Philosophy of Logic
哲学的英文短语
哲学的英文短语下面就由为大家带来关于哲学的英语短语集锦，希望大家能有所收获。
关于哲学的相关短语哲学博士doctor of philosophy;哲学家philosopher;哲学思想philosophical thinking;哲学体系philosophy;哲学问题philosophia perennis;哲学系philosophy department;哲学心理学philosophical psychology;哲学语法{语} philosophical grammar;哲学原理metaphysics关于哲学的相关单词Philosophiephilosophy关于哲学的相关短句或解释sb.'s philosophy of living;处世哲学classical philosophy;古典哲学Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism;马克思主义的辩证唯物主义哲学a middle-of-the-road philosophy; doctrine of means中庸哲学关于哲学的相关例句1. Apart from criminal investigation techniques, students learn forensic medicine, philosophy and logic.除罪案调查技巧外，学生们还要学习法医学、哲学和逻辑学。
2. Annie's work reflects her philosophy that life is full of mysteries.安妮的作品反映了她的人生哲学，即生活充满神秘色彩。
3. He's trying to bring together various strands of radical philosophic thought.他正试图把各种激进的哲学思想综合在一起。
北京大学哲学系, 宗教学系本科教学计划
北京大学哲学系、宗教学系本科教学计划1999版目录哲学系哲学专业教学计划哲学专业必修课程学年学期分布一览表哲学系逻辑学专业教学计划哲学专业必修课程学年学期分布一览表宗教学系宗教学专业教学计划宗教学专业必修课程学年学期分布一览表哲学系哲学辅修专业教学计划及招生简章北京大学哲学系哲学专业专业简介哲学专业成立于1914年，学制4年，毕业授予哲学学士学位。
专业培养要求、目标本专业培养德、智、体全面发展的、较全面地掌握哲学基础理论和基本方法、具有多方面的基本知识和技能的人才。
学分要求与课程设置总学分：150学分，其中必修课程77学分，限制性选修课48学分，任意选修课25学分。
1．必修课程：77学分全校公共必修课：35学分专业必修课：42学分2．限制性选修课（每门课均为2学分）：在如下九大系列中共选48学分，其中马克思主义哲学系列至少选4学分中国哲学系列至少选6学分外国哲学系列至少选6学分，其中至少有2学分带星号的课程逻辑学、伦理学、美学、宗教学、科技哲学五大系列至少各选2学分哲学分支系列不做限制第四、外国哲学系列：第七、美学系列：第八、宗教学系列：3．任意选修课：25学分在外系和全校性选修课中自由选课。
北京大学哲学系逻辑学专业专业简介逻辑学专业成立于1987年，从理科招生，学制4年，毕业授予哲学学士学位。
专业培养要求、目标本专业培养具备较好的马克思主义理论素养，全面深入地掌握逻辑学的基础知识，具有一定的数学素养以及计算机理论和操作能力，能在高等院校、科研单位、国家机关或各类企事业管理部门从事逻辑学的教学、科研和应用方面的工作，并能从事计算机科学和语言学的科研和应用方面的工作的逻辑学专门人才。
学分要求与课程设置总学分：150学分1．必修课程：87学分●全校公共必修课：35学分课程设置参见哲学专业●专业必修课：52学分2．限制性选修课：16学分在哲学专业的逻辑系列选修课中选够16学分3．任意选修课：47学分在系内外选修课和全校公共选修课中自由选课北京大学宗教学系宗教学专业专业培养要求、目标本专业培养德、智、体全面发展的、较全面地掌握宗教学基础理论和基本方法、具有多方面的基本知识和技能的人才。
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名
哲学科学全书纲要的英文名## Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences.The Outlines of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences (Grundlinien der Encyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften) is a work by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, first published in 1817. It is a systematic exposition of Hegel's philosophical system, and it is considered one of the most important works in the history of philosophy.The Outlines is divided into three parts:1. Logic.2. Philosophy of Nature.3. Philosophy of Spirit.Logic is the first part of the Outlines, and it dealswith the most basic concepts of philosophy, such as being, nothingness, and becoming. Hegel argues that these concepts are not static, but rather they are in a constant state of flux and change. He also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself.Philosophy of Nature is the second part of the Outlines, and it deals with the natural world. Hegel argues that nature is not a separate realm from spirit, but rather itis a manifestation of spirit. He also argues that the lawsof nature are not fixed and immutable, but rather they are constantly evolving.Philosophy of Spirit is the third and final part of the Outlines, and it deals with the human spirit. Hegel argues that the human spirit is the highest form of reality, and that it is the goal of all history. He also argues that the human spirit is not a static entity, but rather it is in a constant state of development.The Outlines is a complex and challenging work, but itis also a rewarding one. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## Hegel's Philosophical System.Hegel's philosophical system is based on the idea that reality is a constantly evolving process of becoming. He argues that all things are in a state of flux and change, and that there is no such thing as a static or unchanging reality.Hegel also argues that the laws of logic are not arbitrary, but rather they are based on the nature of reality itself. He believes that the laws of logic are the laws of thought, and that they are therefore the laws of reality.Hegel's philosophical system is often referred to as idealism, because it emphasizes the importance of the mind and spirit. Hegel argues that the mind is the source of all reality, and that the world is a product of the mind.Hegel's idealism is not solipsism, however. He does not believe that the world is simply a product of our own imagination. Rather, he believes that the world is a real and independent entity, but that it is also a product of the mind.Hegel's philosophical system is a complex and challenging one, but it is also a powerful and persuasive one. It is a system that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be studied and debated today.## The Outlines in the History of Philosophy.The Outlines was first published in 1817, and it was immediately recognized as a major work of philosophy. It was quickly translated into several languages, and it was soon being studied and debated by philosophers all over the world.The Outlines had a profound influence on thedevelopment of philosophy in the 19th century. It was one of the main sources of inspiration for the idealist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of Marxism.In the 20th century, the Outlines continued to be studied and debated by philosophers. It was a major source of inspiration for the existentialist movement, and it also helped to shape the development of analytic philosophy.The Outlines is still a major work of philosophy today. It is a work that is studied and debated by philosophersall over the world. It is a work that has had a profound influence on the history of philosophy, and it continues to be a source of inspiration for philosophers today.。
逻辑的魅力英语作文
逻辑的魅力英语作文The Charm of Logic.Logic is a fascinating subject that has captivated the minds of philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists for centuries. It is the study of reasoning and the principles that govern correct and valid arguments. Logic is not only a tool for critical thinking, but also a way to understand the world around us. In this essay, I will explore the charm of logic and its importance in our lives.Logic enables us to make sense of complex information and draw conclusions based on evidence and reasoning. It allows us to analyze arguments and identify fallacies, helping us to avoid being misled or deceived. For example, when presented with a persuasive advertisement, we can use logical thinking to evaluate the claims and evidence provided, and make an informed decision about whether to purchase the product. Similarly, in everyday conversations, logic helps us to detect inconsistencies and contradictionsin what others say, enabling us to engage in meaningful and rational discussions.Logic also plays a crucial role in problem-solving. By applying logical principles, we can break down complex problems into smaller, more manageable parts, and systematically analyze each component to find a solution. For instance, in mathematics, logic is used to prove theorems and solve equations. In computer programming, logical thinking is essential for designing algorithms and debugging code. By using logical reasoning, we can approach problems in a structured and systematic manner, increasing our chances of finding effective solutions.Furthermore, logic is deeply intertwined with language. Language itself is based on logical principles, such as the rules of grammar and syntax. Without logic, communication would be chaotic and incomprehensible. For example, consider the following sentence: "All cats are mammals, and all mammals have four legs, so all cats have four legs." This statement is logically valid because it follows the principles of deductive reasoning. However, if we were tosay, "All cats are mammals, and all mammals have four legs, so all cats are black," this would be a logical fallacy, as it makes an invalid inference. By understanding the principles of logic, we can communicate more effectivelyand avoid misunderstandings.In addition to its practical applications, logic also has a profound impact on our intellectual development. Studying logic enhances our critical thinking skills, enabling us to analyze arguments, evaluate evidence, and form well-reasoned opinions. It teaches us to thinklogically and systematically, rather than relying onintuition or emotions. Moreover, logic encourages us to question assumptions and challenge established beliefs, fostering intellectual curiosity and open-mindedness. By engaging with logical reasoning, we can expand our knowledge and deepen our understanding of the world.逻辑的魅力。
中山大学培养方案之哲学系-逻辑学专业
2013级逻辑学本科专业培养方案
一、培养目标
本专业培养具有扎实的逻辑学专业基础，具有哲学、数学、计算机科学、心理学、
法学、语言学、经济学、社会学等方面专业素养，能在高等院校、科研单位、国家机关
及企事业管理部门从事相关工作的文理交叉的专业型及新型复合型人才。
二、培养规格和要求
1 .达到国家在德智体美方面的基本要求。
2 •掌握逻辑学的基本理论，具备运用逻辑学知识解决具体问题的能力，具有深厚
的人文修养和国际视野。
三、授予学位与修业年限
学制四年，按要求完成学业者授予哲学学士学位。
双专业、双学位要求请以相关院系的公布为准。
四、毕业总学分及课内总学时
五、专业核心课程：按培养要求列出专业课程10门左右。
逻辑学导论、数理逻辑、哲学逻辑、非形式逻辑、计算理论导论、数学分析、线性
代数、概率与理性选择、程序设计基础、认知科学导论
—1 —
六、专业特色课程：如“双语教学课程”、“精品课程”等。
非经典逻辑、法律逻辑、佛
教逻辑、文化与认知
七、专业课程设置及教学进程计划表（见附表）
2—
附表
逻辑学专业课程设置及教学计划
1 2013级《大学英语》课程将进行课程教学内容与教学模式改革，按12学分列入公共必修课板块。
2包含政治理论社会实践活动2个学分。
3包括技能18天，理论36学时。
4 B类课程为专业限定性必修课程。
—5。
各类学科的英文表达方式
哲学 Philosophy马克思主义哲学 Philosophy ofMarxism中国哲学 Chinese Philosophy外国哲学 Foreign Philosophies逻辑学 Logic伦理学 Ethics美学 Aesthetics宗教学 Science of Religion科学技术哲学 Philosophy of Scienceand Technology经济学 Economics理论经济学 Theoretical Economics 政治经济学 Political Economy 经济思想史 History of Economic Thought 经济史 History of Economic 西方经济学 Western Economics 世界经济 World Economics人口、资源与环境经济学 Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学 Applied Economics 国民经济学 National Economics 区域经济学 Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学） Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学（含保险学） Finance (including Insurance)产业经济学 Industrial Economics 国际贸易学 International Trade 劳动经济学 Labor Economics 统计学 Statistics 数量经济学 Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称 英文学科、专业名称国防经济学 National DefenseEconomics法学 Law法学 Science of Law法学理论 Jurisprudence法律史 Legal History宪法学与行政法学 Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学 Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学 Science of Procedure Laws 经济法学 Science of Economic Law 环境与资源保护法学 Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law 国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law(including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学 Science of Military Law 政治学 Political Science 政治学理论 Political Theory 中外政治制度 Chinese and Foreign Political Institution 科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动 Scientific Socialism and InternationalCommunist Movement中共党史(含党的学说与党的建设)History of the Communist Party ofChina (including the Doctrine of China Party and Party Building)马克思主义理论与思想政治教育 Education of Marxist Theory and Education in Ideology and Politics国际政治学 International Politics 国际关系学 International Relations 外交学 Diplomacy 社会学 Sociology 社会学 Sociology 人口学 Demography 人类学 Anthropology民俗学(含中国民间文学) Folklore (including Chinese Folk Literature)民族学 Ethnology 民族学 Ethnology 马克思主义民族理论与政策 Marxist Ethnic Theory and Policy 中国少数民族经济 Chinese Ethnic Economics中国少数民族史 Chinese Ethnic History中国少数民族艺术 Chinese Ethnic Art 教育学 Education 教育学 Education Science 教育学原理 Educational Principle 课程与教学论 Curriculum and Teaching Methodology 教育史 History of Education比较教育学 Comparative Education 学前教育学 Pre-school Education 高等教育学 Higher Education 成人教育学 Adult Education 职业技术教育学 Vocational and Technical Education特殊教育学 Special Education 教育技术学 Education Technology 心理学 Psychology基础心理学 Basic Psychology 发展与心理学 Developmental and Educational Psychology 应用心理学 Applied Psychology体育学 Science of Physical Culture and Sports体育人文社会学 Humane and Sociological Science of Sports 运动人体科学 Human Movement Science体育教育训练学 Theory of Sports Pedagogy and Training民族传统体育学 Science of Ethnic Traditional Sports 文学 Literature中国语言文学 Chinese Literature 文艺学 Theory of Literature and Art 语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics汉语言文字学 Chinese Philology 中国古典文献学 Study of Chinese Classical Text中国古代文学 Ancient Chinese Literature中国现当代文学 Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature 中国少数民族语言文学 Chinese Ethnic Language and Literature比较文学与世界文学 Comparative Literature and World Literature 外国语言文学 Foreign Languages and Literatures英语语言文学 English Language and Literature俄语语言文学 Russian Language and Literature法语语言文学 French Language and Literature德语语言文学 German Language and Literature日语语言文学 Japanese Language and Literature印度语言文学 Indian Language and Literature西班牙语语言文学 Spanish Language and Literature阿拉伯语语言文学 Arabic Language and Literature欧洲语言文学 European Language and Literature亚非语言文学 Asian-African Language and Literature外国语言学及应用语言学 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in Foreign Languages新闻传播学 Journalism and Communication 新闻学 Journalism传播学 Communication艺术学Art艺术学Art Theory音乐学Music美术学Fine Arts设计艺术学Artistic Design戏剧戏曲学Theater and Chinese Traditional Opera电影学Film广播电视艺术学Radio and television Art舞蹈学Dance历史学History历史学History史学理论及史学史Historical Theories and History of Historical Science考古学及博物馆学Archaeology and Museology历史地理学Historical Geography历史文献学(含敦煌学、古文字学) Studies of Historical Literature (includingPaleography and Studies of Dunhuang)专门史History of Particular Subjects 中国古代史Ancient Chinese History 中国近现代史Modern and Contemporary Chinese History世界史World History理学Natural Science数学Mathematics基础数学Fundamental Mathematics 计算数学Computational Mathematics概率论与数理统计Probability and Mathematical Statistics应用数学Applied mathematics运筹学与控制论Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学Physics理论物理Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics原子与分子物理Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理Plasma Physics凝聚态物理Condensed Matter Physics声学Acoustics光学Optics无线电物理Radio Physics化学Chemistry无机化学Inorganic Chemistry分析化学Analytical Chemistry有机化学Organic Chemistry物理化学（含化学物理）Physical Chemistry (including ChemicalPhysics)高分子化学与物理Chemistry andPhysics of Polymers天文学Astronomy天体物理Astrophysics天体测量与天体力学Astrometry andCelestial Mechanics地理学Geography自然地理学Physical Geography人文地理学Human Geography地图学与地理信息系统Cartographyand Geography Information System大气科学Atmospheric Sciences气象学Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境AtmosphericPhysics and AtmosphericEnvironment海洋科学Marine Sciences物理海洋学Physical Oceanography海洋化学Marine Chemistry海洋生理学Marine Biology海洋地质学Marine Geology地球物理学Geophysics固体地球物理学Solid Earth Physics空间物理学Space Physics地质学Geology矿物学、岩石学、矿床学Mineralogy,Petrology, Mineral Deposit Geology地球化学Geochemistry古生物学与地层学（含古人类学）Paleontology and Stratigraphy(includingPaleoanthropology)构造地质学Structural Geology第四纪地质学Quaternary Geology生物学Biology植物学Botany动物学Zoology生理学Physiology水生生物学Hydrobiology微生物学Microbiology神经生物学Neurobiology遗传学Genetics发育生物学Developmental Biology细胞生物学Cell Biology生物化学与分子生物学Biochemistryand Molecular Biology生物物理学Biophysics生态学Ecology系统科学Systems Science系统理论Systems Theory系统分析与集成Systems Analysisand Integration科学技术史History of Science andTechnology工学Engineering力学Mechanics一般力学与力学基础General andFundamental Mechanics固体力学Solid Mechanics流体力学Fluid Mechanics工程力学Engineering Mechanics机械工程Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化MechanicalManufacture and Automation机械电子工程MechatronicEngineering机械设计与理论Mechanical Designand Theory车辆工程Vehicle Engineering光学工程Optical Engineering仪器科学与技术Instrument Scienceand Technology精密仪器及机械Precision Instrumentand Machinery测试计量技术及仪器Measuring andTesting Technologies andInstruments材料科学与工程Materials Scienceand Engineering材料物理与化学Materials Physicsand Chemistry材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials ProcessingEngineering冶金工程Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学Physical Chemistry ofMetallurgy钢铁冶金Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理PowerEngineering and EngineeringThermophysics工程热物理EngineeringThermophysics热能工程Thermal PowerEngineering动力机械及工程Power Machineryand Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery andEngineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration andCryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical ProcessEquipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines andElectric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power Systemand its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High Voltage andInsulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering 电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering通信与信息系统Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems 导航、制导与控制Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture建筑历史与理论Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计（含风景园林规划与设计）Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学Building Technology Science土木工程Civil Engineering岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering 结构工程Structural Engineering市政工程Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering 防灾减灾工程及防护工程DisasterPrevention and ReductionEngineering and ProtectiveEngineering桥梁与隧道工程Bridge and TunnelEngineering水利工程Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源Hydrology andWater Resources水力学及河流动力学Hydraulics andRiver Dynamics水工结构工程Hydraulic StructureEngineering水利水电工程Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程Harbor,Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术Surveying andMapping大地测量学与测量工程Geodesy andSurvey Engineering摄影测量与遥感Photogrammetryand Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程Cartography and GeographicInformation Engineering化学工程与技术ChemicalEngineering and Technology化学工程Chemical Engineering化学工艺Chemical Technology生物化工Biochemical Engineering应用化学Applied Chemistry工业催化Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程GeologicalResources and GeologicalEngineering矿产普查与勘探Mineral ResourceProspecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术Geodetectionand Information Technology地质工程Geological Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering矿物加工工程Mineral ProcessingEngineering安全技术及工程Safety Technologyand Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and NaturalGas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas FieldDevelopment Engineering油气储运工程Oil-Gas Storage andTransportation Engineering纺织科学与工程Textile Science andEngineering纺织工程Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计TextileMaterial and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程TextileChemistry and Dyeing and FinishingEngineering服装设计与工程Clothing Design andEngineering轻工技术与工程The Light IndustryTechnology and Engineering制浆造纸工程Pulp and PaperEngineering制糖工程Sugar Engineering发酵工程Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程Leather Chemistryand Engineering交通运输工程Communication andTransportation Engineering道路与铁道工程Highway andRailway Engineering交通信息工程及控制TrafficInformation Engineering & Control交通运输规划与管理TransportationPlanning and Management载运工具运用工程Vehicle OperationEngineering船舶与海洋工程Naval Architectureand Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造Designand Construction of NavalArchitecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程Marine Engine Engineering水声工程Underwater AcousticsEngineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronauticaland Astronautical Science andTechnology飞行器设计Flight Vehicle 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logic and philosophy 英语作文
logic and philosophy1.Leibniz was the real implementer of the modern universal language program. He not only reexpressed the three major formal logic in a symbolic way, but also put forward the seven axioms of logical calculus, thus starting the work of logical mathematics. He made a comprehensive investigation of the relationship between logic and metaphysics after Aristotle, and proposed for the first time forward the fundamental consistency of the two. His discussion on concepts, definitions and propositions has an incentive effect on logic. His distinction between analytical propositions and comprehensive propositions has become an important ideological resource for Kant's philosophy and Husserl phenomenology.The significance of logic to metaphysics: Since Aristotle, logic has been closely related to metaphysics and epistemology. Metaphysics has always been regarded as the knowledge "about existence as existence", as the pursuit of the first principles of the world, while logic has always been regarded as the form and law of thinking. The epistemological transition realized by modern philosophy not only provides new opportunities for the reconstruction of the internal connection between logic and metaphysics, but also expands the theoretical domain and vision of both. Among the seventeenth-century philosophers, Leibniz was the most clear and most fully expressed the basic ideas of logical philosophy. In his place, logic was both the great tool of reason, the fundamental expression of philosophical truth, and the fundamental principle of philosophical research, because, in his opinion, "everything created through reason can be created by perfect logical rules". Leibniz tried to base philosophy in the traditional sense firmly by establishing the value of logical reason, because he found that philosophy lacks a clarity and certainty. Therefore, he hopes to transform philosophy logically so as to make philosophical concepts, propositions and reasoning realistic. In the New Theory of Human Reason, he agrees with the view: " The function of philosophy is to create some words, in order to give people definite concepts, and to express the definite truth in general propositions.”2.According to Leibniz's idea of classification, there are two main treatments of the truth of all doctrines, each with its own weight and each having its own value and significance, but the best way is to combine them, because they complement and complement each other. These two methods are integrated (also known as theoretical) and analytical (also known as practical). The comprehensive method or theoretical method is to arrange the truth in the order of the proof. Like a mathematical proof, put each proposition after the proposition taken as a premise. In this way, all the propositions representing the truth will present a progressive logical relationship. Analytic or practical method starts with the purpose of man, starts with good, from the highest point of good, human happiness, and then transition to the special means of achieving good (or avoiding the opposite of good, evil). In this sense, analytical methods are designed to transition from purpose to means, from abstract entry to special, or to decline from general to individual. In addition to the above two treatments, Leibniz believes, we can also add a third method, namely, a method of arranging the truth by a noun, which is actually an indexing method, which Leibniz used for book classification and cataloging. Leibniz said that the third method is equivalent to the ancient logic method, because it dealswith knowledge and truth according to certain categories of logic, which involves both the understanding of the nature of species and genera, as well as the definition of the logical extension and connotation of categories. The above classification is consistent with the scientific classification of the ancient Greeks. Because the ancient Greeks divided philosophy or science into three categories: theoretical, practical, and ethical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is equivalent to what Leibniz has here to as comprehensive law, practical knowledge is equivalent to analytical law, and the method of arranging truth by noun is equivalent to logic.As Leibniz's mind matured, he attached more attention to logic. He said: " As for logic, which is the teaching and connection of thought, I see no reason to blame. On the contrary, the lack of logic makes people wrong."He not only greatly expanded the scope of logic, but also tried to reconstruct metaphysics from the logical analysis of propositions. To this end, he needs both to revisit and establish the logical premise of metaphysics, and also to establish a reliable logical method in order to discover and express the definite truth. According to Russell, there are five main premises of Leibniz's philosophy:(1) Each proposition has a primary term and a predicate term;(2) A primary term may have several predicates about the properties that exist at different times;(3) All true propositions that constantly claim existence at a certain time are inevitable and analytical, while those that assert existence at a certain time are accidental, with the latter relying on the ultimate cause;(4) The self is an entity;(5) Perception produces knowledge about the outside world, that is, about myself and about existing things outside of my state.Clearly, the first three of these five premises are related to logic. The fourth premise is the basis of Leibniz's epistemology, and, in a sense, it is also the basis of his metaphysics. But this premise is also indirectly related to logic. As Russell said, " The entity concepts, as we will understand, are derived from the logical concepts of both the principal terms and the predicate terms."If the concept of the entity is one of the most basic concepts of Leibniz's metaphysics, then the logical concept of the subject and predicate term also establishes its metaphysics independently. For this reason, Russell asserted that " Leibniz's metaphysics comes from his subject and predicate logic."He even asserts," Leibniz's philosophy stems almost entirely from his logic.”。
关于逻辑
[编辑] 本质
形式是逻辑的核心，但在“形式逻辑”中对“形式”使用时常不很明确，因而使其阐述变得很费解。其中，符号逻辑仅为形式逻辑的一种类型，而和形式逻辑的另一种类型－只处理直言命题的三段论不同。
非形式逻辑是研究自然语言论证的一门学科。对谬论的研究是非形式逻辑中尤其重要的一个分支。柏拉图的作品[3]是非形式逻辑的一重要例子。
传统上，逻辑被作为哲学的一个分支来研究。自从十九世纪中期，逻辑经常在数学和最近的计算机科学中研究。作为一门形式科学，通过对推论的形式系统和自然语言论证二者的研究，逻辑研究和分类语句和论证的结构。因此逻辑的范围是非常广阔的，从核心主题如对谬论和悖论的研究，到专门的推理分析如或然正确的推理和涉及因果关系的论证。
W. Hodges, 2001. Logic. An introduction to elementary logic. Penguin Books.
G. Birkhoff and J. von Neumann, 1936. 'The Logic of Quantum Mechanics'. Annals of Mathematics, 37:823-843.
D. Finkelstein, 1969. 'Matter, Space and Logic'. In R. S. Cohen and M. W. Wartofsky, (eds.), Proceedings of the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of Science, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 13. ISBN 90-277-支，和文法与修辞一同被称为古典三学科。自十九世纪中叶，“形式逻辑”已被作为数学基础而被研究，当中经常被称之为符号逻辑。1903年，阿弗烈·诺夫·怀海德与伯特兰·罗素写成了《Principia Mathematica》，试图将逻辑形式地建立成数学的基石。[2]不过，除了些基本的以外，当时的系统已不再被使用，大部份都被集合论所取代掉了。当对形式逻辑的研究渐渐地扩张了之后，研究也不再只局限于基础的议题，之后的各个数学领域被合称为数理逻辑。形式逻辑的发展和其在电脑上的应用是计算机科学的基础。
黑格尔 (1)
一、生平和主要哲学著作
• （二）主要哲学著作
1、《精神现象学》（Phä nomenologie des Geistes / Phenomenology of Spirit, 1807） 2、《逻辑学》（Wissenschaft der Logik / Science of Logic, 1812-1816） 3、《哲学科学百科全书纲要》（Enzyklopä die der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse / Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences in basic Outline，1817年首版，1827年第二版，1830年第三版） 4、《法哲学原理》（Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts / Elements of the Philosophy of Right, 1821） 5、《历史哲学讲演录 》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Philosophie der Geschichte / Lectures on the Philosophy of History） 6、《宗教哲学讲演录》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Philosophie der Religion / Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion ） 7、《哲学史讲演录》（Vorlesungen ü ber die Geschichte der Philosophie
二、哲学的基本主张、方法和原则
（1）从本体论上看，它指的是事物与其自身的 概念或本质之间的关系。思想或概念是事物的 本质，而事物是概念的现象，事物只有符合它 的思想或概念才能获得真实性，否则便无法存 在。 ‚我们以为构成我们表象内容的那些对象 首先存在，然后我们主观的活动方随之而 起……这种想法是颠倒了的。反之，宁可说概 念才是真正的在先的，事物之所以是事物，全 凭内在于事物并显示它自身于事物内的概念活
形式逻辑基本知识
N.Rescher Topics in Philosophical Logic A.基础逻辑
1传统逻辑 2经典现代逻辑 3非经典现代逻辑
逻辑分支一览表 E.哲学发展方面
C.数学发展方面
1算术 2代数 3函数论 4证明论 5概率论逻辑 6集合论 7数学基础论
1伦理应用 a行为逻辑 b义务逻辑 c命令（祈使）逻辑 d优先逻辑和选择逻辑（效益、价值、对策 和决策的逻辑问题） B.元逻辑 2形而上学的逻辑应用 1逻辑语法学 a存在性逻辑 2逻辑语义学 b时序逻辑（时态、变化、过程逻辑） 3逻辑语用学 c部分与整体逻辑 D.科学发展方面 d本体学 a逻辑语言论和 1物理应用 e构造性逻辑（逻辑还原主义等） 自然语言逻辑 a量子论逻辑 f（唯名论与唯实论之争意义下的）本体论 b修辞学分析 b物理或因果摻态理论 逻辑 c语境蕴涵 2生物应用 3认识论应用 d非形式谬误理论 a伍杰方式的发展 a问（答）逻辑 e逻辑的非古典应用 b控制论逻辑 b认识论逻辑（相信、知道、相干） 4逻辑语言学 c假设逻辑（反事实的假设推理） 3社会科学应用 a结构理论（形态学） a规范逻辑 d信息和信息过程的逻辑 e归纳逻辑 b意义理论 b价值逻辑 4归纳逻辑 C有效性理论 c法律应用 a证实和确证的逻辑 b概率逻辑
19世纪上半叶，德国哲学家康德《纯粹理性批判》，先验逻辑； 黑格尔《逻辑学》，辩证逻辑；马克思《资本论》，关于资本范畴的 辩证逻辑体系；列宁，《哲学笔记》，确立了辩证逻辑的基本理论和 原则；毛泽东《论持久战》，提供了辩证逻辑的又一范例。
20世纪30年代，哥德尔不完全性定理、塔尔斯基形式语言真理论、 图灵机及其应用理论三个划时代的成果，为现代逻辑学的蓬勃发展 奠定了基础。由此逻辑学发展进入黄金时代。
哲学英文词典
哲学英文词典1. Philosophy -the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.2. Metaphysics - the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, and cause and effect.3. Epistemology -the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, including the methods and criteria for obtaining it, and the limitations of knowledge.4. Ethics - the branch of philosophy concerned with moral principles and values, and the evaluation of human conduct and character.5. Logic -the branch of philosophy concerned with the principles of reasoning and argumentation, including the study of formal and informal fallacies.6. Aesthetics - the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and appreciation of beauty, art, and taste.7. Political philosophy -the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and justification of political authority, and the principles and values that guide political institutions and practices.8. Existentialism - a philosophical movement that emphasizes the individual's experience of existence and the search for meaning and purpose in life.9. Phenomenology - a philosophical method that focuses on the study of conscious experience and the phenomena that appear within it.10. Ontology -the branch of metaphysics concerned with the study of being and existence, including the classification and nature of entities and their relations to one another.。
逻辑哲学论英文版
Tractatus-Logico PhilosophicusByLudwig Wittgenstein1 The world is all that is the case.1.1 The world is the totality of facts, not of things.1.11 The world is determined by the facts, and by their being all thefacts.1.12 For the totality of facts determines what is the case, and alsowhatever is not the case.1.13 The facts in logical space are the world.1.2 The world divides into facts.1.21 Each item can be the case or not the case while everything elseremains the same.2 What is the case--a fact--is the existence of states of affairs. 2.0 [ there is no paragraph 2.0, but there is a 2.01 ]2.01 A state of affairs (a state of things) is a combination of objects (things).2.011 It is essential to things that they should be possibleconstituents of states of affairs.2.012 In logic nothing is accidental: if a thing can occur in a stateof affairs, the possibility of the state of affairs must bewritten into the thing itself.2.0121 It would seem to be a sort of accident, if it turned out that asituation would fit a thing that could already exist entirely onits own.If things can occur in states of affairs, this possibility must be in them from the beginning.(Nothing in the province of logic can be merely possible. Logicdeals with every possibility and all possibilities are its facts.) Just as we are quite unable to imagine spatial objects outsidespace or temporal objects outside time, so too there is no object that we can imagine excluded from the possibility of combiningwith others.If I can imagine objects combined in states of affairs, I cannotimagine them excluded from the possibility of such combinations.2.0122 Things are independent in so far as they can occur in all possible situations, but this form of independence is a form of connexionwith states of affairs, a form of dependence. (It is impossiblefor words to appear in two different roles: by themselves, and in propositions.)2.0123 If I know an object I also know all its possible occurrences instates of affairs.(Every one of these possibilities must be part of the nature ofthe object.)A new possibility cannot be discovered later.2.01231 If I am to know an object, though I need not know its externalproperties, I must know all its internal properties.2.0124 If all objects are given, then at the same time all possiblestates of affairs are also given.2.013 Each thing is, as it were, in a space of possible states ofaffairs. This space I can imagine empty, but I cannot imagine the thing without the space.2.0131 A spatial object must be situated in infinite space. (A spatialpoint is an argument-place.)A speck in the visual field, thought it need not be red, must have some colour: it is, so to speak, surrounded by colour-space.Notes must have some pitch, objects of the sense of touch somedegree of hardness, and so on.2.014 Objects contain the possibility of all situations.2.0141 The possibility of its occurring in states of affairs is the form of an object.2.02 Objects are simple.2.0201 Every statement about complexes can be resolved into a statementabout their constituents and into the propositions that describethe complexes completely.2.021 Objects make up the substance of the world. That is why theycannot be composite.2.0211 If the world had no substance, then whether a proposition hadsense would depend on whether another proposition was true.2.0212 In that case we could not sketch any picture of the world (true or false).2.022 It is obvious that an imagined world, however difference it may be from the real one, must have something-- a form--in common withit.2.023 Objects are just what constitute this unalterable form.2.0231 The substance of the world can only determine a form, and not any material properties. For it is only by means of propositions that material properties are represented--only by the configuration of objects that they are produced.2.0232 In a manner of speaking, objects are colourless.2.0233 If two objects have the same logical form, the only distinctionbetween them, apart from their external properties, is that theyare different.2.02331 Either a thing has properties that nothing else has, in which case we can immediately use a description to distinguish it from theothers and refer to it; or, on the other hand, there are severalthings that have the whole set of their properties in common, inwhich case it is quite impossible to indicate one of them.For it there is nothing to distinguish a thing, I cannotdistinguish it, since otherwise it would be distinguished afterall.2.024 The substance is what subsists independently of what is the case.2.025 It is form and content.2.0251 Space, time, colour (being coloured) are forms of objects.2.026 There must be objects, if the world is to have unalterable form. 2.027 Objects, the unalterable, and the subsistent are one and the same.2.0271 Objects are what is unalterable and subsistent; theirconfiguration is what is changing and unstable.2.0272 The configuration of objects produces states of affairs.2.03 In a state of affairs objects fit into one another like the links of a chain.2.031 In a state of affairs objects stand in a determinate relation toone another.2.032 The determinate way in which objects are connected in a state ofaffairs is the structure of the state of affairs.2.033 Form is the possibility of structure.2.034 The structure of a fact consists of the structures of states ofaffairs.2.04 The totality of existing states of affairs is the world.2.05 The totality of existing states of affairs also determines whichstates of affairs do not exist.2.06 The existence and non-existence of states of affairs is reality.(We call the existence of states of affairs a positive fact, andtheir non-existence a negative fact.)2.061 States of affairs are independent of one another.2.062 From the existence or non-existence of one state of affairs it isimpossible to infer the existence or non-existence of another.2.063 The sum-total of reality is the world.2.1 We picture facts to ourselves.2.11 A picture presents a situation in logical space, the existence and non-existence of states of affairs.2.12 A picture is a model of reality.2.13 In a picture objects have the elements of the picturecorresponding to them.2.131 In a picture the elements of the picture are the representativesof objects.2.14 What constitutes a picture is that its elements are related to one another in a determinate way.2.141 A picture is a fact.2.15 The fact that the elements of a picture are related to one another in a determinate way represents that things are related to oneanother in the same way.Let us call this connexion of its elements the structure of thepicture, and let us call the possibility of this structure thepictorial form of the picture.2.151 Pictorial form is the possibility that things are related to one another in the same way as the elements of the picture.2.1511 That is how a picture is attached to reality; it reaches rightout to it.2.1512 It is laid against reality like a measure.2.15121 Only the end-points of the graduating lines actually touch theobject that is to be measured.2.1514 So a picture, conceived in this way, also includes the pictorialrelationship, which makes it into a picture.2.1515 These correlations are, as it were, the feelers of the picture'selements, with which the picture touches reality.2.16 If a fact is to be a picture, it must have something in commonwith what it depicts.2.161 There must be something identical in a picture and what itdepicts, to enable the one to be a picture of the other at all.2.17 What a picture must have in common with reality, in order to beable to depict it--correctly or incorrectly--in the way that itdoes, is its pictorial form.2.171 A picture can depict any reality whose form it has.A spatial picture can depict anything spatial, a coloured oneanything coloured, etc.2.172 A picture cannot, however, depict its pictorial form: it displays it.2.173 A picture represents its subject from a position outside it. (Its standpoint is its representational form.) That is why a picturerepresents its subject correctly or incorrectly.2.174 A picture cannot, however, place itself outside itsrepresentational form.2.18 What any picture, of whatever form, must have in common withreality, in order to be able to depict it--correctly orincorrectly--in any way at all, is logical form, i.e. the form of reality.2.181 A picture whose pictorial form is logical form is called a logical picture.2.182 Every picture is at the same time a logical one. (On the otherhand, not every picture is, for example, a spatial one.)2.19 Logical pictures can depict the world.2.2 A picture has logico-pictorial form in common with what itdepicts.2.201 A picture depicts reality by representing a possibility ofexistence and non-existence of states of affairs.2.202 A picture represents a possible situation in logical space.2.203 A picture contains the possibility of the situation that itrepresents.2.21 A picture agrees with reality or fails to agree; it is correct or incorrect, true or false.2.22 What a picture represents it represents independently of its truth or falsity, by means of its pictorial form.2.221 What a picture represents is its sense.2.222 The agreement or disagreement or its sense with realityconstitutes its truth or falsity.2.223 In order to tell whether a picture is true or false we mustcompare it with reality.2.224 It is impossible to tell from the picture alone whether it is true or false.2.225 There are no pictures that are true a priori.3 A logical picture of facts is a thought.3.00 [ no 3.00 - gjw ]3.0 [ no 3.0 - gjw ]3.001 'A state of affairs is thinkable': what this means is that we can picture it to ourselves.3.01 The totality of true thoughts is a picture of the world.3.02 A thought contains the possibility of the situation of which it is the thought. What is thinkable is possible too.3.03 Thought can never be of anything illogical, since, if it were, we should have to think illogically.3.031 It used to be said that God could create anything except whatwould be contrary to the laws of logic.The truth is that we could not say what an 'illogical' world would look like.3.032 It is as impossible to represent in language anything that'contradicts logic' as it is in geometry to represent by itscoordinates a figure that contradicts the laws of space, or togive the coordinates of a point that does not exist.3.0321 Though a state of affairs that would contravene the laws ofphysics can be represented by us spatially, one that wouldcontravene the laws of geometry cannot.3.04 It a thought were correct a priori, it would be a thought whosepossibility ensured its truth.3.05 A priori knowledge that a thought was true would be possible only it its truth were recognizable from the thought itself (withoutanything a to compare it with).3.1 In a proposition a thought finds an expression that can beperceived by the senses.3.11 We use the perceptible sign of a proposition (spoken or written,etc.) as a projection of a possible situation.The method of projection is to think of the sense of theproposition.3.12 I call the sign with which we express a thought a propositionalsign.And a proposition is a propositional sign in its projectiverelation to the world.3.13 A proposition, therefore, does not actually contain its sense, but does contain the possibility of expressing it.('The content of a proposition' means the content of a proposition that has sense.)A proposition contains the form, but not the content, of itssense.3.14 What constitutes a propositional sign is that in its elements (thewords) stand in a determinate relation to one another.A propositional sign is a fact.3.141 A proposition is not a blend of words.(Just as a theme in music is not a blend of notes.)A proposition is articulate.3.142 Only facts can express a sense, a set of names cannot.3.143 Although a propositional sign is a fact, this is obscured by theusual form of expression in writing or print.For in a printed proposition, for example, no essential difference is apparent between a propositional sign and a word.(That is what made it possible for Frege to call a proposition acomposite name.)3.1431 The essence of a propositional sign is very clearly seen if weimagine one composed of spatial objects (such as tables, chairs,and books) instead of written signs.3.1432 Instead of, 'The complex sign 'aRb' says that a stands to b in the relation R' we ought to put, 'That 'a' stands to 'b' in a certain relation says that aRb.'3.144 Situations can be described but not given names.3.2 In a proposition a thought can be expressed in such a way thatelements of the propositional sign correspond to the objects ofthe thought.3.201 I call such elements 'simple signs', and such a proposition'complete analysed'.3.202 The simple signs employed in propositions are called names.3.203 A name means an object. The object is its meaning. ('A' is thesame sign as 'A'.)3.21 The configuration of objects in a situation corresponds to theconfiguration of simple signs in the propositional sign.3.221 Objects can only be named. Signs are their representatives. Ican only speak about them: I cannot put them into words.Propositions can only say how things are, not what they are.3.23 The requirement that simple signs be possible is the requirementthat sense be determinate.3.24 A proposition about a complex stands in an internal relation to a proposition about a constituent of the complex.A complex can be given only by its description, which will beright or wrong. A proposition that mentions a complex will not be nonsensical, if the complex does not exits, but simply false.When a propositional element signifies a complex, this can beseen from an indeterminateness in the propositions in which itoccurs. In such cases we know that the proposition leavessomething undetermined. (In fact the notation for generalitycontains a prototype.)The contraction of a symbol for a complex into a simple symbolcan be expressed in a definition.3.25 A proposition cannot be dissected any further by means of adefinition: it is a primitive sign.3.261 Every sign that has a definition signifies via the signs thatserve to define it; and the definitions point the way.Two signs cannot signify in the same manner if one is primitiveand the other is defined by means of primitive signs. Namescannot be anatomized by means of definitions. (Nor can any sign that has a meaning independently and on its own.)3.262 What signs fail to express, their application shows. What signs slur over, their application says clearly.3.263 The meanings of primitive signs can be explained by means ofelucidations. Elucidations are propositions that stood if themeanings of those signs are already known.3.3 Only propositions have sense; only in the nexus of a proposition does a name have meaning.3.31 I call any part of a proposition that characterizes its sense an expression (or a symbol).(A proposition is itself an expression.)Everything essential to their sense that propositions can have in common with one another is an expression.An expression is the mark of a form and a content.3.311 An expression presupposes the forms of all the propositions inwhich it can occur. It is the common characteristic mark of aclass of propositions.3.312 It is therefore presented by means of the general form of thepropositions that it characterizes.In fact, in this form the expression will be constant andeverything else variable.3.313 Thus an expression is presented by means of a variable whosevalues are the propositions that contain the expression.(In the limiting case the variable becomes a constant, theexpression becomes a proposition.)I call such a variable a 'propositional variable'.3.314 An expression has meaning only in a proposition. All variablescan be construed as propositional variables.(Even variable names.)3.315 If we turn a constituent of a proposition into a variable, thereis a class of propositions all of which are values of theresulting variable proposition. In general, this class too willbe dependent on the meaning that our arbitrary conventions havegiven to parts of the original proposition. But if all the signs in it that have arbitrarily determined meanings are turned intovariables, we shall still get a class of this kind. This one,however, is not dependent on any convention, but solely on thenature of the pro position. It corresponds to a logical form--alogical prototype.3.316 What values a propositional variable may take is something that is stipulated.The stipulation of values is the variable.3.317 To stipulate values for a propositional variable is to give thepropositions whose common characteristic the variable is.The stipulation is a description of those propositions.The stipulation will therefore be concerned only with symbols, not with their meaning.And the only thing essential to the stipulation is that it ismerely a description of symbols and states nothing about what issignified.How the description of the propositions is produced is notessential.3.318 Like Frege and Russell I construe a proposition as a function ofthe expressions contained in it.3.32 A sign is what can be perceived of a symbol.3.321 So one and the same sign (written or spoken, etc.) can be commonto two different symbols--in which case they will signify indifferent ways.3.322 Our use of the same sign to signify two different objects cannever indicate a common characteristic of the two, if we use itwith two different modes of signification. For the sign, ofcourse, is arbitrary. So we could choose two different signsinstead, and then what would be left in common on the signifyingside?3.323 In everyday language it very frequently happens that the same word has different modes of signification--and so belongs to different symbols--or that two words that have different modes ofsignification are employed in propositions in what issuperficially the same way.Thus the word 'is' figures as the copula, as a sign for identity, and as an expression for existence; 'exist' figures as anintransitive verb like 'go', and 'identical' as an adjective; wespeak of something, but also of something's happening.(In the proposition, 'Green is green'--where the first word is the proper name of a person and the last an adjective--these words do not merely have different meanings: they are different symbols.)3.324 In this way the most fundamental confusions are easily produced(the whole of philosophy is full of them).3.325 In order to avoid such errors we must make use of a sign-language that excludes them by not using the same sign for differentsymbols and by not using in a superficially similar way signs that have different modes of signification: that is to say, asign-language that is governed by logical grammar--by logicalsyntax.(The conceptual notation of Frege and Russell is such a language, though, it is true, it fails to exclude all mistakes.)3.326 In order to recognize a symbol by its sign we must observe how it is used with a sense.3.327 A sign does not determine a logical form unless it is takentogether with its logico-syntactical employment.3.328 If a sign is useless, it is meaningless. That is the point ofOccam's maxim.(If everything behaves as if a sign had meaning, then it does have meaning.)3.33 In logical syntax the meaning of a sign should never play a role.It must be possible to establish logical syntax without mentioning the meaning of a sign: only the description of expressions may be presupposed.3.331 From this observation we turn to Russell's 'theory of types'. It can be seen that Russell must be wrong, because he had to mention the meaning of signs when establishing the rules for them.3.332 No proposition can make a statement about itself, because apropositional sign cannot be contained in itself (that is thewhole of the 'theory of types').3.333 The reason why a function cannot be its own argument is that thesign for a function already contains the prototype of itsargument, and it cannot contain itself.For let us suppose that the function F(fx) could be its ownargument: in that case there would be a proposition 'F(F(fx))',in which the outer function F and the inner function F must havedifferent meanings, since the inner one has the form O(f(x)) andthe outer one has the form Y(O(fx)). Only the letter 'F' iscommon to the two functions, but the letter by itself signifiesnothing.This immediately becomes clear if instead of 'F(Fu)' we write'(do) : F(Ou) . Ou = Fu'.That disposes of Russell's paradox.3.334 The rules of logical syntax must go without saying, once we know how each individual sign signifies.3.34 A proposition possesses essential and accidental features.Accidental features are those that result from the particular way in which the propositional sign is produced. Essential features are those without which the proposition could not express itssense.3.341 So what is essential in a proposition is what all propositionsthat can express the same sense have in common.And similarly, in general, what is essential in a symbol is what all symbols that can serve the same purpose have in common.3.3411 So one could say that the real name of an object was what allsymbols that signified it had in common. Thus, one by one, allkinds of composition would prove to be unessential to a name.3.342 Although there is something arbitrary in our notations, this much is not arbitrary--that when we have determined one thingarbitrarily, something else is necessarily the case. (Thisderives from the essence of notation.)3.3421 A particular mode of signifying may be unimportant but it isalways important that it is a possible mode of signifying. Andthat is generally so in philosophy: again and again theindividual case turns out to be unimportant, but the possibility of each individual case discloses something about the essence of the world.3.343 Definitions are rules for translating from one language intoanother. Any correct sign-language must be translatable into any other in accordance with such rules: it is this that they allhave in common.3.344 What signifies in a symbol is what is common to all the symbolsthat the rules of logical syntax allow us to substitute for it.3.3441 For instance, we can express what is common to all notations for truth-functions in the following way: they have in common that, for example, the notation that uses 'Pp' ('not p') and 'p C g' ('p or g') can be substituted for any of them.(This serves to characterize the way in which something generalcan be disclosed by the possibility of a specific notation.)3.3442 Nor does analysis resolve the sign for a complex in an arbitrary way, so that it would have a different resolution every time that it was incorporated in a different proposition.3.4 A proposition determines a place in logical space. The existence of this logical place is guaranteed by the mere existence of the constituents--by the existence of the proposition with a sense. 3.41 The propositional sign with logical co-ordinates--that is thelogical place.3.411 In geometry and logic alike a place is a possibility: somethingcan exist in it.3.42 A proposition can determine only one place in logical space:nevertheless the whole of logical space must already be given byit.(Otherwise negation, logical sum, logical product, etc., wouldintroduce more and more new elements in co-ordination.)(The logical scaffolding surrounding a picture determines logical space. The force of a proposition reaches through the whole oflogical space.)3.5 A propositional sign, applied and thought out, is a thought.4 A thought is a proposition with a sense.4.0[ there is no 4.0 - gjw ]4.0[ there is no 4.00 - gjw ]4.001 The totality of propositions is language.4.002 Man possesses the ability to construct languages capable ofexpressing every sense, without having any idea how each word has meaning or what its meaning is--just as people speak withoutknowing how the individual sounds are produced.Everyday language is a part of the human organism and is no lesscomplicated than it.It is not humanly possible to gather immediately from it what the logic of language is.Language disguises thought. So much so, that from the outwardform of the clothing it is impossible to infer the form of thethought beneath it, because the outward form of the clothing isnot designed to reveal the form of the body, but for entirelydifferent purposes.The tacit conventions on which the understanding of everydaylanguage depends are enormously complicated.[ original e-text numbered this paragraph 4.022 (a typo) - gjw]4.003 Most of the propositions and questions to be found inphilosophical works are not false but nonsensical. Consequentlywe cannot give any answer to questions of this kind, but can only point out that they are nonsensical. Most of the propositions and questions of philosophers arise from our failure to understand the logic of our language.(They belong to the same class as the question whether the good is more or less identical than the beautiful.)And it is not surprising that the deepest problems are in fact not problems at all.4.0031 All philosophy is a 'critique of language' (though not inMauthner's sense). It was Russell who performed the service ofshowing that the apparent logical form of a proposition need notbe its real one.4.01 A proposition is a picture of reality.A proposition is a model of reality as we imagine it.4.011 At first sight a proposition--one set out on the printed page, for example--does not seem to be a picture of the reality with whichit is concerned. But neither do written notes seem at first sight to be a picture of a piece of music, nor our phonetic notation(the alphabet) to be a picture of our speech.And yet these sign-languages prove to be pictures, even in theordinary sense, of what they represent.4.012 It is obvious that a proposition of the form 'aRb' strikes us as a picture. In this case the sign is obviously a likeness of what is signified.4.013 And if we penetrate to the essence of this pictorial character, we see that it is not impaired by apparent irregularities (such as the use [sharp] of and [flat] in musical notation).For even these irregularities depict what they are intended toexpress; only they do it in a different way.4.014 A gramophone record, the musical idea, the written notes, and the sound-waves, all stand to one another in the same internalrelation of depicting that holds between language and the world.They are all constructed according to a common logical pattern.(Like the two youths in the fairy-tale, their two horses, andtheir lilies. They are all in a certain sense one.)4.0141 There is a general rule by means of which the musician can obtain the symphony from the score, and which makes it possible to derive the symphony from the groove on the gramophone record, and, using the first rule, to derive the score again. That is whatconstitutes the inner similarity between these things which seemto be constructed in such entirely different ways. And that rule is the law of projection which projects the symphony into thelanguage of musical notation. It is the rule for translating this language into the language of gramophone records.4.015 The possibility of all imagery, of all our pictorial modes ofexpression, is contained in the logic of depiction.4.016 In order to understand the essential nature of a proposition, weshould consider hieroglyphic script, which depicts the facts that it describes.And alphabetic script developed out of it without losing what was essential to depiction.4.02 We can see this from the fact that we understand the sense of a。
哲学的英文短语
哲学的英文短语哲学可以看作一种尺度。
这种尺度的作用在于，从理性存在物本身出发，去寻找理性的本质(本源)以及自存与世界其他存在物的关系。
下面就由店铺为大家带来关于哲学的英语短语集锦，希望大家能有所收获。
关于哲学的相关短语哲学博士 doctor of philosophy;哲学家 philosopher;哲学思想 philosophical thinking;哲学体系 philosophy;哲学问题 philosophia perennis;哲学系 philosophy department;哲学心理学 philosophical psychology;哲学语法 {语} philosophical grammar;哲学原理 metaphysics关于哲学的相关单词Philosophiephilosophy关于哲学的相关短句或解释sb.'s philosophy of living;处世哲学classical philosophy;古典哲学Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism;马克思主义的辩证唯物主义哲学a middle-of-the-road philosophy; doctrine of means中庸哲学关于哲学的相关例句1. Apart from criminal investigation techniques, studentslearn forensic medicine, philosophy and logic.除罪案调查技巧外，学生们还要学习法医学、哲学和逻辑学。
2. Annie's work reflects her philosophy that life is full of mysteries.安妮的作品反映了她的人生哲学，即生活充满神秘色彩。
3. He's trying to bring together various strands of radical philosophic thought.他正试图把各种激进的哲学思想综合在一起。
哲学的单词
哲学的英语单词philosophyn.哲学；人生哲学；哲学体系；思想体系；生活的信条例句1.我们有必要向西方哲学的某些基本假设提出质疑。
We need to challenge some of the basic assumptions of Western philosophy.2.那就是我所信奉的人生哲学。
That's a philosophy I could live by.3.他沉思着，仿佛在思索某个深奥的哲学问题。
He pondered, as if over some deep philosophical point.4.这类证据在哲学上是不足为信的。
This kind of evidence is philosophically unconvincing.5.他总结了自己的哲学，还提及了加尔文。
He summed up his philosophy, with reference to Calvin.6.心理学最初是自然哲学一个纯粹的学术分支。
Psychology began as a purely academic offshoot of natural philosophy.7.他不习惯政治或哲学讨论。
He was not accustomed to political or philosophical discussions.8.他们在哲学或是历史方面几乎一无所知。
They had little or no acquaintance with philosophy or history.9.他正试图把各种激进的哲学思想综合在一起。
He's trying to bring together various strands of radical philosophic thought.10.安妮的作品反映了她的人生哲学，即生活充满神秘色彩。
Annie's work reflects her philosophy that life is full of mysteries.11.或然性和自由意志这两个哲学问题是紧密相关的。
《世界哲学》投稿须知
《世界哲学》投稿须知一、刊物简介《世界哲学》是由中国社会科学院主管、中国社会科学院哲学研究所主办的一份哲学类专业核心期刊。
本刊为双月刊，每逢单月的二日出刊。
本刊专门介绍世界各国哲学研究进展。
登载国内外关于马克思主义哲学研究的重要论文，特别是关于当代西方马克思主义的新发展、新争论的文章，登载关于国外主要哲学流派的现状及争论的文章，以及逻辑学、伦理学、美学、哲学史、自然科学哲学问题的研究文章。
本刊同时刊发着作稿件和翻译稿件。
着作稿件注重研究性和规范性：着作稿件将是否穷尽了本领域主要文献、是否具有一定的理论突破以及是否具有严谨的论证结构作为判别稿件的基本标准。
翻译稿件注重文献的经典性和前沿性：侧重反映当代重要流派思想、重要问题的最新力作，哲学研究史上具有填补空白性的经典文献（尤其是新近整理发现的经典文献），以及反映当代哲学和哲学史研究、发展趋向的前沿文献。
同时，本刊也鼓励反映当代哲学主要走向，有深度的对话访谈、哲学书评、流派综览等稿件。
二、题目、（内容）提要和关键词投稿作者需撰写200—250字的中文和英文“提要”（包含4-6个关键词）以及“题目”的英文译文（附在正文结尾）。
非英语类译文的提要一律采用英文形式，但题目可以采用译文原文的语种。
三、投稿正文体例要求（一）正文字数：用Word来统计字数，选中“包括脚注和尾注”，以计空格的字符数为准。
一般论文控制在12000—15000以内，重要论文或译文可以酌情增加字数。
（二）正文需合理划分段落、层次应清晰。
正文一级标题用“一”；二级标题用“（一）”；三级标题用“1.”；四级标题用“(1)”；文中叙述部分可用“第一”、“第二”、“第三”……或“首先”、“其次”、“再次”、“最后”等。
四、投稿注释体例要求放在正文当页的下面，字体排小五号仿体，全篇文档序号连续排（具体操作如下：用Word中的插入→引用→脚注和尾注（页面底端）；编号格式：1，2，3，……；起始编号：1；编号方式：连续；将更改应用于：整篇文档，插入即可。
罗素著作列表
罗素著作列表《德国社会民主》（German Social Democracy），1896年。
《几何学的基础》（An Essay on the Foundation of Geometry），（1897年）《莱布尼茨哲学的批判解说》（A Critical Exposition of Philosophy of Leibniz）(1900年)《数学的原则》（The Principles of Mathematics）（1903年）《自由人的崇拜》（A Free Man’s Worship）1903年《论指称》（On Denoting）1905年《数学原理》（Prinicipia Mathematica）（3卷，与怀特海合著，1910年至1913年间完成）《哲学论文集》（Philosophical Essays）（1910年）《反选举权的焦虑》（Anti-Suffragist Anxieties），1910年《哲学问题》（The Problems of Philosophy），1912年《我们对于外界的知识》（Our Knowledge of the External World）（1914年）《哲学中的科学方法》（Scientific Method in Philosophy），1914年《柏格森的哲学》（The Philosophy of Bergson），1914年《战争是恐惧的源泉》（War,the Offspring of Fear）1914年《战时的正义》（Justice in War-time），1916年《协议的政策：对基尔伯特.穆瑞教授的答复》（The Policy of the Entente:A Reply to Professor Gilbert Murray），1916年《社会重建的原理》（Priniciple of Social reconstruction），1916年《政治理想》（Political Ideals）1917年《无政府主义与公团主义》（Anarchism and Syndicalism）1917年《为什么人会打仗》（Why Men Fight:A Method of Abolishing the International Duel）1917年《自由之路》（Roads to Freedom）1918年《神秘主义与逻辑》（Mysticism and Logic）1918年《逻辑原子论的哲学》（The Philosophy of Logical Atomism）（1918至1919年）《数理哲学引论》（Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy）（1919年）《布尔塞维克主义的理论与实践》（The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism）1920年《心的分析》（The Analysis of Mind）（1921年）《中国问题》（The Problem of China）1922年《三种途径走向世界》（Tree Ways to World）1922年《自由思想与官方宣传》（Free thought and Official Propaganda）1922年《工业文明的前景》（The Prospect of Industrial Civilization）合著，1923年《原子论ABC》（The ABC of Adams），1923年《伊卡罗斯或科学的未来》（Icarus,or The Future of Science），1924年《布尔塞维克主义与西方》（Bolshevism and the West）1924年《怎样获得自由与幸福》（How to be Free and Happy）1924年《逻辑原子论》（Logical Adamism），1924年。