The Anatomy of Inverse Problems
2019年英语专八阅读理解考前练习试题及答案
2019年英语专八阅读理解考前练习试题及答案Many objects in daily use have clearly been influenced by science, but their form and function, their dimensions and appearance, were determined by technologists, artisans, designers, inventors, and engineers ?D using nonscientific modes of thought. Many features and qualities of the objects that a technologist thinks about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions; they are dealt with in the mind by a visual, nonverbal process. In the development of Western technology, it has been nonverbal thinking, by and large, that has fixed the outlines and filled in the detailsof our material surroundings. Pyramids, cathedrals, androckets exist not because of geometry or thermodynamics, but because they were first a picture in the minds of those who built them.The creative shaping process of a technologist’s mind canbe seen in nearly every artifact that exists. For example, in designing a diesel engine, a technologist might impress individual ways of nonverbal thinking on the machine by continually using an intuitive sense of rightness and fitness. What would be the shape of the combustion chamber? Where should be valves be placed? Should it have a long or short piston? Such questions have a range of answers that are supplied by experience, by physical requirements, bylimitations of available space, and not least by a sense of form. Some decisions such as wall thickness and pin diameter may depend on scientific calculations, but the nonscientific component of design remains primary.Design courses, then, should be an essential element in engineering curricula. Nonverbal thinking, a central mechanism in engineering design, involves perceptions, the stock-in-trade of the artist, not the scientist. Because perceptive processes are not assumed to entail hard thinking，nonverbal thought is sometimes seen as a primitive stage inthe development of cognitive processes and inferior to verbal or mathematical thought. But it is paradoxical that when the staff of the Historic American Engineering Record wished to have drawings made of machines and isometric views ofindustrial processes for its historical record of American engineering, the only college students with the requisite abilities were not engineering students, but rather students attending architectural schools.If courses in design, which in a strongly analytical engineering curriculum provide the background required for practical problem-solving, are not provided, we can expect to encounter silly but costly errors occurring in advanced engineering systems. For example, early models of high-speed railroad cars loaded with sophisticated controls were unableto operate in a snowstorm because a fan sucked snow into the electrical system. Absurd random failures that plague automatic control systems are not merely trivial aberrations; they are a reflection of the chaos that results when designis assumed to be primarily a problem in mathematics.1.In the text, the author is primarily concerned with[A] Identifying the kinds of thinking that is used by technologists.[B] Stressing the importance of nonverbal thinking in engineering design.[C] Proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the development of technology.[D] Contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists.2. It can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are[A] Strengthened when they include courses in design.[B] Weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designed to develop mathematical skills.[C] Strong because nonverbal thinking is still emphasized by most of the courses.[D] Strong despite the errors those graduates of such curricula have made in the development of automatic control systems.3.Which of the following statements best illustrates the main point of the first two paragraphs of the text?[A] When a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions, it is the technologist who is best equipped to repair it.[B] Each component of an automobile? D for example, the engine or the fuel tank? D has a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that component’s function.[C] A telephone is a complex instrument designed by technologists using only nonverbal thought.[D] The distinctive features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer''s conceptualization as well as the physical requirements of its site.4.Which of the following statements would best serve as an introduction to the text?[A] The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological developments must be derived from science ignores the many nonscientific decisions made by technologists.[B] Analytical thought is no longer a vital component in the success of technological development.[C] As knowledge of technology has increased, the tendency has been to lose sight of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions about form, arrangement, and texture.[D] A movement in engineering colleges toward atechnician’s degree reflects a demand for graduates who have the nonverbal reasoning ability that was once common among engineers.5. The author calls the predicament faced by the Historic American Engineering Record paradoxical (line 6, paragraph 3) most probably because[A] The publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make.[B] Architectural schools offered but did not require engineering design courses for their students.[C] College students were qualified to make the drawingswhile practicing engineers were not.[D] Engineering students were not trained to make the typeof drawings needed to record the development of their own discipline.答案与考点解析1.「答案」B「考点解析」这是一道中心主旨题。
黎曼猜想英语
黎曼猜想英语The Riemann Hypothesis, named after the 19th-century mathematician Bernhard Riemann, is one of the most profound and consequential conjectures in mathematics. It is concerned with the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function, a complex function denoted as $$\zeta(s)$$, where $$s$$ is a complex number. The hypothesis posits that all non-trivial zeros of this analytical function have their real parts equal to $$\frac{1}{2}$$.To understand the significance of this conjecture, one must delve into the realm of number theory and the distribution of prime numbers. Prime numbers are the building blocks of arithmetic, as every natural number greater than 1 is either a prime or can be factored into primes. The distribution of these primes, however, has puzzled mathematicians for centuries. The Riemann zeta function encodes information about the distribution of primes through its zeros, and thus, the Riemann Hypothesis is directly linked to understanding this distribution.The zeta function is defined for all complex numbers except for $$s = 1$$, where it has a simple pole. For values of $$s$$ with a real part greater than 1, it converges to a sum over the positive integers, as shown in the following equation:$$\zeta(s) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^s}$$。
【四六级】TPO 07阅读详细解析——【英语阅读提高TPO 阅读详细解析】
TPO 07 Paragraph 11．The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○achievement○requirement○purpose○feature2．Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as a change that occurred in the fauna of the Mediterranean?○Most invertebrate species disappeared during a wave ofextinctions.○A few hardy species wiped out many of the Mediterranean’sinvertebrates.○Some invertebrates migrated to Atlantic Ocean.○New species of fauna populated the Mediterranean whenThe Geologic History ofthe MediterraneanIn 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographicresearch vessel Glomar Challenger. An of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the1the old migrants returned.Paragraph 33．What does the author imply by○The most obvious explanation for the origin of the pebbles was not migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur?■Another task for the Glomar Challenge r’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of dri lling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists2supported by the evidence.○The geologists did not find as many pebbles as they expected.○The geologists were looking for a particular kind of pebble.○The different pebbles could not have come from only one source.4．Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the solid gypsum layer?○It did not contain any marine fossil.○It had formed in open-ocean conditions.○It had once been soft, deep-sea mud.○It contained sediment from nearby deserts.5. Select the TWO answer choice from paragraph 3 that identify materials discovered in the deepest part of the Mediterranean basin. To receive credit aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of gypsum and fragments of volcanicIn the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the3you must select TWO answers.○Volcanic rock fragments.○This silt layers○Soft, deep-sea mud○Crystalline salt6. What is the main purpose of paragraph 3?○To describe the physical evidence collected by Hsu and Ryan.○To explain why some of the questions posed earlier in the passage could not be answered by the findings of the Glomar Challenger.○To evaluate techniques used by Hsu and Ryan to explore the sea floor.○To describe the most difficult problems faced by the GlomarChallenger expedition.Paragraph 47. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean’s scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt.The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The4waters?○The movements of Earth’s crust○The accumulation of sediment layers○Changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean○Changes in Earth’s temperature8. The word “scores” in the passage is closest in meaning to○members○large numbers○populations○different types9. According to paragraph 4, what caused most invertebrate species in the Mediterranean to become extinct?○The evaporation of chemicals necessary for their survival○Crustal movements that connected the Mediterranean to the investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination ofof invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to5saltier Atlantic○The migration of new species through the narrow straits○Their inability to tolerate the increasing salt content of theMediterranean10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.○The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.○The cascades of water from the form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge.tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant6Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.○As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.11. The word “Turbulent” in the passage is closest in meaning to○fresh○deep○violent○temperateParagraph 212. Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Thus, scientists had information about the shape of the domes but not evidence that the Mediterranean was once a desert.gypsum: a mineral made of calcium sulfate and water7about their chemical composition and origin.Where would the sentence best fit?13．An expedition to the Mediterranean answered some long-standing questions about the ocean’s history.●●●Answer choices1. The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features.2. Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species.3. Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor.4. Samples recovered from the■Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■8旗开得胜expedition revealed importantdifferences in chemical composition andfossil distribution among the sedimentlayers.5. Evidence collected by the GlomarChallenger supports geologists' beliefsthat the Mediterranean had evaporatedand become a desert, before it refilledwith water.6. Mediterranean salt domes formedafter crustal movements opened thestraits between the Mediterranean andthe Atlantic, and the Mediterraneanrefilled with water.9旗开得胜10Paragraph 11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm.○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are controls that held together the roman world EXCEPTAncient Rome and GreeceThere is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment —on the absolute certainty○administrative and legal systems○the presence of the military○a common language○transportation networksParagraph 23.The phrase “obsession with” in the passage is closest in meaning to○thinking about○fixation on○interest in○attitude toward4.According to paragraph 2, which of the following was NOT characteristic of Rome’s early development?○Expansion by sea invasion○T erritorial expansion○Expansion from one original settlement ○Expansion through invading armies5.Why does the author mention “Alexander the Great” in the passage?○T o acknowledge that Greek civilization that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome’s early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The Key to the Greek world lay in its high-11also expanded by land conquest○T o comp are Greek leaders to Roman leaders○T o give an example of Greek leader whom Romans studied○T o indicate the superior organization of the Greek militaryParagraph 36.is closest in meaning to○accepted○combined○introduced○encouraged7.Paragraph 3 suggests which of thefollowing about the people of Latium?○Their economy was based on trade relations with other settlements.○They held different values than the people of Rome.○Agriculture played a significant r ole in the society. powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a12○They possessed unusual knowledge of animal instinctsParagraph 48.Paragraph 4 indicates that somehistorians admire Roman civilization because of○the diversity of cultures within Roman society○its strength○its innovative nature○the large body of literature that it developed9.In paragraph 4, the author develops adescription of Roman civilization by○comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals○identifying which characteristics of roman civilization were copied from Greece○explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed○contrasting characteristics of Roman land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders,the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome,13civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization10.According to paragraph 4, intellectual Romans such as Horace held which of the following opinions about their civilization?○Ancient works of Greece held little value in the Roman world.○The Greek civilization had been surpassed by the Romans.○Roman civilization produced little that was original or memorable.○Romans valued certain types of innovations that had been ignored by ancient Greeks.Paragraph 5mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Ho race in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?”Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek14Paragraph 611.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○abilities○areas○combinations○models12.Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6?○They could read and write the Greek language.○They frequently wrote poetry and plays.○They focused their writing on military matters.○They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks.Paragraph 413.Look at the four squares ■ that religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into newespecially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.15indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.They esteem symbols of Roman power, such as the massive Colosseum. Where would the sentence best fit?14.The Roman world drew its strength from several important sources●●●Answer choices1. Numerous controls imposed by Roman rulers held its territory together.2. The Roman military was organized differently from older military organizations.3. Romans valued sea power as did the Latins, the original inhabitants of Rome.4. Roman values were rooted in a strong attachment to the land and the stability of rural life.5. Rome combined aspects of ancient Greek civilization with its own contributions in new areas. civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such166. Educated Romans modeled their own literature and philosophy on the ancient Greeks disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date wo uld now exist?”17Paragraph 11.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○emerged○was understood○spread○developed2.According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa?○African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture.○The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia.○Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate.○African co mmunities were not large enough to support agriculture.无老师网站:ibtsat3.In paragraph 1, what does theAgriculture, Iron, andthe Bantu PeoplesThere is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose18author imply about changes in the African environment during this time period?○The climate was becoming milder, allowing for a greater variety of crops to be grown.○Although periods of drying forced people south, they returned once their food supply was secure.○Population growth along rivers and lakes was dramatically decreasing the availability of fish.○A region that had once supported many people was becoming a desert where few could surviveParagraph 24.According to paragraph 2,camels were important because they ○were the first domesticated animal to be introduced to Africa○allowed the people of the West African savannahs to carve out large empires origins are not African but west Asian. Once the idea of plantingtheir own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, and they demonstrated a continued receptiveness to new imports. The proposed areas of the domestication of African crops lie in a band that extends from Ethiopia across southern Sudan to West Africa. Subsequently, other crops, such as bananas, were introduced from Southeast Asia.Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats.19○helped African peoples defend themselves against Egyptian invaders○made it cheaper and easier to cross the Sahara5.According to paragraph 2, which of the following were subjects of rock paintings in the Sahara?○Horses and chariots○Sheep and goats○Hyksos invaders from Egypt○Camels and cattleParagraph 36.What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole○It contrasts the development of iron technology in West Asia and West Africa. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more20○It discusses a non-agricultural contribution to Africa from Asia.○It introduces evidence that a knowledge of copper working reached Africa and Europe at the same time.○It compares the rates at which iron technology developed in different parts of Africa.Paragraph 47.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to ○fascinating○far-reaching○necessary○temporary8.Theword in thepassage is closest in meaning to ○military○physical○ceremonial accessible, route of trade and communication.Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. Evidence of iron making has been found in Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali.This technological shift causein the complexity of African societies. Iron21○permanent9.According to paragraph 4, all of the following were social effects of the new metal technology in Africa EXCEPT: ○Access to metal tools and weapons created greater social equality.○Metal weapons increased the power of warriors.○Iron tools helped increase the food supply.○T echnical knowl edge gave religious power to its holders.Paragraph 510.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier represented power. In West Africa the blacksmith who made tools and functions. Iron hoes, which made the land more productive, and iron weapons, which made the warrior more powerful, had symbolic meaning in a number of West Africa societies. Those who knew the secrets of making ironand sometimes political power.22techniques.○Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.○Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.○Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.Paragraph 611.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○afraid of○displaced by○running away from○responding to12.Paragraph 6 mentions all of the following as possiblecauses of theright into the Iron Age, taking the basic technology and adapting it to local; conditions and resources.The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people23“Bantu explosion” EXCEPT○superior weapons○better hunting skills○peaceful migra tion○increased populationParagraph 613.Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.T hese people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Agriculture and iron working probably spread to Africa from neighboring regions.●●●Answer choices who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement ofthe desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid241 .Once Africans developed their own crops, they no longer borrowed from other regions.2. The harshness of the African climate meant that agriculture could not develop until after the introduction of iron tools.3. The use of livestock improved transportation and trade and allowed for new forms of political control.4. As the Sahara expanded, the camel gained in importance, eventually coming to have religious significance.5. The spread of iron working had far-reaching effects on social, economic, and political organization in Africa.6. Today's Bantu-speaking peoples are descended from a technologically advanced people who spread throughout Africa. demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion. ■25。
欧洲文化入门考试内容归纳中文版
《欧洲文化入门》本作者绪论《欧洲文化入门》由于其内容庞杂，琐碎，因而是一门学习起来比较困难的课程。
其实大家大可不必担心，只要我们潜下心去，找出里面的规律和线索，这门课并不难攻克。
我们要牢记文化的五分法：一、社会历史(包括政治、经济、宗教、历史) 二、哲学三、文学四、科学五、艺术(包括绘画、雕塑、建筑和音乐)，以记忆每个时代的各要点为主，理解纵向的变迁为辅，后者主要的作用时帮助我们更好的记住前者。
《欧洲文化入门》的考试大致包括以下几种题型：四选一，填空，判断，简答题，名词解释，论述题。
选择题：这种题型可考查考生的记忆、理解、判断、推理分析，综合比较，鉴别评价等多种能力，评分客观，故常被应用。
在答题时，如果能瞬时准确地把正确答案找出来最好，假如没有把握，就应采用排除法，即应从排除最明显的错误开始，把接近正确答案的备选项留下，再分析比较强以逐一否定最终选定正确答案。
填空题：这种题型常用于考核考生准确记忆的“再现”能力，在答题时，无论有几个空，回答都应明确、肯定，不能含糊其辞，填空题看似容易实则难，最好的应对办法是对英语语言知识中最基本的知识、概念、原理等要牢记。
名词解释：这种题型一般针对英语专业自考本科段课程中的基本概念、专业名词进行命题，主要考核考生的识记、理解能力。
在答题时，答案要简明、概括、准确，如分值较大，可简要扩展。
简答题：这种题型一般围绕基本概论、原理及其联系进行命题，着重考核考生对概念、史实、原理的掌握、辨别和理解能力。
在答题时，既不能像名词解释那样简单，也不能像论述题那样长篇大论，答案要有层次性，列出要点，并加以简要扩展就可以。
论述题：这种题型一般从试卷编制的全局出发，能从体现考试大纲中的重点内容和基本问题的角度来命题，着重考核考生分析、解决实际问题的能力，考核考生综合应用能力和创见性。
在答题时，要仔细审题，列出答案要点，然后对要点逐一展开叙述，此时考生应发挥自己的真知灼见，要在深度，广度上下功。
对比论证作文渐冻症的反例
对比论证作文渐冻症的反例英文回答：Contrary to the argument that has been made about the negative effects of Alzheimer's disease, I would like to present a counterexample to demonstrate that not all cases of Alzheimer's disease lead to a decline in cognitive abilities. While it is true that Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects memory and cognitive functions, there have been documented cases where individuals with Alzheimer's have shown remarkable cognitive abilities and even excelled in certain areas.One such example is the case of Dr. Richard Taylor, a former psychologist who was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease at the age of 61. Despite his diagnosis, Dr. Taylor continued to write and publish books about his experiences living with Alzheimer's. In fact, his book "Alzheimer's from the Inside Out" received critical acclaim and providedvaluable insights into the daily struggles and triumphs of individuals living with the disease. Dr. Taylor's ability to articulate his thoughts and emotions through his writing demonstrated that not all individuals with Alzheimer's experience a complete loss of cognitive function.Another counterexample is the case of John, a retired engineer who was diagnosed with early-onset Alzheimer's disease at the age of 55. Despite his diagnosis, John continued to engage in complex problem-solving activities, such as building intricate models and solving mathematical puzzles. His cognitive abilities remained intact in these specific areas, challenging the notion that Alzheimer's disease inevitably leads to a decline in cognitive function across all domains.These counterexamples highlight the fact that Alzheimer's disease does not necessarily result in a complete loss of cognitive abilities. While it is true that the disease is characterized by the gradual deterioration of brain cells and the subsequent decline in cognitive function, there are cases where individuals withAlzheimer's are able to maintain certain cognitiveabilities or even excel in specific areas. These examples demonstrate that the impact of Alzheimer's disease on cognitive function can vary from person to person.中文回答：与关于阿尔茨海默病的负面影响的论点相反，我想举一个反例来证明并非所有的阿尔茨海默病病例都会导致认知能力下降。
自然科学史第十章的观后感
自然科学史第十章的观后感英文回答：The tenth chapter of the history of natural science, "The Scientific Revolution: Part II", delves into thepivotal era when the foundations of modern science were laid. This period witnessed a surge of intellectual curiosity, technological advancements, and groundbreaking discoveries that transformed our understanding of thenatural world.During the Scientific Revolution, scholars challenged established dogmas and embraced observation and experimentation as the primary means of acquiring knowledge. This shift in perspective led to a paradigm shift invarious scientific disciplines, including astronomy, physics, and biology.Nicolaus Copernicus revolutionized astronomy with his heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center of thesolar system. Galileo Galilei made significantcontributions to physics through his experiments on motion, optics, and astronomy. He also developed the telescope, which enabled him to observe celestial bodies with unprecedented clarity.Isaac Newton's groundbreaking work in physics culminated in the development of classical mechanics and the law of universal gravitation. His contributions laid the groundwork for the scientific understanding of the motion of objects and the forces that govern them.In biology, Andreas Vesalius challenged Galen's anatomical theories through his meticulous dissections of human cadavers. His work significantly advanced the field of human anatomy and paved the way for further advancements in medical science.The Scientific Revolution was not without its controversies and challenges. Scientists faced opposition from religious and political institutions that clung to traditional beliefs. However, the spirit of inquiry andintellectual freedom ultimately prevailed, leading to a new era of scientific progress.中文回答：《自然科学史》第十章“科学革命，第二部”深入探讨了奠定现代科学基础的关键时代。
2014考研英语全真模拟押题及答案解析（三）【2】
2014考研英语全真模拟押题及答案解析（三）【2】Notes: ethically 道德上。
gene pool基因库。
insemination n. 受精。
fertilize 使受精。
embryo 胚胎。
proponent 支持者，拥护者。
weigh A against B 权衡A和B的利弊。
26. The author raises the issue of ethical consideration in cloning in paragraph 1 in order to[A] identify the issues that will not be addressed in the text.[B] reveal an area of interest that will be explored later in the text.[C] identify one of the main issues affecting the cloning controversy today.[D] draw the reader's attention to a sensitive issue that bears consideration in the topic of cloning.27. The author directs attention to “Hua Mei”, the baby panda born in the San Diego Zoo, in order to[A] show that cloning as an artificial birth technique has succeeded.[B] argue that pandas are a particularly likely candidate for cloning.[C] show that artificial birth techniques other than cloning have succeeded.[D] demonstrate the necessity of cloning and other artificial birth techniques to the survival of certain species.28. Paragraph 4 is written in order to[A] detail the process by which cloning in the panda population has been executed in the past.[B] guide the reader to consider the possibility of cloning in restoring the pandapopulation.[C] demonstrate that the use of cloning to repopulate the panda species is a feasible goal.[D] inform the reader of how cloning would be carried out in the panda population.29. The main purpose of the last paragraph is to[A] argue in favor of one side on a particularly controversial topic of cloning.[B] display both sides' arguments on another contentious issue in cloning.[C] redirect the readers' attention to the previously raised issue of ethics in cloning.[D] provide further relevant information to the evaluation of cloning as a preservation technique.30. It can be inferred from the information given in the text that the best candidate for cloning would be[A] Giant Pandas.[B] an endangered species with many living related species.[C] the species in which previous techniques of artificial reproduction have beensuccessfully applied.[D] those for which cloning is the only feasible method by which to reproduce the species.Text3Pronouncing a language is a skill. Every normal person is an expert in the skill of pronouncing his own language, but few people are even moderately proficient at pronouncing foreign languages. Now there are many reasons for this, some obvious, some perhaps not so obvious. But I suggest that the fundamental reason why people in general do not speak foreign languages very much better than they do is that they fail to grasp the truenature of the problem of learning to pronounce, and consequently never set about tackling it in the right way. Far too many people fail to realize that pronouncing a foreign language is a skill, one that needs careful training of a special kind, and one that cannot be acquired by just leaving it to take care of itself. I think even teachers of language, while recognizing the importance of a good accent, tend to neglect, in their practical teaching, the branch of study concerned with speaking the language.So the first point I want to make is that English pronunciation must be taught; the teacher should be prepared to devote some of the lesson time to this, and by his whole attitude to the subject should get the student to feel that here is a matter worthy of receiving his close attention. So there should be occasions when other aspects of English, such as grammar or spelling, are allowed for the moment to take second place.Apart from this question of the time given to pronunciation, there are two other requirements for the teacher: the first, knowledge; the second, technique.It is important that the teacher should be in possession of the necessary information. This can generally be obtained from books. It is possible to get from books some idea of the mechanics of speech, and of what we call general phonetic theory. It is also possible in this way to get a clear mental picture of the relationship between the sounds of different languages, between the speech habits of English people and those, say, of your students. Unless the teacher has such a picture, any comments he may make on his students' pronunciation are unlikely to be of much use, and lesson time spent on pronunciation may well be time-wasted.But it does not follow that you can teach pronunciation successfully as soon as you have read the necessary books. It depends, after that, on what use you make of your knowledge, and this is a matter of technique.Now the first and most important part of a language teacher's technique is his own performance, his ability to demonstrate the spoken language, in every detail of articulation as well as in fluent speaking, so that the student's latent capacity for imitation is given the fullest scope and encouragement. The teacher, then, should be as perfect a model in this respect as he can make himself. And to supplement his own performance, however satisfactory this may be, the modern teacher has at his disposal recordings, radio, television and video, to supply the authentic voices of native speakers, or, if the teacher happens to be a native speaker himself or speaks just like one, then to vary the method of presenting the language material. (537 words) Notes: set about着手，试图。
2024-2025学年湖北省鄂东南高三上学期期中考试英语试题
2024-2025学年湖北省鄂东南高三上学期期中考试英语试题Here are some dictionaries to share with you for English learning. Verbal AdvantageIt is the most comprehensive, accessible, and effective vocabulary-building program available today. What exactly is a “verbal advantage”? In short, a “verbal advantage” is the ability to use words in a precise and powerful manner, to communicate clearly, correctly, and effectively in every situation. In this book, I intend to turn your ability with words into mastery. Dictionary of Common ErrorsIt provides learners and teachers of English with a practical guide to common errors and their correction. Arranged alphabetically(按字母顺序)for ease of use, the entries deal with those errors that regularly appear in the written English of learners at the intermediate level of proficiency and above. Each error is accompanied by a correction and a short, simple explanation. Merriam-Webster’s Vocabulary BuilderIt is designed to achieve 2 goals: to add a large number of words to your permanent working vocabulary, and to teach the most useful word-building roots to help you continue expanding your vocabulary in the future. To achieve these goals, it employs an approach that takes into account how people learn and remember. Word Power Made EasyIt is the complete handbook for building a superior vocabulary, which enables you to speak and write with confidence, read more effectively and efficiently, learn quickly, develop social contacts, and increase your earning power. Pay special attention to the Chapter Review! Are the words still fresh in your mind? Do you remember the meaning of each word studied in the previous sessions? In these Reviews, you are not only testing your learning but also tightening up any areas in which you discover gaps, weaknesses, or forgetfulness.1. What does the “Dictionary of Common Errors” offer to its users?A．A collection of idiomatic expressions.B．An alphabetical list of advanced vocabulary.C．A comprehensive history of the English language.D．A handy guide to frequently made errors and their corrections.2. According to the passage, in which dictionary can we learn English roots?A．Verbal Advantage. B．Word Power Made Easy.C．Merriam-Webster’s Vocabulary Builder.D．Dictionary of Common Errors.3. What can we learn from this passage?A．Going over the learned words is recommended for English learning.B．Memorizing words alphabetically is the best way to build vocabulary.C．English learners at intermediate level seldom make mistakes in writing.D．All the 4 dictionaries intend to promote learners’ grammatical competence.High levels of lead detected in Ludwig van Beethoven’s hair which has been confirmed belonging to him suggest that the composer had lead poisoning, which may have contributed to illness he endured over the course of his life, including deafness, according to new research.In addition to hearing loss, the famed classical composer had repeated stomach issues throughout his life, experienced two attacks of severe liver disease. It is believed that Beethoven died from liver and kidney disease at age 56. But the process of understanding what caused his many health problems has been a much more complicated puzzle, one that even Beethoven himself hoped doctors could eventually solve.An international team of researchers set out nearly a decade ago to partially fulfill Beethoven’s wish by studying locks of his hair. Using DNA analysis, the team determined which ones truly belonged to the composer and which did not, and sequenced Beethoven’s genome(基因组). The findings, published in a March 2023 report, revealed that Beethoven had significant genetic risk factors for liver disease. But the results didn’t provide any insights into the underlying causes of his deafness, which began in his 20s, or his stomach issues.Beethoven’s genome was made publicly available, inviting researchers around the world to investigate remaining questions about Beethoven’s health. In addition to high concentrations of lead, the latest findings showed arsenic(砷)and mercury(汞)that remain trapped in the composer’s strings of hair nearly 200 years after his death, according to a new letter published Monday in the journal Clinical Chemistry. The surprising insights could provide new windows into Beethoven’s persistent health problems.4. What might have caused Beethoven’s long-term health problems?A．Loss of hearing. B．High levels of lead in his body.C．Constant complaints. D．Lack of doctor’s treatment.5. The underlined word “wish” in paragraph 3 may refer to________.A．Examining his hair. B．Curing him of the disease.C．Identifying the cause of his illness. D．Conducting DNA analysis.6. What did the report in 2023 find out?A．The potential cause of his deafness.B．The sequence of his genetic material.C．The hair that truly belonged to Beethoven.D．Beethoven’s carrying a great genetic risk of liver disease.7. Why does the author mention the latest findings in the last paragraph?A．To confirm the earlier result.B．To contradict the previous findings.C．To draw a conclusion about the contributing factors.D．To provide a better understanding of the cause of his illness.One morning in June 1986, I placed an empty snail shell into a tide pool on Long Island. A hermit crab(寄居蟹)came by, inspected the shell, and quickly exchanged it for its old one. Soon another crab found the abandoned shell, did the same, and moved on. About 10 minutes later a third crab found the second’s old home and claimed its prize, leaving behind its damaged one.It may seem strange, but these small creatures are making use of what sociologists call a “vacancy chain(空缺链)”—an organized method of exchanging resources in which every individual benefits by claiming a more desirable possession abandoned by another individual. Recent studies have revealed two types of vacancy chains in hermit crabs: synchronous and asynchronous. In the asynchronous type(like what I observed), usually one crab at a time comes across a vacant shell without other crabs nearby. But in synchronous chains, they line up by size behind the one examining a vacant shell. Once it moves into the new shell, the others quickly follow, each taking the better-suited shelter in line.Though research on vacancy chains in animals beyond hermit crabs is limited, early evidence suggests that the strategy has evolved widespread. Humans follow the same pattern. Studies in 1960s Manhattan showed how new apartments triggered a chain reaction, allowing many families to upgrade their housing. Car dealers in the early 20th century adopted a similar system, trading in old cars to facilitate new sales. Vacancy chains highlight that resource distribution is not just about competition but also about the efficient transfer of resources, shedding light on issues like housing shortages and even crime.Not long ago, I returned to the beach where my observations began. Watching the hermit crabs crawl through the tide pool, I felt grateful and delighted, realizing that some patterns of our social life are so fundamental that we even share them with rather primitive creatures.8. Where was the second crab’s original shell according to paragraph 1?A．It was taken by the first crab. B．It was exchanged with a snail.C．It was occupied by the third crab. D．It was left behind in the tide pool.9. Which of the following is correct about the two kinds of chains?A．Asynchronous chains occur only in animals.B．Asynchronous chains involve fighting over resources.C．Synchronous chains involve crabs queuing up by age.D．Synchronous chains occur when crabs gather in the same place.10. Which of the following can set off a “vacancy chain”?A．Winning a bet. B．Storing canned food.C．Selling old vehicles for new ones. D．Buying disposable plastic bottles.11. What does the passage imply about the significance of studying vacancy chains?A．It may suggest new ways to care for crabs.B．It may reveal how competition is stimulated.C．It may highlight the importance of saving resources.D．It may give insights into human resource distribution.A bestseller by Giulia Enders explores the fascinating world of the human digestive system and its profound impact on overall health. One of the key takeaways is the idea that the gut(肠)is not just a digestion machine, but a complex and intelligent organ that influences our immune system, brain function, and emotional well-being.The book explores the gut-brain connection, explaining how the gut communicates with the brain and can influence mood and behavior, highlighting the link between gut health and mental conditions like anxiety and depression. Enders also explains how the gut’s nervous system functions independently of the brain and why it’s often called the “second brain.”Another key point is the impact of diet on gut health. Enders advises incorporating fiber-rich foods, fermented products(like yogurt), and probiotics(good bacteria)into our diet to nourish beneficial gut bacteria. She also warns against the overuse of antibiotics(抗生素), which can upset the balance of gut bacteria and lead to digestive disorders.The book also provides insight into common digestive problems and breaks down how these issues can be managed or prevented by making simple lifestyle changes, like eating slowly and managing stress. Enders explains the digestive process in a simple and engaging way, highlighting the importance of a healthy gut and offers practical advice on supporting its function, such as avoiding overly processed foods and eating mindfully.Enders also touches on the significance of the immune system in the gut, where a large portion of immune cells reside. A healthy gut microbiome(肠道微生物组)can strengthen the immune response, while an imbalanced gut may lead to increased risk to infections and autoimmune diseases.Enders successfully makes the science of the gut accessible and relatable, showing that by understanding how this often-overlooked organ works, we can make informed choices that significantly improve our health and happiness.12. What does the underlined word “takeaways” in paragraph 1 mean?A．Differences. B．Conclusions. C．Causes. D．Goals.13. What does the author might agree with?A．An unhealthy gut will definitely lead to immune disorders.B．The gut’s nervous system interrelates with the brain in its function.C．Eating slowly or managing stress helps avoid some digestive problems.D．The more fiber we include in our diet, the healthier our gut will become.14. Which one can best serve as the title of the book by Giulia Enders?A．Gut Health Is Above Wealth.B．Eat Your Way to Good Health.C．Immune System: A Deciding Factor in Overall Health.D．Gut: The Inside Story of Our Body’s Most Underrated Organ.15. What is the text?A．A book review. B．A research paper.C．An advertisement for a book. D．A chapter of a book.When you get up in the morning, what is the first thing that you tend to do? By chance, is it to check notifications on a cell phone? 16 That usually means using the newest technology in nearly every aspect of life.17 One sensible approach is to set goals, use time limits, and avoid letting any single medium or electronic platform take up the lion’s share of your time.One major impact of advanced technology has been the change in the way people read. After centuries of reading the printed page, people now do much of their reading on various kinds of screens for the reason that the shift is convenient and cost-effective. 18 One concern is that light from computer and phone screens can eventually cause teary eyes. In addition, recent research has found advantages to reading on paper. Professor Virginia Clinton of the University of North Dakota examined results from 33 studies on reading. This research indicates that students demonstrated better comprehension when reading on paper rather than on screens. 19 It simply suggests that reading on paper has not yet lost its value.How often do people find themselves watching videos or using websites only to find that hours have passed with their original goal unfulfilled? That is because designers use artificial intelligence to create video feeds and music streaming programs that absorb your attention for as long as possible. Therefore, it is more important than ever to be able to take a step back. 20 In doing so, it can give them back their time and sense of agency.In many ways Mack and Cameron were typical high school friends. They enjoyed playing video games, and watched movies together. Both boys loved ________ and did well in school. But Mack a nd Cameron’s friendship was ________ , or rather, extraordinary.Cameron had been born with cerebral palsy(脑瘫), a ________ that limits a person’s ability to move. He used a wheelchair to get around. He communicated through a sophisticated computer system that ________ to his eye movements. Cameron loved sports and hoped to be a ________ someday. Mack enjoyed sports, too. He was also an excellent student and ________ as senior class president. The boys had met years before when Mack was the new kid in the neighborhood. By first grade the two had become ________ , and by high school they were still best friends. “We laugh at the same things,” Mack once said, “but we’re also different. Cam’s into following sports, while I’m more ________ and into good academic grades. He’s fun to be around, so we find things we can do together.”Although Mack and Cameron had been ________ most of their lives, no one had ever expected them to run in high school ________ events together. Beginning in their junior year, the boys ________ , and Mack used a special wheelchair to push Cameron in every race. Mack understood that this meant he couldn’t earn points at the meets. But as he later explained, he didn’t really ________ that. As the seasons ________ , the boys had some memorable experiences together on the track and managed to beat some other kids in races. “We’re not like the best, but we’ re not bad, ”Mack said ________ .Today both boys have finished high school and moved on to college. They’re still, friends, and they still run together. In fact, they recently completed a half marathon, ________ in less than an hour and a half, which is faster than seven minutes a mile!21.A．sports B．math C．art D．craft22.A．fun B．different C．marvelous D．common23.A．condition B．effect C．circumstance D．medium24.A．applied B．contributed C．objected D．responded25.A．driver B．doctor C．coach D．programmer26.A．regarded B．treated C．served D．defined27.A．focused B．inseparable C．hopeful D．sympathetic 28.A．bookish B．optimistic C．dynamic D．consistent29.A．brothers B．relatives C．friends D．roommates 30.A．history B．track C．singing D．reciting31.A．pulled through B．gave up C．settled down D．teamed up32.A．care about B．think about C．set down D．show off33.A．settled B．transferred C．ended D．progressed 34.A．surprised B．disappointedly C．proudly D．sadly35.A．relaxing B．finishing C．cooperating D．navigating阅读下面短文,在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。
医学院英语试题及答案
医学院英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. Which of the following is NOT a symptom of influenza?A. FeverB. CoughC. FatigueD. Acne2. The primary function of the spleen is to:A. Produce red blood cellsB. Filter bloodC. Store bileD. Produce insulin3. The abbreviation "MRI" stands for:A. Magnetic Resonance ImagingB. Multiple Regression ImagingC. Myocardial Revascularization IndexD. Maximum Respiratory Index4. Which hormone is responsible for the regulation of blood sugar levels?A. InsulinB. Thyroid hormoneC. CortisolD. Adrenaline5. The process of cell division that results in two identicalcells is called:A. MitosisB. MeiosisC. ApoptosisD. Cytokinesis6. In medical terms, "icterus" refers to:A. JaundiceB. AnemiaC. EdemaD. Hemorrhage7. The "ABCs" of first aid are:A. Airway, Breathing, CirculationB. Ambulance, Bandage, CPRC. Alert, Breathe, CompressionD. Assess, Bleed, Clean8. The study of the structure of the body is called:A. PhysiologyB. AnatomyC. PathologyD. Pharmacology9. Which of the following is a type of cancer?A. MelanomaB. DiabetesC. InfluenzaD. Pneumonia10. The standard unit of measurement for blood pressure is:A. mmHgB. cmH2OC. kPaD. mmol/L二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. The largest organ in the human body is the __________.2. The medical term for a broken bone is __________.3. The __________ is the part of the brain responsible for voluntary movement.4. A __________ is a medical professional who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the heart and blood vessels.5. The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment is called __________.6. The __________ is the largest gland in the human body and is responsible for metabolism.7. The __________ is a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the immune response.8. A __________ is a medical condition characterized by a persistently high level of glucose in the blood.9. The __________ is the study of the causes and effects of diseases.10. The __________ is a medical device used to measure blood pressure.三、阅读理解（每题2分，共20分）Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow.The human body is a complex system composed of various organsand systems that work together to maintain life. Thecirculatory system, for example, is responsible for transporting blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout the body. The respiratory system facilitates the exchange of gases,while the digestive system processes food and absorbs nutrients. Each system plays a crucial role in the overall health and well-being of an individual.1. What is the primary function of the circulatory system?2. Which system is responsible for gas exchange?3. What does the digestive system do?4. How many systems are mentioned in the passage?5. What is the importance of these systems to an individual's health?四、翻译题（每题5分，共20分）1. 请将以下句子翻译成英文："糖尿病是一种以高血糖为特征的慢性疾病。
雅思阅读预测真题库3解析
Life-casting, can we call it art? 背景词汇：Devotional 虔诚的Ritualistic 仪式的Robust adj健康的Bits n 二进制数字Back up 支持；援助vCataract n白内障Curator n 屏障Circus n马戏团Precursor n 先驱Sensibility n敏感Squirrel-tail 松鼠尾巴Narrative n叙述Masterpiece n大师之作1-5 段落matching1.D 对应：painters have always used technical back-up------studio assistants to do the boring bits, cameras lucida and obscure.... Boring bits 无聊的二进制back-up=help.2. In the 19th century, life-casting was to sculpture what photography was to painting; and both were viewed as cheating short-cuts by the senior arts.......for many life-casting was an insult to the sculptor’s creative gesture=figure’s mask3.G 对应：Barthes proclaimed the death of the author the liberation of the text from authorial intention, and the consequent empowerment of the readerThe liberation of the text=author matters in art4.H 对应：what counts is the surviving object and our living response to it. The tests are simple: does it interest the eye, excite the brain, move the mind to refection, and involve the heart; is an apparent level of skill involved? 其实就是对art 的评价5.F the initial impact is on the eye, in the contradiction between unexpected size and extreme verisimilitude. The initial impact =depiction of earlier work6-11判断题6.Art changes over time, what is art changes, too.=the definition of art7.Their virtues-of speed and unwavering realism-also implied their limitations; they left little for no room for the imagination.8.NG9.10.while apparently lesser crafts involve great skills, thought, preparation, choice and ----depending how we define it---imagination.=requires lots of skills.11.Each new art movement implies a reassessment of what has gone before; what is done now alters what was done before. In some cases, this is merely self-serving, with the new art using the old to justify itself implies a reassessment=reacquaint12-13选择题12.对应在F段: the initial impact is on the eye, in the contradiction between unexpected size and extreme verisimilitude (逼真的事物)= size and realism13.’’Multitasking Debate背景词汇：Bottleneck n瓶颈；障碍物Devise n 设计Sticking adj 坚持的；有粘性的Dual adj双的Circuit n回路Brainpower n智能Scans n网络系统；自动控制系统14-18(段落信息Matching)14.F段Selecting a response to one of these things will delay by some tenths of ability to respond to the Others. This called the ‘response selection bottleneck’ theory, first proposed in 195215......studies how aging affects our cognitive abilities16.’if you show an image and play a sound at the same time , one task is postponed’Show an image and Play a sound=visual and audio elementsSimultaneously=at the same time17. To demonstrate this, Marois devised an experiment to locate it18. He has written papers with titles like ‘Virtually perfect time-sharing in dual task performance’dual task=multitasking 说其优点=favor19-21（选择题）19.they have to press a key with their index finger different colored circles require presses from different fingers20.21.22-26（TFNG）22.The largest dual-task delays occur when the two tasks are presented simultaneously; progressively shorten as the interval between presenting the tasks lengthens23.Aircraft engines in one picture have disappeared in the other and they will fail to spot the differences24.NG25.NG26.It is not all bad news for over 55s,though. Kramer also found that older people can benefit from practice.Save endangered language拯救濒危语言背景词汇Shudder n发抖Aboriginal n土著人民Portolio 公文包Reinvigorate n复兴Multimedia archive n多媒体档案Recruitment n出现Preschooler n学龄前儿童Multilingualism 多语的adjImmoral act 不道德行为27-32 heading27.A 1990 survey in Australia found that 70 of the 90 surviving aboriginal languages were no longer used regularly by all age groups28.The wider the portfolio of languages you study, the more likely you are t o get the right answer.29.1.teach young relative their native tongue;2 Ford foundation reinvigorate a master-appointment program.3create a multimedia archive(档案)30. Twenty years ago in New Zeal-and, Maori speakers set up language nests,’31.one factor that always seems to occur in the demise of a language is that the speakers begin to have collective doubts about the usefulness of language loyalty 都是一些消极的词汇32.The first step in saving dying languages is to persuade the world’s majorities to allow the minorities among them to speak with their own voices=solution of ....33-38( 人物信息matching)33.对应在D段It’s too early to call this language revitalization. In California the death rate of elderly speakers will always be greater than the recruitment rate of young speakers.现象：年轻speakers出现的速度小于老年speakers死去的速度--------But at least we prolong the survival of the language prolong=extend34.对应在E段A similar approach was tried in Hawaii, with some success -----the number of native speakers has stabilized .....35.对应在A段MK sent a shudder through the discipline of linguistic, with his prediction that half the 6000 or so languages spoken in the world would cease to be uttered within a century cease to ....停止36.对应在A段eight languages on which he had fieldwork had since passed into extinction.37.对应在C段A similar foundation in England......raised just $8,000=funding.38.对应在C段But t here isn’t any such effort organized in the profession. It is only recently that it has become fashionable enough to work on endangered languages39-40(选择)39.The Ford Foundation has also edged into the arena. Its contributions helped to reinvigorate a master apprentice program.....Fluent speakers receive$3,000 to tech a younger relative.....40.The first step in saving dying languages is to persuade the world’s majorities to allow the minorities among them to speak with their own voices.Tolerant to minority language speakers=allow minorities to speak with their......Roller Coaster 过山车背景词汇：Thrill n刺激Engine n 发动机Motor n 发动机Coaster cars n过山车Gear n 变速器Belt n安全带Waxed adj防水的；上过蜡的Steam engine n蒸汽发动机Wheel n轮子Sled n雪橇Layout n布局Evolution n 进化论Gravitation n万有引力Loop n环；圈Detach v分离同义替换：1-4填空1-2 The traditional lifting mechanism is a long length of chain running up the hill under the track. The chain is fastened in a loop.Long line of-_____-=long length of______Be connected firmly to______= be fastened3-4 .....which is wound around a gear at the top of the hill and another on e at the bottom of the hill Is turned by a simple motor.At the bottom of the hill=under the hill turned by a simple motor=powered by ______5-10(summary)5.the direct ancestors of roller coasters were monumental ice slides----long steep wooden slides covered in ice, some as high as 70 feet.Be wrapped up by______=be covered in6.a few entrepreneurial Frenchmen imported the ice slide idea to FranceModified to______=imported _____to France7.The warmer climate of France tended to melt the ice=the temperature8.eventually adding wheels to the sleds = _____was installed9.it was originally used to transport coal from the top of Mount Pisgah to the bottom of Mount Jefferson.Transport=send10.A steam engine would haul passengers to the top of the mountainAllowed riders to slide downward back again11-14(TFNG)11.The most expensive ----------文中只提到了tallest and fastest12.The French continued to expand on this idea, coming up with mor e complex track layouts, with multiple cars and all sorts of twists and turns----------------innovation13. Because of its immediate popularity , it soon became strictly a passenger train ,.14.All over the America 对应在F段：Depression gave a crushing blow to amusement parks all over AmericaMammmoth kill背景词汇Mammoth n 猛犸象Matriarch n女统治者Camel n 骆驼Beaver n 海狸Megafaunal n 巨型动物Menagerie n 兽群；动物园Mammal n 哺乳动物Hyper lethal n 疾病Empirical n经验主义Vulnerable n 易受攻击的Habitat n 栖息地Proponent n 支持者Extinction n 灭绝Vermin n 寄生虫Hitchhiking 搭乘adj同义替换15-16定位1960S emerged in 1960s=began from 1960s17定位Macphee empirical evidence：Macphee does not have empirical evidence for the hyper-disease hypothesis and it won’t be easy to come by.19定位Pleistocene :increasingly homogeneous environment left them with shrinking geographical ranged death sentence for large animals.20定位F段：the final major fluctuation---the so-called Younger Dryas event----pushed them over the edge. Wipe them out= push them over人物信息配对21和23、Alory：对应C段：Alroy determined that.....50 people killed 15 to 20 large mammals a yean humans could have eliminated the animal population within 1,000 years. Large mammals .... Disappear=eliminate22定位在E段第三行：but not directly. Rather he suggests that people may have introduced hyper-lethal disease perhaps though their dogs or hitchhiking vermin, =indirect impact.24、定位在E段（22下面）repeated outbreaks of a hyperdisease could thus quickly drive them to the point of no return=die out of large mammals25、定位在D段：Relevant archaeological record=several fossil recordspecific criticism e=doubt raised26、定位在F段：climate change ----young Dyras event -------Grham由于本篇文章提到了关于对于猛犸象之死的三个假说，三个名字分别对应一种观点，所以在选择时注意分类人物信息配对把握：Alory------关于打猎over-hunting的假说Macgee----主要支持Illness的假说Graham---------关于Climate变化的假说The Fruit Book 背景词汇：Log 伐木Logger 伐木工CaboelosUxiPiquia trees Copaiba27-32(段落信息matching)27.28.preface 前言--------The second edition was produced at the request of politicians in western Amazonian.29. The rural worker’s Union wanted to know whether harvesting wild fruits would make economic sense in the Rio Capim30. Shanley’s work on the book began a decade ago, with a plea for help from the Rural Workers’Union of Pragominas,......31.After three logging sales and a major fire in 1997, the researchers were also able to study the ecosystem’s reaction to logging and disturbance32. The first print ran to only 3,000 copies,but the fruit book has been remarkably influential.33-4033.34.E段forest fruit had.....;fiber use also.....35.F段：under uxi，four species weighing 38 kg36.G段：Fruiting patterns of trees such as uxi were unpredictable,37.This showed that piguia trees to loggers for a few dollars made little sense.38.Sth that is often ignored in much of the current research on NTFPs, which tends to focus on their commercial potential39. This is not to say that wild fruit trees were unimportant. On the contrary,....They are critical for subsistenceThe history of Automobile背景词汇：Automobile n机动车Internal adj内部的Combustion n 燃料；氧化Transportation n交通运输Manufacture v制造Production-line生产线Interchangeable adj.可交换的；可互换的Social Status n社会地位Energy crisis n 能源危机Consolidation n巩固；合并Suspension 悬浮；暂停；停职Prototype 原型；标准Sedan n轿车Conquer v征服；克服Fuel n 燃料Emission n 尾气Hydrogen n氢Muscle cars n肌肉车同义替换14-18 人物信息matching14、对应在H段：the biggest developments in Post-war era.....the hottest technologies of the 1960s were NSU’s Wankel engine...15、对应在D段第2行：this was facilitated by Henry Ford 1914 who did two important things. First he priced his car to be as affordable as possible and second16、对应在F段中间：BMC’s revolutionary space-saving Mini,....17、对应在B段第4行:Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885 in Mannheim.18、对应在G段第五行：full-size sedans staged a major comeback in the years between the energy crisis, with makes such as Cadillac and Lincoln19-25问答题19、对应在A段：the first cars powered by an internal combustion engine running on fuel gas appeared.....20、对应在C段第五行：the cars were soon to become each individual’s status.21、对应在D段：括号信息中（requiring 12.5 man-hours before, i hour 33 minutes after）22、对应在H段：Mazda had much success with its ‘Rotary’ engine which, however, acquired a reputation as a polluting gas-guzzler.Oil crisis=negative term23、对应在H段（23题下面）put their designs in to production after the 1973 oil crisis24、对应在I段第二行：Once the automobile emissions concerns of the 1970s were conquered with computerized engine management system=application of engine management system25、对应在J段第二行：both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming=is responsible to the pollution and global warmingRefrigerator背景词汇：Inverse effect adj反作用Radiator n 散热器；暖气片；辐射体Microprocess n微观过程Phonon 声子同义替换：信息matching27-3127、对应在C段：Someone who is looking at this inverse effect is Alex Mischenko, of Cambridge University. Using commercially available paraelectric film.28、对应在D段最后一句：Inter, in 1993, ran at 60m cycles a second. The pentium 4---the last ingle-core desktop processor-------locked up 3.2 billion cycles a second29、对应在G段：Rama Venkatasuramanian, of Nextreme .....claims to have made thermoelectric refrigerators taht can sit on the back of computer chips and cool hot-spots.30、对应在G段：Ali Shakouri, of the University of California, Sanl Cruz, says his are even smaller----so small that they can go inside the chip31、对应在H段：IBM’s research laboratory in Zurich is experimenting with tiny jets that stir the liquid up and thus make sure all of it eventually touches the outside of the channel判断：32-3532、对应在B段最后一句：Apply an appropraie current to a paraelectric material and it will cool down.33、对应在C段：Dr. Mischenko is still a little hazy. He has, nevertheless, set up a company to pursue them. He foresees putting his discovery to use in more efficient domestic fridge and air conditioners..the real money , though , may be in cooling computers.34、对应在D段：logical operation is performed inside a microprocessor, so the faster the processor is, the more heat generates.35、NG37-40 summary38、对应在C段第三行：he and his colleagues have generated temperature drops five times bigger than any previously recorded39、对应在F段第一句：one way out this may be a second curious physical phenomenon the thermoelectric effect.37、40、对应在H段第一句：The last word computer cooling though may go to a system even less technology than a heat pump------a miniature version of a car radiatorChildren’ s Literature背景词汇：Pincushion n 针垫Condemn v谴责；惩罚Instructive and uplifting adj令人开心的Tribute n礼物Empathize v移情Maturity n成熟Sternest moralist 道德学家Folklore n民俗学Pirated v翻印表格填空：1-51、对应在B段：Its contents ---------rhymes, stories, children’ s games plus a free gift3、对应在D段：early 19th century interest in folklore. Both nursery rhymes selected by James Orchard Halliwell for a folklore society in 18424、对应在D段：and collection of fairy-stories by the scholarly Grimm brother.5、对应在F段：the final apotheosis of literary childhood as something to be protected came with the arrival in the late 1930s ...... Described children who were always free to have the most unlikely adventures6-8人物信息matching6、对应在B段：In Britain, a London merchant named Thomas Boreham produced Cajanus, the Swedish Giant, in 17427、对应在C段：Mrs. Sarah Trimmer, whose magazines The Guardian of Education carried the first regular reviews of children ’s books. It was she who condemned fairy-tales for their violence and general absurdity8、对应在D段：.......soon rocket to popularity with the young, quickly leading to new editions,, each one more child-centered than the last9-13 判断题9、10、对应在C段：Sarah Trimmer whose magazine .....carried the first regular reviews of children’s books. It was she who condemned fairy-tales for their violence and general absurdity.11、NG12、对应在G段：but it was so popular among childdren and adults ////13、对应在G段：often no consensus is reached whether a given work is best categorized a s adult or children ‘s literature and many books are marketed for both adults and childrenOrigin of Species and continent formation背景词汇：Terrain n 地形Ingenious theory n有独创性的理论Super-continentMulticellular lifeDistinguished adj. 著名的Evolutionary n进化Topographical 地质的Radiation n辐射；发光Landmass 大陆Withering skin 干枯的皮肤；畏缩的皮肤Wrinkles n皱纹Upper crust 上面的外壳同义替换：人物信息matching 14-1814、对应在C段：Lyell and Hooker explained to the distinguished members how these two gentlemen (who were absent: Wallace was abroad and Darwin chose not to attend), had “independently and unknown to one another, conceived the same very ingenious theory”15、对应在G段：Eduard Suess, theorized that as the rigid Earth cools, its upper crust shrinks and wrinkles like the withering skin of an aging apple.=physical feature of Earth’ crust16、对应在F段：Wegener concluded that the then broadly accepted “land bridge”theory could not account for this distribution of animals and that only his theory of continental drift could explain17、对应在F段：Wallace also showed that Australian marsupials and monotremes are clearly related to those in South America, the Moluccas, and monotremes are clearly related to those in South America, the Moluccas , and various Pacific islands, and that none are found in neighboring Indonesia.18、对应在C段：Darwin had been documenting his ideas on natural selection for many years when he received a paper19-21 段落信息matching19、对应在B段：why do some species die and some live? The answer is clearly that on the whole the best fitted lived.20、对应在E段：Initially he assigned its flora-fauna to the Australian side of the line, but later he transferred it to the Asian side.21、对应在F段：Wallace had shown that animals long established in southwestern Australia had an affinity with those in Asia22-26Summary22-2622、对应在G段：the theory that Wegener dismissed in preference to his own proposed that plants and animals had once migrated across now submerged.23、对应在G段：its upper crust shrinks and wrinkles like the withering skin of an aging apple. He suggested that the planet’s seas and oceans now fill the wrinkles between once-contiguous plateaus24、对应在H段：we know that we live on a dynamic Earth with shifting colliding and separating tectonic plates, not a withering skin25、26、对应在H段：dispersalism versus vicarianismMemory and Age 背景词汇人物信息matching+summary+选择27-3027、对应在B段：Neural networks=blood circulation of brain28、对应在A段：continuous interaction between level of body and mental activity=link between physical and mental activity29、对应F段：Every memory begins as an event, says Bahrick Through repetition, certain events leave behind a residue of knowledge.30、对应在D段：Significant differences it brains.In the enriched environment=diverse environment31-36 填空summary31、对应在E段：one of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory-notorious flor its failure with age.32、由Bararick定位到E段：cognitive and psychological test33、对位在E段：calls semantic memory. Events conversations, and occurrences in times and space, on the other hand,34、对应在F段：our language knowledge, our knowledge of the world and of people, is largely that permanent or semipermanent residue.35、对应在F段：surprisingly, a person’s grasp of algebra at the time of testing did .....36、对应在G段：more than half=60% vocabulary(he learned)选择：37、对应在C段：strategy =tactic 策略more efficient than younger counterparts38、对应在D段39、对应在H段：the organization of chess knowledge is better organised than that of the adults40、对应在H段：Crystallized intelligence about one’s occupation apparently does not decline at all until at least age 75Going bananas 背景词汇：填空+人物信息matching +判断14-16填空14、对应在A段：the first edible banana was discovered around ten thousand years ago.15、对应在A段：it was first propagated in the jungles of south east Asia at the end of the last ice age.16、对应在A段最后一句：it lacks the genetic diversity of fight off pests and diseases.17=23 人物信息matching17、对应在C段：when some pest or disease comes along, severe epidemics can occur.Some pests or disease=severe epidemics18、对应在Ｆ段：we supported a breeding programme for 40 years, but it wasn’t able to develop an alternative to Cavendish. It was very expensive and we got nothing back.19、对应在D段：once the fungus gets into the soil it remains there for many years. There is nothing can do even chemical spraying won’t get rid of it.20、对应在E段：as soon as you bring in a new fungicide, they develop resistance, says Prison,”one thing we can be sure of is that the Sigatoka won’t lose in this battle ”Generate resistance to chemical sprays=develop resistance as soon as...21、对应在E段：Most of the banana fields in Arnazonia have already been destroyed by the disease. A vast number of banana plantations=most of the banana fields.22、对应在H段：Biotechnology is extremely and serous questions about consumer acceptance.23、对应有B段：it holds a lesson for other crops, too.24-26 判断题24、NG25、对应在D段：dominated the world’s commercial banana business.26、对应在E段：Half a billion people in Asia and Africa depend on bananas. Bananas provide the largest source of calories and are eaten daily.Tulip bubble hurts in Holland段落信息matching + TFNG+ summary27-31 matching2728、对应在D段：in 1559----the flower had enchanted the Persians and bewitched the rulers of the ottoman Empire对应在E段：Holland in the early 17th century was embarking on its Golden Age.29、对应在B段：offered 3000 guilders for one bulb30、对应在G段：tulp 可以被sold off---------31、对应在F段：how different tulips were from every other flowers32-36判断32、对应在B段：the Amsterdam man who owned the only dozen specimes was offered 3,000guilders for on bulb. the only dozen 和all the Tulips不相符33、对应在D段：the Dutch were not the first to go gaga over the tulip. Long before the first tulip bloomed in Europe--------in Bavaria.34、对应在D段：it was Holland, however, that the passion for tulips found its most fertile ground, for reasons that had little to do with horticulture.35、NG36、对应在I段：Even at its height , the Amsterdam Stock exchange, well-established in 1630, wouldn’t touch tulips.37、Summary in the early 17th century was embarking on its golden Age. Resources that had just a few years earlier gone toward fighting for independence from Spain now flowed into.38 Amsterdam merchants were at the center of the lucrative east indies trade...39、they displayed their success by erecting grand estates surrounded by flower gardens.40、Around 1630, however, a new type of tulip fancier appeared, lured by tales of fat profitsBright children背景词汇：Outfit n机构Nominate 推荐v Prodigy 奇迹n Eschew v避开Ditch v丢弃Egalitarian adj.平等主义同义替换：1-5判断题1、对应在B段第一句：America has long held”talent searches”, using test results and teacher recommendations to select children for advanced school courses,summer schools and other extra tuitions2、对应在D段第一句：in Britain, there is a broadly similar belief in the existence of innate talent, but also an egalitarian sentiment which makes people queasy about the idea of investing resources in grooming intelligence.3、对应在G段：Most state education in Britain is normally non-selective, but middle-class parents try to live near the best schools. Ambitious Japanese parents have made private, out of school tuition a thriving business.4、NG5、对应在G段：like Japan and Finland----can eschew selection and still thrive. But that does not mean that any country can ditch selection and do as well.6、对应在H段：but she was the only one who did not7-8选择题7、对应在A段：Geniuses are made, not born.=geniuses can b e educated later on8、根据文章中心：practice makes genius.=Geniuses are made, not born9-13 matching9、对应在F段：And in Japan there is a widespread belief that all children are born with the same innate abilities----and should therefore be treated alike.10、对应在F段：In China, extra teaching is provided, but to a self-selected bunch children’s palaces in big cities offer a huge range of after-school classes.11、对应在E段：In Scandinavia, a belief in virtues like modesty and social solidarity makes people flinch from the idea of treating brainy children differently.12、对应在D段：there is a broadly similar belief in the existence of innate talent, but also an egalitarian sentiment which makes people queasy about the idea of investing resources in grooming intelligence.13、Longaeva: Ancient Bristlecone Pine 背景词汇：同义替换：段落信息matching1-4：1、H段：Historically the bristlecone’s remote location and gnarled wood have deterred commercial extraction.2、B段：perhaps most interested in the bristlecone pine are dendochronologists or tree-ring daters. 后面就又紧接着写each bristlecone grows and forms.....; growing seasons may expand or shrink,the trees carry on .....3、C段：Now more than ever the importance of monitoring the brislecone is being realized........they have left us natural recordings of the past, markers of the present, and clues to the future.4、A段：conditions here are brutal:scant precipitation and low average temperatures mean a short growing season, only intensified by ferocious wind and mal nutritious rocky soil=survived in cruel environment5-7选择题：5、对应在A段：but exactly how old is it ? Sprouted before the invention of Egyptian hieroglyphs and long before the teachings of jesus of Nazareth Dethuselah is the oldest-alive at roughly 4,700 years6、对应在A段：Evolving here in this harsh environment, super -adapted and without much competition, brislecones have earned their seat on the longevity throne by becoming the oldest living trees on the planet.对应在C段：since the rings of wood formed each year reveal the trees’ response to climatic conditions during a particular growing seasons in their persistence,/as our global climate continues to undergo its most recent and abrupt atmospheric change.Summary8-138、对应在D段：this adaptation helps the bristleecone photosynthesize during particularly brutal months, saving the energy of constant needle replacement and providing a stable supply of chlorophyll9、对应在D段：they are first reproduced when trees reach ages between thirty and seventy-five years old.Germination rates are generally high, in par because seeds require little to no initial stratification.10、对应在D段：this condition occurs as a result of cambium die-back.....leaving only narrow bands of bark intact11、对应在E段：combined with the dry, windy and often freezing mountain air....12、对应在E段：the absence of natural disaster has also safeguarded the brislecone’s lengthy life span.due to a lack of ground cover vegetation and an evenly spaced layout.13、对应在F段：the peaks south of the Owens valley, are higher up than they might appear from a distanceBiology of bitterness27-34段落信息matching27、B段：It is possible, however, to get the goodness of grapefruit juice without the bitter taste.I found that out by paricipating in a test conducted at the liguagen corporation.....28、H段：a number of food-makers have already begun to experiment with AMP in their products, and other bitter blockers are being developed by rival firms such as Senomyx in La Jolla29、C段：they defend plants by warning animals away and protect animals by l etting them know when a plant may be poisonous.30、E段：31、F段：They tried AMP, an organic compound found in breast milk and other substances, which is created as cells break down food.AHP has no bitterness of its own but when put in foods.32、G段：In time, some taste researcher believe, compounds like AMP will help make processed foods less unhealthy.33、A段：Naringi, a natural chemical compound found in grapefruit, tastes bitter.=bitterness introduced from a fruit.34、D段：people have varying capacities for tasting bitterness, and the differences appear to be genetic.35-38 summary35、对应在A段：Naringi, a natural chemical compound found in grapefruit, tastes bitter.=bitterness introduced from a fruit.36、对应在C段：they defend plants by warning animals away and protect animals by letting them know when a plant may be poisonous.37、38、对应在D段：Those who are sensitive to Phenylthiocarbamide seem to be less likely than others to eat cruciferous vegetables, according to Stephen Wooding, a geneticaist at the University39-40选择题39、对应在F段：AHP has no bitterness of its own but when put in foods.=offsets bitter flavor in food.40、对应在E段：The G protein involved in the perception of bitterness, sweetness and umami was identified in the early 1990s by linguagen’s founder。
谁是你的指南针作文
谁是你的指南针作文英文回答：In the vast expanse of life, enveloped by an infinite sea of choices, we often find ourselves adrift, yearningfor a beacon to guide us through the turbulent waters. Itis in these moments of uncertainty that we seek a compass, a guiding force that will illuminate our path and lead us towards our desired destination.Throughout history, numerous figures have emerged as compasses, their wisdom, principles, and actions serving as guiding stars for generations. Philosophers, scientists, artists, and leaders have all left an indelible mark on the human experience, their thoughts and deeds influencing countless lives.Socrates, the enigmatic Athenian philosopher, believed that knowledge was the key to a virtuous life. Through his method of questioning and critical inquiry, he sought toexpose ignorance and promote intellectual honesty. His teachings have profoundly shaped Western philosophy, emphasizing the importance of self-examination, logical reasoning, and ethical conduct.Albert Einstein, the brilliant physicist,revolutionized our understanding of the universe. His theories of relativity challenged long-held beliefs and opened up new frontiers in scientific exploration. Beyond his scientific contributions, Einstein was also a passionate advocate for peace and social justice, demonstrating that intellect can be harnessed for the greater good.Leonardo da Vinci, the Renaissance polymath, epitomized the spirit of curiosity and innovation. His insatiable thirst for knowledge led him to excel in diverse fields, including art, science, engineering, and anatomy.Leonardo's notebooks, filled with sketches, diagrams, and observations, offer a glimpse into the mind of a true genius, inspiring generations of artists, scientists, and thinkers.Nelson Mandela, the anti-apartheid revolutionary and former president of South Africa, dedicated his life to fighting for equality and justice. Imprisoned for 27 years for his opposition to the oppressive apartheid regime, he emerged from prison with an unwavering commitment to forgiveness and reconciliation. Mandela's leadership and moral compass have left an enduring legacy, reminding us of the transformative power of compassion and the importance of standing up for what is right.These are but a few examples of the countless compasses that have illuminated our path throughout history. Their words, actions, and principles have shaped our values, expanded our knowledge, and inspired us to strive for a better world.In our own lives, we all have the potential to be compasses for others. By living with integrity, kindness, and compassion, we can create a ripple effect that will positively impact those around us. We can offer guidance, support, and inspiration to our families, friends,colleagues, and communities.Finding our own compass is a lifelong journey. It requires introspection, self-discovery, and a willingnessto embrace change and growth. By reflecting on our values, experiences, and aspirations, we can identify theprinciples that will guide us through life's challenges and opportunities.Whether we are seeking wisdom from the great thinkersof the past or drawing inspiration from the people weadmire in the present, having a compass is essential for navigating the complexities of life. By embracing the guiding principles that resonate with us, we can stay trueto ourselves, make choices that align with our values, and live a life of purpose and fulfillment.中文回答：指南针是引领我们前进的方向标，它可以是个人、思想或原则，指引我们人生的方向。
多角度思维看问题英文作文
多角度思维看问题英文作文Title: Embracing Multidimensional Thinking: A Key to Problem Solving。
In the realm of critical thinking and problem-solving, the ability to approach issues from multiple angles is often heralded as a valuable skill. Multidimensional thinking, or the capacity to consider various perspectives, factors, and implications surrounding a problem, is instrumental in generating comprehensive solutions and fostering innovation. This essay explores the significance of multidimensional thinking and its practical applications in addressing complex issues.Firstly, multidimensional thinking enables individuals to transcend narrow viewpoints and recognize the interconnectedness of diverse elements within a problem. Rather than adhering rigidly to a single perspective, individuals adept in multidimensional thinking embrace the complexity of real-world challenges. For instance, in thecontext of environmental sustainability, a multidimensional thinker would not only consider the ecological impacts of a proposed solution but also assess its social, economic, and political ramifications. By adopting a holistic approach, multidimensional thinkers are better equipped to devise sustainable strategies that balance various interests and stakeholders' needs.Moreover, multidimensional thinking cultivatescreativity and fosters innovation by encouraging unconventional insights and novel connections. When confronted with a problem, multidimensional thinkersexplore alternative interpretations and draw parallels from unrelated domains, thereby uncovering innovative solutions. Take, for instance, the field of product design. A multidimensional thinker might draw inspiration from nature, psychology, or cultural trends to devise groundbreaking designs that resonate with consumers on multiple levels. By integrating diverse perspectives, multidimensional thinkers push the boundaries of conventional problem-solving anddrive progress across various domains.Furthermore, multidimensional thinking promotes empathy and fosters effective communication and collaboration. By empathizing with different stakeholders and understanding their perspectives, individuals can bridge divides and foster consensus in problem-solving endeavors. In a multicultural workplace, for example, multidimensional thinkers leverage their cultural competence to navigate cultural nuances and forge productive collaborations across diverse teams. By fostering mutual understanding and respect, multidimensional thinking cultivates inclusive environments where diverse voices are heard and valued, ultimately leading to more robust and equitable solutions.Additionally, multidimensional thinking enhances decision-making by mitigating cognitive biases and promoting informed judgments. By considering multiple viewpoints and weighing various factors, individuals can counteract the influence of cognitive biases such as confirmation bias or anchoring effect. In strategic planning, for instance, multidimensional thinkers conduct thorough analyses of market trends, competitive landscapes, and internal capabilities to formulate well-informeddecisions that align with long-term objectives. By embracing complexity and uncertainty, multidimensional thinking equips individuals with the resilience and adaptability to navigate dynamic environments and seize emerging opportunities.In conclusion, multidimensional thinking is indispensable in navigating the complexities of the modern world. By embracing diverse perspectives, fostering creativity, promoting empathy, and enhancing decision-making, multidimensional thinking empowers individuals to tackle complex problems effectively. As we confront unprecedented challenges in the twenty-first century, cultivating multidimensional thinking skills is essential for fostering innovation, driving progress, and building a more resilient and inclusive society.。
读三体有感1000字
读三体有感1000字英文回答：The Three-Body Problem, a science fiction novel by Chinese author Cixin Liu, has captivated the minds of countless readers worldwide. Its groundbreaking concepts, thought-provoking themes, and intricate storytelling have left a lasting impact on the science fiction genre.One of the most striking aspects of the novel is its scientific exploration of the Fermi paradox. The paradox asks why, given the vastness of the universe and the high probability of extraterrestrial life, we have not yet encountered any intelligent civilizations. The Three-Body Problem proposes a chilling answer: the Dark Forest theory. This theory posits that any advanced civilization that reveals its existence to others will attract the attention of hostile extraterrestrials, who will view it as a threat and annihilate it.The Dark Forest theory has profound implications for human civilization. It suggests that our current pursuit of scientific and technological progress may be a double-edged sword. While it has brought us advancements and conveniences, it may also be attracting the attention of potential enemies. The novel forces us to question the wisdom of our search for knowledge and the consequences of our actions on a cosmic scale.Beyond its scientific concepts, The Three-Body Problem also explores philosophical and sociological themes. It delves into the nature of human nature, the limits of technology, and the power of collective action. The novel raises questions about the morality of scientific exploration, the responsibility of scientists, and the role of government in controlling knowledge.Liu's writing is characterized by its vivid imagery, thought-provoking ideas, and complex characters. Thenovel's protagonist, Ye Wenjie, is a brilliant scientist who grapples with personal tragedy and the moral implications of her actions. Other characters, such as WangMiao, Luo Ji, and Cheng Xin, represent different perspectives on the human condition and the choices that face humanity.The Three-Body Problem is a masterpiece of science fiction that transcends its genre. Its blend of scientific exploration, philosophical inquiry, and vivid storytelling has created a compelling and unforgettable experience for readers. It is a novel that challenges our assumptions, expands our understanding of the universe, and forces us to confront the potential consequences of our actions on a cosmic scale.中文回答：三体，刘慈欣创作的科幻小说，令无数读者为之着迷。
三体英文赏析段落
三体英文赏析段落The Three-Body Problem is a science fiction novel written by the renowned Chinese author Liu Cixin. This groundbreaking work has captivated readers worldwide with its intricate plot, thought-provoking themes, and stunning scientific concepts. In this essay, we will delve into the literary and thematic merits of this captivating novel, exploring the passages that have left a lasting impression on readers.One of the most striking aspects of The Three-Body Problem is its ability to seamlessly blend science and philosophy. The novel's exploration of the Three-Body problem, a complex scientific concept from the field of celestial mechanics, serves as the foundation for a captivating narrative that delves into the nature of reality, the limits of human knowledge, and the implications of encountering an advanced alien civilization. The author's meticulous attention to scientific detail and his ability to translate complex ideas into accessible and engaging prose are truly remarkable.A particularly powerful passage in the novel occurs when the protagonist, Ye Wenjie, is introduced to the Trisolaran civilization. The author's vivid description of the Trisolarans' world, with itsconstantly shifting and unstable environment, serves as a powerful metaphor for the unpredictability and chaos that characterize the human condition. The passage reads, "The sky was a violent, churning sea of light and shadow, with three suns that rose and set in a chaotic, unpredictable fashion. The ground was a restless, undulating plain, as if the earth itself were a living, breathing creature." This evocative imagery not only sets the stage for the Trisolarans' unique perspective on the universe but also invites the reader to consider the fragility and vulnerability of human existence in the face of such a formidable and alien force.Another standout passage in the novel is the description of the Trisolarans' unique perception of time. The author's exploration of the concept of "chaotic time," where the past, present, and future are intertwined and indistinguishable, is both intellectually stimulating and emotionally resonant. The passage reads, "Time for the Trisolarans was not a linear progression but a tangled web of possibilities, where the past, present, and future coexisted in a state of constant flux. The very notion of causality, so fundamental to human understanding, was turned on its head." This passage not only challenges the reader's preconceptions about the nature of time but also serves as a powerful metaphor for the limitations of human cognition and the need to expand our perspectives.The novel's exploration of the nature of intelligence andconsciousness is another aspect that deserves close attention. In one particularly thought-provoking passage, the author delves into the concept of "sophons," microscopic particles that serve as the Trisolarans' primary means of communication and information gathering. The passage reads, "The sophons were not merely passive observers but active participants in the Trisolaran civilization, their very existence a testament to the extraordinary intelligence and technological prowess of their creators." This passage not only highlights the Trisolarans' advanced capabilities but also invites the reader to consider the nature of intelligence and the potential for non-biological forms of cognition.Throughout the novel, Liu Cixin's masterful use of language and his ability to craft compelling and thought-provoking passages are on full display. The author's prose is both elegant and accessible, seamlessly blending scientific concepts with rich emotional and philosophical themes. The Three-Body Problem is a testament to the power of science fiction to challenge our assumptions, expand our horizons, and ultimately, to reveal the profound complexities of the human experience.。
An Update on the Anatomy of the Forehead Compartments1
864e Facial aging is a dynamic process involving all tissue layers of the face, including facial fat, facial bones, retaining ligaments of the face, muscles of facial expression, and the skin. The onset and progression of this process varies between individuals and within each individual, with each of the involved structures changing at a different pace and severity.The forehead is one of the most frequent locations for neuromodulator and soft-tissue filler applications and is of great aesthetic interest, as itis easily visible, located adjacent to the eyes, and often shows early signs of aging.1 Soft-tissue fillers have been used to restore the frontal volume by injection of volumizing material into superficial and supraperiosteal locations. As every procedure should aim for the patient’s safety first and natural and long-lasting results second, the understand-ing of the underlying anatomy is crucial for safe and effective applications on the forehead.In 2007, Rohrich and Pessa described the pres-ence of three distinct superficial frontal fat compart-ments by injecting dye into 15 fresh frozen cephalic specimen.2 The authors concluded that the subcu-taneous fat of the forehead is compartmentalized and that boundaries between these compartments were formed by fibrous septa, which limited the ability of the dye to migrate into other regions.Disclosure: The authors have no commercial asso-ciations or financial disclosures that might pose or create a conflict of interest with the results presented or methods applied in this study.Copyright © 2017 by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons DOI: 10.1097/PRS.0000000000003174Sebastian Cotofana, M.D.,Ph.D. Asima MianJonathan M. Sykes, M.D.Wolfgang Redka-Swoboda,M.D.Andrea Ladinger Tatjana Pavicic, M.D.Thilo L. Schenck, M.D.,Ph.D.Fahd Benslimane, M.D.Fabio Ingallina, M.D. Alexander Schlattau, M.D.Roseau, Commonwealth of Dominica,West Indies; Salzburg, Austria;Sacramento, Calif.; Munich, Germany; Casablanca, Morocco; and Catania,ItalyFrom the Department of Anatomy, Ross University S chool of Medicine; the Institute of Anatomy and the Department of Radiology, Paracelsus Medical University S alzburg & Nuremberg; Facial Plastic and Reconstructive S urgery, University of California Davis Medical Center; FaceS thet-ics, private practice, and the Department of Hand, Plastic, and Aesthetic S urgery, Ludwig-Maximilians University; Clinique Benslimane; and Clinica Di Stefano Velona.Received for publication August 10, 2016; accepted October 18, 2016.An Update on the Anatomy of the Forehead CompartmentsCOSMETICVolume 139, Number 4 • Anatomy of Compartments of the Forehead865eIn 2012, Gierloff and colleagues confirmed the presence of the central superficial frontal compart-ment (but not the two lateral superficial forehead compartments) by using computed tomographic scans and three-dimensional reconstruction when investigating nine fresh frozen cephalic speci-mens.3,4 Using this elegant technique, the authors were able to confirm the findings by Rohrich and Pessa on the forehead, but without using anatomi-cal dissections and by thus not disrupting the deli-cate bounding septae. However, Gierloff et al.3,4 did not confirm their findings with dissections. Simi-larly, Rohrich and Pessa 2 did not correlate their findings using noninvasive procedures such as con-trast-enhanced computed tomographic scanning. We therefore specifically enrolled this study using both contrast-enhanced computed tomographic scans and anatomical dissections to investigate the compartments of the forehead and to provide an update on the anatomy of this region, as current descriptions do not comprehensively explain the clinical appearance of the aging forehead.MATERIALS AND METHODSStudy SampleWe included a total of 20 human cadaveric cephalic specimens in this study. Among those were 15 fresh frozen and five formalin-phenol embalmed specimens. While alive, all body donors gave informed consent for their bodies to be used in medical education and scientific research with medical background. All of the included body donors were of Caucasian race without any previ-ous surgical interventions or diseases affecting the anatomical integrity of the forehead puted Tomographic ImagingTen cephalic specimens were included in the computed tomographic imaging part of this inves-tigation and originated from six female and four male cadavers, with a mean age of 72.6 ± 8.2 years. Bilateral access to the facial vein and facial artery were made to introduce an intravenous port, which was tightly secured, preventing removal. For imag-ing purposes, the cephalic specimens were trans-ferred to the Department of Radiology, Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg & Nuremberg, Salz-burg, Austria. Each head was placed supine and secured tightly to a head rest to maintain its posi-tion during the multiple scanning procedures. Arterial and venous contrasting was performed by injecting radiopaque dye (Iohexol Omnipaque 300, Amersham Health, Princeton, N.J.) until completearterial and/or venous contrasting was achieved and controlled in subsequent computed tomo-graphic scans. Visualization of the superficial and deep compartments was accomplished by injecting Visipaque 320 mg/ml (Iodixanol; GE Healthcare, Little Chalfont, United Kingdom) in combination with Resource ThickenUp Clear (Nestle Health-Care Nutrition GmbH, Vienna, Austria). For injec-tions into the respective forehead compartments, a 20-gauge, 70-mm sharp needle was used, with appli-cation of the material through only a single injec-tion site. After injection of contrast agent into the respective compartments, we allowed the contrast dye to perfuse the respective compartments for a minimum of 1 hour. Multiple computed tomo-graphic scans were obtained to ensure maximum achievable filling of the superficial and deep com-partments. The following parameters were applied to each of the obtained computed tomographic scans: field of view, 200 mm; slice thickness, 0.6 mm; increment, 0.4 mm; voltage, 120 kV; and current, 400 mA/second.Anatomical DissectionAnatomical dissection was performed objec-tively on an additional five fresh frozen (all males cadavers; mean age, 71 ± 10.1 years) and five for-malin-phenol embalmed (three females and two male cadavers; mean age, 77.8 ± 8.9 years) speci-mens at the Institute of Anatomy, Paracelsus Med-ical University Salzburg & Nuremberg, Salzburg, Austria; and at the Department of Anatomy, Ross University School of Medicine, Dominica, West Indies. Dissection procedures were based on a layer-by-layer identification of the forehead struc-tures. In addition, colored dye was injected into the respective compartments to show the extent of the compartments and its bounding structures.Data Analysis StrategyComputed tomographic images were trans-ferred for multiplanar image reconstruction to Philips IntelliSpace Portal (Amsterdam, The Netherlands). Three-dimensional reconstructions of the images were interpreted by the first (S.C.) and last (A.S.) authors of this study and correlated to the anatomical dissections performed by the first author (S.C.).RESULTSSuperficial Lateral Forehead CompartmentsTwo superficial lateral compartments of the forehead were identified, both by computedPlastic and Reconstructive Surgery • April 2017tomographic imaging and by dissections. A ccording to their locations, located lateral to the superficial central forehead compartment, these compart-ments are termed the right and left superficial lat-eral frontal compartments. These compartments were identified in layer 2 (i.e., in the subcutaneous fat layer). The mean extent of the right superficial lateral frontal compartment was 2.6 × 3.2 cm and the mean extent of the left superficial lateral fron-tal compartment was 2.1 × 4.6 cm. The mean mea-sured volume was 3.1 cc for the right and 3.4 cc for the left (Table 1 and Fig. 1).The superficial boundary of the superficial lateral frontal compartment is formed by the skin (layer 1), whereas the deep boundary is formed by the frontalis muscle and its superficial fibrous fascia (layer 3). The lateral boundary is formed by the temporal ligamentous adhesions (merg-ing point of the superior and inferior temporal septum). The inferior boundary of the superfi-cial lateral frontal compartments is formed by the cutaneous insertion of the orbicularis oculi mus-cle complex (orbicularis oculi, depressor superci-lii, and corrugator supercilii muscle) at the level of the eyebrow. Superiorly, the superficial lat-eral frontal compartments were bound by a thin fibrous septum that spanned all five layers and was identified at a mean distance of 8.8 cm laterally and 7.4 cm in the midline when measured from the superior orbital rim. We propose to term this the superior frontal septum, as it is located in prox-imity to the hairline and the coronal suture. The medial boundary of the superficial lateral frontal compartments is formed by the fibrous sheltering sheath of the supraorbital neurovascular struc-tures that emerged at the supraorbital foramen. The supraorbital neurovascular structures three-dimensionally fan out after emerging from the supraorbital foramen and were identified primar-ily in the subcutaneous plane (layer 2) (Figs. 1 and 2). Within the compartment, small lateral frontal veins and arteries were identified that coursed primarily in a longitudinal orientation but also to a smaller portion in transverse orientation (i.e., in parallel to the eyebrow). The supraorbital vein connected with the medial zygomaticotempo-ral and the superficial temporal veins within this compartment (Fig. 2).Superficial Central Forehead Compartment The superficial central forehead compartment was identified both by computed tomographic imaging and by dissections. It was located in the subcutaneous fat and extended from the upper hairline to the root of the nose. On computed tomographic imaging, the superficial central fore-head compartment was continuous with the gla-bella. On cadaveric dissections, however, muscle fibers of the procerus muscle inserted into the glabellar skin, and no accurate plane was identifi-able during dissection of this region. Dimensions of the superficial central forehead compartment were 2.1 × 4.6 cm, with a mean volume of 2.51 cc (Table 1 and Fig. 1).The superficial and deep boundaries of the superficial central forehead compartment were formed by the skin (layer 1) and the superficial fascia of the frontalis muscle (layer 3), respec-tively. The lateral boundaries were formed by the fibrous sheltering sheaths of the supraorbital neu-rovascular structures. The superior boundary was formed by the superior frontal septum, similar to that identified in the superficial lateral forehead compartment. The inferior boundary was formed by the dermal insertion of the procerus muscle emerging from the bone and inserting into the skin. Within the compartment, the constant cen-tral frontal vein and nervous branches emerging from the supratrochlear foramen were identified (Fig. 2).Deep Lateral Forehead CompartmentsThe deep lateral forehead compartments were identified by both computed tomographic imaging and cadaveric dissections. The mean sizes were 2.6 × 5.8 cm and 2.7 × 5.8 cm for the right and left, respectively. The mean volumes were 1.6 cc for the right and 1.4 cc for the left deep lateral forehead compartment (Table 2 and Fig. 3). The superficial boundary of both compart-ments was formed by the fibrous sheet coveringTable 1. Values of the Superficial Central Forehead Compartment and the Right and Left Superficial Lateral Forehead Compartments Based on Computed Tomographic Parameters and Cadaveric DissectionsCompartment Width(cm)Length(cm)Volume(cc)SCFCM ean 2.1 4.6 2.5S D0.550.790.26 R ange 1.7–2.5 3.5–4.6 2.3–2.7 SLFC rightM ean 2.6 3.2 3.1S D0.130.950.14 R ange 1.7–3.5 2.5–3.9 2.1–4 SLFC leftM ean 2.1 4.6 3.4S D0.630.200.89 R ange 1.6–2.5 4.5–4.8 2.74–4 SCFC, superficial central forehead compartment; SLFC, superficial lateral forehead compartment.866eVolume 139, Number 4 • Anatomy of Compartments of the Forehead867eFig. 1. Comparison between cadaveric dissection (left ) and contrast-enhanced com-puted tomographic imaging (right ). Position of the superficial forehead compartments: superficial central forehead compartment (SCFC ) and superficial lateral forehead com-partment (SLFC ). The red circle shows the pathway of contrast agent retrograde to the supraorbital foramen by means of the sheath of the neurovascular bundle. Please note that because of the limited skin elasticity and the overall tissue rigidity, the extent of thesuperficial compartments appears smaller on imaging than in the living human.Fig. 2. Comparison between cadaveric dissection (left ) and contrast-enhanced computed tomographic image of the facial venous system (right ). Blue arrows indicate the central fore-head vein, which is in connection with the angular and the supratrochlear veins, respectively. Green arrows indicate the supraorbital vein, which is in connection with the medial zygomati-cotemporal (MZT ) and superficial temporal vein (STV ). The red arrows (left ) indicate branches of the supratrochlear nerve. (Right ) The medial part of the sub-orbicularis oculi fat (MS ) has been contrasted, as has the deep nasolabial fat compartment (DNL ) within the premaxillary space.Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery • April 2017the underside of the frontalis muscle (layer 3), whereas the deep boundary was formed by the periosteum (layer 5) (Fig. 3). The lateral bound-aries were formed by the temporal ligamentous adhesions. The medial boundaries were formed by the fibrous envelope of the supraorbital neu-rovascular structures emerging from the supra-orbital foramen (Fig. 4). The inferior boundary of both deep lateral forehead compartments was formed by a septum spanning from the later-ally located temporal ligamentous adhesions to the contralateral side (Fig. 5). This septum had a distance from the superior orbital rim of 1.5 ± 0.17 cm (range, 1.3 to 1.7 cm) in the midline and 3.0 ± 0.24 (range, 2.7 to 3.3 cm) at its lateral end, indicating a V-shaped orientation across the forehead, with the tip pointing inferiorly in the midline. In the following, the term middle frontal septum is used to name this structure. Interest-ingly, the location of this septum correlated well with the location of the central transverse fore-head line (i.e., the deepest central forehead wrin-kle when looking at the undissected forehead surface anatomy).Deep Central Forehead CompartmentThe deep central forehead compartment was identified in all of the investigated cephalic specimens, both by dissection and by computed tomographic imaging, and was located between the periosteum (layer 5) and the fascia covering the posterior surface of the frontalis muscle (layer 3) (Fig. 3). The lateral boundaries were formed by the supraorbital neurovascular structures trav-eling in a longitudinal orientation. The supe-rior boundary was formed by the superior and the inferior boundary was formed by the middle frontal septum (Fig. 5). The mean extent of the compartment was 6.4 × 5.9 cm, with a mean vol-ume of 9.1 cc (Table 2 and Fig. 4). Interestingly, the applied dye filled the compartment and led to a pillow-like appearance of the compartment and was tiltable when performing subperiosteal sharp dissections (Fig. 3). No major vessels were found within this plane (layer 4).Slightly stable longitudinal bundles of fibrous connections were identified to connect the peri-osteum to the underside of the frontalis muscle. These fibers were in parallel to the fiber orienta-tion of the frontalis muscle and the supratroch-lear neurovascular structures.Additional Anatomical ObservationsSuperior to the lateral two-thirds of the superior orbital rim, the retro-orbicularis oculi fat compartment was identified. The retro-orbicularis oculi fat compartment was bounded inferiorly by the orbicularis retaining ligament, medially by the supraorbital neurovascular struc-tures, and superiorly by a fibrous structure that differed from the middle frontal septum (Fig. 5). We therefore termed this septum the inferior fron-tal septum to stay consistent with the above-pro-posed nomenclature (Fig. 5). We also identified a thin layer of fatty tissue lying between the fron-talis muscle and the fascia covering its underside. This thin fascia connected at the level of the orbital rim with the orbital septum and the orbi-cularis retaining ligament. Based on the results of the anatomical dissections in this study, it can-not be excluded that other compartments could be identified in future studies in relation to the corrugator supercilii, procerus, and depressor supercilii muscle.DISCUSSIONThe present study is the first combined dis-section and contrast-enhanced computed tomo-graphic imaging–based analysis investigating the superficial and the deep fat compartments of the forehead. Based on the results of this study, we were able to confirm the presence of the superficial cen-tral and the two superficial lateral forehead com-partments. In addition, we were able to identify the constant presence of the deep central and the two deep lateral forehead compartments, which were located deep to the frontalis muscle but superficial to the periosteum of the frontal bone.The strength of this investigation is the com-bination of noninvasive visualization techniques (i.e., contrast-enhanced computed tomographicTable 2. Values of the Deep Central Forehead Compartment and Right and Left Deep Lateral Forehead Compartments Based on Computed Tomographic Parameters and Cadaveric Dissections Compartment Width (cm)Length (cm)Volume (cc) DCFCM ean 6.4 5.99.1S D 1.30.8 5.6R ange 4.3–7.6 4.7–6.7 5.0–19.7 DLFC rightM ean 2.6 5.8 1.6S D0.470.21 1.50R ange 1.7–3.1 5.5–6.1 2.0–3.0 DLFC leftM ean 2.7 5.8 1.4S D0.170.25 1.5R ange 2.5–2.9 5.3–6.0 1.0–3.0 DCFC, deep central forehead compartment; DLFC, deep lateral forehead compartment.868eVolume 139, Number 4 • Anatomy of Compartments of the Forehead869eimaging) that do not impair the original ana-tomical location of the forehead structures along with dissections performed in fresh frozen and embalmed cephalic specimens. Our results are in line with a previous study applying computed tomography–based imaging techniques, as we likewise found the presence of a superficial cen-tral forehead compartment located in layer 2 of the forehead.4 Our results are also in line with previous findings from anatomical dissections per-formed in fresh frozen specimens that used dye to contrast the superficial forehead compartments.2However, the data presented for the measured volumes may differ from the living individual because of the applied injection technique. We specifically injected large amounts of contrast agent and dye into the respective compartments to achieve a maximum filling of each compart-ment and thus the best visibility possible during the imaging process. The drawback, however, of this procedure is that the applied pressure could have permeated adjacent and/or weaker compart-ment boundaries and may have led to additional contrasting. Future studies might potentially find compartments that were not identified in the pres-ent work. Another limitation of this study is that we positioned the specimen in supine position in the computed tomography scanner as opposed to vertically, which would have been closer to real-life conditions.During therapeutic applications of soft-tissue fillers into the superficial central forehead com-partment, one has to be aware that by using blunt cannulas and without appropriate subcutaneous subcision procedures, the material might not migrate laterally into the superficial lateral fore-head compartments and thus might not achieve a volumizing effect there. This is understandable, as the boundaries that correspond to the vertical course of the supraorbital/supratrochlear neu-rovasculature limit dispersal into these locations. Also, it is important to note that applicationofFig. 3. Cadaveric dissection of the dye injected into the deep central forehead compartment (DCFC , green ) and the deep lateral forehead compartment (DLFC , pink ). Dissection was performed in the subperiosteal plane with reflection of all five layers (left ). The lateral boundary of the deep lateral forehead compartment was formed by the temporal ligamentous adhesion (TLA ). (Above , right ) Enlargement of inset shows the supraorbital neurovascular bundle emerg-ing from the supraorbital foramen and separating the deep central from the deep lateral forehead compartment. (Below , right ) In layer 4, the deep forehead compartments were dissected and reflected. The red dotted line indicates the cut edge of the periosteum (layer 5).870ePlastic and Reconstructive Surgery• April 2017 Fig. 4. Comparison between cadaveric dissection of the dye-injected deep central fore-head compartment (DCFC) (left) and contrast-enhanced computed tomographic image(right). (Left) All layers of the scalp are reflected, and the underside of the periosteum isvisible. The deep central forehead compartment was completely removable from thebone and its former location is indicated (DCFC*). Blue arrows indicate the position ofthe superior temporal septum that merges with the temporal adhesion (TLA). Red circlesindicate the position of the supraorbital foramen and the supraorbital neurovascularstructures. (Right) The retro-orbicularis oculi fat (ROOF), the deep medial cheek (DMC),and the deep nasolabial (DNL) fat compartments (within the premaxillary space) havebeen contrasted also.Fig. 5. Cadaveric dissection of the forehead structures on a fresh frozen specimen. Frontal (left) and lateral (right) views of the frontal and temporal regions. The frontalis muscle (layer 3) is reflected, but the perios-teum (layer 5) is not detached from the bone. TLA, temporal ligamentous adhesion; ROOF, retro-orbicularisoculi fat; CSM, corrugator supercilii muscle; DLFC, deep lateral forehead compartment; DCFC, deep central forehead compartment; blue arrows, superior temporal septum; black arrows, inferior temporal septum;UTC, upper temporal compartment; LTC, lower temporal compartment; red circle, supraorbital neurovascu-lar bundle emerging from the supraorbital foramen; IFS, inferior frontal septum; MFS, middle frontal sep-tum; ORL, orbicularis retaining ligament.Volume 139, Number 4 • Anatomy of Compartments of the Forehead871ematerial into the superficial central compartment in proximity to the superior orbital rim might gain access to the upper lid through the canal that is formed by the neurovascular structures and could thus affect the appearance and function of the upper lid (Fig. 1).To the best knowledge of the authors, this is the first investigation to demonstrate the pres-ence of three forehead compartments deep to the frontalis muscle but superficial to the periosteum of the frontal bone (Fig. 3). During application of contrast agent into the deep central forehead compartment, a consistent vertical spread of the contrast agent was observed without major lateral distribution to the injection site. This phenom-enon can also be observed clinically when apply-ing volume-enhancing materials with keeping the needle or cannula in constant contact with the bone during the entire procedure. The anatomi-cal correlate for this phenomenon is represented by short but weak longitudinal fibrous adhesions extending from the fascia covering the posterior side of the frontalis muscle to the periosteumpotentially related to the course of the supratroch-lear neurovascular structures. These irregularities can persist even after mechanical manipulation and are more prominent when using material with high viscoelastic properties. Distribution of the material (i.e., by using a blunt cannula) dur-ing the application and by thus breaking through the septa can lead to a smooth dispersal and a sat-isfying result (Fig. 6).A previous study by Moss et al.5 described the ligamentous structures of the forehead and reported a 20- to 40-mm-long ligamentous adhe-sion in the lateral forehead, a temporal ligamen-tous adhesion and a fibrous adhesion spanning the entire forehead and connecting both the temporal ligamentous adhesions from each side, and a supraorbital ligamentous adhesion.5,6 Our results confirm the presence of this structure, as it forms the inferior boundary of the deep lateral frontal compartments. We could also confirm the presence of the supraorbital ligamentous adhe-sion, as this structure forms the inferior bound-ary of the deep central foreheadcompartment.Fig. 6. Comparison between cadaveric dissection (left ) and contrast-enhanced computed tomographic imaging (right ) of the three deep forehead compartments: left and right deep lateral forehead compartments (DLFC ) and deep central forehead compartment (DCFC ) . (Left ) Cadaveric dissection shows the short longitudinal fibrous bands connecting the periosteum to the fascia covering the underside of the frontalis muscle in the view from superolateral onto layer 4. CSM , corrugator supercilii muscle; red circle , supraorbital neurovascular bundle. (Right ) Contrast-enhanced computed tomographic scan shows the results of the application of contrast agent into all three deep compartments of the forehead (left and right deep lateral forehead compartments and deep central forehead compartment) by using a blunt cannula and distributing the material throughout the forehead and by thus rupturing the boundar-ies of the respective compartments. IFS , inferior frontal septum; MFS , middle frontal septum; SOOF , sub-orbicularis oculi fat; ROOF , retro-orbicularis oculi fat.Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery • April 2017Because of the nature of these structures, we pro-pose the names middle frontal septum and inferior frontal septum, as these structures bound compart-ments and limit the migration of applied materi-als of the forehead. Interestingly, we found several additional fat compartments between these two septae that were in relation to the corrugator supercilii muscle and the retro-orbicularis oculi fat; however, further anatomical studies will be needed to confirm their constant presence and their precise location within the different layers of the forehead.During the process of aging, it has been shown that the orbital region undergoes changes with regard to bone remodeling.7,8 Likewise, it has been shown that the shape of the forehead (when viewed laterally) loses its convexity and gains a concave shape resembling the process of frontal hollowing. Volume-enhancing strategies should aim for a longer lasting and profound volumizing and lifting effect. Using the deep forehead com-partments, volumizing materials can be placed in these locations, and manual modulation can be used to distribute the applied volume for resto-ration of the convexity of the forehead.9–12The applied material can be molded throughout the extent of the respective compartment without serious risk of injury because this plane (i.e., layer 4) is generally avascular and without the presence of major neurovascular structures within the com-partments (but not within the boundaries of the compartments).CONCLUSIONSThe understanding of the presence of super-ficial and deep forehead compartments allows one to change the signs of aging of the forehead. Three superficial (one central and two lateral) and three deep (one central and two lateral) fore-head compartments were identified, combining contrast-enhanced computed tomographic imag-ing with anatomical dissections. The results pre-sented in this study increase the understanding of the forehead anatomy relevant for volumizing procedures. Future studies applying different invasive and noninvasive methods will be needed to confirm the findings presented and to provide continuative insights on the additional anatomi-cal observations found in this study.Sebastian Cotofana, M.D., Ph.D.Department of AnatomyRoss University School of MedicineP.O. Box 266 Roseau, Commonwealth of Dominica, West Indiessebastiancotofana@ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe imaging part of this study was funded by Merz Pharmaceuticals GmbH (grant number 13072015). The authors would like to thank Mathias Hessenberger, Markus Schlager, and Ashley Nicole Davis for tremen-dous support in the anatomical and imaging parts of this study.REFERENCES1. American Society of Plastic Surgeons. 2015 cosmetic plasticsurgery statistics. Available at: https:///News/Statistics/2015/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2015.pdf. Accessed August 15, 2016.2. Rohrich RJ, Pessa JE. The fat compartments of the face:Anatomy and clinical implications for cosmetic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;119:2219–2227; discussion 2228–2231.3. Gierloff M, Stöhring C, Buder T, Gassling V, Açil Y,Wiltfang J. Aging changes of the midfacial fat compart-ments: A computed tomographic study. Plast Reconstr S urg.2012;129:263–273.4. Gierloff M, Stöhring C, Buder T, Wiltfang J. The subcuta-neous fat compartments in relation to aesthetically impor-tant facial folds and rhytides. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet S urg.2012;65:1292–1297.5. Moss CJ, Mendelson BC, Taylor GI. Surgical anatomy of the lig-amentous attachments in the temple and periorbital regions.Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;105:1475–1490; discussion 1491.6. O’Brien JX, Ashton MW, Rozen WM, Ross R, Mendelson BC.New perspectives on the surgical anatomy and nomencla-ture of the temporal region: Literature review and dissection study. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2013;132:461e–463e.7. Pessa JE, Desvigne LD, Lambros VS, Nimerick J, Sugunan B,Zadoo VP. Changes in ocular globe-to-orbital rim position with age: Implications for aesthetic blepharoplasty of the lower eyelids. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 1999;23:337–342.8. Cotofana S, Fratila A, Schenck TL, Redka-Swoboda W,Zilinsky I, Pavicic T. The anatomy of the aging face: A review.Facial Plast Surg. 2016;32:253–260.9. Wulc AE, Sharma P, Czyz CN. The anatomic basis of mid-facial aging. In: Hartstein EM, Wul EA, Holck EED, eds.Midfacial Rejuvenation. New York: Springer; 2012:15–28.10. Bartlett SP, Grossman R, Whitaker LA. Age-related changesof the craniofacial skeleton: An anthropometric and histo-logic analysis. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1992;90:592–600.11. Farkas JP, Pessa JE, Hubbard B, Rohrich JR. The science andtheory behind facial aging. Plast Reconstr S urg Global Open 2013;1:e8–e15.12. Carruthers J, Carruthers A. Volumizing the glabella and fore-head. Dermatol Surg. 2010;36(Suppl 3):1905–1909.872e。
研究生下补充课文翻译及习题
A Beautiful Mind1．John Forbes Nash, Jr. –mathematical genius, inventor of a theory ofrationed behavior, visionary of the thinking machine—had been sitting with his visitor, also a mathematician, for nearly half an hour. It was late on a weekday afternoon in the spring of 1959, and, though it was only May, uncomfortably warm. Nash was slumped in an armchair in one corner of the hospital lounge, carelessly dressed in a nylon shirt that hung limply over h is unbelted trousers. His powerful frame was slack as a rag doll’s, his finelymolded features expressionless. He had been staring dully at a spot immediately in front of the left foot of Harvard professor George Mackey, hardly moving except to brush his long dark hair away from his forehead in a fitful, repetitive motion. His visitor sat upright, oppressed by the silence, acutely conscious that the doors to the room were locked. Mackey finally could contain himself no longer. His voice was slightly querulous, but he strained to be gentle. “How could you,” began Mackey, “how could you, a mathematician, a man devoted to reason and logical proof… how could you believe that extraterrestrials are sending you message? How could you believe that you are being recruited by aliens from outer space to save the world? How could you…?”小约翰·福布斯·纳什，数学天才、理性行为理论创立者、预见会思考的机器出现的预言者，已经和他的同样是数学家的来访者一起坐了差不多半个小时.那是1959年春季一个工作日的傍晚时分，虽然才是5 月，天气却很热，令人不太舒服。
有关哥伦比亚大学的英语阅读理解
有关哥伦比亚大学的英语阅读理解Scientists have long understood that supermassive black holes weighing millions or billions of suns can tear apart stars that come too close.The black hotels gravity pulls harder on the nearest part of the star，an imbalance that pulls the star apart over a period of minutes or hours，once it gets close enough.Scientists say this Uneven pulling is not the only hazard facing the star.The strain of these unbalanced forces can also trigger a nuclear explosion powerful enough to destroy the star from within.Matthieu Brassart and Jean-Pierre Luminet of the Observatoire de Paris in Meudon，France1,carried out computer simulations of the final moments of such an unfortunate star’s life，as it veered towards a supermassive black hole.When the star gets close enough，the uneven forces flatten it into a pancake shape.Some previous studies had suggested this flattening would increase the density and temperature inside the star enough to trigger intense nuclear reactions that would tear it apart.But other studies had suggested that the picture would becomplicated by shock waves generated during the flattening process and that no nuclear explosion should occur.The new simulations investigated the effects of shock waves in detail，and found that even when their effects are included，the conditions favor a nuclear explosion.“There will be an explosion of the star —it will be completely destroyed,” Brassart says. Although the explosion obliterates the star，it saves some of the star’s matter from being devoured by the black hole.The explosion is powerful enough to hurl much of the star’s matter out of the black hole’s reach，he says.The devouring of stars by black holes may already have been observed，although at a much later stage.It is thought that several months after the event that rips the star apart，its matter starts swirling into the hole itself.It heats up as it does so，releasing ultraviolet light and X-rays.If stars disrupted near black holes really do explode，then they could in principle allow these events to be detected at a much earlier stage，says Jules Hatpern of Columbia University in New York，US2.“It may make it possible to see the disruption of that starimmediately if it gets hot enough,” he says.Brassart agrees.“Perhaps it can be observed in the X-rays and gamma rays，but it’s something that needs to be more studied,” he says.Supernova researcher Chris Fryer of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos，New Mexico，US3，says the deaths of these stars are difficult to simulate，and he is not sure whether the researchers have proven their case that they explode in the process.注释：1. the Observatoire de Paris in Meudon，France：位于法国默顿的巴黎天文台。
雅思法宝之雅思阅读必须掌握的语法知识
雅思阅读必须掌握的语法知识.并列平行结构Co-ordination Constructions“并列平行结构”是一个比较笼统的提法。
事实上，在一个较长的英语句子中，并列平行的部分可能是几个句子，也可能是几个并列的短语成分。
但是，其构成规律都可用以下句型来表示：句型I. A;B ( 其中A和B代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语)句型II A，whereas/while B(其中A和B代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语，where as/ while 为联结词)句型III A（，）and /or B(其中Ａ和Ｂ代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语；逗号有时可以没有，在肯定句中，多用ａｎｄ来连接，而在否定句中，多用or来连接)句型IV Ａ，Ｂ，．．．．and/orＸ（其中A和B代表多个并列分句，或是多个并列短语；在肯定句中，常用and连接，而在否定句中，常用or来连接）Insurance is compulsory and costly and parking both on and off campus can be problem requiring additional expense.译文保险是必需的而且费用很高；在校园内外停车可能是个问题，会要求额外的费用。
Geologists believe that the warning signs for a major earthquake may include sudden fluctuations in local seismicain across a fault zone, and activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earth’s crust, changes in the measured str variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.分析Step 1从前往后阅读该句时，不难看出此句是由Geologists believe that + 宾语从句构成的主干结构，而且宾语从. 现在的关键是句的主语，谓语部分也很清楚，即：the warning signs for a major earthquake may include……把include 后面的宾语部分弄清楚。
TheObviousnessofAnarchy：TheQuestion
TheObviousnessofAnarchy：TheQuestion Written by John Hasnas, Associate Professor, Georgetown University, J.D., Ph.D, LL.M.“You see, but you do not observe.”Sherlock Holmes to Dr. John Watson in A Scandal in Bohemia I. IntroductionIn this article, I have been asked to present an argument for anarchy. This is an absurdly easy thing to do. In fact, it is a task that can be discharged in two words–look around. However, because most of us, like Dr. Watson, see without observing the significance of what we see, some commentary is required.Anarchy refers to a society without a central political authority. But it is also used to refer to disorder or chaos. This constitutes a textbook example of Orwellian newspeak in which assigning the same name to two different concepts effectively narrows the range of thought. For if lack of government is identified with the lack of order, no one will ask whether lack of government actually results in a lack of order. And this uninquisitive mental attitude is absolutely essential to the case for the state. For if people were ever to seriously question whether government actions are really productive of order, popular support for government would almost instantly collapse.The identification of anarchy with disorder is not a trivial matter. The power of our conceptions to blind us to the facts of the world around us cannot be gainsaid. I myself have had the experience of eating lunch just outside Temple Universi ty’s law school in North Philadelphia with a brilliant law professor who was declaiming upon the absolute necessity of the state provision of police services. He did this just as one of Temple’suniformed private armed guards passed by us escorting a female student to the Metro stop in this crime-ridden neighborhood that is vastly underserved by the Philadelphia police force.A wise man once told me that the best way to prove that something is possible is to show that it exists. That is the strategy I shall adopt in this article. I intend to show that a stable, successful society without government can exist by showing that it has, and to a large extent, still does.II. Defining Terms and LimitationsI am presenting an argument for anarchy in the true sense of the term–that is, a society without government, not a society without governance. There is no such thing as a society without governance. A society with no mechanism for bringing order to human existence is oxymoronic; it is not “society” at all.One way to bring order to society is to invest some people with the exclusive power to create and coercively enforce rules which all members of society must follow; that is, to create a government. Another way to bring order to society is allow people to follow rules that spontaneously evolve through human interaction with no guiding intelligence and may be enforced by diverse agencies. This article presents an argument for the latter approach; that is, for a spontaneously ordered rather than a centrally planned society.In arguing for anarchy, I am arguing that a society without a central political authority is not only possible but desirable. That is all I am doing, however. I am not arguing for a society without coercion. I am not arguing for a society that abides by the libertarian non-aggression principle or any other principle of justice. I am not arguing for the morally ideal organization of society. I am not arguing for utopia. What constitutes ideal justiceand the perfectly just society is a fascinating philosophical question, but it is one that is irrelevant to the current pursuit. I am arguing only that human beings can live together successfully and prosper in the absence of a centralized coercive authority. T o make the case for anarchy, that is all that is required.An additional limitation on my argument is that I do not address the question of national defense. There are two reasons for this. One is the logical one that a society without government is a society without nations. In this context, “national” defense is a meaningless concept. If you wish, you may see this as an assertion that an argument for anarchy is necessarily an argument for global anarchy. I prefer to see it merely as the recognition that human beings, not nations, need defense. The more significant reason, however, it that the I regard the problem of national defense as trivial for reasons I will expand upon subsequently.1III. The QuestionWhether government is necessary is not an abstract metaphysical question. It is an entirely practical question concerning the delivery of goods and services. The defenders of government argue that certain goods or services that are essential to human life in society can be supplied only by a government. Anarchists deny this. The question, then, is whether there are any essential goods or services that can be supplied only through the conscious actions of human beings invested with the power to enforce rules on all members of society.Note that the question is not whether the “market” c an supply all necessary goods and services, at least not the market as it is usually defined by economists. Some anarchists argue that the free market can supply all necessary goods and services. Butthe case for anarchy does not require that one assert this claim, and I do not. Anarchy requires, and I argue, only that no essential good or service must be supplied though the conscious actions of the agents of a coercively maintained monopoly. Properly understood, the question is whether there are some essential goods and services that must be provided politically or whether all such goods and services can be provided by non-political means.2Many political theorists argue that there is a wide array of goods and services that must be provided by the state. In the present context, however, there is no need to consider whether the government must provide postal service, elementary schooling, or universal health insurance. The debate between anarchists and the supporters of a classical liberal, night watchman state concerns the core functions of government. The question thus resolves itself into whether these core functions can be supplied through non-political means.To be continued in The Obviousness of Anarchy: The Creation of Rules Of LawFootnotes1 See infra §III(E).2 In this article, the term “political” will be used to refer to the output of government, and “non-political” to the product of all other forms of action.•Tweet 2•Share 74•+1 3。
thereisnoharvardcheatingscandal
There Is No Harvard Cheating ScandalThe students should be celebrated for collaborating.By Farhad ManjooHarvard announced Friday that up to 60 students have been forced to withdraw"for a time" as a result of a cheating scandal. Farhad Manjoo argued in September 2012 that the students should be rewarded, not disciplined. The article is reprinted below.Last week, Harvard announced that it was investigating more than 100 students for cheating on the final exam of a course called “Introduction to Congress.” The class had a reputation for being easy, but many students found la st spring’s open-book, take-home exam to be close to impossible. As a consequence, the kids apparently began to break the rules. Some students now face the possibility of being forced to take a one-year leave of absence from Harvard. A university official has called the case “unprecedented in anyone’s living memory.”Certain students’ conduct does seem to have been indefensible—according to the Crimson, the exam-related malfeasance included plagiarism. But many of the accused did not copy their material. Instead, they merely worked with fellow students and their instructors to make sense of the tricky exam questions. What they did—work together to find an answer—should be encouraged. But too often in higher education, such collaboration is either given short shrift or actively penalized. Students are instead forced to find the answers on their own, in marked contrast to how they’ll be expected to behave once they graduate. Students who spoke to the New Y ork Times said that collaboration was widely thought to be allowed in the course. The class’s teaching fellows—graduate students who graded the exams and ran weekly discussion sessions—varied widely in how they prepared students for the exams, so it was common for students in different sections to share lecture notes and reading materials. The course’s instructor—Matthew B. Platt, an assistant professor of government—and the teaching fellows sometimes encouraged collaboration. During the final exam, some fellows even worked with students to define unfamiliar terms and help them figure out what, exactly, certain test questions were asking.The test’s rules, though, explicitly prohibited such sharing. “The exam is completely open book, open note, open Internet, etc. However, in all other regards, this should fall under similar guidelines that apply to in-class exams,” the rules s tated. “More specifically, students may not discuss the exam with others—this includes resident tutors, writing centers, etc.”What’s the point of prohibiting students from working together? If the students in “Introduction to Congress” act as these test r ules demand when they move into the workforce, they’ll be fired. Outside of academia, teamwork is the rule. Collaboration is widely hailed as a primary factor in creativity and problemsolving. It’s the reason Pixar’s offices are designed to foster, in Steve Jobs’ words, “forced collisions of people” from different departments.In this case, it’s the test’s design, rather than the students’ conduct, that we should criticize. In allowing students to consult a wide variety of sources, the Harvard exam was looking to assess something deeper than how well they could memorize and recall facts. Judging from some leaked questions, the test seemed to be designed to measure how students could think about some of the contradictions inherent in American government. (An essay question began, “Do interest groups make Congress more or less representative as an institution?”) But if you want to determine how well students think, why force them to think alone?Outside of Har vard, these students won’t face many situations in which they’ll be prohibited from consulting with other people. Instead, they’ll have to act exactly as the alleged “cheaters” did in this case. Here, students who had poor teaching fellows sought help from peers who had better instructors. When they found exam questions that asked about material that hadn’t been covered in the course, they worked together to figure out how to answer them. (Some of them may have had no other choice, as Platt canceled his own office hours during the final exam.) Rather than punishing these students, shouldn’t we be praising them for solving these problems the only way they could?Sure, the students’ collaborative work does make it difficult to assess individual performance—bec ause many people’s answers sounded similar, instructors couldn’t determine who really understood the work and who was merely free-riding. Universities certainly still have an interest in measuring each student’s grasp of class material, and there are plent y of exam formats—in-class tests, timed essays, in-class discussions—that can do so. Open-book exams like the one for “Introduction to Congress,” though, are useful tools only when they’re collaborative. After all, the test allowed students to consult the Web, a medium that is built on teamwork. If students looked up stuff on Wikipedia or Quora, they would have been effectively discussing the exam with others. And yet online collaboration would have been kosher under the test’s rules, even though you’d be l abeled a cheater if you posed the same question to your friend Laura rather than Quora. That distinction makes no sense.I suspect this arbitrary distinction reflects universities’ discomfort with collaboration. Talking about an exam with your friends feels like cheating. But it’s time we realized it’s not, and that teaching people how to work together is a critical skill. T oday, in most areas of life—the government, the military, science, the corporate world—real breakthroughs occur in groups. It’s time ou r universities prized group work, too.。
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GEOPHYSICS,VOL.65,NO.6(NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2000);P .1708–1710,4FIGS.The Anatomy of Inverse ProblemsJohn A.Scales ∗and Roel Snieder ∗A major task of geophysics is to make quantitative state-ments about the interior of the earth.For this reason,inverse problems are an important area of geophysical research and industrial application.Figure 1shows how many texts present inverse problems.The earth model is an element of a mathe-matical space that contains all allowable parameterizations of the earth’s properties (or at least those properties relevant to a given experiment);this space is referred to as model space .The physics of the problem determines which data d correspond to a given model m .The problem of computing the model response (synthetic “data”)given a model is called the forward problem .The corresponding data reside in a mathematical space that is called data space .In many applications,one records the data,and the goal is to find the corresponding model.The task is called the inverse problem ,as shown in Figure 1.Unfortunately,Figure 1is wrong.There is a simple reason for this.In general the model that one seeks is a continuous function of the space variables with infinitely many degrees of freedom.For example,the 3-D velocity structure in the earth has infinitely many degrees of freedom.On the other hand,the data space is always of finite dimension because any real exper-iment can only result in a finite number of measurements.A simple count of variables shows that the mapping from the data to a model cannot be unique;or equivalently,there must be el-ements of the model space that have no influence on the data.This lack of uniqueness is apparent even for problems involv-ing idealized,noise-free measurements.The problem only be-comes worse when the uncertainties of real measurements are taken into account.Although the uniqueness question is a hotly debated issue in the mathematical literature on inverse prob-lems,it is largely irrelevant for practical inverse problems be-cause they invariably have a nonunique solution (if by solution we mean an earth model).It is this nonuniqueness that makes Figure 1deceptive,because the arrow pointing from data space to model space suggests that a unique model corresponds to every data set.A more realistic scheme of inverse problems is shown in Fig-ure 2.Given a model m ,the physics of the problem determines the predicted data d ;this is called the forward problem .For a given data set,one determines an estimated model ˆm .WeManuscript received by the Editor June 8,2000;revised manuscript received August 23,2000.∗Colorado School of Mines,Department of Geophysics and Center for Wave Phenomena,Golden,Colorado 80401.E-mail:jscales@,rsnieder@ c 2000Society of Exploration Geophysicists.All rights reserved.refer to this as the model estimation problem .(Later,we willconsider the generalization to the problem of estimating prop-erties of models,rather than the models themselves.)Note that there may be many reasonable model estimates for a given data set and that the estimation procedure may be nonlinear even when the forward problem is linear.Thus,the mean of a set of numbers is a linear function of the numbers,whereas the median is a nonlinear function.Yet both the median and the mean may be reasonable estimators of the “center”of the set of numbers.Part of the art of solving inverse problems comes from the need to define what it means for an estimate to be reasonable.Since the mapping from data space to model space is nonunique,the estimated model may also depend on the details of the algorithm that one has used for the estimation problem as well as on the regularization and model parameterization that has been used.In general,the estimated model ˆm differs from the true model m .For example,in seismic inversion the estimated model may be a blurred version of the true model.In addition,the data are always contaminated with errors;these errors represent an additional source of discrepancy between the estimated model and the true model.One is not finished when the estimated model is constructed;it is essential to somehow quantify the error between the esti-mated model and the true model.This is called the appraisal problem .In this problem,one determines the uncertainty in the estimated model.This uncertainty has a statistical component related to the propagation of errors in the data,and a deter-ministic component that accounts for the finite resolution that is attained in the model estimation,as well as systematic errors in the problem.For linear inverse problems,resolution kernels and confi-dence set analysis are powerful tools for formulating the ap-praisal problems,and the theory of linear error propagation is sufficiently well developed to account for the errors in the esti-mated model due to the errors in the data.For nonlinear inverse problems,the only tool available for the appraisal problem may be Bayesian inversion where one estimates the statistical properties of the model when the data and other knowledge are combined in a statistical sense by repeated sampling of the1708The Anatomy of Inverse Problems 1709model space (e.g.,Mosegaard and Tarantola,1995;Gouveia and Scales,1998).These techniques are only applicable to prac-tical problems where the number of parameters is relatively small.This is partly due to computational cost of such methods,but is also related in a very subtle way to the behavior of prob-abilities in high dimensional spaces (see Scales and Tenorio,2001).For large-scale inverse problems such as the determi-nation of 3-D earth structure,Monte Carlo sampling methods are not feasible.This means that there is presently no opera-tional theory to account for the appraisal problem of nonlinear inverse problems with large number of parameters (Snieder,1998).Developing such a theory is a theoretical and practi-cal challenge that is much more important than establishing uniqueness proofs of idealized mathematical problems.In practice,one solves inverse problems with a certain goal.For example,one may use an estimated model obtained from an inversion of seismic data as a basis for deciding where to drill or how to optimally exploit a reservoir.In practice,one is never interested in the seismic velocity at a certain spot in the subsurface,but for a seismic interpreter it is crucial to know whether at a certain place a syncline or an anticline is present.This means that for practical inverse problems one is interested in patterns that can be used in a meaningful way for making decisions.In practice,these decisions are usually not based ex-clusively on the estimated model ˆm ,but involve the integration of other data as well as human expertise.In addition,the uncer-tainty in the estimated model is an important factor in making decisions.Thus,Figure 3gives a more realistic view on inverse problems,because it shows explicitly that decisions rather than model estimation is the endpoint of practical inverse problems.It is interesting to consider the relation between the appraisal problem and the process of decision making.An important as-pect of the appraisal problem is the statistical treatment of error propagation.This means that the appraisal problem has probability as an important component.Decisions areusuallyF IG .1.The conventional view of inverse problems:find themodel that predicts themeasurements.F IG .2.An improved view of inverse problems.based on risk rather than probability.This may be economic risk (where to drill),environmental risk (what happens when pollutants spread),or even academic risk (am I sure enough to publish my results).Risk is always concerned with proba-bility plus another component such as profit or environmental impact.This means that in this stage those who produce the models and their uncertainty must interface with others for making decisions effectively.Figure 3offers an overview of the landscape of geophysical inversion.Those working on wave propagation problems focus on the forward problem.Those focused on the development of migration algorithms work on the estimation problem.Statisti-cians and a limited number of scientists in the inverse problem community are concerned with the appraisal problem.Seismic interpretation is usually based on an estimated model,and so can be thought of as a decision-making problem.It is illuminat-ing to see how different researchers work on different parts of this problem.One may wonder whether these research efforts could be more effective when their activities are seen in the con-text of the anatomy of the inverse problem as shown in Figure 3.In Figure 3,the estimated model ˆm forms an essential part of the inversion process.But is it necessary or desirable to pro-duce an estimated model in the process of inversion of data?We,of course,are conditioned to produce models from our data.However,given the fact that this estimated model dif-fers from the true model,one can be led astray by features in the estimated model that are artifacts of the inversion process.Another view on inverse problems is given in Figure 4where the goal is to determine the range of models that are consistent with the data (as well as other information).This range of mod-els can simply be a box within which all the models are believed to fit the data (there being no comparative relation among the models in the box),or it could be a probability distribution on the space of models P (m )(in which case one can speak of the best or most probable model).Both the box and the probabil-ity are determined by the data,the uncertainties and whatever other data-independent information is available.As we have discussed previously (Scales and Snieder,1997),people taking the former approach are called frequentists (this includes most statisticians),whereas people taking the latter approach are called Bayesians (this includes most geophysicists).In either case,the estimation and appraisal problem is replaced by the inference problem .Inference means characterizing somehow the set of models that explain the data (and satisfy whatever other information is available).One can then use this box,or the probability distribution P (m ),as a basis for making deci-sions.The tutorial by Scales and Tenorio (2001)shows a nice example of a “toy”inverse problems tackled from a Bayesian and a frequentist point of view.The reader may be put off by the idea of solving inverse prob-lems without constructing a model.Our minds are conditioned to making models from data.However,we have seen that these estimated models can only be the endpoint of research when one ignores the fact that models are being produced with the goal of making decisions.When seen in this larger context (Fig-ures 3or 4),it is worth considering whether one is not better served by knowing the probability distribution of the set of models than by knowing a single estimated model and a mea-sure of its uncertainty.It is interesting to consider how we would use a probabil-ity density function in a high-dimensional model space.The1710Scales andSniederF IG .3.The inverse problem as part of a decision-makingprocess.F IG .4.The inverse problem as an inference problem.simplest approach is to compute the mean and variance of each model parameter,and one can visualize this information rel-atively easily.However,as we have seen,the patterns in the model are much more interesting than the estimates of one model parameter.Assessing the robustness of certain patterns in the model is much more difficult,especially since this entails the use of the correlation between different model parameters.In a high-dimensional model space it is extremely difficult to characterize and interpret the correlations of the model param-eters.In order to interrogate the resulting probability density function of the model in a meaningful way,research is needed into cluster and feature analysis of (possibly multimodal)prob-ability density functions of many degrees of freedom,as well as the development of an interface between the exploration of these high-dimensional functions and the decision-making process.It will be clear from this that in order to treat inverse prob-lems in ways that are different from current practice requires significant theoretical and numerical advances.However,clear strategies for the optimal use of inverse problems in the pro-cess of decision making should also be an important item on the agenda for researchers in inverse problems.REFERENCESGouveia,W.P .,and Scales,J.A.,1998,Bayesian seismic waveform in-version:Parameter estimation and uncertainty analysis:J.Geophys.Res.,103,2759–2779.Mosegaard,K.,and Tarantola,A.,1995,Monte Carlo sampling of so-lutions to inverse problems:J.Geophys.Res.,100,12431–12447.Scales,J.A.,and Snieder,R.,1997,To Bayes or not to Bayes:Geo-physics,62,1045–1046.Scales,J.A.,and Tenorio,L.,2001,Prior information and uncer-tainty in inverse problems:Geophysics,tentatively scheduled for March/April.Snieder,R.,1998,The role of nonlinearity in inverse problems:Inverse Problems,14,387–404.。