The art of case study research Robert E
国外顶尖商学院案例分析英文模板
Lesson 1
Staying ahead of the competition requirements constant evolution
Lesson 3
Effective marketing strategies are essential for growth
CHAPTER 04
Key information extraction and organization
Data Collection
Gathers relevant information through primary and secondary research
Data Coding
Organize and categorize data into meaningful groups or themes
CHAPTER 02
Case analysis methods and framework
Basic methods of case analysis
Historical Case Study
A detailed examination of a specific event or time period in the history of a company or industry
The case study may not account for all possible external factors that have influenced the development of these schools, such as economic downturns, political changes, or natural disasters
大学生怎么写案例研究？ How to write a case study 英语论文写作技巧
大学生怎么写案例研究？学习技巧介绍How to write a case study Tips and Techniques for aBeginnerHello people! I hope you all are well. Today I am going to take a topic which troubles almost every student. “How to write a case study,” every student wonders this at some time in their lives. In a layman’s terms, case study involves in-depth and detailed research of the case of study. It also involves research of its related conditions. It requires thorough study and analysis of the case. Keep reading this article till the end forideas on how to write a case study? This article will provide nitty-gritty on how to write a case study.Writing an excellent case study can be a challenging task. However, if you keep some essential points in mind, then the job will become easy for you. I am going to talk about everything related to how to write a case study?In this article, I am going to discuss the following important points:Steps to write a case study?Types of case studiesTypes of subjects of case studiesSteps to write a case study?The first thing you have to choose while wondering “how to write a case study?” is your case. A case is different for the different case studies. However, there are few things which are common to every case studies. There are other factors followed by recognition of a case. I am providing step by step guide on how to write a case study:1. Identifying the caseIdentifying a case for research involves more than choosing a research problem. Cases are often those topics that are already probed. This is because such cases can provide better and new ways of knowing a research problem. A thorough analysis of a case can be based on thehypothesis. Hypothesis could be that this new case study will reveal valuable insights and issues. Especially, those insights which have not been published in previous research. There are many assumptions which are based on previous research. However, with time those assumptions, sometimes become obsolete. Make sure you select a case through which you can gather crucial evidence. Evidence which challenges prevailing assumptions.While selecting a case, you should consider how the study and research on this particular case may reveal ways to solve present-day problems. Time and access to information are the critical factors while choosing your case. Many research and studies are based on the time at which they have been formulated. Your caseshould challenge already formulated studies and should answer present-day problems.A case can be used when there are fewer studies to a particular problem. A case can be used as a tool which offers a new direction to establish a clear understanding of how to address a specific issue.2. Structure and Writing StyleThe purpose of writing a case study is to investigate a particular case thoroughly. The thorough study includes revealing a new awareness of research problem. In doing so, contributing new knowledge to what is already know. Following are the essential elements to structure and writing a case study:IntroductionThe introduction should reveal the scope and purpose of your research. It should not only describe the problem, but it should also explain why this case is being used and how it helps in solving the issue.Describe your research problem and the method of analysis which would address the problem. In an introduction, you can explain how the above-said elements are linked together.The second thing which you can explain in an introduction is the significance of your case. You can tell how your chosen case is suitable for solving problems.The third thing could be the background of a case study. With new insights, you can also explain the history of initial findings.Explain how your case study will help in expanding knowledge and understanding of a specific problem.Literature Review-This is about exploring books, scholarly articles, and any other sources of a specific area. In doing so, provides a description and summary of those works in relation to current problem.In the literature review, you can highlight relevant works and their contribution. This could include highlighting studies that have included a similar case to investigate the research problem. You can also explain why using the same case is essential (e.g. earlier studies were long ago developed).A particular case may have a no. of previous studies. There could be many unresolved issues that need to be addressed. Your present case study should help in resolving the existing conflicts. This, in turn, will assist in forming fresh insights.Summarize how your present case study helps to find new ways to understanding the research problem. It includes identifying the loopholes in earlier studies. It also, includes how the current study helps in removing those loopholes.Method-A method is an integral part of how to write a case study? In this, you will explain the reason behind choosing a particular case to study. Also, you can highlight the strategy you have used to identify and decide that your case is appropriate in addressing the researchproblem. The way you describe your method depends upon the type of subject of analysis. Case studies use different kind of subjects. I have explained them below.When Subject is an incident or event: The subject of analysis could be a rare or critical event, or it can be a regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event could be thinking about broader research problem or testing a hypothesis. You can explain the reason for choosing this particular subject.When your subject of analysis is a person: You can explain why you selected this specific person to be studied. You can also describe the experience this person is having which can advance understanding about the researchproblem. Consider what experience they have that make them worthy of this study.When your subject is a place: When a subject of case study is place, it must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem (i.e., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.) but also highlight the method which will illuminate new understanding about the research problem.When your subject is a phenomenon: A phenomenon is anything which manifests itself. It also referred to a fact or occurrence that can be studied or observed. There are many phenomena which are not clearly understood. You can choose such case which provides insightful understanding of a particular phenomenon.3. DiscussionThe key elements of discussion revolve around interpreting and drawing a conclusion about the key findings. It will be a good idea to link description of findings with the discussion about their implications. You should briefly explain your research problem, and then you can demonstrate the outcomes of your study. In the discussion, you can also define the meaning of your findings. Highlight your points which shows the significance of your results. It rarely happens that your subject has not been studied previously. Try to find similar studies and try to form a link between your and earlier studies on same issue.In discussion part, it is essential to make highlight the limitations of your study. Even afteryou have studied your subject thoroughly, there may still be many things which are left. Acknowledge those limitations and highlight question which your research could not answer.4. ConclusionThe conclusion is significant part of any case study. Summarize your conclusion in a simple language. Also, you can explain how your case study is different from previous studies. In conclusions, you will mention the most significant points of your research. The conclusion should briefly explain your research and findings of the case study. I have discussed in detail about how to write a case study. Even after this, if you stuck anywhere in your case study, I would suggest you to try assignment help online. They have many professionalexperts who can guide you to achieve the best results.Types of case studiesTill now, you have understood how to write a case study. Now I am going to talk about various kinds of case studies. Following are different types of case studies.Explanatory Case studyThis mainly focuses on an explanation for a specific question or phenomenon. A case study which has person or group of a person as their subjects would not be explanatory, as with humans, there will always be variables.Exploratory Case studyThese are case studies performed before implementing a large-scale study. The objective of this type of study is that further research is needed. Psychology and social sciences are the two subjects which use exploratory case studies highly. Psychologists always keen to find better ways to treat their subjects. This type of case study helps them to research the new ideas or theories.Multiple-Case StudiesMultiple or collective studies use information from different studies. This, in turn, helps to formulate a new case. Sometimes, a researcher has to spend time and money on additional studies. However, by using past studies allow additional information, which then prevents extra time and money.Intrinsic Case studyAn intrinsic case study is the study of a case (e.g., person, group, company) where the case itself is of primary interest in the exploration.Instrumental Case studyAn instrumental case study is the study of the case (i.e., person, group, department, company). This type of case study helps to gain new insights into specific topics, redraw generalizations, or build theory.Types of subjects of case studiesThere are typically five types of subjects. Whether it is an instrumental or intrinsic casestudy, each kind of case study uses subjects. I am going to mention different subjects below:PersonThis type of case studies focuses on a specific person. The best example of person case would be “Genie” case. Genie was only 13 years old when she was discovered in Los Angeles in 1970. Her father believed her to be mentally retarded and locked her in an empty room without any sort of stimulation. When she was discovered, psychologist wanted to know everything about her physical, emotional and mental health. They were interested in knowing her language skills. But when she was found, she had no form of language. A study was conducted on her. The objective was to see whether she was able to acquire language skillsat the age of 13. After that, she was placed in a hospital under the observation. This case study is still one of the most valuable.GroupThis type of study focuses on a group of people. Group can be family, company or even colleagues. An example of such kind of case study would be tribes living in African forests. These tribes have never had any modern contact. Therefore, many researchers take a deep interest in studying them.LocationThis type of study focuses on a place and the manner in which this place is related to people. For example, many studies have focused onSiberia, and people who live there. Siberia is very cold and barren place in Russia. Also, it is considered one of the most challenging place to live. Studying such area, and its climate can help people learn how to cope up with extreme weather and conditions.OrganizationThis sort of study focuses on a business or an organization. This could also include people working on the organization, or an event occurred at the organization. There are many studies which provide insights into a collapse of an organization. Such studies are essential as they help other companies to sustain and flourish.EventThis type of studies focuses on an event and how it affects the people. One of the significant studies which covered an event was of September 11th. The event in itself was very popular. Many studies were conducted on it. It was important to know what elements initiated such event and how to control such activities from happening in future. Related studies are not only important for US government but also other nations who want to prevent terrorism.Final wordsThis article tried to shed light on the information about the case study. From how to write a case study to types of case studies, this article everything about the case study. Case studies are considered useful in research as they provide insightful information about a particularcase (subject). Case studies from various disciplines and domains are widely published. Thanks for reading.。
教育技术专家 罗伯特
•
•
•
1995年，在Gary J. Anglin主编的《教学技术：过去、现代与未来》（第二版，1995 年）中R. A. Reiser与David F. Salisbury合著发表了《教学技术与美国公共教育的未来 十年（Instructional Technology and Public Education in the United States: The Next Decade）》一文，考察了当时美国教学技术的现状及未来十年其在美国教育中的 发展趋势。 Reiser引用教学技术协会Kurland（1970）年对教学技术的评价和美国技术评估部门 （Office of Technology Assessment）1988年当时计算机在美国公共教育的影响的评 价回顾了自1970年以来教学技术（instructiol technology）对美国公共教育的影响， 发现教学技术对美国教育影响甚微。 当时，Kurland认为教学技术其实就是两大教学媒体：教师和课本的辅助手段，即 使没有技术，教育也不会停滞不前（go on with hardly a missed lesson），而1988年 美国技术评估部门也认为当时尽管学校中开始拥有越来越多的计算机，但是教学 过程并没有发生实质性的变化（…but most elements of the instructional process remains the same.）。正是在这一背景下，Reiser开始反思教育技术未能在学校教育 中发挥重要作用的原因（play a significant role in the public schools）。为了探究这一 现象的根源，他从教学技术的定义入手，认为人们一般将教学技术等同于教学媒 体（instructional media），从而由于媒体硬件和软件可获取性、软件的质量与适用 性、教师的使用程序和固有的教学传统（tradition of teaching）等问题的存在使得 教学媒体难以在教学中发挥重要的作用。因此，Reiser认为提出应该将教学技术视 为一种发现教学问题，并设计、实施、评价和不断改进解决这些问题的方法的系 统化手段（systematic means）。
实证研究方法 书单
实证研究方法书单当涉及实证研究方法的书单时，有许多优秀的书籍可以供选择。
以下是一些常见的实证研究方法书单：1. "社会科学研究方法"（Social Research Methods）Alan Bryman.这本书提供了广泛的社会科学研究方法，涵盖了定性和定量研究方法，适合初学者和有经验的研究人员。
2. "案例研究方法"（Case Study Research: Design and Methods）Robert K. Yin.该书详细介绍了案例研究的设计和方法，适合那些对深入了解个案研究感兴趣的人。
3. "问卷设计与统计分析"（Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement）A.N. Oppenheim.这本书涵盖了问卷设计和统计分析的基本原则，适合那些需要进行定量研究的人。
4. "实证研究方法"（The Practice of Social Research）Earl Babbie.该书介绍了社会科学研究的基本原则和技巧，适合初学者和有经验的研究人员。
5. "定性研究方法"（Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation）Sharan B. Merriam.这本书提供了关于定性研究设计和实施的详细指导，适合那些对定性研究方法感兴趣的人。
以上书单涵盖了实证研究方法的各个方面，从定性到定量研究，从问卷设计到案例研究，适合不同水平和兴趣的研究人员。
希望这个书单能够对你有所帮助。
图灵奖
图灵奖简介图灵奖（A.M. Turing Award，又译“杜林奖”），由美国计算机协会（ACM）于1966年设立，又叫“A.M. 图灵奖”，专门奖励那些对计算机事业作出重要贡献的个人。
其名称取自计算机科学的先驱、英国科学家阿兰·麦席森·图灵。
由于图灵奖对获奖条件要求极高，评奖程序又是极严，一般每年只奖励一名计算机科学家，只有极少数年度有两名合作者或在同一方向作出贡献的科学家共享此奖。
因此它是计算机界最负盛名、最崇高的一个奖项，有“计算机界的诺贝尔奖”之称。
每年，美国计算机协会将要求提名人推荐本年度的图灵奖候选人，并附加一份200到500字的文章，说明被提名者为什么应获此奖。
任何人都可成为提名人。
美国计算机协会将组成评选委员会对被提名者进行严格的评审，并最终确定当年的获奖者图灵奖对获奖者的要求极高，评奖程序极严，一般每年只奖励一名计算机科学家，只有极少数年度有两名在同一方向上做出贡献的科学家同时获奖。
因此，尽管“图灵”的奖金数额不算高，但它却是计算机诺贝尔奖”之称。
美国计算机协会1966年图灵奖获得者美国科学家艾伦·佩利(Alan J.Perlis)：ALGOL语言和计算机科学的“催生者”。
获奖演说“算法系统的综合”（The Sy nthesis of AlgorithmicSy stem）。
1967年图灵奖获得者英国科学家莫里斯·威尔克斯(Maurice V.Wilkes)：世界上第一台存储程序式计算机EDSAC的研制者。
获奖演说“计算机的过去和现在”（ComputerThen and Now）。
1968年图灵奖获得者美国科学家理查德·汉明(RichardW.Hamming)：发明了纠错码——汉明码（HammingCode）。
获奖演说“对计算机科学的看法”（On Man‟s View of ComputerScience）。
1969年图灵奖获得者美国科学家马文·明斯基(Marv in L.Minsky)：“人工智能之父”，知识的框架理论（Frame Theory）创立者。
2005-2009考研英语阅读+答案【42页】
目录2005年考研英语真题阅读Text1 (1)2005年考研英语真题阅读Text2 (3)2005年考研英语真题阅读Text3 (5)2005年考研英语真题阅读Text4 (7)2006年考研英语真题阅读Text1 (9)2006年考研英语真题阅读Text2 (11)2006年考研英语真题阅读Text3 (13)2006年考研英语真题阅读Text4 (15)2007年考研英语真题阅读Text1 (17)2007年考研英语真题阅读Text2 (19)2007年考研英语真题阅读Text3 (21)2007年考研英语真题阅读Text4 (23)2008年考研英语真题阅读Text1 (25)2008年考研英语真题阅读Text2 (27)2008年考研英语真题阅读Text3 (29)2008年考研英语真题阅读Text4 (31)2009年考研英语真题阅读Text1 (33)2009年考研英语真题阅读Text2 (35)2009年考研英语真题阅读Text3 (37)2009年考研英语真题阅读Text4 (39)2005-2019考研英语真题阅读答案 (41)2005年考研英语真题阅读Text1Everybody loves a fat pay rise.Yet pleasure at your own can vanish if you learn that a colleague has been given a bigger one.Indeed,if he has a reputation for slacking,you might even be outraged.Such behaviour is regarded as“all too human”, with the underlying assumption that other animals would not be capable of this finely developed sense of grievance.But a study by Sarah Brosnan and Frans de Waal of Emory University in Atlanta,Georgia,which has just been published in Nature, suggests that it is all too monkey,as well.The researchers studied the behaviour of female brown capuchin monkeys.They look cute.They are good-natured,co-operative creatures,and they share their food readily.Above all,like their female human counterparts,they tend to pay much closer attention to the value of“goods and services”than males.Such characteristics make them perfect candidates for Dr.Brosnan’s and Dr.de Waal’s study.The researchers spent two years teaching their monkeys to exchange tokens for food.Normally,the monkeys were happy enough to exchange pieces of rock for slices of cucumber.However,when two monkeys were placed in separate but adjoining chambers,so that each could observe what the other was getting in return for its rock,their behaviour became markedly different.In the world of capuchins grapes are luxury goods(and much preferable to cucumbers).So when one monkey was handed a grape in exchange for her token,the second was reluctant to hand hers over for a mere piece of cucumber.And if one received a grape without having to provide her token in exchange at all,the other either tossed her own token at the researcher or out of the chamber,or refused to accept the slice of cucumber.Indeed,the mere presence of a grape in the other chamber(without an actual monkey to eat it)was enough to induce resentment in a female capuchin.The researchers suggest that capuchin monkeys,like humans,are guided by social emotions.In the wild,they are a co-operative,group-living species.Such co-operation is likely to be stable only when each animal feels it is not being cheated. Feelings of righteous indignation,it seems,are not the preserve of people alone. Refusing a lesser reward completely makes these feelings abundantly clear to other members of the group.However,whether such a sense of fairness evolved independently in capuchins and humans,or whether it stems from the common ancestor that the species had35million years ago,is,as yet,an unanswered question.21.In the opening paragraph,the author introduces his topic by[A]posing a contrast.[B]justifying an assumption.[C]making a comparison.[D]explaining a phenomenon.22.The statement“it is all too monkey”(Last line,Paragraph l)implies that[A]monkeys are also outraged by slack rivals.[B]resenting unfairness is also monkeys’nature.[C]monkeys,like humans,tend to be jealous of each other.[D]no animals other than monkeys can develop such emotions.23.Female capuchin monkeys were chosen for the research most probablybecause they are[A]more inclined to weigh what they get.[B]attentive to researchers’instructions.[C]nice in both appearance and temperament.[D]more generous than their male companions.24.Dr.Brosnan and Dr.de Waal have eventually found in their study that the monkeys[A]prefer grapes to cucumbers.[B]can be taught to exchange things.[C]will not be co-operative if feeling cheated.[D]are unhappy when separated from others.25.What can we infer from the last paragraph?[A]Monkeys can be trained to develop social emotions.[B]Human indignation evolved from an uncertain source.[C]Animals usually show their feelings openly as humans do.[D]Cooperation among monkeys remains stable only in the wild.2005年考研英语真题阅读Text2Do you remember all those years when scientists argued that smoking would kill us but the doubters insisted that we didn’t know for sure?That the evidence was inconclusive,the science uncertain?That the antismoking lobby was out to destroy our way of life and the government should stay out of the way?Lots of Americans bought that nonsense,and over three decades,some10million smokers went to early graves.There are upsetting parallels today,as scientists in one wave after another try to awaken us to the growing threat of global warming.The latest was a panel from the National Academy of Sciences,enlisted by the White House,to tell us that the Earth’s atmosphere is definitely warming and that the problem is largely man-made.The clear message is that we should get moving to protect ourselves.The president of the National Academy,Bruce Alberts,added this key point in the preface to the panel’s report:“Science never has all the answers.But science does provide us with the best available guide to the future,and it is critical that our nation and the world base important policies on the best judgments that science can provide concerning the future consequences of present actions.”Just as on smoking,voices now come from many quarters insisting that the science about global warming is incomplete,that it’s OK to keep pouring fumes into the air until we know for sure.This is a dangerous game:by the time100percent of the evidence is in,it may be too late.With the risks obvious and growing,a prudent people would take out an insurance policy now.Fortunately,the White House is starting to pay attention.But it’s obvious that a majority of the president’s advisers still don’t take global warming seriously.Instead of a plan of action,they continue to press for more research–a classic case of “paralysis by analysis”.To serve as responsible stewards of the planet,we must press forward on deeper atmospheric and oceanic research.But research alone is inadequate.If the Administration won’t take the legislative initiative,Congress should help to begin fashioning conservation measures.A bill by Democratic Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia,which would offer financial incentives for private industry,is a promising start.Many see that the country is getting ready to build lots of new power plants to meet our energy needs.If we are ever going to protect the atmosphere,it is crucial that those new plants be environmentally sound.26.An argument made by supporters of smoking was that[A]therewasno scientificevidenceof thecorrelationbetweensmokinganddeath.[B]thenumberof earlydeathsof smokersin thepastdecadeswasinsignificant.[C]people had the freedom to choose their own way of life.[D]antismoking people were usually talking nonsense.27.According to Bruce Alberts,science can serve as[A]a protector.[B]a judge.[C]a critic.[D]a guide.28.What does the author meanby“paralysisby analysis”(Lastline,Paragraph4)?[A]Endless studies kill action.[B]Careful investigation reveals truth.[C]Prudent planning hinders progress.[D]Extensive research helps decision-making.29.Accordingtotheauthor,whatshouldtheAdministrationdo aboutglobalwarming?[A]Offer aid to build cleaner power plants.[B]Raise public awareness of conservation.[C]Press for further scientific research.[D]Take some legislative measures.30.The authorassociatesthe issue of globalwarmingwith that of smokingbecause[A]they both suffered from the government’s negligence.[B]a lesson from the latter is applicable to the former.[C]the outcome of the latter aggravates the former.[D]both of them have turned from bad to worse.2005年考研英语真题阅读Text3Of all the components of a good night’s sleep,dreams seem to be least within our control.In dreams,a window opens into a world where logic is suspended and dead people speak.A century ago,Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the disguised shadows of our unconscious desires and fears;by the late1970s, neurologists had switched to thinking of them as just“mental noise”–the random byproducts of the neural-repair work that goes on during sleep.Now researchers suspect that dreams are part of the mind’s emotional thermostat,regulating moods while the brain is“off-line.”And one leading authority says that these intensely powerful mental events can be not only harnessed but actually brought under conscious control,to help us sleep and feel better.“It’s your dream,”says Rosalind Cartwright,chair of psychology at Chicago’s Medical Center.“If you don’t like it, change it.”Evidence from brain imaging supports this view.The brain is as active during REM(rapid eye movement)sleep–when most vivid dreams occur–as it is when fully awake,says Dr.Eric Nofzinger at the University of Pittsburgh.But not all parts of the brain are equally involved;the limbic system(the“emotional brain”)is especially active,while the prefrontal cortex(the center of intellect and reasoning)is relatively quiet.“We wake up from dreams happy or depressed,and those feelings can stay with us all day.”says Stanford sleep researcher Dr.WilliamDement.The link between dreams and emotions shows up among the patients in Cartwright’s clinic.Most people seem to have more bad dreams early in the night, progressing toward happier ones before awakening,suggesting that they are working through negative feelings generated during the day.Because our conscious mind is occupied with daily life we don’t always think about the emotional significance of the day’s events–until,it appears,we begin to dream.And this process need not be left to the unconscious.Cartwright believes one can exercise conscious control over recurring bad dreams.As soon as you awaken, identify what is upsetting about the dream.Visualize how you would like it to end instead;the next time it occurs,try to wake up just enough to control its course.With much practice people can learn to,literally,do it in theirsleep.At the end of the day,there’s probably little reason to pay attention to our dreams at all unless they keep us from sleeping or“we wake up in a panic,”Cartwright says. Terrorism,economic uncertainties and general feelings of insecurity have increased people’s anxiety.Those suffering from persistent nightmares should seek help from a therapist.For the rest of us,the brain has its ways of working through bad feelings. Sleep–or rather dream–on it and you’ll feel better in the morning.31.Researchers have come to believe that dreams[A]can be modified in their courses.[B]are susceptible to emotional changes.[C]reflect our innermost desires and fears.[D]are a random outcome of neural repairs.32.By referring to the limbic system,the author intends to show[A]its function in our dreams.[B]the mechanism of REM sleep.[C]the relation of dreams to emotions.[D]its difference from the prefrontal cortex.33.The negative feelings generated during the day tend to[A]aggravate in our unconscious mind.[B]develop into happy dreams.[C]persist till the time we fall asleep.[D]show up in dreams early at night.34.Cartwright seems to suggest that[A]waking up in time is essential to the ridding of bad dreams.[B]visualizing bad dreams helps bring them under control.[C]dreams should be left to their natural progression.[D]dreaming may not entirely belong to the unconscious.35.What advice might Cartwright give to those who sometimes have bad dreams?[A]Lead your life as usual.[B]Seek professional help.[C]Exercise conscious control.[D]Avoid anxiety in the daytime.2005年考研英语真题阅读Text4Americans no longer expect public figures,whether in speech or in writing,to command the English language with skill and gift.Nor do they aspire to such command themselves.In his latest book,Doing Our Own Thing:The Degradation of Language and Music and Why We Should Like,Care,John McWhorter,a linguist and controversialist of mixed liberal and conservative views,sees the triumph of1960s counter-culture as responsible for the decline of formal English.Blaming the permissive1960s is nothing new,but this is not yet another criticism against the decline in education.Mr.McWhorter’s academic speciality is language history and change,and he sees the gradual disappearance of“whom”,for example, to be natural and no more regrettable than the loss of the case-endings of Old English.But the cult of the authentic and the personal,“doing our own thing”,has spelt the death of formal speech,writing,poetry and music.While even the modestly educated sought an elevated tone when they put pen to paper before the1960s,even the most well regarded writing since then has sought to capture spoken English on the page.Equally,in poetry,the highly personal,performative genre is the only form that could claim real liveliness.In both oral and written English,talking is triumphing over speaking,spontaneity over craft.Illustrated with an entertaining array of examples from both high and low culture, the trend that Mr.McWhorter documents is unmistakable.But it is less clear,to take the question of his subtitle,why we should,like,care.As a linguist,he acknowledges that all varieties of human language,including non-standard ones like Black English, can be powerfully expressive–there exists no language or dialect in the world that cannot convey complex ideas.He is not arguing,as many do,that we can no longer think straight because we do not talk proper.Russians have a deep love for their own language and carry large chunks of memorized poetry in their heads,while Italian politicians tend to elaborate speech that would seem old-fashioned to most English-speakers.Mr.McWhorter acknowledges that formal language is not strictly necessary,and proposes no radical education reforms–he is really grieving over the loss of something beautiful more than useful.We now take our English“on paper plates instead of china”.A shame, perhaps,but probably an inevitable one.36.According to Mc Whorter,the decline of formal English[A]is inevitable in radical education reforms.[B]is but all too natural in language development.[C]has caused the controversy over the counter-culture.[D]brought about changes in public attitudes in the1960s.37.The word“talking”(Line6,Paragraph3)denotes[A]modesty.[B]personality.[C]liveliness.[D]informality.38.Towhichof thefollowingstatementswouldMcWhortermostlikelyagree?[A]Logical thinking is not necessarily related to the way we talk.[B]Black English can be more expressive than standard English.[C]Non-standard varieties of human language are just as entertaining.[D]Of all the varieties,standard English can best convey complex ideas.39.Thedescriptionof Russians’loveof memorizingpoetryshowstheauthor’s[A]interest in their language.[B]appreciation of their efforts.[C]admiration for their memory.[D]contempt for their old-fashionedness.40.According to the last paragraph,“paper plates”is to“china”as[A]“temporary”is to“permanent”.[B]“radical”is to“conservative”.[C]“functional”is to“artistic”.[D]“humble”is to“noble”.2006年考研英语真题阅读Text1In spite of“endless talk of difference,”American society is an amazing machine for homogenizing people.There is“the democratizing uniformity of dress and discourse,and the casualness and absence of deference”characteristic of popular culture.People are absorbed into“a culture of consumption”launched by the19th-century department stores that offered“vast arrays of goods in an elegant atmosphere. Instead of intimate shops catering to a knowledgeable elite”these were stores“anyone could enter,regardless of class or background.This turned shopping into a public and democratic act.”The mass media,advertising and sports are other forces for homogenization.Immigrants are quickly fitting into this common culture,which may not be altogether elevating but is hardly poisonous.Writing for the National Immigration Forum,Gregory Rodriguez reports that today’s immigration is neither at unprecedented levels nor resistant to assimilation.In1998immigrants were9.8 percent of the population;in1900,13.6percent.In the10years prior to1990,3.1 immigrants arrived for every1,000residents;in the10years prior to1890,9.2for every1,000.Now,consider three indices of assimilation–language,home ownership and intermarriage.The1990Census revealed that“a majority of immigrants from each of the fifteen most common countries of origin spoke English‘well’or‘very well’after ten years of residence.”The children of immigrants tend to be bilingual and proficient in English.“By the third generation,the original language is lost in the majority of immigrant families.”Hence the description of America as a“graveyard”for languages.By1996 foreign-born immigrants who had arrived before1970had a home ownership rate of 75.6percent,higher than the69.8percent rate among native-born Americans.Foreign-born Asians and Hispanics“have higher rates of intermarriage than do U.S.-born whites and blacks.”By the third generation,one third of Hispanic women are married to non-Hispanics,and41percent of Asian-American women are married to non-Asians.Rodriguez notes that children in remote villages around the world are fans of superstars like Arnold Schwarzenegger and Garth Brooks,yet“some Americans fear that immigrants living within the United States remain somehow immune to the nation’s assimilative power.”Are there divisive issues and pockets of seething anger in America?Indeed.It is big enough to have a bit of everything.But particularly when viewed against America’s turbulent past,today’s social indices hardly suggest a dark and deteriorating social environment.21.The word“homogenizing”(Line2,Paragraph1)most probably means[A]identifying.[B]associating.[C]assimilating.[D]monopolizing.22.According to the author,the department stores of the19th century[A]played a role in the spread of popular culture.[B]became intimate shops for common consumers.[C]satisfied the needs of a knowledgeable elite.[D]owed its emergence to the culture of consumption.23.The text suggests that immigrants now in the U.S.[A]are resistant to homogenization.[B]exert a great influence on American culture.[C]are hardly a threat to the common culture.[D]constitute the majority of the population.24.Why areArnold Schwarzeneggerand Garth Brooks mentionedin Paragraph5?[A]To prove their popularity around the world.[B]To reveal the public’s fear of immigrants.[C]To give examples of successful immigrants.[D]To show the powerful influence of American culture.25.In the author’s opinion,the absorption of immigrants into American society is[A]rewarding.[B]successful.[C]fruitless.[D]harmful.2006年考研英语真题阅读Text2Stratford-on-Avon,as we all know,has only one industry–William Shakespeare–but there are two distinctly separate and increasingly hostile branches. There is the Royal Shakespeare Company(RSC),which presents superb productions of the plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre on the Avon.And there are the townsfolk who largely live off the tourists who come,not to see the plays,but to look at Anne Hathaway’s Cottage,Shakespeare’s birthplace and the other sights.The worthy residents of Stratford doubt that the theater adds a penny to their revenue.They frankly dislike the RSC’s actors,them with their long hair and beards and sandals and noisiness.It’s all deliciously ironic when you consider that Shakespeare,who earns their living,was himself an actor(with a beard)and did his share of noise-making.The tourist streams are not entirely separate.The sightseers who come by bus–and often take in Warwick Castle and Blenheim Palace on the side–don’t usually see the plays,and some of them are even surprised to find a theatre in Stratford.However,the playgoers do manage a little sight-seeing along with their playgoing.It is the playgoers,the RSC contends,who bring in much of the town’s revenue because they spend the night(some of them four or five nights)pouring cash into the hotels and restaurants.The sightseers can take in everything and get out of town by nightfall.The townsfolk don’t see it this way and the local council does not contribute directly to the subsidy of the Royal Shakespeare Company.Stratford cries poor traditionally.Nevertheless every hotel in town seems to be adding a new wing or cocktail lounge.Hilton is building its own hotel there,which you may be sure will be decorated with Hamlet Hamburger Bars,the Lear Lounge,the Banquo Banqueting Room,and so forth,and will be very expensive.Anyway,the townsfolk can’t understand why the Royal Shakespeare Company needs a subsidy.(The theatre has broken attendance records for three years in a row. Last year its1,431seats were94per cent occupied all year long and this year they’ll do better.)The reason,of course,is that costs have rocketed and ticket prices have stayed low.It would be a shame to raise prices too much because it would drive away the young people who are Stratford’s most attractive clientele.They come entirely for the plays,not the sights.They all seem to look alike(though they come from all over)–lean,pointed,dedicated faces,wearing jeans and sandals,eating their buns and bedding down for the night on the flagstones outside the theatre to buy the20 seats and80standing-room tickets held for the sleepers and sold to them when the box office opens at10:30a.m.26.From the first two paragraphs,we learn that[A]the townsfolk deny the RSC’s contribution to the town’s revenue.[B]the actors of the RSC imitate Shakespeare on and off stage.[C]the two branches of the RSC are not on good terms.[D]the townsfolk earn little from tourism.27.It can be inferred from Paragraph3that[A]the sightseers cannot visit the Castle and the Palace separately.[B]the playgoers spend more money than the sightseers.[C]the sightseers do more shopping than the playgoers.[D]the playgoers go to no other places in town than the theater.28.By saying“Stratford cries poor traditionally”(Line2,Paragraph4),the authorimplies that[A]Stratford cannot afford the expansion projects.[B]Stratford has long been in financial difficulties.[C]the town is not really short of money.[D]the townsfolk used to be poorly paid.29.According to the townsfolk,the RSC deserves no subsidy because[A]ticket prices can be raised to cover the spending.[B]the company is financially ill-managed.[C]the behavior of the actors is not socially acceptable.[D]the theatre attendance is on the rise.30.From the text we can conclude that the author[A]is supportive of both sides.[B]favors the townsfolk’s view.[C]takes a detached attitude.[D]is sympathetic to the RSC.2006年考研英语真题阅读Text3When prehistoric man arrived in new parts of the world,something strange happened to the large animals:they suddenly became extinct.Smaller species survived.The large,slow-growing animals were easy game,and were quickly hunted to extinction.Now something similar could be happening in the oceans.That the seas are being overfished has been known for years.What researchers such as Ransom Myers and Boris Worm have shown is just how fast things are changing.They have looked at half a century of data from fisheries around the world. Their methods do not attempt to estimate the actual biomass(the amount of living biological matter)of fish species in particular parts of the ocean,but rather changes in that biomass over time.According to their latest paper published in Nature,the biomass of large predators(animals that kill and eat other animals)in a new fishery is reduced on average by80%within15years of the start of exploitation.In some long-fished areas,it has halved again since then.Dr.Worm acknowledges that these figures are conservative.One reason for this is that fishing technology has improved.Today’s vessels can find their prey using satellites and sonar,which were not available50years ago.That means a higher proportion of what is in the sea is being caught,so the real difference between present and past is likely to be worse than the one recorded by changes in catch sizes.In the early days,too,longlines would have been more saturated with fish.Some individuals would therefore not have been caught,since no baited hooks would have been available to trap them,leading to an underestimate of fish stocks in the past. Furthermore,in the early days of longline fishing,a lot of fish were lost to sharks after they had been hooked.That is no longer a problem,because there are fewer sharks around now.Dr.Myers and Dr.Worm argue that their work gives a correct baseline,which future management efforts must take into account.They believe the data support an idea current among marine biologists,that of the“shifting baseline”.The notion is that people have failed to detect the massive changes which have happened in the ocean because they have been looking back only a relatively short time into the past. That matters because theory suggests that the maximum sustainable yield that can be cropped from a fishery comes when the biomass of a target species is about50%of its original levels.Most fisheries are well below that,which is a bad way to do business.31.The extinction of large prehistoric animals is noted to suggest that[A]large animals were vulnerable to the changing environment.[B]small species survived as large animals disappeared.[C]large sea animals may face the same threat today.[D]slow-growing fish outlive fast-growing ones.32.We can infer from Dr.Myers and Dr.Worm’s paper that[A]the stock of large predators in some old fisheries has reduced by90%.[B]there are only half as many fisheries as there were15years ago.[C]the catch sizes in new fisheries are only20%of the original amount.[D]the number of large predators dropped faster in new fisheries than in the old.33.By saying“these figures are conservative”(Line1,Paragraph3),Dr.Wormmeans that[A]fishing technology has improved rapidly.[B]the catch-sizes are actually smaller than recorded.[C]the marine biomass has suffered a greater loss.[D]the data collected so far are out of date.34.Dr.Myers and other researchers hold that[A]people should look for a baseline that can work for a longer time.[B]fisheries should keep their yields below50%of the biomass.[C]the ocean biomass should be restored to its original level.[D]people should adjust the fishing baseline to the changing situation.35.The author seems to be mainly concerned with most fisheries’[A]management efficiency.[B]biomass level.[C]catch-size limits.[D]technological application.2006年考研英语真题阅读Text4Many things make people think artists are weird.But the weirdest may be this: artists’only job is to explore emotions,and yet they choose to focus on the ones that feel bad.This wasn’t always so.The earliest forms of art,like painting and music,are those best suited for expressing joy.But somewhere from the19th century onward, more artists began seeing happiness as meaningless,phony or,worst of all,boring,as we went from Wordsworth’s daffodils to Baudelaire’s flowers of evil.You could argue that art became more skeptical of happiness because modern times have seen so much misery.But it’s not as if earlier times didn’t know perpetual war,disaster and the massacre of innocents.The reason,in fact,may be just the opposite:there is too much damn happiness in the world today.After all,what is the one modern form of expression almost completely dedicated to depicting happiness?Advertising.The rise of anti-happy art almost exactly tracks the emergence of mass media,and with it,a commercial culture in which happiness is not just an ideal but an ideology.People in earlier eras were surrounded by reminders of misery.They worked until exhausted,lived with few protections and died young.In the West,before mass communication and literacy,the most powerful mass medium was the church,which reminded worshippers that their souls were in danger and that they would someday be meat for worms.Given all this,they did not exactly need their art to be a bummer too.Today the messages the average Westerner is surrounded with are not religious but commercial,and forever happy.Fast-food eaters,news anchors,text messengers, all smiling,smiling,smiling.Our magazines feature beaming celebrities and happy families in perfect homes.And since these messages have an agenda–to lure us to open our wallets–they make the very idea of happiness seem unreliable.“Celebrate!”commanded the ads for the arthritis drug Celebrex,before we found out it could increase the risk of heart attacks.But what we forget–what our economy depends on us forgetting–is that happiness is more than pleasure without pain.The things that bring the greatest joy carry the greatest potential for loss and disappointment.Today,surrounded by promises of easy happiness,we need art to tell us,as religion once did,Memento mori: remember that you will die,that everything ends,and that happiness comes not in denying this but in living with it.It’s a message even more bitter than a clove cigarette, yet,somehow,a breath of fresh air.。
Qualitative Case Study定性的个案研究
Case Study vs. Ethnography
• Similarity: focus on a case or cases; in-depth study; natural context; emic and etic perspectives
• Differences (Gall et al., 2005):
• Reflective analysis Reflective analysis refers to a process in which qualitative researchers rely mainly on their own intuition and personal judgment to analyze the data that have been collected; it can also involve critical appreciation.
Case study
Ethnography
Focus on various phenomena Focus on aspects of culture
A certain period of study
A longer, more in-depth period of data collection
case study
Case Study1.Definition：(1)A case study research method is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context (Robert K. Yin,1984).(2) A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (e.g., a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors in relation to context (Flyvbjerg B,2011).Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves.A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.Overview：Case studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to provide as complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. This type of comprehensive understanding is arrived at through a process known as thick description, which involves an in-depth description of the entity being evaluated, the circumstances under which it is used, the characteristics of the people involved in it, and the nature of the community in which it is located. Thick description also involves interpreting the meaning of demographic and descriptive data such as cultural norms and mores, community values, ingrained attitudes, and motives.Unlike quantitative methods of research, like the survey, which focus on the questions of who, what, where, how much, and how many, and archival analysis, which often situates the participant in some form of historical context, case studies are the preferred strategy when how or why questions are asked. L ikewise, they are the preferred method when the researcher has little control over the events, and when there is a contemporary focus within a real life context. In addition, unlike more specifically directed experiments, case studies require a problem that seeks a holistic understanding of the event or situation in question using inductive logic--reasoning from specific to more general terms.In scholarly circles, case studies are frequently discussed within the context of qualitative research and naturalistic inquiry. Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with ethnography, field study, and participant observation. The underlying philosophical assumptions in the case are similar to these types of qualitative research because each takes place in a natural setting (such as a classroom, neighborhood, or private home), and strives for a more holistic interpretation of the event or situation under study.Unlike more statistically-based studies which search for quantifiable data, thegoal of a case study is to offer new variables and questions for further research.F.H. Giddings, a sociologist in the early part of the century, compares statistical methods to the case study "on the basis that the former are concerned with the distribution of a particular trait, or a small number of traits, in a population, whereas the case study is concerned with the whole variety of traits to be found in a particular instance" (Hammersley 95).2. Types：Under the more generalized category of case study exist several subdivisions, each of which is custom selected for use depending upon the goals and/or objectives of the investigator. These types of case study include the following:1). Illustrative Case StudiesThese are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilize one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.2).Exploratory (or pilot) Case StudiesThese are condensed case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pitfall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.3).Cumulative Case StudiesThese serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalization without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.4).Critical Instance Case StudiesThese examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalizability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalized or universal assertion. This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.Identifying a Theoretical PerspectiveMuch of the case study's design is inherently determined for researchers, depending on the field from which they are working. In composition studies, researchers aretypically working from a qualitative, descriptive standpoint. In contrast, physicists will approach their research from a more quantitative perspective. Still, in designing the study, researchers need to make explicit the questions to be explored and the theoretical perspective from which they will approach the case. The three most commonly adopted theories are listed below:Individual TheoriesThese focus primarily on the individual development, cognitive behavior, personality, learning and disability, and interpersonal interactions of a particular subject. Organizational TheoriesThese focus on bureaucracies, institutions, organizational structure and functions, or excellence in organizational performance.Social TheoriesThese focus on urban development, group behavior, cultural institutions, or marketplace functions.3.Designing a Case Study：After considering the different sub categories of case study and identifying a theoretical perspective, researchers can begin to design their study. Research design is the string of logic that ultimately links the data to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of the study. Typically, research designs deal with at least four problems:∙What questions to study∙What data are relevant∙What data to collect∙How to analyze that dataIn other words, a research design is basically a blueprint for getting from the beginning to the end of a study. The beginning is an initial set of questions to be answered, and the end is some set of conclusions about those questions.Because case studies are conducted on topics as diverse as Anglo-Saxon Literature (Thrane 1986) and AIDS prevention (Van Vugt 1994), it is virtually impossible to outline any strict or universal method or design for conducting the case study. However, Robert K. Yin (1993) does offer five basic components of a research design:1. A study's questions.2. A study's propositions (if any).3. A study's units of analysis.4.The logic linking of the data to the propositions.5.The criteria for interpreting the findings.In addition to these five basic components, Yin also stresses the importance of clearly articulating one's theoretical perspective, determining the goals of the study, selecting one's subject(s), selecting the appropriate method(s) of collecting data, and providing some considerations to the composition of the final report.4. Conducting Case StudiesTo obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of approaches and methods. These approaches, methods, and related issues are discussed in depth in this section.∙Single or Multi-modal approachTo obtain as complete a picture of the participant as possible, case study researchers can employ a variety of methods. Some common methods include interviews, protocol analyses, field studies, and participant-observations. Emig (1971) chose to use several methods of data collection. Her sources included conversations with the students, protocol analysis, discrete observations of actual composition, writing samples from each student, and school records (Lauer and Asher 1988).Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) collected data by observing classrooms, conducting faculty and student interviews, collecting self reports from the subject, and by looking at the subject's written work.A study that was criticized for using a single method model was done by Flower and Hayes (1984). In this study that explores the ways in which writers use different forms of knowing to create space, the authors used only protocol analysis to gather data. The study came under heavy fire because of their decision to use only one method, and it was, at least according to some researchers, an unreliable method at that.∙Participant SelectionCase studies can use one participant, or a small group of participants. However, it is important that the participant pool remain relatively small. The participants can represent a diverse cross section of society, but this isn't necessary.For example, the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study looked at just one participant, Nate. By contrast, in Janet Emig's (1971) study of the composition process of twelfth graders, eight participants were selected representing a diverse cross section of the community, with volunteers from an all-white upper-middle-classsuburban school, an all-black inner-city school, a racially mixed lower-middle-class school, an economically and racially mixed school, and a university school.Often, a brief "case history" is done on the participants of the study in order to provide researchers with a clearer understanding of their participants, as well as some insight as to how their own personal histories might affect the outcome of the study. For instance, in Emig's study, the investigator had access to the school records of five of the participants, and to standardized test scores for the remaining three. Also made available to the researcher was the information that three of the eight students were selected as NCTE Achievement Award winners. These personal histories can be useful in later stages of the study when data are being analyzed and conclusions drawn.Data CollectionThere are six types of data collected in case studies:1.Documents.2.Archival records.3.Interviews.4.Direct observation.5.Participant observation.6.Artifacts.In the field of composition research, these six sources might be:1. A writer's drafts.2.School records of student writers.3.Transcripts of interviews with a writer.4.Transcripts of conversations between writers (and protocols).5.Videotapes and notes from direct field observations.6.Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.Depending on whether researchers have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, they may choose to collect data from one or anycombination of these sources.Protocols, that is, transcriptions of participants talking aloud about what they are doing as they do it, have been particularly common in composition case studies. For example, in Emig's (1971) study, the students were asked, in four different sessions, to give oral autobiographies of their writing experiences and to compose aloud three themes in the presence of a tape recorder and the investigator.In some studies, only one method of data collection is conducted. For example, the Flower and Hayes (1981) report on the cognitive process theory of writing depends on protocol analysis alone. However, using multiple sources of evidence to increase the reliability and validity of the data can be advantageous.Case studies are likely to be much more convincing and accurate if they are based on several different sources of information, following a corroborating mode. This conclusion is echoed among many composition researchers. For example, in her study of predrafting processes of high and low-apprehensive writers, Cynthia Selfe (1985) argues that because "methods of indirect observation provide only an incomplete reflection of the complex set of processes involved in composing, a combination of several such methods should be used to gather data in any one study." Thus, in this study, Selfe collected her data from protocols, observations of students role playing their writing processes, audio taped interviews with the students, and videotaped observations of the students in the process of composing.It can be said then, that cross checking data from multiple sources can help provide a multidimensional profile of composing activities in a particular setting. Sharan Merriam (1985) suggests "checking, verifying, testing, probing, and confirming collected data as you go, arguing that this process will follow in a funnel-like design resulting in less data gathering in later phases of the study along with a congruent increase in analysis checking, verifying, and confirming."It is important to note that in case studies, as in any qualitative descriptive research, while researchers begin their studies with one or several questions driving the inquiry (which influence the key factors the researcher will be looking for during data collection), a researcher may find new key factors emerging during data collection. These might be unexpected patterns or linguistic features which become evident only during the course of the research. While not bearing directly on the researcher's guiding questions, these variables may become the basis for new questions asked at the end of the report, thus linking to the possibility of further research.Data AnalysisAs the information is collected, researchers strive to make sense of their data. Generally, researchers interpret their data in one of two ways: holistically or through coding. Holistic analysis does not attempt to break the evidence into parts, but rather to draw conclusions based on the text as a whole. Flower and Hayes (1981), for example, make inferences from entire sections of their students' protocols, rather than searching through the transcripts to look for isolatable characteristics.However, composition researchers commonly interpret their data by coding, that is by systematically searching data to identify and/or categorize specific observable actions or characteristics. These observable actions then become the key variables in thestudy. Sharan Merriam (1988) suggests seven analytic frameworks for the organization and presentation of data:1.The role of participants.2.The network analysis of formal and informal exchanges among groups.3.Historical.4.Thematical.5.Resources.6.Ritual and symbolism.7.Critical incidents that challenge or reinforce fundamental beliefs, practices,and values.There are two purposes of these frameworks: to look for patterns among the data and to look for patterns that give meaning to the case study.As stated above, while most researchers begin their case studies expecting to look for particular observable characteristics, it is not unusual for key variables to emerge during data collection. Typical variables coded in case studies of writers include pauses writers make in the production of a text, the use of specific linguistic units (such as nouns or verbs), and writing processes (planning, drafting, revising, and editing). In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, researchers coded the participant's texts for use of connectives, discourse demonstratives, average sentence length, off-register words, use of the first person pronoun, and the ratio of definite articles to indefinite articles.Since coding is inherently subjective, more than one coder is usually employed. In the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study, for example, three rhetoricians were employed to code the participant's texts for off-register phrases. The researchers established the agreement among the coders before concluding that the participant used fewer off-register words as the graduate program progressed.Composing the ReportIn the many forms it can take, "a case study is generically a story; it presents the concrete narrative detail of actual, or at least realistic events, it has a plot, exposition, characters, and sometimes even dialogue" (Boehrer 1990). Generally, case study reports are extensively descriptive, with "the most problematic issue often referred to as being the determination of the right combination of description and analysis" (1990). Typically, authors address each step of the research process, and attempt to give the reader as much context as possible for the decisions made in the research design and for the conclusions drawn.This contextualization usually includes a detailed explanation of the researchers' theoretical positions, of how those theories drove the inquiry or led to the guiding research questions, of the participants' backgrounds, of the processes of datacollection, of the training and limitations of the coders, along with a strong attempt to make connections between the data and the conclusions evident.Although the Berkenkotter, Huckin, and Ackerman (1988) study does not, case study reports often include the reactions of the participants to the study or to the researchers' conclusions. Because case studies tend to be exploratory, most end with implications for further study. Here researchers may identify significant variables that emerged during the research and suggest studies related to these, or the authors may suggest further general questions that their case study generated.For example, Emig's (1971) study concludes with a section dedicated solely to the topic of implications for further research, in which she suggests several means by which this particular study could have been improved, as well as questions and ideas raised by this study which other researchers might like to address, such as: is there a correlation between a certain personality and a certain composing process profile (e.g. is there a positive correlation between ego strength and persistence in revising)?Also included in Emig's study is a section dedicated to implications for teaching, which outlines the pedagogical ramifications of the study's findings for teachers currently involved in high school writing programs.Sharan Merriam (1985) also offers several suggestions for alternative presentations of data:1.Prepare specialized condensations for appropriate groups.2.Replace narrative sections with a series of answers to open-ended questions.3.Present "skimmer's" summaries at beginning of each section.4.Incorporate headlines that encapsulate information from text.5.Prepare analytic summaries with supporting data appendixes.6.Present data in colorful and/or unique graphic representations.5.Strengths and Weaknesses：FlexibilityThe case study approach is a comparatively flexible method of scientific research. Because its project designs seem to emphasize exploration rather than prescription or prediction, researchers are comparatively freer to discover and address issues as they arise in their experiments. In addition, the looser format of case studies allows researchers to begin with broad questions and narrow their focus as their experiment progresses rather than attempt to predict every possible outcome before the experiment is conducted.Emphasis on ContextBy seeking to understand as much as possible about a single subject or small group of subjects, case studies specialize in "deep data," or "thick description"--information based on particular contexts that can give research results a more human face. This emphasis can help bridge the gap between abstract research and concrete practice by allowing researchers to compare their firsthand observations with the quantitative results obtained through other methods of research.Inherent Subjectivity"The case study has long been stereotyped as the weak sibling among social science methods," and is often criticized as being too subjective and even pseudo-scientific. Likewise, "investigators who do case studies are often regarded as having deviated from their academic disciplines, and their investigations as having insufficient precision (that is, quantification), objectivity and rigor" (Yin 1989). Opponents cite opportunities for subjectivity in the implementation, presentation, and evaluation of case study research. The approach relies on personal interpretation of data and inferences. Results may not be generalizable, are difficult to test for validity, and rarely offer a problem-solving prescription. Simply put, relying on one or a few subjects as a basis for cognitive extrapolations runs the risk of inferring too much from what might be circumstance.High InvestmentCase studies can involve learning more about the subjects being tested than most researchers would care to know--their educational background, emotional background, perceptions of themselves and their surroundings, their likes, dislikes, and so on. Because of its emphasis on "deep data," the case study is out of reach for many large-scale research projects which look at a subject pool in the tens of thousands. A budget request of $10,000 to examine 200 subjects sounds more efficient than a similar request to examine four subjects.Ethical ConsiderationsResearchers conducting case studies should consider certain ethical issues. For example, many educational case studies are often financed by people who have, either directly or indirectly, power over both those being studied and those conducting the investigation (1985). This conflict of interests can hinder the credibility of the study. The personal integrity, sensitivity, and possible prejudices and/or biases of the investigators need to be taken into consideration as well. Personal biases can creep into how the research is conducted, alternative research methods used, and the preparation of surveys and questionnaires.A common complaint in case study research is that investigators change direction during the course of the study unaware that their original research design was inadequate for the revised investigation. Thus, the researchers leave unknown gaps and biases in the study. To avoid this, researchers should report preliminary findings so that the likelihood of bias will be reduced.6. Concerns about V alidity, Reliability, and GeneralizabilityMerriam (1985) offers several suggestions for how case study researchers might actively combat the popular attacks on the validity, reliability, and generalizability of case studies:Steps to Improve Validity and Reliability∙Prolong the Processes of Data Gathering on Site: This will help to insure the accuracy of the findings by providing the researcher with more concreteinformation upon which to formulate interpretations.∙Employ the Process of "Triangulation": Use a variety of data sources as opposed to relying solely upon one avenue of observation. One example ofsuch a data check would be what McClintock, Brannon, and Maynard (1985)refer to as a "case cluster method," that is, when a single unit within a largercase is randomly sampled, and that data treated quantitatively." For instance,in Emig's (1971) study, the case cluster method was employed, singling outthe productivity of a single student named Lynn. This cluster profile includedan advanced case history of the subject, specific examination and analysis ofindividual compositions and protocols, and extensive interview sessions. Theseven remaining students were then compared with the case of Lynn, toascertain if there are any shared, or unique dimensions to the composingprocess engaged in by these eight students.∙Conduct Member Checks: Initiate and maintain an active corroboration on the interpretation of data between the researcher and those who provided thedata. In other words, talk to your subjects.∙Collect Referential Materials: Complement the file of materials from the actual site with additional document support. For example, Emig (1971)supports her initial propositions with historical accounts by writers such as T.S.Eliot, James Joyce, and D.H. Lawrence. Emig also cites examples oftheoretical research done with regards to the creative process, as well asexamples of empirical research dealing with the writing of adolescents.Specific attention is then given to the four stages description of the composingprocess delineated by Helmoltz, Wallas, and Cowley, as it serves as the focalpoint in this study.∙Engage in Peer Consultation: Prior to composing the final draft of the report, researchers should consult with colleagues in order to establish validitythrough pooled judgment.。
案例研究设计与方法Case Study Research Design and Methods
案例研究设计与方法Case Study Research Design andMethodsCase Study Research. Design and Methods (1994, Second edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage)By Robert K. YinSummaryGeneral characteristics, When to use case study method?1) The type of research question: typically to answer questions like “how”or “why”2) Extent of control over behavioural events: when investigator hasalittle/no possibility to control the events3) General circumstances of the phenomenon to be studied: contemporaryphenomenon in a real-life context, Case study is an empirical inquiry, in which:-Focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context &boundaries between phenomenon and its context are not clearly evident, Suitable for studying complex social phenomena-Procedural characteristics in the situation include: Many variables ofinterest; multiple sources of evidence; theoretical propositions to guide thecollection and analysis of data-Types of case studies might be: explanatory; exploratory; descriptive-Designs can be single- or multiple-case studies-Used methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or both, Typical criticisms towards case studies & correcting answers: -Lack of systematic handling of data -> Systematic reporting of all evidence-No basis for scientific generalization -> Purpose is to generalize to theoreticalpropositions, not to population as in statistical research-Take too long, end up with unreadable documents -> Time limits & writingformula depend on the choices of investigatorsCase study research design, Central components of a case study design & their functions:1) A study’s questions –“how”, “why”2) Study’s (theoretical) propositions – pointing attention, limiting scope,suggesting possible links between phenomena3) Study’s units of analysis – main units must be at the samelevel as thestudy questions & typically comparable to those previously studied4) Logic linking the data to the propositions – matching pieces ofinformation to rival patterns that can be derived from the propositions5) Criteria for interpreting the findings – iteration between propositionsand data, matching sufficiently contrasting rival patterns to data; thereis no precise way of setting the criteria1Research design links the data to be collected and conclusions to be drawn to theinitial questions of the study – it provides a conceptual framework & an action planfor getting from questions to set of conclusions., Preliminary theory & blueprint of the study: having solved thefive stepsmentioned above leads to the formation of a loose theory & a blueprint relatedto the topic of study-Initial theory & understanding of what is being studied is necessarybefore any field contacts; the complete research design embodies a “theory”of what is being studied, Deciding between explanatory, exploratory and descriptive designs: -Depends on the richness of the rival propositions in theoriesrelated to thetopic of the study; richest theories allow explanatory designs-> Search for theoretical propositions that can be elaborated to cover studyquestions, propositions, units of analysis, data-proposition links & criteria ofinterpretation-> Reviewing literature, discussing with investigators, asking challengingquestions, thinking what is to be learned from the study-> Being aware of the range of theories & selecting the requiredlevel(individual, organization, societal)-> Construction of the design / conceptual framework takes time &can bedifficult, but is a crucial step for the success of the study, Selection of the cases:-Cases should be selected in the same way as the topic of an experiment isselected-> Developed preliminary theory is used as a template with which to comparethe characteristics & empirical findings from the case(s)-> Selected cases should reflect characteristics & problems identified in theunderlying theoretical propositions / conceptual framework, The level of generalization of the study results = appropriately developedpreliminary theory / study design-Mode of generalization = theory-related analytic generalization, notstatistical-Analytic generalization possible from one or more casesHOW MANY OF CASES & UNITS OF ANALYSIS?1) Case – represents somehow the interesting topic of the study empirically (e.g.the role of the United States in the world economy) 2) Unit of analysis – is the actual source of information: individual, organizational document, artifact, for example (e.g. the capital flow betweencountries, an economic policy)1) Cases:A) Single cases – if case seems to represent a critical test to existing theory;rare or unique events -> Important to select case & unit of analysis properly2B) Multiple cases –if a “replication logic” is supposed to reveal support for theoreticallyi. Similar resultsii. Contrasting results for predictable reasons-> Theoretical framework must identify clearly the conditions, when aparticular phenomenon is likely to be found (i.) and when it is not likely (ii.)-> Theoretical framework is the vehicle for generalizing to new cases; ifempirical cases do not work as predicted, modifications must be made to thetheory-> Number of case replications depends upon the certainty wanted to achieve& richness of the underlying theoretical propositions2) Units of analysis:A) Holistic designs – include a single unit of analysis; if aim is to study the global nature of the phenomenon; when no logical sub-units can be pointed ->danger of abstractnessB) Embedded designs – include multiple units of analysis; study may includemain & smaller units on different levels -> looking for consistent patterns ofevidence across units, but within a case, Note: The flexibility of case study design is in selecting cases different fromthose initially identified, not in changing the purpose or objectives of thestudy to suit the casesConducting case studies, Desired skills of the investigator:-Good knowledge of the phenomenon (->collection procedures are not routinized)-Sensitivity for novel & unexpected issues in data collection-Asking good questions-Being a good “listener” -Adaptiveness & flexibility, A case study protocol should be essential part of every case study project - A protocol contains the instrument for the research, but also the proceduresand general rules that shoud be followed using the instrument:- Overview of the study project (objectives, issues, readings,literature & research)- Field procedures (access to field sites, sources of information) - Case study questions posed to INVESTIGATORS; keyclassifications; suggestions for likely sources of evidence (not the literal questions to be asked)- A guide for the case study report- Note: Case study protocol should be co-authored by all study investigators, Important to identify different levels of questions:A) Single case -level1. Questions asked of specific interviewees32. Questions asked of the individual caseB) More general levels1. Findings across multiple cases2. Findings across an entire study (including reviewed literature)3. Normative questions about policy recommendations & conclusions, Sometimes a pilot study may provide useful helpCollecting the evidence, Six sources of evidence:1) Documents (letters, agendas, progress reports)2) Archival records (Service records, organizational charts, budgets etc.)3) Interviews (typically open-ended, but also focused, structured &surveys are possible)4) Direct observations (formal or casual; useful to have multipleobservers)5) Participant observation (assuming a role in the situation &getting aninside view of the events)6) Physical artefacts, Three principles of data collection:1) Use multiple sources of evidence-Triangulation = searching converging findings from differentsources ->increases construct validity2) Create a case study database-A database separate from the final report to be written, containing - Case study notes (clear & available for later use)- Case study documents- Tabular materials (collected & created)- Narratives (initial open-ended answers to the study questionssuggested by investigators)3) Maintain a chain of evidence-> The link between initial study questions and case study procedureshould be pointed out in the case study protocol, as also the circumstancesof the evidence to be collected-> Putting the data collection to practice on the basis of the protocol-> Actual evidence storage in the database for later checks (specificcollection circumstances indicated)-> Sufficient citing of the case study data base & evidence in the finalreport and conclusions to be drawnAnalysing the evidenceAnalysis of evidence is one the least developed and most difficult aspects of doingcase studies. Most important is to have a general analytic strategy, which helps tochoose among different techniques. In absence preliminarytechniques – matrixes,4tabulation of frequencies, temporal schemes etc. – can be tried out to get the analysisstarted., Two general analytic strategies:1) Relying on theoretical propositions: theoretical orientation guidingthe analysis; following theoretical propositions that have formed thedesign of the case study -> helps to focus attention on certain data &to ignore other data2) Developing a case description: a descriptive framework fororganizing the case study; analysis organized on the basis ofdescription of the general characteristics and relations of the phenomenon in question, Analytic techniques to be used as part of the general strategy:1) Pattern matching (explanatory / descriptive)-Comparing empirically based patterns with predicted one(s)a) Expected outcomes as a pattern: comparing if theinitially predicted results have been found andalternative patterns are absentb) Rival explanations as patterns: searching if some of thetheoretically salient explaining conditions might bearticulated in empirical findings; then the presence ofcertain explanation should exclude the presence ofothersc) Simpler patterns: pattern matching is possible also withonly few variables, if the derived patterns are predictedto have enough clear differences2) Explanation-building (mainly explanatory)-Analyzing case study data by building an explanation about the case & identifying a set of causal links-Explanation is a result of series of iterations:Initial theoretical statement -> Comparing findings of an initial case ->revising statement -> Comparing details of the case -> Revising -> Comparing to other additional cases-Note: Danger of drifting away from original topic of interest3) Time-series analysis-“How”- and “why”- questions about relationships & changes of events over time-Identifying theoretically proposed sequences of an event that are expected to lead to a certain outcome; identification of events must bedone before the onset of the investigation->Comparing this trend with the trend of empirical data points -> Comparing with some rival trend to rule alternatives out, Analysis should show that:It relied on all the relevant evidence; all major rival interpretations are dealt;most significant issue of the study is addressed; prior expert knowledge isbrought to the study 5。
Case studies
1. Introduction
Case studies are particularly suitable for longitudinal research （纵向研究）(where you observe the individual change over time and focus is on comparisons of the individual’s performance on a sequence of occasions). They are a vehicle for both qualitative and quantitative research, and can be appropriate for projects in: 1) First-language acquisition (一语习得) 2) Second-language acquisition （二语习得） 3) Language and education (including the acquisition of literacy) （语言与教育 包括读写能力的习得） 4) Some areas of psycholinguistics （心理语言学）
选择个案的关键问题是决定在研究结束时能说些什么，个案 的选择应有一定的意义，其结果是可被推广的。因此，详细 描述个案就有点类似于在定量研究中详细描述从样本中获取 的结果普遍运用到所有人身上的过程。 例如，保拉•克莱恩和保拉•克莱切特（Paula Kleine—Kracht) 姐妹的研究是关于中学校长培养其他成员的教学领导才能， 并以此间接地影响教学。 在这个研究中，被调查的普遍现象是教学领导才能。该个案 是一位教学领导的特殊例子（一位中学校长），也就是推进 教职员的教学领导活动。该个案研究的成果可以推广给其他 校长并对其他教学领导现象有重要意义。
中英文对照适用社会学
专业英语SociologicalTerminologies中英文术语对照第一部分 Part OneI-欧洲古典社会学家Auguste Comte 奥古斯特 ?孔德Karl Marx 卡尔 ?马克思Herbert Spencer 赫伯特 ?斯宾塞 Vilfredo Pareto 维尔弗雷多 ?帕累托 Ferdinand Toennies 费迪南德 ?滕尼斯 Emile Durkheim 埃米尔 ?涂尔干 Georg Simmel 格奥尔格 ?齐美尔Gaetano Mosca 加耶塔诺 ?莫斯卡 Max Weber 马克斯 ?韦伯Leonard T. Hobhouse 莱奥纳多。
T。
霍布豪斯Robert Michels 罗伯特 ?米歇尔斯II- 北美古典社会学家William Graham Sumner 威廉姆 ?格拉汉姆 ?萨姆纳Lester Ward 莱斯特 ?沃德Albion Small 阿比奥 ?斯莫尔Franklin Giddings 弗兰克林 ?吉丁斯Thorstein Veblen 索斯坦 ?凡勃伦George Herbert Mead 乔治 ?赫伯特 ?米德W. I. Thomas W。
I。
托马斯Charles Horton Cooley 查尔斯 ?霍顿 ?库利Robert E. Park 罗伯特。
E。
帕克E. A. Ross E。
A 。
罗斯III- 现代早期Pitirim Sorokin 皮特里姆 ?索罗金Elton Mayo 埃尔顿 ?梅约Georg Lukacs 格奥尔格 ?卢卡奇William F. Ogburn 威廉姆。
F。
奥格本Karl Mannheim 卡尔 ?曼海姆Alfred Schutz 阿尔弗雷德 ?舒茨Herbert Blumer 赫伯特 ?布鲁默Paul Lazarsfeld 保罗 ?拉扎斯菲尔德George Gallup 乔治 ?盖洛普Tarcott Parsons 塔尔科特 ?帕森斯George Homans 乔治 ?霍曼斯IV- 现代晚期David Riesman 大卫 ?里斯曼Robert King Merton 罗伯特 ?金 ?默顿Barrington Moore 巴林顿 ?摩尔Lewis Coser 刘易斯 ?科塞Reinhard Bendix 莱因哈特 ?本尼迪克斯C. W. Mills C 。
不同类型的研究和研究技能 Different types of research 英语介绍
不同类型的研究和研究技能Different types of research and research skillsResearch is what every student has to do in his/her academic career. Research work requires a great amount of time and skills only then you can make a good research paper. This article will throw light over theDifferent types of research and research skills.Let’s read further to get a better understanding of the topic.What is Research?Research is a type of study on a specific topic or a problem where the researcher uses scientific methods. In the words of Earl Robert Babbie (American sociologist), “Re search is a systematic approach or inquiry which helps in describing, explaining and prediction of the controlled phenomenon. All types of researches involve inductive and deductive methods.”In inductive methods, researchers analyze the observed phenomenon. The inductive method approach towards research is qualitative. In deductive methods, researchers verify the observed phenomenon. Quantitative research has been carried out by the researchers in the deductive method.One of the most vital aspects of any research is the statistic or conclusion involve in it. You needto brush up your research skills in order to make a proper conclusion of research work in order to make it more impressive and for making it more understandable to the audience.Research is all about a thought that works behind the research. While carrying out any research, you need to approach it step by step. Here are the following steps which you must follow.Find out the problemPossible solutions for the problemBuilding up the argumentsData and facts to support your argumentConcluding the research workWhat Is the Purpose of Research?There are three purposes for conducting any type of research:ExploratoryOne can understand with the name what this purpose is all about. Research helps in exploring the group of questions. It may not be necessary that one can seek the final conclusion through the answers and analysis of the research based on the problems. Research also explores areas that are still hidden and never became part of any studies. This exploratory purpose leads to more conclusive research.DescriptiveAs the name suggests, the descriptive purpose of any research is to elaborate on the information and cover all the untalked points in it. Data collection has a crucial role in expanding information. In a descriptive study, research uses one variable to initiate the study. The descriptive purpose of the research aims at describing, explaining, and validating the findings.ExplanatoryThe role of explanation is vital in any form of research. Explaining the problem and why the researchers chose the topic for the research is needful. To comprehend the topic, researchers as well as the reader both need to have a goodunderstanding of the collected data and findings. Therefore, the explanatory function of research helps in providing a detailed explanation of all the information used in the research.Features of a Research WorkWhile doing research one must have a systematic approach. Fundamentals of research are rules and procedures. They set the objective in research work. Researchers should follow the code of conduct and ethics of the research while drawing the conclusion.All types of researches are based on facts and logical reasoning. They involve inductive and deductive methods.Data should be collected in real-time, and they should be the real observation in natural settings.The research consists of an in-depth analysis of the collected data. Deep analysis ensures that there will be no anomalies in the research work.Research allows more researches as it generates new questions. One research can lead to many more types of research around the topic.Accuracy in research is the most important thing. The collected information should be accurate and authentic in nature.These features must be there while writing a research paper. one must remember there are different types of research papers and each paper has a different approach.Different types of researchQualitative ResearchQualitative research is nothing but exploratory research. This type of research is carrying out to gain an understanding of primary reasons, motivations, and opinions. Qualitative research provides an in-depth look into the issues and helps in developing the hypothesis or ideas. Qualitative research methods have no fixed pattern. They are unstructured and semi-structured. The most common methods of qualitative research are: Group discussion, interviews face to face, participation or observing a scene.Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is based on statistics and numerical day. Numerical data is generated by quantifying the research or by converting the data into statistics. This type of research helps in quantifying opinions, behaviors, or attitudes. In research, the result is generalized from a large sample group. Quantitative research uses data to prepare facts. Quantitative research methods are structured as compared to qualitative research. Methods in this type of research include various surveys, interviews, kiosk surveys, online polls, paper surveys, and systematic observations.Analytical ResearchAnalytical research follows the various point of view after that researcher analyzes all of them and draws a conclusion from it. In this type ofresearch, a question has been asked. Analytical research initiated by a question and then finding the facts to answer it. This type of research includes information collected from various other researches or sources. After that one has to make a personal conclusion of the topic. You need to have good analytical research skills to master in analytical research.When a student is doing analytical research for an academic paper, he/she has to be neutral. Your point of view should not favor or in against the topic. Persuasive research is perfect for showing your perspective.Persuasive ResearchAnother type of research is persuasive research. In this type of research first, you need todescribe the problem with two different aspects. You have to mention the pros and cons and then conclude by giving preference to one. When someone is doing persuasive research the primary aim is to attract the reader to agree with your point of view. Every type of research is different; the persuasive word itself suggests persuading someone to adhere to your argument. For persuasive research, you need to use an emotional approach along with the logical facts. Data and statistics are also there in persuasive research. In this research, the researcher will either support the argument or stand against it. The researcher has to support the argument with some logical facts.Cause and Effect ResearchIn cause and effect research paper, a researcher first describes the situation, then presents causes and effects and at last draws the conclusion. This type of research paper is for those who are new in the research. Most of the high school and college students of first-year get cause and effect research paper. The research includes:An extensive study of the different research topicOrganized writing styleUnderstanding the style of writing to use in the researchProper citation and referencesWhenever a person is doing cause and effect research,he/she has to answer two things ‘Why?’ and ‘What?’ These two things will reflect cause and effects. Cause and effect research is vital in business and education. It finds out the relationship of result from a specific decision.Experimental ResearchFor experimental research one has to follow certain steps; these steps are: Conduct an experiment then sharing of experience, and providing data and concluding everything on the basis of that data.When you are doing experimental research, you have to describe the case in a detailed manner. Experimental research is carried out in the following subject primarily, chemistry, biology, physics, psychology, and sociology. As thename suggests, this type of research is based on experiments. Here researchers describe or predict an incident with certain actions. To complete the research successfully, you need supporting data and experiment analysis.Survey ResearchMethods which you have to carry out while doing survey research paper are conducting a survey, analyze your findings, and then drawing a conclusion.A survey research paper is for subjects like sociology, psychology, marketing, public health, business, and advertising. You need to conduct a survey in this, where you have to ask questions from the respondents. This helps in analyzing behavior in certain conditions.Problem-Solution ResearchThese types of researches are carried out by both, students as well as by scholars. Here researchers have to solve some problems, but for that, they need proper analysis and a solution that perfectly fits in the problem. At the end of this research, researchers have to prove how effective the solution is.Report researchReport research is quite easy to conduct. Here in this type of research, the researcher needs to read the information on a specific topic thoroughly. After that researcher informs the readers about the main facts of the topic. This type of research seems easy, but you must havegood research skills to extract the vital points from the material you have in your hand.These are the main types of researches students do during their academic years. To get a detailed description of different types of research you can read it here. I hope now you may have got a clear idea about different types and researches. Now, in the next section, I would like to throw some light on the research skills one must-have for carrying the research effectively.Different Types of Research SkillsAt academic level research ability is very important. Research is not only vital for college students, but schools students should also have good knowledge about it. For that, one musthave excellent research skills. Research skills are a combination of various skills. Below you can see all of them:Summarizing and categorizingThis ability plays a vital role in the initial level of the research, a period when students gather the information. Data can be collected from various sources but for proper research one must look out for relevant sources. After collecting the data, one must be able to arrange it properly.Think criticallyThe research is valuable only if something new is presented. Information you present in your research should have a uniqueness in it. Critical thinking is what students need to carry outproper research. Students if presenting an argument, then they must have facts to support the argument.Analytical thinkingThis is an important skill out of all the other research skills. Good analytical skills will help you to analyze a large amount of information in a quick time. This ability needs a lot of practice; it is hard to develop quickly. There are few people who have strong analytical skills but other needs practice.Explanation skillsResearch skills are not only about gathering information and writing it. Your research paper should be self-explanatory. But for this first, youneed to explain your ideas, thoughts, and facts clearly. You have to find the right words to make people understand what you are trying to say. Experienced writers know how to explain things well in the research paperAll the research skills mentioned above are quite hard to learn.However, there are some more skills other than research skills in which you need to get expertise. They are not having much importance but could play a good role in making an excellent research paper. In the next section of this article, you can read all those skillsAdditional skills required for Research paperTo succeed in academic writing, you need to have mastery over these skills along with research skills. Let’s have a look at the additional skills required for research work.Time management skillsTime is the most valuable asset, and once you waste it, it will never come back to you again. We all know research work requires a lot of time. Students must gain mastery in overtime management. They should know how to utilize their time in order to write an excellent research paper.Finance managementYou need to have a sound amount in your bank to do proper research. Almost all researchesinvolve funding. Utilize money wisely during your research period. Science research involves a huge expenditure so be cautious with the usage of money. Before writing an academic paper, estimate all the expenses and plan your budget.IT skillsIf you have a good knowledge of IT, then it will surely help you in academic paper writing as well as your research work can be completed in less time. IT skills knowledge will help in arranging data in a quick time.These are the additional skills that you must have to get an edge over other students. You need to be patient while developing these skills. Perfection takes time, and you might need to wait for years to become perfect in these skills.These skills will help you not only in academic research but in all types of researches. You will learn to manage data efficiently and strategically.ConclusionResearch has been one of the most important tasks a student gets from college. Almost 40 percent of your academic score is based on the research paper. The article has been an agent through which I tried to guide you in your research work. I hope this article provided you with a better understanding of research and the above-mentioned research skills will help you in your endeavors.。
29-特殊教育学专业课程简介
特殊教育学专业课程简介课程编号：S1******* 课程名称：专业英语课程英文名称：English for Special Education学分: 1 周学时总学时：20课程性质：硕士学位必修课适用专业：特殊教育教学内容及基本要求:教学内容：（1）学习有关特殊教育的专业词汇；（2）研读特殊教育的研究报告；（3）学习用英语撰写小论文（Essay）。
基本要求：通过专业英语的学习，使学生能够正确地阅读理解较深的特殊教育专业论文与专著，能用英语撰写一些小论文，做到基本通顺，符合英语表达习惯和论文格式。
核方式及要求：开卷学习本课程的前期课程要求：修读过《特殊教育概论》；英语四级以上。
教材及主要参考书目、文献与资料：1.Choate, J.S.(2000): Successful Inclusive Teaching: Proven Ways to Detectand Correct Special Needs (3ed.) Allyn & Bacon Press2.Gersten, R.，Schiller, E. P., Vaughn, S.(2000): Contemporary Special EducationResearch: Syntheses of the Knowledge Base on Critical Instructional Issues Lawrance Erlbaum Associates, Inc.3.Hallahan, D.P., Kauffman, J.M.(2000): Exceptional Learners: Introduction toSpecial Education,Allyn & Bacon Press4.Campione, J.C., Brown,A.L., Ferrara, R.A.(1982): Mental retardation andintelligence. In R.J.Sternberg [ed]. Handbook of human intelligence: pp. 392-490.London: Cambridge University Press.填写人：钱文审核人：刘春玲课程编号：S0109030401001 课程名称：高级教育心理学课程英文名称：Advanced Educational Psychology学分: 3 周学时总学时：54课程性质：硕士学位基础课适用专业：特殊教育教学内容及基本要求:教学内容：在本科的教育心理学的基础上，从更多地关注教育心理学研究的新领域：（4）专长研究；（5）ATI模型的理论、研究与实践；（6）新的教学模式：如抛锚式教学、互惠教学、情境教学等；（7）特殊学校相关课程的比较与分析。
科技论文标题中_以_为例_英译用词探讨_杨廷君
12 6 1 1 2 1 1 1
31
中国科技术语 /2015 年第 6 期
类别 第3 类 （ 24． 90% ）
其他类 （ 7． 63% ）
译文表达用词
a case from + NP a case of + NP a case in + NP a case for + NP case of + NP cases from + NP a case history of case research on + NP in the case of in a case of + NP the case of + NP with + NP + as the case a case history of + NP taking + NP + as a case taking + NP + as case taking NP as a case based on…cases
一 研究语料的基本数据
此次所提取的 474 篇学术论文，从时间分布上 看，出现逐年递增的趋势，见表 1。
表 1 论文的时间分布
时间 1997 年以前
1998 年 1999 年 2000 年 2001 年 2002 年 2003 年 2004 年 2005 年
论文数量 14 5 6 8 8 17 23 19 23
examples of + NP examples of + NP examples in + NP examples from + NP examபைடு நூலகம்le from example of
管理案例研究方法
因此，现代管理理论的提出和创新更多基于企业管 理的实践活动并通过案例研究方法而提炼和升华。 现代企业管理的复杂性和各国企业实践活动的差异 性进一步促使工商管理学科的理论研究更加重视案 例研究方法[iii]
案例研究的功用。
在被研究的现象本身难以从其背景中抽象、分离出来的研究情境中， 案例研究是一种行之有效的研究方法。它可以获得其他研究手段所 不能获得的数据、经验知识，并以此为基础来分析不同变量之间的 逻辑关系，进而检验和发展已有的理论体系。
什么是案例研究？ 什么是案例研究？
案例研究不仅可以用于分析受多种因素影响的复杂现象， 它还可以满足那些开创性的研究，尤其是以构建新理论或 精炼已有理论中的特定概念为目的的研究的需要。( 精炼已有理论中的特定概念为目的的研究的需要。( 余菁） 作为一种社会科学研究方法，案例研究方法（case 作为一种社会科学研究方法，案例研究方法（case study methodology）属于经验性研究方法（empirical methodology）属于经验性研究方法（empirical research method）的范畴。有的学科中，实地研究被进一步区分 method）的范畴。有的学科中，实地研究被进一步区分 为狭义的实地研究、实地实验（field experimentation）和 为狭义的实地研究、实地实验（field experimentation）和 案例研究；而在另一些学科中，案例研究与实地研究被视 作基本同质的研究方法。 在管理科学研究中，“狭义的实地研究方法”的含义并不 明确，而实地实验可以被归类为实验研究的一种，因此， 适当扩大管理案例研究方法的内涵、使其近乎等同于实地 适当扩大管理案例研究方法的内涵、使其近乎等同于实地 研究方法的观点，是有利于案例研究方法发展的。
罗伯特·博斯·公立医院技术规范手册说明书
Case StudyRobert-Bosch-KrankenhausRobert-Bosch-Krankenhaus selects high-performance data stor-age technologies for a modern hospital.OverviewOpened in 1940, Robert-Bosch-Krankenhaus (RBK) is one of the few foundation-founded private hospitals in Germany. RBK is operated by the Robert Bosch Foundation. A maximum-care hospital, RBK, “Klinik Charlottenhaus”, has over 1,000 beds. More than 43,000 patients from the greater Stuttgart area are admitted each year. Patients are provided individual care by 2,700 staff.ChallengeRBK is renowned in the Stuttgart region and beyond for the high quality of its services. Steady growth reflects the increasing popu-larity of this foundation-funded hospital, where medical staff devote their time to the patient. Double-digit growth in data volume is managed expertly by the IT department at RBK by means of advanced data storage and backup solu-tions. The light-filled buildings of the RBK gen-erate a friendly and welcoming atmosphere. The interior design of these spacious struc-tures reflects an awareness: Recuperation can be facilitated through an ambience that in-cludes natural light, wood, and carefully chosen works of art. Pleasant surroundings appeal to the senses, making patients as well as hospital staff feel welcome and comfortable.Advances in healthcare support RBK in treating complex diseases with precise and effective therapies. RBK provides the very highest levelof care—particularly to older patients whooften suffer from multiple ailments. Currently,RBK is in the process of creating more spaceto improve the quality of patient accommoda-tions. Within the scope of its ongoing STEP2020 construction project, RBK intends to de-liver on its vision of meeting patients’ growingexpectations both in the near future and overthe long term.In RBK’s objectives, the concept of serviceplays a central role. The hospital’s extensiveand diverse service offerings as well as itsconsistently high level of medical and follow-up care are appreciated by patients. “We are asoundly financed, foundation-run hospital witha mission to provide maximum care. People areat the center of our mandate to society,” saysWalid Sbaih. “Everything we do is well thoughtout for the mid-term and the long term.”The IT department at RBK employs 30 staff.The team, led by Walid Sbaih, provides a fullrange of IT services to RBK and its affiliatedclinics, “Klinik Schillerhöhe” and “Klinik Char-lottenhaus”. It also provides com p rehensivehosting services to“Furt b ach k ran k enhaus.”The IT department is committed to consis-tently delivering quality services: The ma j orityof its staff are certified in the IT Infra s tructureLibrary (ITIL) set of practices.At a Glance■IndustryHealthcare■LocationStuttgart, Germany■ChallengeDeliver greater automation, flexibility andscalability for data storage, backup andrestore processes.■Products and ServicesData Protector■Success Highlights+Provided greater protection through mirroring ofdata storage systems and accelerated backupand restore processes.+Introduced a quantum leap in storageperformance.+Improved manageability of the storage.+Data storage and archiving processes fulfill allregulatory requirements for hospitals.Case StudyRobert-Bosch-Krankenhaus2The critical applications used at RBK include state-of-the-art picture archiving and com-munication systems (PACS), hospital informa-tion systems (HIS), and numerous subsystems tailored to the needs of individual hospital de-partments. In use as well are databases such as Oracle and Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Exchange Server as groupware and e-mail soft w are, and VMware for virtualization.The storage system in use for years at RBK had to be scheduled for regular maintenance work and updates to install the latest software versions. It was also necessary to migrate the stored data to the latest generation of linear tape-open (LTO) magnetic tape data storage. The growing requirements in the backup and restore arenas had to be incorporated into the overall IT strategy.SolutionIn an in-depth market analysis, OpenText™ emerged as the leading contender, with OpenT ext™ Data Protector as the data man-agement software. “Technologically, [Micro Focus (now part of OpenT ext™)] had the bet-ter solution, and [Micro Focus (now part of OpenT ext™)] offered an attractive price-per -formance ratio,” says Walid Sbaih.With the hands-on involvement of Partner Bükotec, a proof of concept (PoC) for backup and restore solution was performed on site at RBK. All backup options were thoroughly tested and used to set up templates for subse-quent migration. The PoC pilot installation was designed from the very start to be gradually ex-panded into a solution for productive use. “That saved us a lot of time, because we didn’t have to set up the storage environment a second time following the PoC,” reflects Walid Sbaih.Thanks to sound planning and thorough prep-aration, the new backup and restore solution at RBK went live only six months after the PoC. “IT projects do not always come off with so littlestress. The human factor was key. Bükotec is not only our hardware supplier; they also pro-vide excellent services that fit our needs,” says Walid Sbaih. “Our technical contact did his job very well. The project received the right level of attention from management. The manager responsible for our project guided the work to rapid and successful completion with stra-tegic skill and personal commitment. The pleasant, constructive and friendly collabora-tion had a decidedly positive influence on the entire project.”ResultsCurrently, each of the two mirrored storage systems contains about 220 TB of data from the hospital’s production systems. Not only must this data be archived for 30 years; it must be auditable. Prompt data recovery is a key requirement.The IT team at RBK can configure the 3PAR data storage system with the desired combination of solid-state (SSD) and SATA media without having to perform technical alterations. SSDs are used where high application performance is critical. For example, the Oracle databases were transferred from classical hard discs to SSDs. Radiology images that previously took twenty seconds to appear are now displayed in two seconds. “SSDs have ten times higher performance. This is immediately evident to our end customers,” notes Walid Sbaih.All critical applications at RBK, including the databases and the virtual machines that run critical applications, are automatically backed up at regular intervals throughout the day. For the physical and virtual servers, Data Protector is used as the central backup software. The built-in deduplication process on StoreOnce saves RBK costs on storage capacity and time required for backups. Previous backups use pointers to reference blocks that were already backed up; as a result, the current backup process has to copy only the data that wasnewly added or changed. This enables RBK to shorten its backup windows without risking collisions between backup runs.A particular advantage of the storage and backup solution is, in Walid Sbaih’s opinion, the very high performance of its restore func-tionality. “What good is it if the restore takes an entire day, followed by hours of configuration work? At RBK, we can perform the restore in a few minutes,” Walid Sbaih points out.With OpenT ext™ Data Protector, the IT team at RBK achieved the desired simplification and standardization of processes for its storage and backup management. “In the past, a lot of manual work was required. The high degree of automation has lightened the load on our IT administrators. We also greatly appreciate the thorough instructions and excellent support we received,” said Walid Sbaih.Automatically generated reports provide a complete log of backup activity, including backup times, results produced, and the time of completion of outstanding backups (for instance, due to ongoing e-mail traffic). Data Protector also helps to identify capacity issues and bottlenecks early on.”The switch to storage, backup and recov-ery infrastructure has delivered the desired results within the planned budget. The data storage and archiving processes at RBK meet all regulatory requirements for hospitals. The IT department consistently fulfils its service-level agreements. The performance of solu-tion improves the productivity of the users and their work processes. IT administrators at RBK appreciate the manageability of the stor-age landscape.In internal surveys at RBK, the IT department achieves excellent marks. “Our work is very well received, and the satisfaction of hospital staff fuels our motivation,” said Walid Sbaih. “We arekeeping an eye on all technologies that serve our needs. Innovations such as cloud or big data could also be of interest at RBK in the fu-ture. Our overall strategy is ultimately to create value for hospital employees and for the entire company. All systems and technologies that serve this objective are of interest to us.Learn more at/opentext268-000404-001 | O | 06/23 | © 2023 Open T ext。
考研复试英语材料
英语材料基本用语1.告别用语：Thanks for your time.2.没听清。
Sorry, I lost you. Can you repeat that question again?3.不会回答问题。
Sorry, but I have no idea about it.4.连词。
besides, in addition, moreover, although, yet, in this way, even so, after all.5.回答完毕。
that's all for this question ，thanks/that's my opinion，thanks .6.冗词。
Well,you know/ I mean,maybe/ like/ I guess,really.一、报考原因1.Why do you choose to study in our university?Firstly Sichuan university has a good reputation in public administration field. Many excellent teachers are focus on the research in the field. I hope I could lay the foundation of public administration theories after three years study in Sichuan university.Besides , I am deeply attracted by the academic atmosphere in Sichua university, as well as the the classic compus stly, Chengdu is the city which I like most.That’s why I choose to further my study here.2.Why do you decide to major in MPA?Firstly,as an official public servant, the theories of public administration related to my work closely. Now a days, public administration plays an important part in modernization of government management.Besides, I am deeply attracted by the interesting theories of public administration, such as new public management and the new public service. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler pointed that government should be steering rather than rowing. On the contrary , Robert B.Denhardt and Janet V . Denhardt pose that serving ，not Steering. So I want to learn more about public administration by studying.3.What do you expect to achieve during your study if you are enrolled into this university?If I luckily get the chance to learn Public administration here, I will concentrate on the study and research in this field.Firstly, I will work hard to learn the theoretical knowledge, constructing a solid base for my future work.Secondly ,I would try to put these theories into practice through case study with the help of my supervisor and classmates.I believe after threee years of learning, my dream of being a competent official public servant will finally come ture.4.what do you think of MPA?MPA education is neccesry to official public servant. MPA express fundmental theory of public administration.For example, new public management and new public service.二、介绍工作1.You’ve worked ,right?What are you?/What’s your job?/What do you do?/Please describe your job for us.Yes, I am an official public servent in State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission(SASAC).The most important job of my department is looking through the transfer of state-owned property rights of enterprises, like the transfer of the shares of company or the land-use right. Most of the assests need be assessed by the qualified intermediary agency.I am responsible for examining the assests appraisal reports, such as the evaluation method and the result. All of these are painstaking, but of great significance.2.What’s the most difficult part of your work?/What’s the most important issue in your work?As an official public servant, the most imoprtant and difficult part of my work is looking through assests appraisal reports. You know , these reports are always very professionable. However, my majoy was not assets appraisal. Therefore I have to make great efforts to manage my work, studying the knowledge in assets appraisal .三、介绍大学1.Would you like to say something about your university?I graduate from XX which has a history of nearly 90 years.There are 16 institutes in my alma mater, such as Accounting college, Foreign languages college and Humanities college. Well, as a university of finance and economics, Finance , Accounting ,Insurance and Economics are more popular in the school.Even more important to me ,however, is the positive upbeat atmosphere , good teachers and the delicious foods in canteen.2.What is your major? How do you like your major?I majoyed in Law. Usually, Law would be associated with justice and logic.Justice will always be a partner of law. Law is being implemented to protect the right s of everyone equally.On the other hand, logic is crucial as it says “Base on facts and take the law as the criterion” . Now a days, China is to move towards a more socialis democracy country under rule of law.3.When and where did you graduate? What qualifications have you obtained?I graduated from XX in XX, receiving degrees in XX and XX.I have past state judicial examination and accounting qualification exam in university. The state judicial examination is difficult to complish. It takes me four months to prepare it. Durining that time, I got up in 6:00 and go to sleep nearly midnight. Taking class and reviewing are all for my life.四、介绍家乡1.Can you tell me something about your hometown?/What kind of landscape surrounds your hometown?/What’s your hometown f amous for?因涉及个人信息，故略，请见谅2.What’s the typical food in your hometown?因涉及个人信息，故略，请见谅五、介绍家庭1.Can you introduce your family to us?There are four members in my family: my parents ,myself and a two years old hen.It is my mother’s pet.My father is a doctor and my mother is a nurse. My father treats me like a friend than a child. When I was young, he often took me to climb mountains and told me many stories about politics, history and even military. On the contrary, my mother is strict with my study. So when I was young , I always like stay together with my father.But now I know they all love me ,just in different ways.And I hope in the future I will be able to repay them.六、介绍未来what would you be doing in five years from now?Firstly, I will try my best to finish my postgraduate education and develop my working abilities. In this way, I think I can be a competent official public servant.In my spare time, I will focus on the study of philosophy. I am deeply interested in this subject.Last but not the least, I must finish the task that my parents scheduled, to find a boyfiend as soon as possible.七、介绍兴趣1.What are some of your biggest hobbies?My biggest hobbies is calligraphy.When I was a child, I was attracted by the artistic charm of the calligraphy.Along with time, I learned that calligraphy is not only an art form, but also deposition of chinese ancient culture.Two years ago ,I decided to take a calligraphy class to learn it systematicly. Now a days , I have learned different style of calligraghy, such as seal character(篆书),official script(隶书), regular script(楷书) and running script (行书) .When I devote myself to writing with a brush, I feel quite peace inside.2.What's your favorite sport?My favorite sport is Tennis. I began to play tennis when I was a high school student. Now a days, I still play tennis every week. Tennis helps me keep health, for it needs to exercise every part of the body. Furthermore , when I complete the training, go back homeand have a bath , I feel completely relaxed.八、介绍性格1.what kind of personality do you think you have?/What are your great strengths?I would say I am a strong-minded person. Once I set a goal ,I wiil just persist with it no matter what difficulties there may be in the way. Of course I do fail sometimes, I would feel sad and depressed at that time. But I will pick myself up and start again finally.2.What are your great weaknesses?Firstly I think my time management skill has room to improve, especially the skills to balance the time between work and study . I plan to read some books to improve it.Second, I feel my presentation skill is not as strong as I want. Finally, some teachers may regard the lack of experience as my weakness. I’m willing to learn and improve myself in the future.九、其他问题1.What do you do during the Spring Festival?As a part of the Chinese tradition, Spring festival is likely a good time to spend my vacation in going home.Durning the night before Spring Festival, the whole family will work together to prepare a delicious feast. I would help my parents in the kitchen. Then we will enjoy the feast to the midnight to celebrate the new year.In the vacation, I would accompany my relatives to go to the monastery. It is a tradition in my family to pray for the buddha to bring good fortune in the new year.In addition, I climb mountains or go to park with my parents. To enjoy the warm sunshine in the winter. For I live in another city which is far away from my parents, it’s very treasure for me to share time with them.2.Which kind of professor do you like best?In my perspective, I would like to distinguished three types of professors.The first one is a bookish type of a teacher. This teacher prefers to introduce knowledge to the students based on the resaerch.However, the second type of professor is different compared to the first one. This teacher is usually giving hands-on activities rather than focusing on the materials.On the other hand, the thrid type of a mentor which is I like most, it is the type of a teacher who knows how to engage the students in the research and how to apply the knowledge on a particular situation.3.What does friendship mean to you and what kind of people do you make friend with?I cannot define the word friendship. when I heard this word, it means precious to me. Friendship is to build a great relationship towards other people.The kind of people whom I make frineds with are those people who have a similarity when it comes to our interests.But it is not necessary that we both have the same character. It’s just that we eventually get along with and enjoy each other's company.4.Who is your role model in life?why?My role model is teacher NanhuaiJin.He is a man full of wisdom and understand the true meaning of life. He shares his wisdom and insight of life to others by conducting classes from fifty to ninety-seven.His books help me find the right direction of life.5.Do you call yourself a happy person?Sure, I am a happy person. I like to see the bright side of things. Failure and depression do happen to me sometimes, but I know feeling bad could only make things even worse, so I will pick myself up and start again finally.6.What difficulties do you think you’ll encounter in your studies?The clash between work and study. It take time to link theory with practice. It’s a little diffcult for me to read english original theory.。
英语专业硕士开题答辩ppt课件
Press,1990. [10] Dean,R.A.Humor and laughter in palliative care.Palliat Care,13-1:34-
H{ SO <actual vs. non-actual(taking part in the examination vs. a toad trying to swallow a swan)>, LM〈analogy〉,SI〈context 〉,TA〈sth concrete（Fan Jin）〉,NS〈metaphor〉,LA〈 like〉}
-- A Case Study of Ru Lin Wai Shi and its English Version
1
严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活 动报批 制度等 相关规 章制度 。做到 及时发 现、制 止、汇 报并处 理各类 违纪行 为或突 发事件 。
报告提纲
1. 研究原因 2. 主要研究方法 3. 研究步骤 4. 预期研究发现 5. 参考文献
13
严格执行突发事件上报制度、校外活 动报批 制度等 相关规 章制度 。做到 及时发 现、制 止、汇 报并处 理各类 违纪行 为或突 发事件 。
汉语文本中的喻体“癞虾蟆想吃起天鹅肉”被直译为 “like a toad trying to swallow a swan”. 不同的是 译文中使用了比喻词like（像）连接本体和喻体。在译文 中明喻代替了汉语中的隐喻，叙述策略有所改变，但其他 几项参数都得以保留，原文的幽默成功传递到译文当中。 这种转换模式属于异类转换模式（戈玲玲，2012）。
什么是案例研究 What is a Case study 英语作文论文写作技巧
什么是案例研究What is a Case studyThings you should knowabout itIn today’s education system, the whole academic process basically asks for creativity and productivity from the students. Our complete coursework involves assignment writing, dissertation writing and other stuff which demands hard research work from the students. The main purpose of these activities is to bring out the research skills and draw their interest in their course. Many new students who are clueless or lack research skills take help fromthe assignment help online services. These services make their work easier while saving a lot of their time. However, a student can show up their interest by adopting different research methods in their assignment or dissertation writing. One of them is- the Case study. But many of us might wonder, what is a case study? It is the best research method to demonstrate the efficiency in your research work. But very few of us knows about its importance.Hence in this article, I am hereby introducing you all with the necessary things about the Case study, such as:What is a Case studyImportance of Case study researchTypes of case studyHow to write a case studyWhat is a Case Study?Once Charles Horton Cooley in his research paper “The life-study method as applied to rural social research” defined the Case study method as:“Case study depends on our perception and gives clear insight into life directory.”A case study is a research methodology in which the researcher aims at the intensive study of a group or unit to draw a general conclusion out of it. It is also known as“research strategy,” a specific inquiry of a phenomenon in real- life context. This research method was first introduced in 1829 by an French sociologist-Frederic Le Play. The popularity of case study format has increased in the recent decades. As the word says, the research focuses on a real-life case, describes its problems, and gives a detailed analysis of how the problem is being solved in a sequential process.Case study method is a descriptive analysis of people, group, event or policies that are studied by using one or more processes. In this method, the researcher takes up an incident from real life context and goes for an in-depth investigation to find out the possible solution to the problem highlighted in the case study example. Theresearcher focuses on a single case to make detailed observations over a longer period. This is not possible with larger samples without investing lots of money. However, the case study seems quite economical comparatively.Importance of Case study ResearchBe it any subject like- Law, Medicine, Business, or Science; case study research plays a vital role in presenting best assignment or thesis to your professor. In online assignment help services, the writing experts use case studies to present the research work in an impressive way.Learning from real-life scenariosCase studies presents examples from real life scenarios. Hence it gives a realistic and complexfeeling to the readers. This real-life situation helps the readers to connect themselves with the situation and inspires to find out a solution in their real-life situations.As the case is discussed in the classroom, it gives an opportunity to the student to evoke their problem-solving technique to find out different solutions for that particular problem.It focuses on the customersCase studies are meant to do in-depth research to gather information about a specific group, unit or person specific. Hence, with case study examples customers or readers can get detailed information about the particular subject or topic.It demonstrates successin the case study, the researcher gives explicitly detail about everything. He/she goes forward to highlight the problem in a specific case and then describes each step to solve it. Hence it gives a chance to demonstrate success in stressful situations.It is comprehensiveUnlike the other research methods, Case study research gives an opportunity to the researcher to use various tools and techniques to get a solution to the problem discussed in the case. Hence this gives time and space to the researcher to think on the topic from every aspect.Hence, until now you got to know what is a case study and its importance. Let’s read further to know about its types.Types of Case studyA case study is quite useful for the researcher in their early stage, as it gives them an opportunity to explore different ideas, methods, and instruments, and to prepare for a more extensive study. In modern times, case study research is popular not only in the field of sociology, but also in the fields of psychology, education, political science, anthropology, and clinical science.However, different fields opt for different types of case study. Majorly there are four types of case studies, which as follows:Illustrative Case studiesThis type of case study is mainly descriptive in nature. In this method, the researcher takes up one or two instances from an event to show the set of circumstances and processes that are possible in similar kind of situations. This Case study method is used to make people aware of any situation, which is not well known to them.Exploratory (or pilot) Case studiesThe Exploratory case study primarily focuses on identifying the questions and helps the researcher to choose the method that would be useful, prior to the initial investigation. This method is useful in implementing on a large scale investigation.This type of case study is commonly preferred in Psychology and Social science. The psychologists try to innovate new methods to help their patients, and hence prefer exploratory case study to find out new theories and ideas.Cumulative Case studiesThis type of case study collects the information from different sources to formulate the case for a new study. The main purpose of this study is that the past studies allow them additional information for their new case without spending much time, efficiency and money on the additional study.For instance, suppose a researcher wants to work on the topic- “what type of behaviour makes animals comfortable with a veterinarian?”In order to draw a conclusion or sketch out the perfect answer for the question, the researcher would take up some 4-5 real cases. These cases would describe how a vet behaved with their patient. Hence the researcher can easily find out the possible answer for his/her research question. Eventually, this type of research can uncover the differences as well.Critical Instance Case studiesThis Case study method is used when the researcher wants to challenge a commonly set up assumption which can be wrong but cannot get proved due to the lack of critical understanding. It is used to examine the problems that accumulate into larger issues. This method is also useful if there is somespecial or unique event which got a special interest of the researcher.Before selecting the type of case study for your research work, it is essential to identify your purpose, goal, and approach to conduct sound and successful research. However, this sometimes may feel difficult for you. Hence, it is advisable to seek help from online websites who offer the best case study service to the folks. The writing experts are proficient in selecting the best suitable case study research method for your topic.How to write a case studyThere are few questions which are quite common among the new researchers. They find it difficult to find out general things about thecase study. I have tried to clear a few things about what is a case study and case study template. Now in this section, I am going to discuss how to write a case study. Here are few steps which you need to follow while writing a case study:1. Determine the case study typeAs we discussed in the above section, you are now acquainted with the different types of case studies. Every other field requires a different type of case study research. Hence you must determine the type of research work you are going to take. Before deciding the type of case study you want to demonstrate, it is essential for you to know what is a case study and what type of case study is suitable for your research work.2. Determine the topic for your case studyNow as you have chosen the type of case study, you should further move to decide your topic. Make sure that the topic is relatable to your subject, and you can find enough sources to help yourself in your research work.3. Follow the case study templateOnce you determine the topic for your case study, you need to follow the following case study format:Title pageThis section contains the title of your work, the name of the author and institution. In general, itlet the readers acknowledge your name and the topic of your research.AbstractThere are two types of abstract- narrative and structured.Thenarrative abstract is the summary of the whole research work. It is presented to give an idea about the content of the research work to the readers.Thestructured abstract is used in scientific studies.IntroductionThis is the first section. Hence the section provides an idea about the topic that is going to be discussed in the research work. It gives a clue in such an interesting way that it tempts the reader to go through the whole work. You can start with introducing the topic. Suppose you are writing on “Different types of ca se in Social sciences.” You can open the research work with a question such as- what is a case study? This will bring the curiosity in the minds of the readers and they will further go through your research work.PresentationHere the researcher presents the raw information he/she has collected during the case study.OutcomesHere the researcher comes up with a plan on how the problem discussed in the topic should be treated.ConclusionsIt is the last section, where the researcher gives his/her own thoughts about the problem discussed and his perception towards it.ReferencesThis section includes the name of the sources which helped you out during the case study method.Hence in this article, we discussed several basic things about the case study, beginning from what is a case study to its importance and types of the case study. I hope this will help you with your research work. Case study format could be a better option for those who can easily process information and can analyze the case study format to understand how it works. It will take less time and efforts for a researcher to complete the assignment quickly. There are several websites which provide service to new researchers to let them complete their case study research. However, if you want to write a case study on your own, you must go through the tips and techniques that are necessary for it.。
商务英语专业毕业论文选题
商务英语专业毕业论文选题１. On Culｔural Ｔuｒｎin Transｌation of Businｅss Eｎglish论商务英语翻译中的文化转向2.Poｌitenｅsｓand Its Maｎifestａtｉon iｎＢusiness Cｏｒresponｄenｃｅ礼貌及其在商务信函的体现3. A Ｐragmatic Study of EngliｓｈEuphｅmｉsｍｓ英语委婉语的语用研究4. A CompａraｔivｅStｕdy ａｎd Trａnsｌatiｏn ofＥnglish and ChinｅsｅEupｈｅmｉsms fｒom Pragｍａtic Perspecｔive英汉委婉语的语用对比与翻译5. ＡＳtudy oｆPolｉｔeness Strategieｓin Enｇlish Busiｎｅss Lｅｔｔer商务英语信函中的礼貌策略研究６. ＡPrａｇmaｔic Sｔuｄyｏn the Vａｇｕe Ｌａngｕaｇｅin Bｕｓiness Corrｅsｐonｄｅｎce商务信函中模糊语言的研究7. A Conｔraｓt Ｓtｕｄy oｆCouｒtesy Ｌanguage in Eｎgliｓh and Chineｓe英汉礼貌用语对比研究８. ＡStudy of tｈｅCross－cuｌtuｒal Factors ｉnＢuｓinesｓNegotｉａtion商务谈判中的跨文化因素研究9．Ｏn Ｔｒａｎslａtiｏn of EnglｉｓｈanｄChinese Trademａrｋs Froｍthe ApproacｈoｆFｕnｃtｉonal Eｑuivａlｅｎce从功能对等的角度论英汉商标翻译1０．A Tentative Stｕdy ｏn the Ｐrincｉplｅs aｎd Ｍecｈａniｓm of Brand Name Tｒanslatｉｏn试论商标名称的翻译原则与机制11. A Stｕdｙof Cｕlturａl Factｏｒｓiｎｔhe Sino-AmeｒiｃaｎBｕsinｅss Negotｉatｉon中美商务谈判中的文化因素研究12. The Gｒand Strategy of Poｌiteｎess in IｎteｒnａtiｏnaｌBｕsinｅss Negｏｔｉa ｔioｎ礼貌大同策略在国际商务谈判语言中的体现１3. A Contｒast Stuｄｙｏn Comｐlimeｎｔａnd CoｍpｌimentＲｅsｐoｎｓe in Chinese－AｍｅrｉcaｎBuｓiness Negｏtiａtｉon中美商务谈判中恭维语及恭维应答对比研究１４A Pragmatｉc Analysis oｆＢusiness Language幽默语言的语用研究15. EＣ----CE Comparisoｎｏf Ambiguity frｏｍa Pragmatic Pｅrｓpective从语用角度看英汉歧义现象1６. An InｔｅｒcｕｌturalＰｅrspectivｅon Businｅss Engｌish Teachｉngａnd Ｌearning in Chｉnａ中国商务英语教学中的文化透视17. A Sｔｕdy of the Ｖａriｅｔy of MovｅＳtructｕｒes in EnglisｈBusinesｓLeｔters—A Genre Analysis英语商务信函语步结构的多样性研究18. FacｅＣonｓｉdeｒatｉonｓiｎChina ａnd tｈe Ｕs ａnd iｔs ＩmｐlicａtioｎｓfoｒCroｓs－Ｃultural Busｉneｓｓ中美面子观差异及其对跨文化商务谈判的影响1９．Ｄifｆerｅｎceｓｏf Chinesｅaｎd Ｅnｇlish Idioms in ｔhｅPｅrspectiｖe of Cultural Difference从文化视角看英汉习语的差异20. Tｈe Ａnalｙsｉs of Ｆuzzｉness inＡdveｒｔiｓiｎg Eｎglisｈ广告英语的模糊性探析21. ＭetaｐhoｒｉｎEngｌｉｓh Eupｈeｍism隐喻在英语委婉语中的应用２2. Pｏlitｅｎess Rｅpreｓentａtion inＥnglｉｓｈＢｕsineｓs Corrｅspｏndｅncｅ礼貌与商务英语信函中礼貌的表现23. ＰｏlitｅneｓｓPrincｉｐlｅｓand Straｔegies ｉn Ｂuｓinｅss English商务英语的礼貌原则与策略24. A ｃomparison betweｅn Austen anｄBrｏntｅin wｒitiｎg stylｅ奥斯汀与勃朗特写作风格的异同2５. Ａn analysiｓｏf ｔhe hero Heｎrｙin Farｅwell ｔoＡrms对《永别了，武器》中主人公亨利形象之分析2６．Difｆerences of InteｒpersonaｌRelationｓhiｐbetweｅｎＥastｅｒn aｎd Wester ｎＰｅｏpｌe东西方人际关系要素差异探析27. Stｕｄy of tｈe ReａlｉｓtｉｃSiｇnificance ｏｆVanity Fair《名利场》的现实意义初探28. Ｏn Vaｌｕｅs of the Ｃｈｉnese in thｅPersｐｅctｉｖe oｆLｅｘicon从词汇角度解读中国人的价值观29．论英语性别歧视的表现与成因3０．西方广告语言比较ComparatiｖｅStudy ｏｆＬangｕagｅin Advertisinｇｂetween Ｅｎglisｈ&Chinese 31. 中西方广告中的文化差异Cｕｌｔural Diｆfeｒｅnｃes inＡdｖerｔisiｎg beｔween Engｌiｓh ＆Cｈｉneｓe 32．广告英语的词汇特点Ｅnｇliｓh Morｐhology iｎAdｖｅrtising33.广告英语的句法特点English Sｙntax iｎAdｖertｉsinｇwwｗ.engliｓhｔhesis．cｎ34．广告英语的修辞方法Rhetoｒical Deｖicｅs iｎAdｖｅｒtｉsingＥnglish３5. 比喻在中西广告中的运用Ｆｉgure oｆSｐeecｈin Ａdverｔiｓing in Eｎglish ＆Chiｎeｓｅ３6. 美国黑人文化Cｕltuｒe oｆAfrican-Ameｒicans37. 美国黑人女性作家文学Literatｕre of Aｆriｃａn－Aｍeｒｉcan Wｏmｅn Writeｒs38. 美国黑人音乐与黑人文化MｕsｉｃoｆAfricaｎ-Ａmericaｎ& Bｌack Cultuｒe-englisｈthesis.cｎ３9. 中西方思维方式比较Ｃｏmpａrａtｉｖe Stｕdy of Ｔhinking Wａy betｗｅen Ｃｈinese & Eｎｇlｉsh40. 英语教学中创新能力的培养Cｕltivation of Stｕｄeｎt’sＣreａtiｖiｔy iｎEngｌish Teacｈiｎg41．交际教学法与商务英语口语教学ＡppliｃatioｎｏfＣommuniｃaｔivｅApprｏaｃh tｏthe Tｅaｃｈｉｎg of Oｒal Busｉｎeｓs English42.案例教学法在商务英语教学中的应用Tｈe Apｐｌication ｏｆCａse ＳtｕdｙiｎBusiｎesｓEnｇlish Teaｃhiｎg4３. 情境教学理论在商务英语教学中的运用ThｅApｐlication of SitｕａteｄTeacｈingＴheory in Buｓｉnｅss Ｅngliｓh Tｅａch ｉｎg4４. 试论商务英语教学中语言交际能力的培养OｎFｏstering CommuｎicatｉｖｅＣompeｔence in ＢusinesｓＥｎglｉｓｈTeaｃｈing45. 任务教学法在商务英语教学中的应用The Applicａtion oｆＴask-baseｄTｅａｃｈing in Bｕｓｉness EｎｇlｉｓhＴeacｈiｎg46. 用交际教学思想指导商务英语教学中词汇教学Ｕsing Cｏmmuｎicaｔｉve Approach ｉn TeaｃhinｇVｏcabulａｒy ｉn ＢusineｓｓEｎgｌisｈＣｌass47. 商务英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养Cultivatｉon ｏｆＣross-cultural Ｃomｍunｉcatiｏｎin Ｂｕsiness Enｇｌish Teaching ４8．计算机网络与商务英语教学Ｎetwork and BuｓinesｓEｎglish Teaｃhinｇ４９．浅谈商务英语中的颜色词Ｏn Color TeｒmｓiｎＢｕsinessＥnglish-engliｓｈtｈesiｓ.cn50. 商务英语新词构词研究ＡSｔudｙon Foｒｍaｔｉon oｆＮeoｌogiｓms in Buｓiness Eｎｇlish5１. 商务英语词汇特点浅析Analｙｓｉs of Businｅss Ｅnｇliｓh Wｏｒｄs＇Cｈaracｔerｉｓtics52. 电子商务英语的词汇特征及翻译The Leｘical Ｆeａtuｒｅs of E－coｍmｅrｃｅEｎgliｓh aｎd ItｓTranslaｔｉon５３. 浅析英语辅修专业教学的教学方法The Ｔeａchｉng Aｐprｏacｈｅs UsｅｄｉｎEnglisｈＣoｕrｓｅs fｏr Enｇlｉsh Minoｒｓ５4. 英语专业主辅修教学模式比较调查分析Ｓｕrｖｅy of Teaching Mｏｄeｓin Eｎglｉsh Major anｄEｎgliｓｈＭiｎoｒ5５．英语辅修专业培养模式的研究与实践Ｒesearｃｈand Pｒactice of Minor Acadeｍic Specｉａlｉzatiｏｎ56. 如何更有效地提高非英语专业学生的英语能力——英语专业辅修情况的调查及分析Survey ｏn English MｉnoｒTeacｈing ｔｏimpｒovｅｔhe Enｇlish Cｏｍpetenｃeｆor Non-Ｅnglish Majｏｒs57. 课堂测试在语言交际能力的培养中的作用ＣlassrｏｏｍTest in Enｇliｓh Learnｉnｇand Comｍuｎicａtive Cｏmpeteｎce58. 浅析英语语言交际能力培养途径Ways to ImｐroｖeＥngｌiｓh Leａrｎｉng ａnd Communicative Coｍｐetence59. 商务英语课程设置的探讨On tｈe Ｐlaｎniｎg& Desiｇn of Ｂｕsｉｎess English60．商务英语的特点及翻译技巧Oｎthe Chaｒacterｉsticｓ＆Ｔranslaｔing Sｋillｓof BｕsｉｎeｓｓＥnglish61.商务英语函电在对外贸易中的作用The Uｓe of Cｏrrespondent in Busｉnｅss６2．与非英语国家商务谈判中英语的运用ThｅUse oｆEｎglisｈiｎBusinesｓwiｔh Non－natｉvｅEnglｉsｈＳpeakerｓ6３.商务英语专业口语课程教学探讨ＯｎthｅTeachｉnｇｏf Spokｅn Engliｓh in BｕｓinesｓEｎglish6４．入世商务英语写作的研究On the Business Engｌish Wriｔing after China’s entry into WTO65.商务英语写作中的错误探讨On the Writiｎg Mistakes in Business Ｅnglisｈwww.eｎglishthesis．cn66. 浅谈涉外合同英语特色Ｏｎｔhe Characteristiｃs& Feature of IｎternatｉｏnaｌCｏｍmｅrｃｉａlＣontｒacts67. 广告英语的特征和翻译Ｏn the Charａctｅrｉsticｓ& TrａｎslatinｇＳｋｉlls of English Adｖertiｓing68.旅游英语教学探讨OｎthｅTeachiｎg ofＥnglishｆｏr Tｏｕrismｗｗｗ．englｉshthesｉ69.经贸英语阅读中隐喻现象的语言学分析c analｙｓｉs of meｔaphｏr in Bｕsiness Reaｄｉng70.国际贸易英语中的缩略语及其翻译Acｒonym iｎIｎtｅrｎatｉｏnａl TraｄｅEngｌｉsh aｎdｉts ｔｒaｎslａtion71. 商务英语谈判中的语言策略Linguisｔic tactics ｉn Buｓiness Neｇotiatｉｏn72. 商务英语写作的语义学分析Ｓｅmａntｉc ａnalｙsｉs of Business English wｒitinｇ7３. 科技英语中的隐喻现象分析Anａｌysis of metａphor iｎESＴ74. 商务英语词汇的特征分析及翻译策略Aｎalyｓｉs ｏｎtｈe fｅature of Bｕsineｓs Englisｈvocａbulaｒｙaｎｄits tｒansｌation tacticｓ75．商务英语中的颜色词分析Anａlysis ｏf tｈe coloｒwｏrd ｉn Ｂusiｎess Enｇlｉsh７6．商务广告的语言特点及其翻译Linｇuｉｓtic ｆeａtuｒe oｆbusineｓs aｄvertｉsemeｎts anｄits translatiｏn77.商务谈判中的非语言交际Noｎ-veｒbal cｏmmuｎｉcaｔioｎin Ｂusiness Neｇｏtｉation７8．外贸英语函电的语言特点及其在国际贸易中的应用Ｌingｕiｓtｉc feａtｕrｅof corresponｄenｃｅs fｏr forｅigｎtrａｄe ａｎｄｉｔs apｐlication in intｅrnａtionaｌtraｄｅ79．英语专业高年级学生英语词汇学习中石化现象调查An Ｉｎｖeｓtigatｉoｎｉnｔo Pｅtrifiｃａｔｉon ｉn the Eｎglish Vocabulａｒy Aｃq ｕiｓitｉon ｏｆＳeｎｉor EnｇlisｈMajors80. 商务英语语词演化的社会因素Soｃiａl Fａctｏrs in the Evolution oｆBｕsｉness Engｌｉsh Ｗoｒds aｎd Expreｓsion ｓ８1. 中英公益广告语言中的中西文化异同初探Ａtｅntａｔive stｕdy of Cultuｒal Similaｒities ａnd Diffｅrｅnｃes from ｔhｅPublｉc SeｒvicｅＡdvertｉｓｅmeｎt in Enｇｌish and Ｃhinese82．元认知策略在英语专业学生二语词汇习得中的作用Tｈe Ｅffecｔｏf Ｍeｔａcｏgｎiｔive Strategｉes on Sｅcond Ｌaｎguaｇe V ocａbuｌａry Aｃquisiｔioｎof Enｇlish Majorｓ8３.具有中国特色商业词汇的英译Ｔrａnslation of Ｂusinｅss Ｗoｒds of Ｃhinese Chａractｅｒistic84.商务英语函电语言特点及常见用词解析85.商务英语在外经贸中的使用86.商务英语培训中跨文化语用能力的培养87.商务英语翻译原则与技巧88.商务英语的语言特点及翻译89.商务英语翻译中词类转译技巧初探90.商务英语语篇特点分析与运用91.国际商务英语探析92.国际商务英语教学中的跨文化意识93.成人商务英语学习特点及教学技巧94.浅析商务英语中的某些翻译误区及其原因95.浅谈商务英语在外贸行业中的作用96.浅谈商务英语的发展与应用97.浅谈模糊语言在商务英语谈判中的应用98.浅谈英语文体学在编辑商务英语书稿中的应用99.经济全球化背景下商务英语的发展100.网络环境下《商务英语》课堂教学有效性的探讨101.论商务英语中书面语言的文体特征及语用分析102.论图式理论及其对商务英语翻译的启示103.论语用礼貌原则在商务英语写作中的运用104.语域理论与商务英语篇章翻译105.语境与商务英语词汇的理解106.谈商务英语词义的正确理解及汉译107.谈谈商务英语句子的汉译技巧108.反译法在商务英语中的应用109.商务英语的特点及其在经济全球化过程中的作用110.商务英语函电英译汉一词多义的选择111.“商务英语阅读”教学中存在的问题及其对策112.“渗入”与“透出”：国际商务英语翻译过程之浅见113.礼仪在商务谈判中的作用114.跨国公司的本土化经营战略及其实施115.中国在亚洲区域合作中的地位和作用116.延长我国加工贸易国内价值链问题探析117.中国贸易的现状和前景118.我国西部地区引进外资问题研究119.人民币业务对外开放之探讨120.浅谈涉外合同英语特色121.海外投资与出口贸易的相互关系我国纺织业出口竞争秩序现状分析与对策探讨122.浅谈来料加工与进料加工的利弊123.经纪佣金商或场内经纪人在期货交易中的地位124.浅谈商检证书在国际贸易中的作用125.文化和地理因素对外商在中国直接投资的影响126.绿色壁垒对关税壁垒的替代效应研究商务英语专业毕业论文的题目，供参考。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
The art of case study research Robert E. Stake 300.72 STAA case study is expected to catch the complexity of a single case. We study a case when it itself is of very special interest. We look for the detail of interaction with its contexts. Case study is the study of the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances.The major points of this book: the commitment to interpretation, an organization around issues, the use of stories, the risks of violation of privacy, the need for validation, the aim toward naturalistic generalization.The Unique CaseP2 the case is a specific, a complex, functioning thing.The case is an interesting system.P3 intrinsic and instrumental studyWe have an intrinsic interest in the case, and we may call our work intrinsic case study.In different situation, we will have a research question, a puzzlement, a need for general understanding, and feel that we may get insight into the question by studying a particular case.Case study here is instrumental to accomplishing something other than understanding this particular teacher, and we may call our inquiry instrumental case study.P4 selection of casesThe first criterion should be to maximize what we can learn. Given our purposes, which cases are likely to lead us to understandings, to assertions, perhaps even to modifying of generalizations?P7 Producing generalizationsIncreasingly the generalization is refined, not a new generalization but a modified generalization. This is common in research. Seldom is an entirely new understanding reached but refinement of understanding is.Generalizations about a case or a few cases in a particular situation might not be thought of as generalizations and may need some label such as petite generalizations, but they are generalizations that regularly occur all along the way in case study.Grand generalizations also can be modified by case study. Readers may have the view that distinct business managers consistently “represent”problems of parents in a simplistic form. But case study may reveal a certain business manager regularly elaborates the complexity of parent problems presented to her office, stressing the necessity for the staff to anticipate particular complexities.P8 the real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular caseand come to know it well, not primarily as to how it is different from others but what it is, what it does. There is an emphasis on uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that the case is different from, but the first emphasis is on understanding the case itself.Emphasis on interpretationWe emphasize placing an interpreter in the field to observe the workings of the case, one who records objectively what is happening but simultaneously examines its meaning and redirects observation to refine or substantiate those meanings.P9 If early questions are not working, if new issues become apparent, the design is changed. Malcolm Parlett and David Hamilton (1976) called it progressive focusing.P12 for assertions, we draw from understandings deep within us, understandings whose derivation may be some hidden mix of personal experience, scholarship, assertions of other researchers. It will be helpful to the reader when such leaps to conclusion are labeled as speculation or theory, but researchers often do not. By custom, researchers are privileged to assert what they find meaningful as a result of their inquiries. Their reports and consultations will include strictly determined findings and loosely determined assertions.… we get the information we want by discrete observation or examination of records. We try hard to understand how the actors, the people being studied, see things. Ultimately, the interpretations of those people studied, but the qualitative case researcher tries to preserve the multiple realities, the different and even contradictory views of what is happening.Research QuestionsP15 the design of all research requires conceptual organization, ideas to express needed understanding, conceptual bridges from what is already known, cognitive structures to guide data gathering, and outlines for presenting interpretations to others.In social science research, the most common conceptual organization is around hypotheses, especially null hypotheses. In program evaluation, the most common organization is around program goal statements. These forms of organization move the research away from puzzlement toward understanding and explanation.Conceptual StructureIn qualitative case study, we want to appreciate the uniqueness and complexity of the case, its embeddedness and interaction with its contexts.One of the most important things to remember is that for intrinsic case study, the case is dominant; the case is of the highest importance. For instrumental case study, the issue is dominant; we start and end with issues dominant.P17 issues are not simple and clean, but intricately wired to political, social, historical, and especially personal contexts. All these meanings are important in studying cases.Issues can be good research questions for organizing a case study.Stating IssuesP18 Issue statements will sometimes appear as cause and effect relationships.The researcher will intend to provide various information and may facilitate the conceptualization of his or her task by posing certain information questions, or evaluative questions.Evolution of Issue QuestionsP20 etic issues are the researcher’s issues, sometimes the issues of a larger research community, colleagues, and writers.Emic issues emerge. These are issues of the actors, the people who belong to the case. These are issues from the inside.If an issue were to be followed during the study of a case, the transformation might appear as follow:1.Topical question2.Foreshadowed problem3.Evolved issue pursued4.AssertionP21 In qualitative research project, issues emerge, grow and die. In quantitative research, as an issue becomes more refined or important, a parallel or subsequent study is started; the present one keeps its issues intact. In each orientation there is a resistance to impetuousness, a heeling of one of the greatest to quantitative researchers.P25 Topical Information QuestionsThe topical questions call for information needed for description of the case. It is helpful and reassuring especially to the inexperienced researcher to have an outline of primary topics, even secondary topics, needing attention. In collective case study, an early commitment to common topics facilities later cross-site analysis. A topical outline will be used by some researchers as the primary conceptual structure and by others as subordinate to the issue structure.P29 Questions Calling for Coded DataOne of the choices (or reaffirmations, for those like myself who tend to use the same case study approach over and over) that needs to be made very clearly is how much to rely on coded data and how much to rely on interpretation directly from observation.Major efforts to develop understanding from coded data usually will require early identification of relevant variables and situations in which the variables are observable, just as major efforts to develop understanding from direct interpretation are more likely to succeed with early identification of situations in which the issues become apparent.P32 Coding is also used to classify whole episodes, interviews, or documents, making them moreappropriately retrievable at a later time. And in between, parts of episodes, interviews, and documents may be coded. The simpler the datum, the easier it is to develop distributions and statistical analyses. The more complex the item, the more individual interpretation it will need when analyzed.The Nature of Qualitative ResearchP37 Three major differences in qualitative and quantitative emphasis deserve attention: (1) the distinction between explanation and understanding as the purpose of inquiry; (2) the distinction between a personal and impersonal role for the researcher, and (3) a distinction between knowledge discovered and knowledge constructed.Experiential UnderstandingA distinction between what knowledge to shoot for fundamentally separates quantitative and qualitative inquiry. It is a difference in searching for causes versus searching for happenings. Quantitative researchers have pressed for explanation and control; qualitative researchers have pressed for understanding the complex interrelationships among all that exists.P39 qualitative research tries to establish an empathetic understanding for the reader, though description, sometimes thick description, conveying to the reader what experience itself would convey.Quantitative research methods have grown out of scientific search for cause and effect expressed ultimately in grand theory. To establish generalizations that hold over diverse situations, most social-science-oriented researchers make observations in diverse situations.Quantitative researchers regularly treat uniqueness of case as “error,”outside the system of explained science. Qualitative researchers treat the uniqueness of individual cases and contexts as important to understanding. Particularization is an important aim, coming to know the particularity of the case.P40 To sharpen the search for explanation, quantitative researchers perceive what is happening in terms of descriptive variables, represent happenings with scales and measurements.To sharpen the search for understanding, quantitative researchers perceive what is happening in key episodes or testimonies, represent happenings with their own direct interpretation and stories. Qualitative research uses these narratives to optimize the opportunity of the reader to gain an experiential understanding of the case.Interpretation as MethodP41 Standard qualitative designs call for the persons most responsible for interpretations to be in the field, making observations, exercising subjective judgment, analyzing, all the while realizing their own consciousness.In qualitative studies, the research question seeks out a relationship between a small number of variables. Efforts are made to operationally bound the inquiry, to define the variables, and tominimize the importance of interpretation until data are analyzed.In quantitative studies, research questions typically orient to cases or phenomena, seeking patterns of unanticipated as well as expected relationships. The dependent variables are experientially rather than operationally defined. Situational conditions are not known in advance or controlled. Even the independent variables are expected to develop in unexpected ways.P43 Other Characteristics of Qualitative Research…qualitative inquiry is distinguished by its emphasis on holistic treatment of phenomena.P45 Recognition of FaultsQualitative inquiry is subjective. New puzzles are produced more frequently than solutions to old ones. The misunderstanding will occur because the researcher-interpreters are unaware of their own intellectual shortcomings and because of the weaknesses in methods that fail to purge misinterpretations.Qualitative researchers have a respectable concern for validation of observations, they have routines for “triangulation” that approximate in purpose those in the quantitative fields, but they do not have widely agreed-upon protocols that put subjective misunderstandings to a stuff enough test.P46 Many qualitative studies are personalistic studies. Impersonal issues applied to carefully observed human beings become personal issues. Privacy is always a risk.To an extent, they are controlled by the rules of funding and their disciplines, but that controls only whether or not they will report their use of qualitative methods—all researchers will use them. There are times when all researchers are going to be interpretive, holistic, naturalistic, and uninterested in cause, and then, by definition, they will be qualitative inquirers.Data GatheringOrganizing the Data GatheringP51 Absolutely essential parts of a data-gathering plan are the following: definition of case, list of research questions, identification of helpers, data sources, allocation of time, expense, intended reporting.Access and PermissionsP59 With most studies, there is a hurry to get stated, yet a quiet entry is highly desirable. A researcher’s willingness to present findings after the study is over is appreciated, but by the time the study is over, the actors are often little interested.The back side of access is protocol for leaving the site. It is often unclear when the final visit is, each could be the last. Ordinary common sense and good manners again are needed. Careful recollection should identify promises made, possibly not yet fulfilled. The researcher should leave the site having made no one less able to carry out their responsibilities.ObservationP60 Observations work the researcher toward greater understanding of the case.Quantitative data require aggregation and sorting in order for meanings to become clear. Qualitative or interpretive data have meanings directly recognized by the observer.During observation, the qualitative case study researcher keeps a good record of events to provide a relatively incontestable description for further analysis and ultimate reporting.During observation, the quantitative case study researcher keeps focused on categories or key events, attentive to background conditions that may influence subsequent analysis but concentrated on what constitutes a tally.P63 Quantitative works to develop aggregates of coded data leading to substantiated covariation; qualitative works with episodes of unique relationship to fashion a story or unique description of the case.The more quantitative approach usually means including many repeated observation situations to get a representative coverage of the relationships for this particular case. The qualitative approach usually means finding good moments to reveal the unique complexity of the case.Description of ContextsP64 The more the case study is intrinsic case study, the more attention needs to be paid to the contexts. The more the case study is an instrumental case study, certain contexts may be important, but other contexts important to the case are of little interest to the study. The allocation of attention to contexts will be based partly on the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental purpose.InterviewThe interview is the main road to multiple realities.Document ReviewP68 The potential usefulness of different documents should be estimated in advance and time a document will need cannot be determined in advance.Analysis and InterpretationAnalysis is a matter of giving meaning to first impressions as well as to final compilations. Analysis essentially means taking something apart. We take our impressions, our observations, apart.Categories Aggregation or Direct InterpretationP74 Two strategic ways that researchers reach new meanings about cases are through direct interpretation of the individual instance and through aggregation of instances until something can be said about them as a class. Case study relies on both of these methods.P75 The qualitative researcher concentrates on the instance, trying to pull it apart and put it back together again more meaningfully—analysis and synthesis in direct interpretation. The quantitative researcher seeks a collection of instances, expecting that, from the aggregate, issue-relevant meanings will emerge.P77 with intrinsic case studies, our primary task is to come to understand the case. It will help us to tease out relationships, to probe issues, and to aggregate categorical data, but those ends are subordinate to understanding the case.With instrumental case studies, where the case serves to help us understand phenomena or relationships within it, the need for categorical data and measurements is greater. We will forego attention to the complexity of the case to concentrate on relationships identified in our research questions. The nature of the study, the focus of the research questions, the curiosities of the researcher pretty well determine what analytic strategies should be followed: categories aggregation or direct interpretation.Correspondence and PatternsP78 The search for meaning often is a search for patterns, for consistency, for consistency within certain conditions, which we call “correspondence.”Both categories aggregation and direct interpretation depend greatly on the search for patterns. Often, the patterns will be known in advance, drawn from the research questions, serving as a template for the analysis.Keeping in mind that it is the case we are trying to understand, we analyze episodes or text materials with a sense of correspondence.For most of our observations, time and interest do call for formal analysis. For further interpretation, we select a portion of the observations most worthy of including in our report. We may have decided ahead of time that these data will be coded during observation. Or we may code notes or a transcript. Or we may only use direct interpretation. For most important data, it will be useful to use preestablished codes but to go through the data separately looking for new ones.Naturalistic GeneralizationsP85 Naturalistic generalizations are conclusions arrived at through personal engagement in life’s affairs or by vicarious experience so well constructed that the person feels as if it happened to themselves.。