力中反驳的证据。

然后补充说明关于利用星星导航的特例。

The second flaw concerns birds’ ability to recognize topographical cues. They can remember a certain journey, but only after their previous travels via the same route. The phenomenon that birds that get lost could easily find their way home serves as a crucial example. On the contrary, the theory presented in the text is questionable.对阅读分论点二的反驳：先说出听力中提供的事实证据，然后说明阅读中的论点是错误的。

Furthermore, although birds can sense the earth’s magnetic field, the text ignores a crucial fact that birds could only distinguish north and south. What they could not perform is to find an indefinite destination hidden in complex landscape, which even troubles modern geographical technology, by their simple censoring system. Therefore, birds’ ability to sense magnetic field could not be the explanation for their navigation ability.对阅读分论点三的反驳。

指出阅读论点问题，提出反驳证据，作出结论。

阅读观点梳理ReadingIn the United States, employees typically work five days a week for eight hours each day. However, many employees want to work a four-day week and are willing to accept less pay in order to do so. A mandatory policy requiring companies to offer their employees the option of working a four-day workweek for four-fifths (80 percent) of their normal pay would benefit the economy as a whole as well as the individual companies and the employees who decided to take the option.The shortened workweek would increase company profits because employees would feel more rested and alert, and as a result, they would make fewer costly errors in their work. Hiring more staff to ensure that the same amount of work would be accomplished would not result in additional payroll costs because four-day employees would only be paid 80 percent of the normal rate. In the end, companies would have fewer overworked and error-prone employees for the same money, which would increase company profits.For the country as a whole, one of the primary benefits of offering this option to employees is that it would reduce unemployment rates. If many full-time employees started working fewer hours, some of their workload would have to be shifted to others. Thus, for every four employees who went on an 80 percent week, a new employee could be hired at the 80 percent rate.Finally, the option of a four-day workweek would be better for individual employees. Employees who could afford a lower salary in exchange for more free time could improve the quality of their lives by spending the extra time with their families, pursuing private interests, or enjoying leisure activities.听力技巧：1.First, offering a four-day workweek will probably force companies to spend more, possibly a lot more.2.(Adding new workers means putting much more money into providing training and medical benefits.)3[ Remember the costs of things like health benefits can be the same whether an employee works four days or five.]2( And having more employees also requires more office space and more computers. ) These additional costs would quickly cut into company profits.信息重要性层次：2 > 3 > 1听力笔记示例：L1：花+训、医办公综合写作模板首句：The lecturer/professor argues/talks about/points out that <topic>, which apparently challenges/contradicts/disagrees with the points illustrated/presented in the reading passage.The lecturer/professor refutes/rebuts/questions/argues against/disagrees with the opinions/reasons stated/presented in the reading text concerning/regarding (that) <topic>.主体段第一句：First, the professor argues that,… , which directly contradicts what the passage indicates, that is, XXXXX.The second point the professor uses to cast doubt on the passage is that… ., which is in sharp contrasts to the reading passage.Another evidence the lecturer adopts to refute the passage is that … , differing from the statement of the passage that ….Secondly, the reading passage states that…, while according to the lecture,. .第二三句：解释理由，给出听力细节第四句：This is the first divergence/difference/disagreement/controversy between the lecturer and the reading.So there lies another part where the lecturer contradicts the reading passage.表示反驳的词：refute/rebut/contradict/challenge/question/disagree with/argue against/cast doubt on表示转折的词：but/however/nevertheless/while/reversely/on the contrary/contrary to what the reading indicates/by contrast/in contrast to表示说，表明：Say/sate/claim/mention/argue/indicate/demonstrate /illustrate /affirm独立写作流程第一步：审题普通类事实：People now show less respect to teachers than in the past.(2012.8.17)Competition with friends has negative effect on friendship.(2012.9.2)观点：It is important for government to protect wild animals and wilderness areas for the future generation.(2012.4.14)Parents should let their children make mistakes and learn from their own mistakes. (2012.8.26)最高类The best leaders are those who are willing to admit when they made bad decisions.（2013.3.17）The most important investment for a company is to spend money to improve the working skills of its employees.(2012.9.8)比较类Your job has more effect on your happiness than your living environment does.(2013.1.27) Young people today are more likely to help others than in the past.(2013.1.26)限定类All scientific discoveries should be shared among all scientists all around the world. (2012.10.28)Only people who earn a lot of money are successful.(ETS范文)偏好类（PR）Which of the following do you think is the best way for students to make new friends: joining a sports team, participating in community activities or travelling?(2012.5.5)首段三部曲：引入话题，转写题目，表明观点两面观点 + 个人观点A number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However; this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.•Some/many/the majority of people/students think/believe/argue/hold the view/are convinced that…•While/however/nevertheless/on the other hand, (some) others are strongly opposed to/despise this opinion/view. / take a negative attitude.•For my part•As far as I am concerned•In my opinion/view•From my perspective/ point of view•I am reclined to be on the side of the latter view•I absolutely/totally support/agree with/approve of/side with the former point of view.话题（长期话题、最近热点）引入 + 个人观点It has long been controversial whether …Traffic jam has always been a headache in many metropolises. And one major factor contributing to this problem is the overuse of private cars. Therefore, I am convinced the best solution to traffic jam is to limit the use of private cars.Honesty has always been considered to be a worthy character trait in whatever culture. Generally speaking, it is therefore not a good idea to tell lies. However, there may be some circumstances when telling lies might be necessary and can be justified.In the recent years, …has aroused much public concern./heated discussion.In the recent decades, the rapid development of remote online education has become a popular issue of controversy.Recently, increasingly popularized E-books seem to have threatened the status of traditional books.Now, E-books are overwhelming while people who read traditional ones are ever fewer. Nevertheless, I firmly believe that the day when traditional books disappear will never come.以中心句引领主体段(分论点→对分论点的阐释、细节→例证→小结)•The first reason that can be seen by every person is that advertisements provide us with much useful information. Advertisements keep us well-informed about the products and services. As a result, we can compare them conveniently and choose what suit us most with the lowest price. In addition, we can also find a job or rent a house with the help of advertisements.•Another factor that we must consider is that advertisements bring usa lot of entertainment. Just imagine what a bus station would be like withoutadvertisements. Would you enjoy watching a blank wall or reading traffic regulations while waiting for a bus? An interesting advertisement makes your waiting less dull and monotonous.反向观点（让步段。