现代外语教学复习资料
英语下学期总复习资料
英语下学期总复习资料英语下学期总复习资料英语作为一门重要的国际语言，对于我们来说具有重要的意义。
下学期即将结束，为了帮助大家复习英语，我整理了一些总复习资料，希望对大家有所帮助。
一、语法复习1. 时态：复习各种时态的构成和用法，包括一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时等。
注意各种时态的肯定、否定和疑问句的构成。
2. 从句：复习宾语从句、定语从句和状语从句的构成和用法。
注意从句的引导词和语序的变化。
3. 名词和代词：复习名词的单复数形式、所有格和代词的人称、数和格的变化规则。
4. 形容词和副词：复习形容词和副词的比较级和最高级形式的构成和用法。
5. 介词和冠词：复习介词和冠词的用法，特别是一些常见的固定搭配。
二、词汇复习1. 同义词和反义词：复习一些常见的同义词和反义词，扩大词汇量。
2. 词根和词缀：复习一些常见的词根和词缀，帮助理解和记忆生词。
3. 短语和习惯用语：复习一些常用的短语和习惯用语，提高语言表达的准确性和流利度。
三、听力复习1. 听力技巧：复习一些常用的听力技巧，如预测、推测和判断等，提高听力理解能力。
2. 听力材料：找一些有关主题的听力材料进行听力训练，注意听懂关键信息和主旨要点。
四、阅读复习1. 阅读技巧：复习一些常用的阅读技巧，如快速阅读、略读和详读等，提高阅读理解能力。
2. 阅读材料：找一些有关主题的阅读材料进行阅读训练，注意理解文章的结构和主题要点。
五、写作复习1. 写作技巧：复习一些常用的写作技巧，如段落结构、句子连接和词汇替换等，提高写作表达的准确性和流利度。
2. 写作练习：找一些有关主题的写作练习，注意练习各种写作形式，如记叙文、说明文和议论文等。
六、口语复习1. 口语技巧：复习一些常用的口语技巧，如表达观点、提出建议和回应问题等，提高口语表达的准确性和流利度。
2. 口语练习：找一些有关主题的口语练习，注意练习各种口语形式，如对话、演讲和辩论等。
以上是英语下学期总复习资料的简要介绍。
教师资格证外语教育知识与能力简答题归纳汇总
教师资格证外语教育知识与能力简答题归
纳汇总
第一部分语言知识
语音知识
- 拼音规则及应用
- 四声规律和变调规律
- 音节结构、重读和轻读
- 特殊音（拼音中特有的音）
- 声调的意义、类型及区分
- 浊音、清音的发音及特点
- 同音异调、同调异音、多音字及其应用
- 外语中的读音规律及英语中重读音节规律
语法知识
- 中文句子成分及其功能
- 并列句、复合句和简单句的概念、特征、类型和结构
- 句子的语序及其特点
- 语法关系（主谓关系、动宾关系、定状补关系、并列关系、从属关系）
- 助动词的种类、用法及其含义
- 外语语法中的基本句型和时态
词汇知识
- 词类及其区分
- 同义词、反义词的辨析
- 单词的构成及其排序
- 多义词、近义词和错误词用法
第二部分形式与技巧
外语教学中的思维技巧
- 思维的类型和层次
- 思维技巧的种类和难点
外教教学中的语言技巧
- 外教教学中的情景语言（简介、道歉、询问等常用情景）
- 外教教学中的听说技巧（如声音的语调、正确发音等）
- 教学中的情态动词（如“可以”、“应该”等）
外语教学中的心理技巧
- 研究的目标和难点
- 研究的心态
结束语
以上就是本文对于教师资格证外语教育知识与能力简答题的归纳汇总，只要认真掌握上述内容，并且在实践中多加运用，相信一定能够取得优异的成绩。
英语复习资料完整版
英语复习资料完整版导言：英语是一门国际通用语言，具备良好的英语能力对于学习、工作和生活是非常重要的。
无论是参加英语考试还是日常交流，都需要具备扎实的英语基础和充足的复习资料。
本文将提供一份完整版的英语复习资料，以帮助读者进行全面的英语复习。
一、基础知识复习1. 词汇复习：重点复习常用单词和短语，包括动词、名词、形容词、副词等，并掌握它们的用法和搭配。
建议使用词汇书籍或手机应用程序进行词汇记忆。
2. 语法复习：回顾英语的基础语法知识，包括时态、语态、句型转换等。
重点复习一般现在时、一般过去时和一般将来时等常用时态的用法。
3. 句子结构复习：了解英语句子的基本结构和语序规则，掌握主谓宾从等句子结构的用法。
二、听力技巧提升1. 听力材料选择：选择适合自己听力水平的听力材料进行练习。
可以选择录音课程、听力短文、英语新闻等。
通过多次听取和理解，提高自己的听力能力。
2. 笔记记述：在听力练习过程中，可以尝试边听边记笔记。
记录关键词、重点内容和自己的理解，有助于加深记忆和提高理解能力。
3. 对话练习：和他人进行英语对话练习，增强自己的听力和口语能力。
可以选择参加英语角、在线英语聊天室或找外教进行对话练习。
三、口语能力提升1. 模仿发音：通过模仿英语母语者的发音，训练自己的口语能力。
可以选择听力材料进行模仿，也可以参考口语教材中的例句进行跟读。
2. 口语练习：多参与口语练习，提高口语表达能力。
可以找语伴或参加英语角，进行对话练习。
同时，可以尝试进行口头演讲或自由辩论等口语训练。
3. 背诵口语素材：背诵一些常用的口语表达和例句，帮助提高口语流利度和表达能力。
四、阅读理解能力提升1. 阅读材料选择：选择适合自己英语水平和兴趣的阅读材料进行阅读理解练习。
可以选择英语小说、英语杂志、英文报纸等。
2. 阅读技巧：掌握好的阅读技巧，包括快速阅读、精读和扫读等。
通过多次练习，提高自己的阅读速度和理解能力。
3. 生词积累：阅读过程中，遇到不认识的单词和短语，可以进行积累和记忆。
自考00831现代英语语法复习资料【考前必看】
自考现代英语语法考前必看资料第一部分：引言《现代英语语法》是由李基安先生编写，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会指定的全国高等教育自学考试教材。
关于这门课程的考试要求，可参见该教程第425所附录的《英语语法自学考试大纲》。
大纲是方向、目标，广大考生必须仔细了解。
英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。
通过该课程的学习，学员能够比较系统地认识英语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用英语的规范性。
在学习该教材时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、难懂；二是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准备就能对付过去。
其实，两种看法都失偏颇。
现代语法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，该教程则采取的是‘a system of two tenses and two aspects’—-—-—-两时两体体系。
另外对phrases, clauses 的概念也有不同的定义。
书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition], 分隔[discontinuity], 分裂句[cleft sentence]等都是一般语法书所不提及或者阐述不同。
该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不过我们许多英语学习者没有考究过它们形成的理论根据，来龙去脉而已。
所以，为了使自己的英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、表达思想，英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学好。
现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试中考生容易忽略的测试要点或难点。
我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教材的学习方法，最后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。
自考英语本科现代语言学专业名词大纲复习必过
专业名词第一单元音系学phoneties is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language,it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.articulatory phoneties【发声语音学】how a speaker uses his speech organs to articilate the sounds.auditory phonetics【听觉语音学】it looks at the sounds are the hearer's point of view,i.e.,how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.acoustic phonetics【声学语音学】it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.borad transcription【宽式标音法】is the transcription with letter-symbols only,which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.narrow transcription【严式标音法】is the transcription with letter symbols together with the diacritics,which is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.Vowel【元音】the air that comes from the lunds meets with no obstruction of any kind in the thoroat,the nose,or the mouth,while in the pronunciation of a consonant 【辅音】the air streamfrom the lungs is obstructed in one way or another. phonemic contrast 【音位对立】refers to the relation between two phonemes,if two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning. Phonology【音系学】is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it arms to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.complementary distribution【互补分布】refers to the relations of phonemic varieties,and two allphones of the same phoneme will never occur in the same position in the phonemic groups，they can not differentiate meanings.Minimal pair【最小对立对】when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.sequential rules【序列规则】is the rules that govern combination of sounds in a particular language.assimilation rules【同化规则】assimilates one sound to another by 'copying' a feature of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.the election rules【省略规则】suprasegmental features【超切分特征】distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegment phonemes.these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable,the word,and the sentence.the main suprasegmenttal features include stress,tone,and intonation. Allophone【音位变体】is the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.Stress【重音】when a certain syllable of a word is stressed,its means that the syllableis pronounced with greater force than the other or others.Tone【语调】tones arepitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.therefore,the tone is asuprasegmental feature.Intonlation【声调】when pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the woed in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like english.第二单元形态学morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.can be divided into inflectional morphology and lexical ordervational morphology. free mprphemes【自由语素】are the morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.bound morphemes【黏着语素】are the morphemes which cannot be used in dependently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.include:roots and affixes.Roots【词根】a root is often seen as part of a word,it cannever stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning,it mus be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Inflectional affixes【屈折词缀】or inflectional morphemes manifest warious grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense,degree,and case.Derivational affixes【派生词缀】are added to an existing form to create a word. Stem【词干】the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem,a stem can be a bound root,a free morpheme,or a derived form itself. features of compounds 【复合词特征】1.orthographical features 【书写特征】orthographically,a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between,or as two separate words.2.syntactical features【句法特征】syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by part of speech of the second element.3.semantic features【语义特征】semantically,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanins of its components.4.phonetic features 【语音特征】phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,whlie the secondelement receives secondary stress.第三单元句法学syntax studies the sentence structure of language.as amajor component of grammar,syntaxconsists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.linguistic competence【语言能力】chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's konwledge of the rules of his language.Sentence【句子】a sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,questioin or command.move α：the general movement rule that accounts for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.types of sentences:1.simple sentence:a simple sentemce consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2.coordinate sentence: a coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by linking word,such as "and""but""or".plex sentence:a complex sentence contains two,or more,clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.structures of sentences:1.linear:when a sentence is uttered or weitten down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.meanwhile,they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence.2.hierarchical:sentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntatic category,such as noun phrase or verb phrase.3.diagrams【树形图】the hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diamgram of constituent structure,so called because such a diagram looks like an inverted tree.syntax linguists often use the diagrams to reveal or show the level of the sentence structure,and explain the different levels of a variety of sentence meaning in the same sentence structure.lexical caregories【词类】a language has major and minor lexical categories of a finite set.major lexical caregories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.minor lexical caregories are closed categories because the number of lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.X-bar theory:can reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.NP must contain N,VPmust contain V,AP must contain A,and PP must contain P.it is this obligatory word that gives the phrase its name.this wordis called the phrasal head,and each phrasal category must have a head.NP-movement:NP-movement reders to the fact that noun phrases move from one place to another NP-movement occurs when,for example,a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.WH-movement:WH-movement is another movement of elements,which refer to the fact that WH words move from one place to anothr in a sentense.WH-movement is obligatory in english.it changes asentence from affirmative to interrogative.AUX-movement:general questions in english may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement.AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb,such as "be""have""do""will""can"and"should",tothe sentence initial position.while the movement of adjectives is for the sake of stylistics.第四单元语义学semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.the naming theory【命名论】one of the oldest notions concerning meaning,and also a very primitive one,was the naming theory,according to this theory,the linguisticforms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects the stand for.so woeds are just names or labels for things.the conceptualist view【意念论】the conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic from and what it refers to,but,in the interpretation meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. contextualism【语境论】contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context.behaviorism【行为主义论】the behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism.behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as "the situation in which the speaker utters it and the responseit calls forth in the hearer".Argument【论元】An argument is a logical participant in a predication.It is generally identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.it is the collection of all the features of the linguisitc form.it is abstract and de-contextualized. reference means waht a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world.it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.1.synonymy 【同义关系】refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.words that are close in meaning.2.polysemy 【多义关系】reders to the fact that the same one woed may have more than one meaning.a word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.there are many polysemic words in engliah.the more commonly used a word is,the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.3.homonymy【同音/同形异义关系】refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.when two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.when two woeds are idntical in spelling,they are homographs.when two words are identical in both sound and spelling,they are called complete homonyms.4.hyponymy【上下义关系】refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive woed and amore specific word.the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate,and the words which are more specific in meaning are called its hyponyms.hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.5.antonymy【反义关系】reders to the oppositeness of meaning,words that re opposite in meaning are called antonyms.the sppositeness of meaning can be found on different dimensions and different kinds of antonyms may be recongnized.(A)gradable antonyms【等级反义词】some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.(B)complementary antonyms【互补性反义词】are thosethat are complementary to each other.in apair of complementary antonyms,the denial of one implies theassertion of the other.(C)relational opposite【关系反义词】pairs of woeds that exhibot the reversal of a relationship between the two terms are called relational spposites.componential analysis【成分分析】is a way to analyze word woed meaning.it was proposed by structural semanticists.the approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components,which are called semantic features,plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word,and these feature symblos are usually written in capitalized letters.predication analysis【述谓结构分析】linguistic have proposed different ways to analyze the ,eaming of sentences.one of them is the predication analysis.it is proposed by the british linguist G.Leech.in grammatical anaysis,the sentence is regarded as the basic unit,it is analyzed into such grammatical components as subject,predicate,and attribute.in semantic analysis of a sentence,the basis unit si called predication.the predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a setence.this applies to all forms of sentense,including statements,imperative and interrogative forms,a predication consists of argument and predicate.an argument is a logical participant in a predication.it is generally identical with the nominal element in a sentence.第五单元语用学pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.as the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in acertain context,pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaningstudy.pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning,so they are related to as well as different from each other.the essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning.of it is not considered,the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics.if it is considered,the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Context: the notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.generally speaking,it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.the shared knowledge is of two types:the knowledge of the language they use,and the knowledge about the world,including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.without this shared knowledge,linguistic communication would be impossible,and without considering this knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningWhile the meaning of a sentence is abstract,and de-contextualized.the ,meaning of an utterance in concrete,and context-dependent.utterance is based on sentence meaning.it is realization of the abtract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases,clauses.it is the act ofconveying literalmeaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.it is the act performed in saying something.a perlocutionary act act is the act formed by or resulting from saying something.it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.it is the act performed by saying something.Four maximsThe maxim of quantity1.make your contribution as informative as required.2.do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1.do not say what you believe to be false.2.do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevantThe maxim of manner1.avoid obscurity of expression2.avoid ambiguity3.be brief4.be orderly第六单元历史语言学Historical linguistic is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Apocope【词尾音脱落】is a phenomenon involving the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.Metathesis 【换位】:Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.Epenthesis【插音】: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.Derivation【派生法】is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems or words.Back-formation【逆向构词法】is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word.Semantic narrowing【语义狭义化】is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.Semantic broadening【语义广义化】refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.Protolanguage【原始母语】is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.Haplology【重复音略读】refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.Compounding【复合法】is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.Blending【混合法】is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words..Semantic shift【语义演变】is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.Great Vowel Shift【元音大推移】is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.Acronym【首字母缩略】is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words.Sound assimilation【语音同化】: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on an-other. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner ofarticulation, or of haplology.第七单元社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.Speech community【言语社区】: The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.Speech variety【言语变体】: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.Language planning【语言规划】: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries. Idiolect【个人语言特点】is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech.Standard language【标准语】is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by themass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Nonstandard language【非标准语】: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages.Lingua franca【混合语】is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.Pidgin【混杂合语】is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.Creole【克里奥尔语】: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.Diglossia【双言现象】usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.Bilingualism【双语现象】refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.Ethnic dialect【黑人英语】: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.Sociolect【社会语言】are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.Slang【俚语】is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.linguistic taboo【禁忌语】denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.Euphemism【委婉语】is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.Regional dialect【区域方言】also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.Register【语域】also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.第八单元心理语言学Pscholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.as the term suggests,psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics,drawing equally upon the language we acquire,produce and comprehend. Cerebral cortex【大脑皮层】the most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain.Brain lateralization【大脑侧化】the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.Linguistic lateralization【语言侧化】in their research of brainlateralization,psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization,which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.Dichotic listening【两耳分听】evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks.Right ear advantage【右耳优势】stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear.Critical period hypothesis【关键期假设】refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty,during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily,swiftly,and without explicit instruction.Linguistic determinism【语言决定论】whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language.that is,language determines thought,hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.linguistic relativism【语言相对论】whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently,that is,relative to their linguistic background,hence the notion of linguistic relaticism.subvocal speech【无声语言】when language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other.Hemispheres【脑半球】the brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves,in general,the right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of,and responds to signals from,the left side of the body,whereas the left hemisphere controls vpluntary movements of,and responds to signals from,the right side of the body.broca's area【布罗卡区】was discovered by a French surgeon-broca and then named after him.broca's area is an important language center of the brain,which controls the expressions of languages.wernicke's area【韦尼克区】was discovered by German physician carl Wernicke and then named after him.wernicke's area is an important language center of the brain,which controls the understandings of languages.the angular gyrus【角形脑回】is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.第九单元语言习得Language acquisition【语言习得】is concerned with language development in humans.in general,language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language,that is,the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.Acquisition【习得】according to krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.Language transfer【语言转移或正向转移】learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language.Interference【干扰或负向转移】negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.Contrastive analysis 【对比分析法】the contrastive analysis approach was founded on the belief that,by wstablishong the linguistic differences between the native andtarget language systems,it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make. Interlanguage【语际语】SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language.Fossilization【语言僵化】a learner’s interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that different from those of the target language system.Acculturation【语言文化移入】a related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community.this adaptation process is called acculturation.Learning【学习】is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.Formal instruction【正规教学】occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.。
现代外语教学复习资料
现代外语教学复习资料 绪论 我国外语教学存在的问题： （P2-P5） theoretical researches are weak teachers' faculty is not strong schools are short of teaching resources teaching concepts lag behind the society education is mainly exam-oriented the interference related to power and money is serious 第二章1. 外语教学研究的三个层次： （P32-P38）ontology: essential characteristics of language itself and language teaching 2. 语言的本质特点：the most important tool to communicatea linguistic system made up of various subsystems a tool to think and acarrier for culture require special physiological basis2. 外语教学研究的三个层次： (P32-P38) ② positivism: principles of foreign language teachinga. systematic principleb.c.d.e.外语教学研究的三个层次： (P32-P38)③ methodology: organization, stra tegies and methods of foreign language teaching 存在的问题：a. exclusivenessb. one-sidednessc. intricacy第三章1. 外语学习者的生理和认知因素： （P46-P52）1. 2. 3. 4. 5.6. 1). 2). 3). 4). communicative principlecognitive principlecultural principleaffective principle② intelligence ： a. take different steps to students of different level of intelligence b. gen eral in tellige nee — com muni cati onhigher in tellige nee— form 2. 外语学习者的生理和认知因素： P46-P52） ③ aptitude ： a. phonetic coding ability b. grammatical sensitivityc. inductive sensitivity 3. 外语学习者的生理和认知因素： P46-P52） ④ cognitive stylea. field dependenceb. field independence 4. 外语学习者的情感因素： （P52-P55） ① motivation and attitude: a. Brown: global motivation situational motivation taskmotivation b. Gardner and Lambert: integrative motivation instrumentalmotivation ② personality: extrovert vs. introvert 5. 对教学的启示：a. strengthen students' merits in different occasionsb. change students of different personality to the contrary 6. 理想的外语学习者：（P55-P56）（二语习得P122） a. b.c.d.e. group dynamics use the target language attend to meaning rather than to form use of study techniques the early stages ofgrammatical developmentf. analytic skillsg. integrative motivation/ task motivation h . take risks i. adapt to different learning conditions 7. EA 的一般步骤：（P62）（二语习得P52）a. a corpus of language is seletedb. the errors in the corpus are identifiedc. the errors areclassifiedd. the errors are explainede. the errors are evaluated8. EA 的作用：（P62）a. recognize which stages are students in/ howmuchcontents are remainedb. evidence of how the learners learn or aquire languagec. a means used to aquire language/ a means used to inspect the essence of the language的局限性：（ P64-P65）a. it's difficult to define and distinguish errorsb. lack of a common standard to classify errorsc. it's difficult to distinguish avoidence from errors10. 中介语的特点：（ P66）a. openb. flexiblec. systematic11. 中介语构建的手段： （P67）a. language transferb. overgeneralization of target language rules c . transfer of training d. trategies of L2 learninge. strategies of L2 communication12. 成功的外语学习者所采用的五大策略： （P71）set language as a system of forms set language as a tool to communicate accept and deal with the affective needs during the learning process expand and revise the foreign language system by inferencing and monitoring.13. 学习者策略对外语教学的启发： （ P83）a. guide students to make the best use of existing knowledgeb. make the best use of learning strategies to improve language learning abilitiesc. help learners use communicative strategies correctly第四章1. CLT 的理论基础：（P89-P90）a. participate language learning positively by searching and favourable learning environmentb.c.d.e. ultilizinga. theories of language communication:a system made up of basic unitsfundamental function is communicationthe language structure reflect the function and communicative uasgethe basic units of language are showed in the communicative functions of discourese rather than just grammatical rules and structural characteristics ② learning theories: communicative principle task principle meaningful principle2. 语法编写的原则：( P103)principlecognitive principle词汇教学的原则：( P108-P109)systematic principle communicative principle cultural principle cognitive principle affeive principle a. the characteristics of listening materials (speed/pause/hesitation)b. the characteristics of the speakers (sex/authority of the speaker)c. the characteristics of the tasksd. the charateristics of the learnerse. the charateristics of the process4. 外语阅读和母语阅读不同特点的比较： (P118-P119)a. the positive transfer has its limits/ language rules and pragmatic principleb. the shortcomings of the abilities and skills on mother-tongue reading influence the process of positive transfer and the improvement of reading abilities in foreign languagec. affective factors also influence the process of reading5. 语言和文化的关系： (P128-P129)a. language is a part of cultureb. langauge is the carrier of culturec. culture is the base of languagea. systematic principleb. communicative principlec. contrastived.3. a. b. c. d. e. 3. 影响听力的重要因素： (P111-P115)6. 文化导入的必要性和重要意义： （ P130） a. cultural knowledge and accommodation ability are important parts of communicative competence b. communicative competence is the essential base and method to acquire further cultural language c. adapt to the requirements of special positions7. 文化导入的重要原则： （P132-P133） a. practical principleb. stage principlec. accommodation principle 8. 文化导入的主要方法： （P133-P134）a. annotationb. fusionc. practiced. comparisone. specificallyexplanation 第五章 1. 课程设计的阶段：（ P136） a. b. c. d.2. fact-finding the theory and practical evidence of course design and syllabus design make the goals to plans, recognize the aims and contents prepare the materials and compile the textbook 教材编写的原则：（ P144）a. b. c. d. e. authentic principlegradual principle interesting principle diverseprinciple modern principle f. practicalprinciple 3. 合格的外语教师应具备的素质： （ P151） a. b. c. d. e. solid professional knowledge and skills abilities of classroom management and implement good characters and delightful personalities systematic knowledge of modern language considerable knowledge of foreign language acqu isition theories f. knowledge of foreign language teaching4.外语教学的实施的主要过程：（P155needs analysis curriculum designmaterial developmentclassroom instruction a. b. c. d. f. course evaluation 5.传统课堂教学模式（PPP 的不足：（P156-157） a. teaching model is teacher-centredb. the result of PPP model is exam-oriented educationc. students haven't received enough inputd. mislead students to a worry learning way6. 课堂教学最基本目标： （P159-162） a. cultivate students' interests b. provide authentic language inputc. help students use learning strategies which are benefit to foreign language learningd. help students overcome the difficulties during the learning process 7. 外语测试的类型： （ P167-170） a.测试目的：aptitude test achivement test diagnostic test proficiency test exit test b.外语测试的类型：（P167-170） ② 测试的方法和方式： direct testing indirect testing测试题型： discrete-point testing integrative testing外语测试的类型：（P167-170） ③ a. b.c . ⑤ a.b. 考试成绩判别的标准：norm-referenced testing criterion-referenced testing判卷标准： subjective testing objective testing 8. 效度 （test validity ） ：（ P170）whether the test can test what it meant to exactly content validity criterion-related validity construct validity face validity a.b.c.d.e.9. 信度 (test reliability) ：(P172) a. whether the result of the test are reliable b. test itself c. marking of papers第六章 1. 外语教学法的主要流派： (P180-P206) a. b. c. d. e. The Oral Approach and the situational Language Teaching The Audiolingual Meathod Communicative Approach Total Physical ResponseThe Silent Way f. Community Language Learning g. h. 2. The natural ApproachSuggestopedia 任务型教学的原则： (P209-P210) a. b. c. d.f. interactive principle authentic in linguistic materials process principle emphasize the improvement made by learners' experience classroom language learning is related to language application outside the class 3. 任务型教学的优点： (P221) a. reflect new ideas about language learning and teaching c. shorten the distance between class and life d. it aims at cultivating students' learning capacity/ cooperative learning 4. 任务型教学的局限性： (P221-P222) a. b. c. d. the recognition of language learning is extreme the randomness of task selectingthe limitation of application scope instead special tests of whether the tasks have been accomplished。
现代英语词汇学复习
第一章词的概述；1．识记：词的定义2．声音与意义识记：声音与意义的关系3．声音与拼写识记：读音与拼写不一致的原因4．词汇识记词汇的含义5．词汇的分类识记：词汇的分类原则；基本词汇的特点；四类外来语词的特点。
领会：基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？1) simple words 2) complex words单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple多音节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为manage 和-mentmisfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortuneblackmail 次划分为black 和mailWhat is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the s ound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
00831现代英语语法复习资料2
第二部分：教材的学习与使用一．首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。
二．由于教材涉及的术语较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。
可参照书后《课程内容与考核目标》所列出的主要概念中英文对照。
如：词素（morphemes），词缀法(affixation), 修饰性状语(adjunct) ，评注性状语(disjunct)等。
三．对于每个概念，术语，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。
语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念的理解及记忆。
如：（1）Morpheme(p4): A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph” which realizes the morpheme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是抽象的形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不同的形素来体现) （2）Mass nouns(p57): Those nouns that can not take plural forms are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)四．在理解的基础上，熟记教材上的例句。
从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上的原句或略作变动。
例如：在全国2003年4月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第Ⅱ. 多项选择填空题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分)中，几乎所有的题目均能从书中找出：Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below:21. bank, bunch, congregation, pack, series（P65）A. a _____ of musiciansB. a___ of lectures22. board, bunch, choir, packet, party（P66）A. a ______ of guestsB. a______ of keys23. is, are, was, were, will be, shall be（P344）Some money _____ carried to the spot and all the food and everything else _____ ready for the picnic.24. seem, seems, me, I, mine（P59）Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____.25. less, less of, than, as, like（P237）Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee.26. more of, many of, much of, than, as, like（P236）John is as _____ a fool _____ Bill.27. be, is, was, are, were, will be, shall beA. That she is still alive ______ sheer luck.B. Neither his oral statement nor what he wrote _____ true.28. have, has, had, will have, shall have（P346）A. She is the only one of her family who ______ trouble making up the mind.B. This is the only family in the community who ____ different opinions while making up the mind.五．每一章后面设计的练习题也非常重要，学员要做到每一题都能够理解，作答正确。
自考现代语言学复习资料
第一章.绪论Introduction1.General linguistics:which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts,theories,descriptions,models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.2.Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.3.Morphology:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.For example,boy and“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.4.Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.For example,”John like linguistics.”5.Semantics:The study of meaning in language.For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.”The seal could not be found,The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.6.Pragmatics:The study of meaning in context of use.For example,“I do”The word do means different context.7.Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.8.Psycholinguistics:The study of language with reference to workings of mind.9.Prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for"correct"behaviour.10.Descriptive:describe and analyzes the language people actually use.11.Synchronic:the description of a language at some point in time.12.Diachronic:the description of a language as it changes through time.ngue:the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.14.Parole:the realization of langue in actual use.petence:the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.16.Performance:the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.1.一般语言学：是对语言作为一个整体的研究,涉及任何语言研究所适用的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法.2.音韵学：研究声音是如何组合在一起并在交流中使用的.例如,电话、音位和变音.3.词法学：研究词素排列成词的方式.例如,男孩和“男孩”-男孩,老师.4.句法：研究词素和单词如何组合成句子的学科.例如,“约翰式语言学”.5.语义学：研究语言的意义.例如：找不到海豹.动物园管理员很担心.“找不到海豹,国王很担心.”在这里,海豹这个词的意思是不同的.6.语用学：研究使用语境中的意义.例如,“我做”这个词的意思是不同的语境.7.社会语言学：研究语言与社会的关系.例如,地区方言,语言的社会变异.8.心理语言学：研究与思维活动有关的语言.9.规定性：旨在为“正确”行为制定规则.10.描述性：描述和分析人们实际使用的语言.11.共时性：在某个时间点对一种语言的描述.12.历时性：语言随时间变化的描述.13.语言：一个语言群体中所有成员所共有的抽象语言系统.14.言语：语言在实际使用中的实现.15.能力：理想的使用者对其语言规则的了解.16.表现：这一知识在语言交际中的实际实现.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional grammar is prescriptive;it is based on"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users.But Modernlinguistics is descriptive;It collects authentic,and mainly spoken language data and then itstudies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.传统的语法是规定性的,它是基于“高”（宗教,文学）的书面语言.它设定语法规则,并将规则强加于语言使用者.但现代语言学是描述性的,它收集真实的,主要是口语数据,然后它以客观科学的方式研究和描述数据.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time,while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.在某个时间点对语言的描述是一种历时研究.语言的描述随着时间的变化是一种历时性的研究.语言的共时性研究描述了某个特定时间点的语言,而语言的历时性研究则是对一段时间内语言历史发展的研究.共时性研究似乎比历时性研究优先.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?First,the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second,the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes.Finally,the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.首先,口语形式先于书面形式,大多数写作系统都是从语言的口语形式派生出来的；其次,口语形式在传达的信息量方面比书面形式发挥着更大的作用,而且它服务于更广泛的目的.最后,口语形式是我们获得母语的媒介.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance.What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.尽管索绪尔和乔姆斯基的区别非常相似,但至少在这点上有所不同,索绪尔的语言观是一种社会学的观点,他的语言观是一种社会规范东西,乔姆斯基从心理学的角度看待语言,对他来说,能力是每个人心灵的特性.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary?Why?Language is arbitrary in nature,it is not entirely arbitrary,because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent,for example,the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang,crash,etc..Take compounds for another example.The two elements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”are non-motivated,but the compound is not arbitrary语言在本质上是任意的,并不是完全任意的,因为只有有限的几个词的形式和意义之间的联系可以在一定程度上得到逻辑上的解释,例如拟声词,是在模仿声音的基础上由诸如砰、砰等声音创造出来的.另一个是以化合物为例.“影印”中的“照片”和“复印”这两个元素是没有动机的,但复合词不是任意的.Design features1)ArbitrarinessIt means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds,difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2)ProductivityIt makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3)DualityLanguage is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.4)DisplacementLanguages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionLanguage is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning,rather than by instinct.1）任意性意思是意义和声音之间没有逻辑联系,不同的声音在不同的语言中用来指同一个对象.2）生产力它使得用户能够构造和解释新的信号.3）二元性语言是一个系统,由两组结构或两个层次组成.低级或初级是一种无意义的声音结构.但是语言的声音可以分组并被重新组合成大量的意义单位,如语素和单词.4）位移语言可以用来指从说话者的直接情况中删除的上下文.5）文化传播语言是通过教和学代代相传的,而不是靠本能.第二章、语音学Phonetics1.Phonetics:The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2.Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3.Broad transcription:is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound.4.Narrow transcription:is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.5.Vowels are the sounds produced by airflow without any hindrance.6.Consonants are the sounds produced by different ways of obstruction of airflow in the mouth.7.Diphthong:produced by moving from one vowel position or another through intervening positions.8.Fricative:when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point,the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.9.Phone:Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning;some do,some don’t.10.Phoneme:Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.11.Allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophone of that phoneme.12.Phonemic contrast:If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are in phonemic contrast.plementary distribution:These two allophone of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.14.Minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.15.Stress:When a certain syllable of a word is stressed,it means that the syllable is pronounced with great force than the other or others.16.Tones:Tones are pitch variation,which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore,the tone is a suprasegmental feature.17.Intonation:When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost everylanguage,especially in a language like English1.语音学：研究语言交际中使用的声音称为语音学.2.音韵学：研究声音是如何组合在一起并用于交流的,称为音韵学.3.宽式音标：是用一个字母代表一个声音的.4.窄式音标：是用变音符号来显示声音的详细发音特征的标注.5.元音是气流不受任何阻碍而发出的声音.6.辅音是通过不同的方式阻塞口腔气流而产生的声音.7.双元音：通过中间位置从一个元音位置或另一个元音位置移动而产生的.8.擦音：当障碍物是部分的,空气通过口腔中的一个狭窄通道,从而在该点上造成一定的局部摩擦时,产生的语音是擦音.9.音素：音素可以简单地定义为我们在说一种语言时使用的语音.音素是一个语音单位或段.它不一定能区分意义；有的能,有的不能.10.音位学：音位学是指区别意义的语音.音位学中的基本单位叫做音位,它是一个具有独特价值的单位.11.音位变体：在不同的语音环境中能代表一个音位的不同音位称为该音位的变音.12.音位对立：如果两个语音相似的声音能出现在同一个环境中,并且它们能区分意义,它们就是音位对立.13.互补分布：相同音素的这两个异音素被称为互补分布.14.最小对：当两种不同的形式在各方面都相同时,除了一个声音片段出现在刺的同一位置外,这两个词被称为形成最小对.15.重音：当一个单词的某个音节被重音时,意味着该音节比另一个或其他音节的重音要大.16.声调：声调是声调变化,声调是由声带的不同振动频率引起的音调变化.音高变化可以像音素一样区分意义,因此,音调是一种超音段特征.17.语调：当音调、重音和音长与句子联系在一起而不是孤立地与单词联系在一起时,它们统称为语调.语调在几乎每一种语言,尤其是像英语这样的语言中都起着重要的传达意义的作用.Phonology and phoneticsThe difference between phonology and phonetics:phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language.phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language音位学和语音学的区别：语音学对所有人类语言中使用的所有语音都感兴趣.音韵学对一种特定语言的声音系统感兴趣.Some rules of phonology1)Sequential rules:govern the combination of sounds in a particular language2)Assimilation rules:assimilates one sound to another by"copying"a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar3)Deletion rule1）顺序规则：控制特定语言中的声音组合2）同化规则：通过“复制”顺序音素的特征将一种声音同化为另一种声音,从而使两个音素相似3）删除规则第三章、形态学Morphology1.Morphology:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Inflectional morphology:studies the inflections of word formation.3.Derivational morphology:the study of word formation.4.Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.Free morpheme:the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6.Bound morpheme:the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.7.Root:is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8.Stem:is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.9.Affix:Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational.10.Prefix:occur at the beginning of a word.11.Suffix:Suffixes are added to the end of the stems;they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12.Derivation affixes:Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.pounding:Like derivation,compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in pounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.1.形态学：形态学是语法的一个分支,研究词的内部结构和词的形成规则.2.屈折形态学：屈折形态学研究构词的屈折变化.3.派生形态学：派生形态学是对构词法的研究.4.语素：语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位.5.自由语素：自由语素是独立意义单位的语素,可以单独使用,也可以与其他语素结合使用.6.粘着语素：站着语素是不能独立使用的语素,但必须与其他语素结合,自由语素或站着语素,形成一个词.7.词根：词根常被视为一个词的一部分,虽然有明确的含义,但它永远不能独立存在,必须与另一个词根或词缀结合才能构成一个词.8.词干：词干是屈折词缀可以添加到的任何语素或语素组合.9.词缀：词缀有两种类型：屈折词缀和派生词缀.10.前缀：前缀出现在单词的开头.11.后缀：后缀加在词干的末尾；它们修改了原词的意思,在许多情况下改变了词性.12.派生词缀：派生词缀被添加到一个已有的形式中以创建一个词.派生可以被看作是词缀添加以形成新词.13.复合词：复合词和派生词一样,是英语中另一种流行而重要的构词方法.复合词可以被视为两个或两个以上单词的组合来创造新词.Features of compounds1)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between,or as two separate words.2)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.3)Semantically,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.4)phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.1）在书写特征,一个复合词可以写成一个单词,中间有或没有连字符,也可以写成两个独立的单词.2）在句法上,复合词的词性一般由第二成分的词性决定.3）从语义上讲,复合词的意义往往是习语性的,而不一定是其成分意义的总和.4）在语音上,复合词的重音总是落在第一个成分上,而第二个成分则受到第二个重音的影响.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes,they are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves,for example,“book-”in the word“bookish”.Bound morphemes:They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word such as“-ish”in“bookish”.Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes.A root is seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning,such as“gene-”in the word“generate”.Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as“-s”in the word“books”to indicate plurality of nouns.Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as“mis-”in the word“misinform”.Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as“dis-”in the word“dislike”,while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as“-less”in the word“friendless”.自由语素它们是独立的意义单位,可以自由地单独使用,例如“book ish”一词中的“book”.粘着语素,它们不能单独使用,但必须与其他语素结合,或自由或绑定,才能形成“bookish”中的“ish”一词.粘着语素可分为词根和词缀.词根被视为一个词的一部分,尽管它有一个明确的含义,例如“gene”中的“gene”,但它永远不能独立存在.词缀有两种类型：屈折词缀和派生词缀.屈折语素在“书”一词中表现出各种语法关系或语法范畴,如“-s”表示多个名词.派生词缀被添加到一个已有的形式中,在“错误通知”一词中创建一个词,例如“MIS-”.派生词缀也可以分为前缀和后缀.前缀出现在单词的开头,如“dis”,后缀出现在单词的结尾,如“less”在“无朋友”这个词里.第四章、句法学Syntax1.Linguistic competence:Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2.Sentence:A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3.Transformation rules:Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules.The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4.D-structure&S-structure:A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation.One exists before movement take place,the other occurs after movement take place.The former is called the deep structure of the sentence,and the latter is the surface structure.5.Universal grammar:Universal grammar is a linguistic knowledge system unique to human beings,which exists in the brains of normal people.6.Moveа:Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e.the X-bar schema,there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.This movement rule is called Moveа7.Case condition:General principles of Universal Grammar.One such principle,or condition,is the case condition[格条件].As is required by the case condition principle,a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb)or P(preposition)to the object position,or by AUX(auxiliary)to the subject position.8.Adjacency condition:on case assignment,which states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.9.Hierarchical structure:The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent,such as NP and VP.10.Recursive properties:An S contains a VP that may contain another S;11.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb,and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause[定式从句]1.语言能力：comsky将能力定义为用户对语言规则的理想认知,表现在语言交际中这种知识的实际实现.2.句子：句子是一个结构独立的单元,通常由若干个单词组成一个完整的陈述问题或命令.3.转换规则：句法运动受转换规则支配.转换规则的操作可能会改变句子的句法表征.4.d-结构和s-结构：一个句子可能有两个层次的句法表征.一个存在于运动发生之前,另一个发生在运动发生后,前者被称为句子的深层结构,后者是表层结构.5、普遍语法：普遍语法是人类特有的语言知识系统,它存在于正常人的大脑中.6.move_：正如所有短语结构规则（即x-bar模式）都有一个通用规则一样,也有一个通用移动规则解释任何组成移动的句法行为.这个移动规则叫做move_7.格条件：普遍语法的一般原则.其中一个原则或条件是格条件.根据格状原则,名词短语必须有V（动词）或P（介词）被赋格到宾语位置,或由辅助（AUX）指派到主语位置.8.相邻条件：在案件转让时,规定案件转让人和案件接受者应彼此相邻.9.层次结构：将单词分成结构成分,并显示每个结构成分的句法类别的句子结构,如np和vp.10.递归属性：一个s包含一个vp,这个vp可以包含另一个s11.接受主语和限定动词同时在结构上独立的从句称为限定从句.Types of sentencessimple sentence,coordinate(compound)sentence[复合句],complex sentence1)A simple sentence:consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2)A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,such as“and”,“but”,“or”.3)A complex sentence contains two or more clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.Syntactic categories：Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.Syntactic movement：Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position.单句、并列（复合）句、复句（1）单句：由一个主语和一个谓语组成的单句,单独作为自己的句子.（2）并列句包含两个分句,由一个称为并列连词的连词连接,例如“and”、“but”、“or”.（3）复句包含两个或多个从句,其中一个从句并入另一个从句.句法范畴：单词和短语是根据它们所属的句法范畴来组织的.句法运动：当句子中的成分从原来的位置移到新的位置时,就会发生句法运动.第五章、语义学Semantics1.Semantics:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2.Sense:concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and decontextualized.3.Reference:what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4.Synonymy:the sameness or close similarity of meaning.同义词5.Polysemy:the same one word may have more than one meaning.一词多义6.Antonymy:the oppositeness of meaning.7.Homonymy:the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.同音/形异义8.Hyponymy:the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.上下义关系9.Co-hyponyms:hyponymy that have the same superordinate.ie“rose,tulip”ponential analysis:a way to analyze word meaning.It was proposed by structural semanticists.11.Grammatical meaning:its grammaticality.i.e.its grammatical well-formedness.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.12.Semantic meaning:a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.13.Predication analysis:In semantic analysis of a sentence,the basic unit is called predication.The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.14.An argument:is a logical participant in a predication.It is generally identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.参数15.A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.谓词16.Semantic triangle:The straight line indicates a direct relationship between the two,and the dotted line indicates that there is no direct relationship between the two.1.语义学：语义学可以简单地定义为对语言意义的研究.2.意义：意义是指语言形式的内在意义.它是语言形式所有特征的集合,是抽象的、非语境化的.3.所指：是一种语言形式在现实的物理世界中所指的事物,它处理语言要素与非语言经验世界之间的关系.4.同义：意义的相同或相近.5.一词多义：指同一个词可能有多个意思.6.反义词：反义词是指意义的对立.7.同音异义：是指具有不同含义的词具有相同形式的现象,即不同的词在发音或拼写上是相同的,或在两种情况下都是相同的.8.上下义：上下义是指一个更一般、更包容的词和一个更具体的词之间的意义关系.9.并列下义词：具有相同上义词的下义词,即“玫瑰,郁金香”10.成分分析：分析词义的一种方法.它是由结构语义学家提出的.11.语法意义：是指它的语法性.也就是说,它的语法结构良好.句子的语法性受语言的语法规则支配.12.语义：句子的语义受称为选择限制的规则支配.13.谓词分析：在句子的语义分析中,基本单位叫做谓词.谓词是对句子意义的抽象.14.参数：是谓词的逻辑参与者.它通常与句子中的名词性成分相同.15.谓语是指对一个论据所说的话,或者它陈述了连接句子中论据的逻辑关系.16.语义三角：直线表示二者之间的直接关系,虚线表示二者之间没有直接关系.What are the main theories of semantics?1)The naming theory:It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.So words are just names orlabels for things.2)The conceptualism view:It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.In the interpretation of meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism:It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context.4)Behaviourism:The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield.He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a languageform as"the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".(Bloomfield）This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism.It is linked with psychological interest.1）命名理论：它是由古希腊学者柏拉图提出的.根据该理论,将语言中使用的语言形式或符号视为其代表的对象的标签.因此,单词只是事物的名称或标签.2）概念主义观点：认为语言形式与其所指的事物之间没有直接联系.在意义的解释中,它们通过思想在心中的中介而联系在一起.3）语境主义：它是基于这样一种假设：一个人可以从可观察的语境中获得意义,或者将意义还原为可观察的语境.可以识别两种上下文：情境和语言上下文.4）行为主义：布卢姆菲尔德进一步强化了语境主义观点.当他试图定义语言形式的含义时,他借鉴了行为主义心理学.行为主义者试图将一种语言形式的含义定义为“说话者在听众中说出它的情况及其发出的响应”.（布卢姆菲尔德）这种行为主义理论在某种程度上类似于语境主义,与心理兴趣有关.What kinds of synonyms can be divided into?1)Dialectal synonyms:Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English.2)Stylistic synonyms:Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style,or degree of formality.3)Collocational synonyms:Some synonyms differ in their collocation.That is,they go together with different words,for example:accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke..-for.4)Semantically different synonyms:They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.1)方言同义词：方言同义词是指在不同的地区方言中,如英国英语中的石油语和美国英语中的汽油语中,或多或少具有相同意义的词.2)文体学同义词：文体学同义词是指具有相同含义,但风格或形式程度不同的词.3)搭配同义词：有些同义词在搭配上有所不同.也就是说,他们会用不同的词,例如：指责.……的,冲锋.……用,斥责.-为了.4)语义上不同的同义词：它们指的是在意思上略有不同的同义词.In terms of semantics,what kinds of antonyms can be categorized?What are their characteristics?1)gradable antonyms:Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young,hot/cold.2)Complementary antonyms:a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.3)Relational opposites:pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.1）可分级的反义词：有些反义词是可分级的,因为一对反义词中的两个成员之间通常有中间形式,如老/年轻、热/冷.2）互补反义词：一对互补反义词的特点是否定其中一个成员意味着断言另一个成员.3）关系反义词：表示两个词之间关系颠倒的词对.Is the meaning of a sentence the sum of the meanings of each word that makes up a sentence?1)The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.2)The meaning of a sentence consists of two aspects:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.1）句子的意义不是所有成分的意义之和.2）句子的意义包括两个方面：语法意义和语义意义.第六章语用学Pragmatics1.pragmatics:Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.context:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.Generally speaking,it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3.utterance meaning:Utterance is based on sentence meaning;it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.4.Cooperative principle:in making conversation,the participants must fist of all be willing to cooperate;otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.5.Conversational implicature:for variety reasons these maxims are often violated,or“flouted”to use Grice’s term.most of these violations give rise to what Gries calls conversational implicature.6.locutionary act:the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexion and phonology.7.illocutionary act:is the act expressing the speaker’s intention;It is the act performed in saying something.8.perlocutionary act:the act performed by or resulting from saying something:it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance;it is the act performed by saying something.1.语用学：语用学可以定义为研究一种语言的使用者如何使用句子来实现成功的交际.2.语境：语境的概念是语言语用研究的基础.一般来说,它是由说话者和听话者共享的知识组成的.3.话语意义：话语是建立在句子意义基础上的,它是在真实的交际情境中,或仅仅是在语境中,实现句子的抽象意义.4.合作原则：在交谈中,参与者首先必须愿意合作,否则就无法继续交谈.5.会话含义：由于种种原因,这些准则经常被违反,或“藐视”使用格莱斯的条款.这些违反行为大多产生了Gries所谓的会话含义.6.言语行为：言语、短语、从句的行为.它是通过句法、词汇和音韵来传达字面意义的行为.7.言外行为：是表达说话人意图的行为；是在说某事时所做的行为.8.言后行为：由说某事所做的或由说某事所引起的行为：它是言语的结果或所带来的变化；它是通过说某事所做的行为.What is the difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context of use,while traditional semantics treatsmeaning as something intrinsic,abstract and de-contextualized.语用学是在使用语境中对意义的研究,而传统语义学把意义看作是内在的、抽象的、非语境化的东西.Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning?A sentence is a grammatical unit.Utterance is what people actually utter in the course of communication.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent.Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.句子是一个语法单位.话语是人们在交际过程中实际所说的东西.句子的意义是抽象的、非语境化的,而话语的意义是具体的、语境依赖的.话语意义是建立在句子意义的基础上的,它是在真实的交际情境中,或者仅仅是在语境中,实现句子的抽象意义.Searle's classification of illocutionary act?1.representatives（阐述类）:stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true2.directives（指令类）:trying to get the hearer to do somethingmissives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4.expressives（表述类）:expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5.declarations（声明类）:bringing about immediate changes by saying something陈述或描述说话人认为是真的。
现代外语教学复习资料
现代外语教学复习资料绪论我国外语教学存在的问题：〔P2-P5〕1.theoretical researches are weak2.teachers' faculty is not strong3.schools are short of teaching resources4.teaching concepts lag behind the societycation is mainly exam-oriented6.the interference related to power and money is serious第二章1.外语教学研究的三个层次：〔P32-P38〕ontology: essential characteristics of language itself and language teaching2.语言的本质特点：1).the most important tool to communicate2).a linguistic system made up of various subsystems3).a tool to think and a carrier for culture4).require special physiological basis2.外语教学研究的三个层次：〔P32-P38〕② positivism: principles of foreign language teachinga. systematic principleb. communicative principlec.cognitive principled.cultural principlee. affective principle外语教学研究的三个层次：〔P32-P38〕③ methodology: organization, strategies and methods of foreign language teaching 存在的问题：a. exclusivenessb. one-sidednessc. intricacy第三章1.外语学习者的生理和认知因素：〔P46-P52〕② intelligence：a. take different steps to students of different level of intelligenceb. general intelligence → communicationhigher intelligence → form2.外语学习者的生理和认知因素：〔P46-P52〕③ aptitude：a. phonetic coding abilityb.grammatical sensitivityc. inductive sensitivity3.外语学习者的生理和认知因素：〔P46-P52〕④ cognitive style：a. field dependenceb.field independence4. 外语学习者的情感因素：〔P52-P55〕① motivation and attitude:a. Brown: global motivationsituational motivationtask motivationb. Gardner and Lambert: integrative motivationinstrumental motivation② personality:extrovert vs. introvert5. 对教学的启示：a. strengthen students' merits in different occasionsb. change students of different personality to the contrary6. 理想的外语学习者：〔P55-P56〕〔二语习得P122〕a. group dynamicsb. use the target languagec. attend to meaning rather than to forme of study techniquese.the early stages of grammatical developmentf. analytic skillsg.integrative motivation/ task motivationh.take risksi.adapt to different learning conditions7. EA的一般步骤：〔P62〕〔二语习得P52〕a.a corpus of language is seletedb.the errors in the corpus are identifiedc.the errors are classifiedd. the errors are explainede. the errors are evaluated8. EA的作用：〔P62〕a.recognize which stages are students in/ how much contents are remainedb.evidence of how the learners learn or aquire languagec. a means used to aquire language/ a means used to inspect the essence of the language9.EA的局限性：〔P64-P65〕a.it's difficult to define and distinguish errorsck of a common standard to classify errorsc. it's difficult to distinguish avoidence from errors10. 中介语的特点：〔P66〕a. openb. flexiblec. systematic11. 中介语构建的手段：〔P67〕nguage transferb. overgeneralization of target language rulesc. transfer of trainingd. trategies of L2 learninge. strategies of L2 communication12. 成功的外语学习者所采用的五大策略：〔P71〕a. participate language learning positively by searching and ultilizing favourable learning environmentb. set language as a system of formsc. set language as a tool to communicated. accept and deal with the affective needs during the learning processe. expand and revise the foreign language system by inferencing and monitoring.13. 学习者策略对外语教学的启发：〔P83〕a. guide students to make the best use of existing knowledgeb. make the best use of learning strategies to improve language learning abilitiesc. help learners use communicative strategies correctly第四章1. CLT的理论根底：〔P89-P90〕a. theories of language communication:a system made up of basic unitsfundamental function is communicationthe language structure reflect the function and communicative uasgethe basic units of language are showed in the communicative functions of discoureserather than just grammatical rules and structural characteristics②learning theories:communicative principletask principlemeaningful principle2. 语法编写的原那么：〔P103〕a. systematic principleb. communicative principlec. contrastive principled. cognitive principle3. 词汇教学的原那么：〔P108-P109〕a. systematic principleb. communicative principlec. cultural principled. cognitive principlee. affeive principle3. 影响听力的重要因素：〔P111-P115〕a. the characteristics of listening materials (speed/pause/hesitation)b. the characteristics of the speakers (sex/authority of the speaker)c. the characteristics of the tasksd. the charateristics of the learnerse. the charateristics of the process4. 外语阅读和母语阅读不同特点的比拟：〔P118-P119〕a. the positive transfer has its limits/ language rules and pragmatic principleb. the shortcomings of the abilities and skills on mother-tongue reading influence the process of positive transfer and the improvement of reading abilities in foreign languagec. affective factors also influence the process of reading5. 语言和文化的关系：〔P128-P129〕a. language is a part of cultureb. langauge is the carrier of culturec. culture is the base of language6. 文化导入的必要性和重要意义：〔P130〕a. cultural knowledge and accommodation ability are important parts of communicative competenceb. communicative competence is the essential base and method to acquire further cultural languagec. adapt to the requirements of special positions7. 文化导入的重要原那么：〔P132-P133〕a. practical principleb. stage principlec. accommodation principle8. 文化导入的主要方法：〔P133-P134〕a. annotationb. fusionc. practiced. comparisone. specifically explanation第五章1. 课程设计的阶段：〔P136〕a. fact-findingb. the theory and practical evidence of course design and syllabus designc. make the goals to plans, recognize the aims and contentsd. prepare the materials and compile the textbook2. 教材编写的原那么：〔P144〕a. authentic principleb. gradual principlec. interesting principled. diverse principlee. modern principlef. practical principle3. 合格的外语教师应具备的素质：〔P151〕a. solid professional knowledge and skillsb. abilities of classroom management and implementc. good characters and delightful personalitiesd. systematic knowledge of modern languagee. considerable knowledge of foreign language acqu isition theoriesf. knowledge of foreign language teaching4. 外语教学的实施的主要过程：〔P155〕a. needs analysisb. curriculum designc. material developmentd. classroom instructionf. course evaluation5. 传统课堂教学模式〔PPP〕的缺乏：〔P156-157〕a. teaching model is teacher-centredb. the result of PPP model is exam-oriented educationc. students haven't received enough inputd. mislead students to a worry learning way6. 课堂教学最根本目标：〔P159-162〕a. cultivate students' interestsb. provide authentic language inputc. help students use learning strategies which are benefit to foreign language learningd. help students overcome the difficulties during the learning process7. 外语测试的类型：〔P167-170〕a. 测试目的：aptitude testachivement testdiagnostic testproficiency testexit testb. 外语测试的类型：〔P167-170〕② 测试的方法和方式：direct testingindirect testing③ 测试题型：a. discrete-point testingb. integrative testingc. 外语测试的类型：〔P167-170〕④ 考试成绩判别的标准：norm-referenced testingcriterion-referenced testing⑤ 判卷标准：a. subjective testingb. objective testing8. 效度(test validity)：〔P170〕a. whether the test can test what it meant to exactlyb. content validityc. criterion-related validityd. construct validitye. face validity9. 信度(test reliability)：〔P172〕a. whether the result of the test are reliableb. test itselfc. marking of papers第六章1. 外语教学法的主要流派：〔P180-P206〕a. The Oral Approach and the situational Language Teachingb. The Audiolingual Meathodc. Communicative Approachd. Total Physical Responsee. The Silent Wayf. Community Language Learningg. The natural Approachh. Suggestopedia2. 任务型教学的原那么：〔P209-P210〕a. interactive principleb. authentic in linguistic materialsc. process principled. emphasize the improvement made by learners' experiencef. classroom language learning is related to language application outside the class3. 任务型教学的优点：〔P221〕a. reflect new ideas about language learning and teachingc. shorten the distance between class and lifed. it aims at cultivating students' learning capacity/ cooperative learning4. 任务型教学的局限性：〔P221-P222〕a. the recognition of language learning is extremeb. the randomness of task selectingc. the limitation of application scoped. instead special tests of whether the tasks have been accomplished。
《现代外语教学》重点笔记
新版绪论中国的外语教学实践需要自己的教学理论指导：首先，语言教学对象不同。
主要：母语背景和母语文化背景，母语的特殊语言结构特点和母语文化背景对中介语的形成具有重大的影响。
第二，语言教学的环境不同。
母语使用的环境、师资、教学方法的不同对目标语输入的数量和质量产生巨大的影响。
第三，国人学外语的目的与他国学习者不同。
第四，中国“官本位”的文化中，只有建立在调查和实践基础上的外语教学理论才有说服力和生命力，才可能在一定程度上抵消“长官意志”对外语教学决策带来的负面影响，使教学实践运行在正确的轨道上。
我国外语教学存在的问题：1.理论研究落后①缺乏专业的研究队伍②缺乏系统的研究和对重大、宏观问题的研究，如师资培养理论、课程设计理论、教材编写理论③理论研究与教学实际脱节。
论文是为了发表，为了评估④教师理论意识淡薄。
没精力关注；理论太理想化2.师资质量不高3.教学资源匮乏4.教学理念落后5.应试倾向明显6.权钱干扰严重。
“长官”说了算，“形象工程”第一章外语教学理论研究的发展趋势第一节从研究如何教到研究如何学传统外语教学重点：如何教。
更关心教材编写、教学法设计等。
随着第二语言习得的发展，人们发现必须重新认识外语习得的本质及相关因素。
研究重点转移的原因还有：1.教学方法越来越强调“以学习者为中心”，重视学习者本人及主体的个性特点2.教学方法经常不能达到预期的目的。
3.认识到学习者之间存在差异，其性格、动机和学习风格等都影响课堂表现4.母语习得研究证实了学习者学习过程中的积极主动作用外语教学中考虑的重点不再是“该教什么”，而是1.促进习得的条件是什么；2.如何在课堂上创造这些条件对学习者的研究包括1.学习者个体差异的研究；2.学习过程的研究学习者个体差异：年龄，性别，语言潜能，动机，认知风格，性格等关键期假说：儿童大脑有一个逐渐成熟，功能逐渐固定化的过程。
主要体现在语音的精确度上。
可能的解释：大脑中专司语音的部分较早地完成固定化得过程，而学习其他语言成分的机制则与认知能力有关，因而也受到性格，动机和态度等情感因素的制约。
现代语言学复习资料
《现代语言学》考试大纲一、单项选择题1.If a linguistic study aims to establish rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should and what they should not say, it is said be _____________.(C)A. descriptiveB. synchronicC. prescriptiveD. diachronic2.Saussure took a _____________ view of language and his notion of langue is a matterof social conventions.(B)A. pragmaticB. sociologicalC. semanticD. syntactic3._____________ consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences,each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.(B)A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. SapirD. Hall4.The fact that there are many onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle,bang in English suggests that language is not entirely ___________________.(C)A. logicalB. non-arbitraryC. arbitraryD. illogical5.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:the throat, the mouth and the nose. The air stream coming from ____________ may be modified in these cavities in various ways.(D)A. heartsB. teethC. liversD. lungs6.The consonant [f] in English can be correctly described as having the followingphonetic features: _______________.(B)A. voiceless, bilabial, stopB. voiceless, labiodentals,fricativeC. voiced, bilabial, stopD. voiced, labiodentals,fricative7.Of the following sound combination, only ______________ is permissible accordingto the sequential rules in English.(A)A. kilbB. bkilC. ilkbD. ilbk8.The tone, defined as pitch variation, is an important suprasegmental feature oftone languages such as ________________.(A)A. ChineseB. EnglishC. Chinese and EnglishD. English and French9.Whereas the suffix –s is pronounced as [s] in the word books, [z] in bags, and[iz] in judges, they are different pronunciations of the __________________ morpheme /-s/.(C)A. freeB. distinctiveC. pluralD. present tense10.To determine a wor d’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely,meaning, ___________ and distribution.(A)A. inflectionB. part of speechC. structureD. grammar11.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps. In the first step, theusual XP is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between the subject and the VP. The second step in forming a yes-no question requires a _____________, a special type of rule that can move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.(A)A. transformationB. changeC. modificationD. limit12.Subcategorization means that a certain lexical requires a certain type ofcomplement. For example, verbs like appear can occur without any complement, cut can occur with an NP complement and some heads in English such as ______________ can take more than one complement.(D)A. eatB. drinkC. plantD. put13.According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into several kinds.The kind to which star and commence belong is called ____________ synonyms.(A)A. stylisticB. dialectalC. emotiveD. collocational14.The relation between the word furniture and the words like bed, table, desk,dresser, wardrobe, settee etc. is called ____________________.(A)A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. polysemy15.“He was a bachelor all his life”_______________ “He never married all hislife”.(D)A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with16.The description of a language as it changes through time is a _________________study.(B)A. comparativeB. diachronicC. up-to-dateD. descriptive17.Chomsky looks at language from a ____________ point of view and to him competenceis a property of the mind of each individual.(B)A. pragmaticB. psychologicalC. semanticD. syntactic18.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object isgood proof that human language is _________________.(A)A. arbitraryB. non-arbitraryC. logicalD. non-productive19.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitutethe phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the __________.(A)A. speech soundsB. useful soundsC. human soundsD. communicative sounds20.When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causingvibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are _____________.(A)A. voicelessB. lax21.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. Itis a(n) ___________unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.(A)A. abstractB. concreteC. complementaryD. phonetic22.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules: 1) The first phoneme must be _________;2) The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/; 3) The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.(D)A. /g/B. /z/C./f/D. /s/23.__________________refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with wordformation and word structure.(C)A. General linguisticsB. PhonologyC. MorphologyD. Syntax24.There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “-ed”in the phrase“learned a language” is known as a(n) _______________.(C)A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free from25.The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the leftside of the heads are said to function as _______________. The words on the right side of the right side of the heads are said to function as complements.(D)A. qualifierB. auxiliaryC. determinerD. specifier26.In the sentence will the train arrive, will retains its Infl label even throughit is moved into the C position, and the position that it formerly occupied remainsin the tree structure. The position is now marked by the symbol e (=empty), and called a ______________.(B)A. auxiliaryB. traceC. functional wordD. content word27.The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derivemeaning from or reduce meaning to observable context. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the _________________ context.(C)A. distinctiveB. observableC. linguisticD. similar28.The same one word may have more than one meaning. The various meanings of theword are related to some degree. This is what we call ________________. For example, the word table means a piece of furniture, and it may also mean all the people seated at a table.(A)A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. antonymyD. homonymy29.A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denialof one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, that is, it is a matter of either one or the other. The following pairs are all complementary antonyms except _______________.(B)A. perfect and imperfectB. husband and wifeC. male and femaleD. dead and alive30.“This is my first visit to your country”_______________ “I have been to yourcountry before”.(C)A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with31.Saussure uses the term _______________ to refer to the realization of abstractlinguistic system in actual use, i.e. the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules..(C)A. langueB. competenceC. paroleD. performance32.It is generally believd that the beginning of __________________ was marked bythe publication of F. de Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.(D)A. pragmaticsB. syntaxC. semanticsD. modern linguistics33.______________ refers to the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication. By comparing language with animal communication systems, we can have a better understanding of the nature of language.(D)A. Distinctive featuresB. Semantic featuresC. Logical featuresD. Design features34.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishmentof ____________. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.(A)A. phoneticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. syntax35.One important feature that marks the difference between vowels and constants isthat whether the air coming from the lungs meet with any ____________.(B)A. aspirationB. obstructionC. voicingD. transition36.The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes,are its __________________, such as voicing, manner of articulation, place of articulation, etc.(B)A. different componentsB. distinctive featuresC. different soundsD. different allophones37.The sound assimilation is actually reflected in the spelling in most cases.Instead of impossible, the negative form of possible is impossible, as the [n] sound is assimilated to [m]. For the same reason, the negative prefixes for words like plausible, legal, regular are___________________ respectively.(A)A. im-, il- and ir-B. im-, im-, in-C. in-, il-, and ir-D. im-, in-, ir38.Conjunctions, _______________, articles and pronouns consist of the grammaticalor functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.(C)A. nounsB. adjectivesC. prepositionsD. adverbs39._______________ refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same orsimilar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase ora verb.(B)A. WordB. CategoryC. MorphemeD. Phoneme40.In the phrase structure rules such as “NP → (Det) N (PP)” or “VP → (Qual)V (NP),”the arrow can be read as “_____________”.(B)A. is equal toB. consists ofC. hasD. generates41.The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the leftside of the heads are said to function as _______________. The words on the right side of the right side of the heads are said to function as complements.(D)A. qualifierB. auxiliaryC. determinerD. specifier42.Synonyms are classified into several kinds. The kind to which girl and lass belongis called ____________ synonyms.(B)A. stylisticB. dialectalC. emotiveD. collocational43.______________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same forms, i.e. words with different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or both. For example, rain/reign, bow v./bow n. and bear n./bear v.(D)A. PolysemyB. HyponymyC. AntonymyD. Homonymy44.Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two itemsare called relational opposites. The following pairs are all relational opposites except _____________.(C)A. doctor and patientB. husband and wifeC. male and femaleD. teacher and student45.“I bought some roses” _______________ “I bought some flowers.”(A)A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with二、判断题(打“√”或“×”，答案务必写在答题纸上）46.Modern linguistics is mainly prescriptive. It studies what is normally known as“grammar” and is normally based on “high” (religious, literary) written language. It aims to set model for language users to follow. （×）47.According Saussure, parole is simply a mass of linguistic fact, too varied andconfusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language.（√）48.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with theability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.（×）49.Vowels may be classified as front, central, and back according to which part ofthe tongue is held highest, i.e. maintains the highest position.（√）50.The sound [l] in the two English words leap and peel is pronounced differently.The first one is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark [ɬ]. From the phonological point of view, these two sounds are fundamentally the same.（√）51.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because themeaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.（×）52.Semantics can be defined as the study of meaning. So far the question of whatmeaning really is has been resolved.（×）53.If we take “The dog is barking” as something a speaker utters in a certainsituation with a certain purpose, then we are regarding it as a sentence.（×）54.Since the Second World War there has been a trend towards much greater informalityof expression. Conversational forms like ain’t, don’t and can’t are now commonly used in articles in the press.（√）55.Women are usually more status-conscious than men in the English-speaking world;therefore, their speech more closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men. For instance, women have a lower frequency of using [n] for [ŋ] than men do.（√）56.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech;thus there are still many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written.（√）57.Contrary to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the idealspeakers’ performance, i.e. the actualization of linguistic knowledge in real communication.（×）58.The speech organs located in the oral cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the softpalate, the hard palate, the teeth ridge, the teeth and lips.（√）59.In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a longvowel such as /i:/, the larynx is in a state of tension.（√）60.If someone should pronounce the dark [ɬ] in the word peel incorrectly as a clear[l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to understand him, he would still understand what action he is talking about but would only find his pronunciation a little bit strange.（√）61.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of thehead. If the heads are Ns, the specifiers are determiners. If the heads are Vs, the specifiers are qualifiers and if the head are As or Ps, then the specifiers are degree words.（√）62.The meaning of the word black doesn’t differ in the two collocations of blackhair and black coffee since linguistic context doesn’t form part of the meaning of the word.（×）63.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utteranceis concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a context.（√）64.Two people who speak the same regional dialect may speak different social-classdialects, or sociolects. Their social background influence their choice of linguistic forms, and the linguistic feature of the language they use reveal their identities.（√）65.Male speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more politethan male speech. For instance, male speakers tend to use more often the question tag and such syntactic forms as I’m afraid…and I’m not sure but…（×）ngue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole variesfrom person to person, and from situation to situation.（√）67.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists intheir study of language is that the former tended to overemphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage.（√）68.In such sound combinations as / pɪt/, /ˈpeɪpə/ and / pleɪn/, the voiceless stop/p/, occurring in the first position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent.（×）69.A general difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is focusedon the production of speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with how speech sounds distinguish meaning.（√）70.We can add –un to adjectives to form new adjective words. This un-Rule is notas productive for adjectives composed of just one morpheme as for those that are themselves derived for verbs, such as unacceptable and undecided.（√）71.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of thehead. If the heads are Ns, the specifiers are determiners. If the heads are Vs, the specifiers are qualifiers and if the head are As or Ps, then the specifiers are degree words.（√）72.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the studyof meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.（×）73.Grice specified two kinds of implied meaning or implicature: conventionalimplicature and non-conventional implicature. Conventional implicature is inferred by the hearer with reference to the context of communication. For example, he is rich but he is not greedy.（×）74.It has been found that the absence of the suffix of third-person present-tensesingular form of verbs and the non-standard use of double negation like I can’t eat nothing are not correlated with the social status of the speaker.（×）75.Different styles of same language can be characterized through differences atsyntactic level. For example, the use of passive and impersonal constructions can account for the higher degree of formality in some discourses.（√）三、名词解释（每小题5分）76.duality[答案]: Duality means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. For example, the grouping of the three sounds/k/，/a:/ and /p/ can mean either a kind of fish (carp) or a public place for rest and amusement (park).（温馨提示：照抄答案，没有加入自己的答案，一律0分。
现代语言学 复习要点
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学 what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of lingu istics called phonetics. 语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology 音位学/ 音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the bran ch of study calledmorphology. 形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
11年现代3(1-8)复习范围
Writing Devices1. Antithesis对照，对比，对偶、这种修辞指将意义完全相反的语句排在一起对比的一种修辞方法.例如:1）“Speech is silver, silence is gold.”2）“It takes a great deal of history to produce a little literature.”3) “I had walked into that reading room a happy healthy man. I crawled out a decrepit wreck.”4) Not that I loved Caeser less but that I loved Rome more.5) You are staying; I am going.6) Give me liberty, or give me death.7) A miser grows rich by seeming poor. An extravagant man grows poor by seeming rich.8) They were friends, yet enemies; he was master, she was mistress; each cheated the other, each needed the other….(V. Woolf, “The Duchess and the Jeweller”)2. Syntactic Anaphora [ənæfərə]首语重复法1)It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair...2)We shall fight him by land, we shall fight him by sea, we shall fight him in the air, until, with God's help, we have rid the earth of his shadow and liberated its peoples from his yoke.3.Syntactic Epiphora [ɪ'pɪfərə]末词重复1)And this day will come, shall come, must come.2)Faith is a good guide, reason is a better guide, truth is the best guide.4. Alliteration头韵It has to do with the sound rather than the sense of words for effect. It is a device that repeats the same sound at frequent intervals and since the sound repeated is usually the initial consonant sound, it is also called "front rhyme".头韵法在文句中有两个以上连结在一起的词或词组，其开头的音节有同样的字母或声音，以增强语言的节奏感。
现代外语教育学导学（1）
现代外语教育学导学（1）现代外语教育学导学第一章。
引言(各种定义很重要，初试以及复试的笔试都会考察。
）1.理解“Knowing a language well does not necessarily mean that you can teach the language well”or”Teaching is an art as well as a science” 答案在page1 第二段（12年的面试考过）2.Approach Method Technique 的定义3.The structural view The functional view The interactional view4. Linguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Applied Linguistics5.缩略词FLT （foreign language teaching）ELT （English language teaching）6.几种大纲：Structural syllabus structural-situational syllabus notion-functional syllabusPs.第一章中出现的其他重要的概念，因为在后面会有详述，所以暂不归纳在第一章。
如Behaviorism....第二章。
外语教学的方方面面。
2.1 有什么样的语言观就有什么样的语言教学观。
进一步了解The structural view 和The functional view1.“Syntagmatic relations” and “paradigmatic relations” 定义（P14）2012年真题考过2.根据功能学派，语言三大功能：descriptive，expressive，and social补充语言学中的语言功能：informative ，interpersonal ，performative，emotive ，phatic ,recreational, meta lingual (语言学教程p10-13) interpersonal 12年真题考过3.了解五种大纲：Grammatical or structural ,Functional-notional，Situational，Skill-based ,T opic-based4.H.D Brown 的二语学习的12条原则。
外语复习资料
外语复习资料外语复习资料外语学习是现代社会中非常重要的一项技能，无论是为了提高自己的职业竞争力，还是为了更好地了解世界各地的文化，都需要掌握一门或多门外语。
然而，外语学习并不是一件轻松的事情，需要付出大量的时间和努力。
为了更好地复习外语知识，我们可以借助一些优质的复习资料。
首先，一本好的外语教材是复习的基础。
好的教材应该具备系统性、全面性和实用性。
系统性指的是教材内容的有机组织和连贯性，能够帮助学习者逐步掌握语言的各个方面。
全面性则意味着教材应该涵盖语法、词汇、听力、口语、阅读和写作等各个方面的内容，以满足学习者的不同需求。
实用性则是指教材内容应该贴近实际应用场景，能够帮助学习者在实际交际中灵活运用所学知识。
除了教材，还可以通过阅读外语杂志、报纸和小说来扩展词汇量和阅读理解能力。
阅读是外语学习中非常重要的一项技能，通过大量的阅读可以提高词汇量、理解力和阅读速度。
选择一些与自己兴趣相关的杂志和小说，既能提高学习的积极性，又能够增加学习的乐趣。
在阅读过程中，可以使用词典查找生词，加深对词汇的理解和记忆。
此外，还可以通过听力材料来提高听力技能。
听力是外语学习中的难点之一，需要通过大量的听力练习来提高听力理解能力和听力反应速度。
可以选择一些适合自己水平的听力材料，如英语电影、英语新闻、英语广播等，进行反复听写和模仿。
在听写的过程中，可以注意语音语调、语速和语境，提高对语言的感知能力。
此外，还可以通过刷题来巩固所学知识。
刷题可以帮助学习者检验自己的掌握程度，发现不足之处，并通过反复练习来强化记忆。
可以选择一些经典的外语考试题目，如托福、雅思、GRE等，进行针对性的练习。
在刷题的过程中，可以注意题目类型和解题技巧，提高解题的准确性和效率。
最后，还可以通过参加语言交流活动来提高口语表达能力。
口语是外语学习中最需要实践的一项技能，需要通过大量的口语练习来提高口语流利度和表达能力。
可以参加一些语言角、英语角或者组织一些小组讨论活动，与他人进行对话和交流。
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现代外语教学复习资料绪论我国外语教学存在得问题:(P2-P5)1、theoretical researches are weak2、teachers' faculty is not strong3、schools are short of teaching resources4、teaching concepts lag behind the society5、education is mainly exam-oriented6、the interference related to power and money is serious第二章1、外语教学研究得三个层次:(P32-P38)ontology: essential characteristics of language itself and language teaching 2、语言得本质特点:1)、the most important tool to municate2)、a linguistic system made up of various subsystems3)、a tool to think and a carrier for culture4)、require special physiological basis2、外语教学研究得三个层次:(P32-P38)② positivism: principles of foreign language teachinga、systematic principleb、municative principlec、cognitive principled、cultural principlee、affective principle外语教学研究得三个层次:(P32-P38)③ methodology: organization, strategies and methods of foreignlanguageteaching存在得问题:a、exclusivenessb、one-sidednessc、intricacy第三章1、外语学习者得生理与认知因素:(P46-P52)②intelligence:a、take different steps to students of different level of intelligenceb、general intelligence → municationhigher intelligence → form2、外语学习者得生理与认知因素:(P46-P52)③aptitude:a、phonetic coding abilityb、grammatical sensitivityc、inductive sensitivity3、外语学习者得生理与认知因素:(P46-P52)④cognitive style:a、field dependenceb、field independence4、外语学习者得情感因素:(P52-P55)①motivation and attitude:a、Brown:global motivationsituational motivationtask motivationb、Gardner and Lambert:integrative motivation instrumental motivation②personality:extrovert vs、introvert5、对教学得启示:a、strengthen students' merits in different occasionsb、change students of different personality to the contrary6、理想得外语学习者:(P55-P56)(二语习得P122)a、group dynamicsb、use the target languagec、attend to meaning rather than to formd、use of study techniquese、the early stages of grammatical developmentf、analytic skillsg、integrative motivation/ task motivationh 、take risksi、adapt to different learning conditions7、EA得一般步骤:(P62)(二语习得P52)a、a corpus of language is seletedb、the errors in the corpus are identifiedc、the errors are classifiedd、the errors are explainede、the errors are evaluated8、EA得作用:(P62)a、recognize which stages are students in/how much contents are remainedb、evidence of how the learners learn or aquire languagec、a means used to aquire language/ a means used to inspect the essence of the language9、EA得局限性:(P64-P65)a、it's difficult to define and distinguish errorsb、lack of a mon standard to classify errorsc、it's difficult to distinguish avoidence from errors10、中介语得特点:(P66)a、openb、flexiblec、systematic11、中介语构建得手段:(P67)a、language transferb、overgeneralization of target language rulesc 、transfer of trainingd、trategies of L2 learninge、strategies of L2 munication12、成功得外语学习者所采用得五大策略:(P71)a、participate language learning positively by searching and ultilizing favourable learning environmentb、set language as a system of formsc、set language as a tool to municated、accept and deal with the affective needs during the learning processe、expand and revise the foreign language system by inferencing and monitoring、13、学习者策略对外语教学得启发:(P83)a、guide students to make the best use of existing knowledgeb、make the best use of learning strategies to improve language learning abilitiesc、help learners use municative strategies correctly第四章1、CLT得理论基础:(P89-P90)a、theories of language munication:a system made up of basic unitsfundamental function is municationthe language structure reflect the function and municative uasge the basic units of language are showed in the municative functions of discourese rather than just grammaticalcharacteristics②learning theories:municative principletask principlemeaningful principle2、语法编写得原则:(P103)a、systematic principleb、municative principlec、contrastive principled、cognitive principle3、词汇教学得原则:(P108-P109)a、systematic principleb、municative principlec、cultural principled、cognitive principlee、affeive principle3、影响听力得重要因素:(P111-P115)rules and structural a、the characteristics of listening materials (speed/pause/hesitation)b、the characteristics of the speakers (sex/authority of the speaker)c、the characteristics of the tasksd、the charateristics of the learnerse、the charateristics of the process4、外语阅读与母语阅读不同特点得比较:(P118-P119)a、the positive transfer has its limits/language rules and pragmatic principleb、the shortings of the abilities and skills on mother-tongue reading influence the process of positive transfer and the improvement of reading abilities in foreign languagec、affective factors also influence the process of reading5、语言与文化得关系:(P128-P129)a、language is a part of cultureb、langauge is the carrier of culturec、culture is the base of language6、文化导入得必要性与重要意义:(P130)a、cultural knowledge and acmodation ability are important parts of municative petenceb、municative petence is the essential base and method to acquire further cultural languagec、adapt to the requirements of special positions7、文化导入得重要原则:(P132-P133)a、practical principleb、stage principlec、acmodation principle8、文化导入得主要方法:(P133-P134)a、annotationb、fusionc、practiced、parisone、specifically explanation第五章1、课程设计得阶段:(P136)a、fact-findingb、the theory and practical evidence of course design and syllabus designc、make the goals to plans, recognize the aims and contentsd、prepare the materials and pile the textbook2、教材编写得原则:(P144)a、authentic principleb、gradual principlec、interesting principled、diverse principlee、modern principlef、practical principle3、合格得外语教师应具备得素质:(P151)a、solid professional knowledge and skillsb、abilities of classroom management and implementc、good characters and delightful personalitiesd、systematic knowledge of modern languagee、considerable knowledge of foreign language acquisition theoriesf、knowledge of foreign language teaching4、外语教学得实施得主要过程:(P155)a、needs analysisb、curriculum designc、material developmentd、classroom instructionf、course evaluation5、传统课堂教学模式(PPP)得不足:(P156-157)a、teaching model is teacher-centredb、the result of PPP model is exam-oriented educationc、students haven't received enough inputd、mislead students to a worry learning way6、课堂教学最基本目标:(P159-162)a、cultivate students' interestsb、provide authentic language inputc、help students use learning strategies which are benefit to foreign language learningd、help students overe the difficulties during the learning process 7、外语测试得类型:(P167-170)a、测试目得:aptitude testachivement testdiagnostic testproficiency testexit testb、外语测试得类型:(P167-170)②测试得方法与方式:direct testingindirect testing③测试题型:a、discrete-point testingb、integrative testingc、外语测试得类型:(P167-170)④考试成绩判别得标准:norm-referenced testingcriterion-referenced testing⑤判卷标准:a、subjective testingb、objective testing8、效度(test validity):(P170)a、whether the test can test what it meant to exactlyb、content validityc、criterion-related validityd、construct validitye、face validity9、信度(test reliability):(P172)a、whether the result of the test are reliableb、test itselfc、marking of papers第六章1、外语教学法得主要流派:(P180-P206)a、The Oral Approach and the situational Language Teachingb、The Audiolingual Meathodc、municative Approachd、Total Physical Responsee、The Silent Wayf、munity Language Learningg、The natural Approachh、Suggestopedia2、任务型教学得原则:(P209-P210)a、interactive principleb、authentic in linguistic materialsc、process principled、emphasize the improvement made by learners' experiencef、classroom language learning is related to language application outside the class3、任务型教学得优点:(P221)a、reflect new ideas about language learning and teachingc、shorten the distance between class and lifed、it aims at cultivating students' learning capacity/ cooperative learning 4、任务型教学得局限性:(P221-P222)a、the recognition of language learning is extremeb、the randomness of task selectingc、the limitation of application scoped、instead special tests of whether the tasks have been acplished。