Learner Differences and Learner Training
第二语言习得概论-考研复习
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting o r i n a c l a s s r o o m. ★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people Learner factors (internal factors)Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy4.Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result. Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result ofnon-learning, rather than wrong learning.The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predictall errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.9.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96). It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error: ①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity iscompleted.16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learningor problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniquesGeneral factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identifywith the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. Itis assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possiblebenefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional.Resultative motivation:因果性动机 Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest. Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★19. Definition –interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★20.Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.Permanent fossilizationThis means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.22. Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition deviceExternal: Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don’t understand you” )★23. Definition of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar’ as ‘the properties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.24. MarkednessMarkedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.25.Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’ first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning –tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are nowComprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence, Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances producedby means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired. ★27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information.Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, e.g. ‘Can I have a —’。
学科英语王蔷英语教学法作业习题集(重要参考)
英语教学论作业习题集Unit 1 Language and Language Learning1.What are the three views on language?1) Structural view on language:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences. Each language has a finite number of such structural items. To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.This view on language limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabulary.2) Functional view on language:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Learners learn a language in order to be able to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions. This view on language adds the need to know how to use the rules and vocabulary to do whatever it is one wants to do.3) Interactional view on language:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language but as importantly they need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative contexts. This view on language says that to know how to do what one wants to do involves also knowing whether it is appropriate to do so, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, the learner has to study the patterns and rules of language above the sentence level to learn how language is used in different speech contexts.2. What are the views on language learning?1) Behaviourist theory:The behaviorist theory of language learning was initiated by behavioral psychologist Skinner, who applied Watson and Raynor’s theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire language (Harmer, 1983) The key point of the theory of conditioning is that “you ca n train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement”(Harmer1983: 30) Based on the theory of conditioning, Skinner suggested language is also a form of behavior. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli. This theory of learning is referred to as behaviorism.2) Cognitive theory:The term cognitivism is often used loosely to describe methods in which students are asked to think rather than s imply repeat. It seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics. According to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. There are a finite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these rules an infinite of sentences can be produced. A language learner acquires language competence, which enables him to produce language.3）Constructivist theoryThe constructivist theory believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he or she already knows. It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rote recall what is learned. John Dewey(杜威) believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners. Therefore, teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interests and curiosity for learning.4）Socio-constructivist theoryVygotsky(前苏联心理学家维果茨基,1978) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD「可能发展区/最近发展区」) and scaffolding「鹰架/支架/脚手架」. That is to say, learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a hig her level of understanding and extend his/her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.3. What are the qualities of a good language teacher?The main elements of a good English teacher are ethic devotion, professional qualities, and personal styles. (Then try to explain these three elements respectively according to your own understanding)Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Task-based Language Teaching1. What is communicative competence?Hedge (2000: 46-55) discusses five main components of communicative competence: linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.Communicative competence entails knowing not only the language code or the form of language, but also what to say to whom and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Communicative competence includes knowledge of what to say, when, how, where, and to whom.2. What are the three principles of communicative language teaching?a) the communicative principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.b) the task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982).c) the meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.3. What are the six criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities?1) communicative purpose2) communicative desire3) content, not form4) variety of language5) no teacher intervention6) no material control4. What is Task-based Language Teaching?Task-based Language teaching is, in fact, a further development of Communicative Language Teaching. It shares the same beliefs, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. It has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.Unit 3 The National English Curriculum1. What are the designing principles for the National English Curriculum 2001?1)Aim for educating all students, and emphasise quality-oriented education.2)Promote learner-centredness, and respect individual differences.3)Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.4)Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.5)Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.6)Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities for learning and using the language.2.What are the goals and objectives of English language teaching?The new curriculum is designed to promote students’ overall language ability, which is composed of five interrelated components, namely, language skills, language knowledge, affects, learning strategies and cultural understanding. Each component is further divided into a few sub-categories. Language teaching is no longer aimed only for developing language skills and knowledge, but expanded to developing learners’ positive attitude, motivation, confidence as well as strategies for life-long learning along with cross-cultural knowledge, awareness and capabilities.3. What are the challenges facing English language teachers?1)English language teachers are expected to change their views about language which is not a system of linguistic knowledge but a means for communication.2)English language teachers are expected to change their traditional role of a knowledge transmitter to a multi-role educator.3)English language teachers are expected to use more task-based activities and put the students at the center of learning.4)English language teachers are expected to use more formative assessment in addition to using tests.5)English language teachers are expected to use modern technology in teaching, creating more effective resources for learning and for using the language.Unit 4 Lesson Planning1. Why is lesson planning necessary?Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class. It is obvious that lesson planning is necessary.Benefits:1) To make the teacher aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson.2) To help the teacher distinguish the various stages of a lesson and to see the relationship between themso that the lesson can move smoothly from one stage to another.3) Proper lesson planning gives the teacher opportunity to anticipate potential problems that may arisein class so that they can be prepared with some possible solutions or other options for the lesson.4) Lesson planning gives teachers, especially novice teachers, confidence in class.5) The teacher also becomes aware of the teaching aids that are needed for the lesson.6) Lesson planning helps teachers to think about the relative value of different activities and how muchtime should be spent on them. The teacher soon learns to judge lesson stages and phases withgreater accuracy.7) The plan, with the teacher’s comments and corrections, provides a useful, time-saving referencewhen the teacher next plans the same lesson.8) Lesson planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism.2. What are the principles for good lesson planning?Aims— means the realistic goals for the lesson. That is, the teacher needs to have a clear idea of what he / she would like to achieve for the lesson or what outcomes are expected from the lesson.Variety—means planning a number of different types of activities and where possible, introducing students to a wide selection of materials so that learning is always interesting ,motivation and never monotonous for the students.Flexibility—means planning to use a number of different methods and techniques rather than being a slave to one methodology. This will make teaching and learning more effective and more efficient.Learnability—means the contents and tasks planned for the lesson should be within the learning capability of the students. Of course, things should not be too easy either. Doing things that are beyond or below the students’ coping ability will diminish the ir motivation.Linkage--means the stages and the steps within each stage are planned in such a way that they are somehow linked with one another. Language3 learning needs recycling and reinforcement.3. What are macro planning and micro planning?Macro planning is planning over a longer period of time, for instance, planning for a whole program or a whole-year course.In a sense, macro planning is not writing lesson plans for specific lessons but rather helping teachers get an overall felling or idea about the course and also get familiarized with the context in which language teachingtakes place. Macro planning involves the following:1) Knowing about the course:The teacher should get to know which language areas and language skills should be taught or practised in the course, what materials and teaching aids are available, and what methods and techniques can be used.2) Knowing about the institution:The teacher should get to know the institution’s arrangements regarding time, length, frequency of lessons, physical conditions of classrooms, and exam requirements.3) Knowing about the learners:The teacher should acquire information about the students’ age range, sex ratio, social background, motivation, attitudes, interests, learning needs and other individual factors.4) Knowing about the syllabus:The teacher should be clear about the purposes, requirements and targets specified in the syllabus.Much of macro planning is done prior to the commencement of a course. However, macro planning is a job that never really ends until the end of the course.Micro planning is planning for a specific unit or a lesson, which usually lasts from one to two weeks or forty to fifty minutes respectively.Micro planning should be based on macro planning, and macro planning is apt to be modified as lessons go on.4. What are the components of a lesson plan?A language lesson plan usually has the following components: background information, teaching aims (what language components to present, what communicative skills to practice, what activities to conduct and what materials and teaching aids to be used), language contents (grammar, vocabulary, functions, topics and so on) and skills (listening; speaking; reading and writing), stages (the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom) and procedures (detailed steps in each teaching stage), teaching aids, assignments, and teacher’s after-class reflection.5. What are the 3P’s model and 3-stage model?The 3P’s m odel refers to presentation, practice and production.At the presentation stage, the teacher introduces new vocabulary and grammatical structures in whatever ways appropriate.At the practice stage, the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and further to the exploitation of the text when necessary.At the production stage, the students are encouraged to use what they have learned and practised to perform communicative tasks. The focus is on meaning rather than accurate use of language forms.3-stage model is frequently adopted in reading lessons and listening lessons. It refers to pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading stages. The pre-stage i nvolves preparation work, such as setting the scene, warming up, or providing key information (such as key words). The while-stage involves activities or tasks that the students must perform while they are reading or listening. The post-stage provides a chance for students to obtain feedback on their performance at the while-stage. This last stage may also involve some follow-up activities, in which students relate what they have read or heard to their own life and use the language spontaneously.Unit 5 Classroom Management1.What are the main roles teachers can play before, during and after the class?Before the class, the teacher is a planner, who plans what to teach, how to teach, and what result to achieve. After then class, the teacher is an evaluator, who evaluates not only how successfully he/she has conducted the class but also how efficient the learning activities have been. Based on the functions that the teacher performs in different activities during the class, Harmer defines the teacher’s roles as controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant and resource-provider (Harmer, 1983).2.How to give effective classroom instructions?Proper instruction is the precondition of accomplishment of activities. To give appropriate instruction, it is necessary to follow the following principles.(1) Economy with words: the teacher should use as few words as possible.(2) Simple and clear language at all points: language should be easy to understand.(3) Demonstration of what is needed.(4) Check of students understanding: the teacher can check individual students to make sure that students understand the instruction and know what to do.(5) Use the native language when necessary.(6) Vary the instruction now and then.3.What are the different ways for student grouping?The most common student groupings are lockstep, pair work, group work, and individual study.Lockstep (Whole class work) is where all the student are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Lockstep is often adopted when the teacher is making apresentation, checking exercise answers, or doing accuracy reproduction. When the teacher asks questions, the students speak either together or one by one, in turns or indicated by the teacher.Pair work is where the students work in pairs. It could be a competition over a game or co-operation in a task or project between the two students. They could also do certain exercises together or oral practice. When the students are doing pair work, the teacher usually circulates around the classroom, answering question or providing help when necessary.Group work is where the students work in small groups. Each group has 3,4,or 5 students, depending on the activity. What students do in group work is similar to pair work, only there are more members in the group. Group work is most beneficial when the activity requires contributions from more than two students. The teacher can join each group for a while, but only as a participant not as a leader or inspector.Individual study is the stage during the class where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed. Usually they are doing the same task, but the teacher may give them a choice of tasks. Some activities cannot be done in pairs or groups, for instance, reading and writing. People read at different speed, so they cannot read together, though two people might share one book. It seems writing can be done in pairs or groups, but what they are actually doing when they are working together is brainstorming ideas, discussing, or revising. When it comes to the real writing stage students should work individually.4.How to ask effective questions?1)Questions should be closely linked with the teaching objectives in the lesson;2)Questions should be staged so that the level of challenge increases as the lesson proceeds;3)There should be a balance between closed and open, lower-order and higher-order questions;4)Wait time is important to allow students to think through their answers;5)Students should be provided opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers;6)A secure and relaxed atmosphere of trust is needed and students’ opinions and ideas are valued.5.How to treat students’ errors in the classroom?There are different ways and techniques for correcting errors, such as direct teacher correction, indirect teacher correction, self-correction, peer correction, whole classroom correction, etc. As a general rule, indirect teacher correction is encouraged rather than direct teacher correction to avoid damaging students’ self esteem and confidence. Also, self-correction is encouraged before teacher correction or peer correction.Unit 6 Teach Pronunciation1. What is the goal of teaching pronunciation?The goal of teaching pronunciation is not to teach learners to achieve a perfect imitation of a native accent, but simply to get the learners to pronounce accurately enough to be easily and comfortably comprehensible to other speakers.The realistic goals of teaching pronunciation:Consistency: The pronunciation should be smooth and natural.Intelligibility: The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners.Communicative efficiency: The Pronunciation should help to convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker.2. What aspects of pronunciation do we need to teach?1)sounds………the vowels and consonants of English2)combination of sounds…….pronunciation of words3)word stress….the stress in a word and shift of stress4)strong & weak forms…the importance of the different syllables in maintaining the rhythm of the speech, especially the model verbs and auxiliary verbs5)linkage of sounds……..the liaison of sound in natural speech6)rhyme & rhythm7)pitch & intonation…the function of pitch and intonation in conveying meaning8)filler words……the sounds which d o not convey meaning but can help to maintain communication, e.g. uh huh, um, er, oh, ah, well.Unit 7 Teaching Grammar1.What are the major types of grammar presentation methods?Deductive method: the teacher presents the rule of the structure on the blackboard and explains it to the students. This would be followed by the teacher giving several examples and then asking the students to apply the rules themselves in some exercises.Inductive method: The teacher does not explain the rule at the beginning, but presents various language forms and the students are left to discover or induce the rules or generalizations on their own.The guided discovery method:is similar to the inductive method in that the students are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly.2.What are the major types of grammar practice activities?Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. By doing mechanical practice,the students pay repeated attention to a key element in a structure. Substitution and transformation drills are most frequently used in mechanical practice.Meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students “keep an eye on” the way newly learned structures are used in process. Meaningful practice usually comes after mechanical practice.Unit 8 Teaching Vocabulary1.What does knowing a word involve?A simple answer would be (1)knowing its pronunciation & stress; (2) knowing its spelling & grammar; (3) knowing its meaning; (4) knowing how & when to use it to express the intended meaning.According to Hedge (2000), vocabulary learning involves at least two aspects of meaning. The first aspect involves the understanding of its denotative and connotative meaning. The second aspect involves understanding the sense relations among words.2.How can we present new vocabulary items effectively?1) Draw pictures, diagrams and maps to show meanings or connections of meaning2) Use real objects to show meanings;3) Mime or act to show meaning; ask some ss come to the front and teach some words of this kind, such as: catch, shave4) Use lexical sets. Or word series. E.g. cook: fry, boil, bake, and frill;5) Use synonymous and antonymous to explain meanings;6) Translate and exemplify, especially with technical words or words with abstract meaning;7) Use word formation rules and common affixes.8) Teach vocabulary in chunks;9) Provide different contexts in real life for introducing new words.3.What are some effective ways to consolidate vocabulary?1) Labeling;2) Spotting the differences;3) Describing and drawing;4) Playing a game;5) Using word series;6) Word bingo;7) Word association;8) Finding synonyms and antonyms;9) Using word categories;10) Using word net-work;11) Using the internet resources for more ideas.Unit 9 Teaching Listening1.What are the characteristics of the listening process?Generally speaking, listening in real life has the following characteristics:a) spontaneity: we listen to people speaking spontaneously and informally without rehearsing what they are going to say ahead of time.b) context: the context of listening is usually known to both the listener and the speaker in real life.c) visual clues: most of the time we can see the participants’ facial expressions, gestures and other body language as well as the surrounding environment.e) listener’s response: m ost of the listening in daily life allows the listener to respond to the speaker.f) speaker’s adjustment: the speaker can adjust the way of speaking according to the listener’s reactions.2.What are the models of teaching listening?1)Bottom-up model: listening comprehension is believed to start with sound and meaningrecognitions2)Top-down model: listening for the gist and making use of the contextual clues and backgroundknowledge to construct meaning are emphasized.3)Interactive model: listening involves both bottom-up processing (recognizing sounds of words,phrases or structures) and top-down processing (inferring meaning from broad contextual clues and background knowledge).3.What are the common activities in teaching listening?1) Pre-Listening activities: predicting and setting the scene2) While-listening activities:listening for the gist; listening for specific information; no specificresponses; listening and ticking; listening and sequencing; listening and acting; listening and drawing; listening and filling; listening and guessing; listening and taking notes.3) Post-listening stage: multiple-choice questions; answering questions; note-taking and gap-filling; dictoglossUnit 10 Teaching Speaking1.What are the main characteristics of spoken language?a. in fairly simple sentence structuresb. in incomplete sentencesc. in informal, simple or common vocabularyd. with broken grammar, false starts, hesitation, fillers, etc.e. with a high proportion of repetition or redundancyf. largely unplanned organizationg. a low density of informationh. context independent (Background knowledge is necessary to understand exactly what is being expressed.)2. What are the characteristics of successful speaking activities?1) Maximum foreign talk: Problems: students spend too much time to speak Chinese; the teacher talks too much.2) Even participation: encourage speaking from as many different students as possible. The outspoken students do not dominate discussion.3) High motivation: various interesting tasks in line with the students’ ability.4) Right language level: the task should be designed so that students con complete it successfully with the language that they have.3. What are the main types of speaking activities?1)controlled activities;2)semi-controlled activities;3)information-gap activities;4)dialogues and role-plays;5)activities using pictures;6)problem-solving activities…Unit 11 Teaching Reading1. What are the main reading skills?Skimming: the reader moves his eyes over the text very quickly just in order to get the main idea of the text, or sometimes decide whether it is worth reading more deeply or not.Scanning: the reader locates a particular piece of information without necessarily understanding the rest of a text or passage. For example, the reader may read through a chapter of a book as rapidly as possible in order to find out information about a particular date, such as when someone was born.Inferring: reading between the lines. Make use of syntactic, logical and cultural clues to discover the meaning of unknown elements. Such as the writer’s opinions and attitudes which are not directly stated in the text.【Strategic skills needed in reading：Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details; Skimming: reading for the gist or main idea; Scanning: reading to look for specific information; Predicting: guessing what is coming next】2. What are the main reading models for teaching reading?Bottom-up approach: The reader builds up the meaning of a text on the basis of decoding smaller units: first words, and phrases, then sentences and paragraphs, and finally working out the meaning of the whole text.Top-down approach: The reader uses his or her knowledge of the topic or of the type of the text and makes predictions about what the text will contain, then he uses these predictions to check his understanding of the text. In this way, the reader gets a global view of the text before he dives into the details of it.Interactive approach: The reader uses the above two approaches together, and the two ways interact with each other in the understanding of the text. That means the reader might predict the context of the text by using his knowledge of the topic (top-down), then look for key words (bottom-up) to check the prediction, or get the main gist of the text by skimming it quickly (top-down) and examine the writer’s choice of vocabulary for understanding the implied meaning.3. What types of activities can we use in teaching reading?。
王蔷教学法讲义
王蔷《英语教学法教程（第二版）》讲义Unit1Language and Language LearningUnit2Communicative Principles and Task-based Language Teaching Unit3The National English CurriculumUnit4Lesson PlanningUnit5Classroom ManagementUnit6Teaching PronunciationUnit7Teaching GrammarUnit8Teaching VocabularyUnit9Teaching ListeningUnit10Teaching SpeakingUnit11Teaching ReadingUnit12Teaching WritingUnit13Integrated SkillsUnit14Moral LearningUnit15Assessment in Language TeachingUnit16Learner Differences and Learner TrainingUnit17Using and Creating ResourcesUnit18Evaluating and Adapting Textbooks语言和语言学习【考情分析】本章主要讨论语言观和语言学习观、优秀教师的基本素养以及如何成为一名优秀的英语教师。
主要考点：结构主义、功能主义和交互语言理论；行为主义、认知主义、建构主义和社会建构主义学习理论；一个好的语言老师必备的素养；教师专业技能发展等。
【知识框架】Unit1 Language and Language Learning Views on languageViews in generalA good language teacherFunctional viewBehaviourist theoryCognitive theoryConstructivist theorySocio-constructivist theoryInteractional viewHow can one becomea good language teacher?An overview of the bookethic devotionprofessional qualitiespersonal stylesStage1Language trainingStage2Learning,practiceand reflectionGoal语言和语言学习1.1How do we learn languages?We learn language at different agesPeople have different experiencesPeople learn languages for different reasonsPeople learn languages in different waysPeople have different understandingsPeople have different capabilities in language learningLearning can be affected by the way how language is taughtLearning is affected by the degree of success one is expect to achieve.Thus the challenge confronting language teaching is how teaching methodology can ensure successful learning by all the learners who have more differences than the commonality.1.2Views on languageIn the past century,language teaching and learning practice has been influenced by three different views of language,namely,the structural view,the functional view and the interactional view.(1)The structural view of language结构主义语言观The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem(Larsen-Freeman&Long,1991):the sound system(phonology音系学);the discrete units of meanings produced by sound combinations(morphology形态学/词汇学),and the system of combining units of meaning for communication (syntax句法学).Each language has a finite number of such structural items.结构主义语言观:结构主义语言观将语言看作由许多子系统组成的语言学系统(Larsen-Freeman&Long,1991):语音系统(音系学);产生于语音集合的意义的离散单位(形态学)，以及交际意义的集合单元系统(句法学)。
learner difference
Suggestion
• In fact,field-dependence type and fieldindependence are two extremes of a continuum.Most of us are somewhere between these two extremes. • Therefore,we should know our learning conditions,in order to achieve the best learning effect.
competitive environment.
Reflective learners
tend to think over when they meet problems react relatively slowly,but with a higher accuracy rate would not refuse the openended questions are willing to study in a cooperative environment.
Global learners
Pay attention to outlines and make your own outline Don't skip introduction or summary Ask for examples Use images
Ask for clear rules
Take things step-by-step, but don't get hung up Ask for specific goals
Reid(1987) “Learning style is an individual’s natural,habitual,and preferred way of absorbing,processing and realigning new information and skills”
Learners-Characteristics
What are learner characteristics
Learner characteristics are differences between learners. These differences include the learners’ motivation, personality, learning style, learning strategies, age and their past language learning experience.
◆Tell them they are wrong
Controversy gets our attention and is a good way to motivate. Challenge what a person believes, or even tell him he’s wrong, and you’ll see a person motivated
◆Set clear expectations for the course
If you want your learners motivated, then a good way to get them there is to let them know what to expect from the course that you want them to take. This all ties into the points above. You’re asking the learners to spend some of their valuable time going through your course. They expect clarity on what they’ll do, why, and what type of outcome to expect.
王蔷《英语教学法教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（学习者个体差异与学习策略培养）【圣才】
王蔷《英语教学法教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（学习者个体差异与学习策略培养）【圣才】第16章学习者个体差异与学习策略培养16.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Understanding learner differences了解学习者的个体差异2. Eight different types of learners⼋种不同类型的学习者3. Multiple intelligence多元智能4. Learner training in language teaching语⾔教学中学习策略的培养5. Three areas for preparing learners to become autonomous 从三个⽅⾯让学习者成为⾃主学习者6. Two stages for learner training学习策略培养的两个阶段7. Some ideas adapted in learner training培养学习策略的⽅法本章考点：了解学习者的个体差异；⼋种不同类型的学习者；多元智能；语⾔教学中学习策略的培养；从三个⽅⾯让学习者成为⾃主学习者；学习策略培养的两个阶段；培养学习策略的⽅法。
本章内容索引：Ⅰ. Understanding learner differences1. Eight different types of learners2. Multiple intelligenceⅡ. Learner training in language teaching1. An understanding of learner training2. Three areas for preparing learners to become autonomous3. Two stages for learner training4. Some ideas adapted in learner trainingⅢ. ConclusionⅠ. Understanding learner differences（了解学习者的个体差异）【考点：学习者的个体差异；⼋种不同类型的学习者；多元智能】People learn in different ways. Some people learn better from seeing things and using diagrams while other people enjoy reading and writing more than seeing movies or watching television. Different people have different learning styles.⼈们的学习⽅式不同，⼀些⼈通过观察事物和图表获得更好的学习体验，⽽其他⼈⽐起看电影或电视则更喜欢阅读、写作。
学习态度对比的英语作文
学习态度对比的英语作文Comparing and Contrasting Learning Attitudes.Learning is a lifelong process that requires dedication, perseverance, and a positive attitude. However, different individuals approach learning with varying attitudes, ranging from active engagement to passive acceptance. Inthis essay, we will explore the contrast between twolearning attitudes: the proactive learner and the reactive learner.The proactive learner is someone who takes a hands-on approach to learning. They are self-motivated and seek opportunities to grow and develop. They are curious and eager to explore new concepts, ideas, and skills. This type of learner is not content with surface-level understanding; they delve into topics deeply, seeking to understand the underlying principles and connections.The proactive learner is proactive in seeking outresources and opportunities for learning. They are not reliant on external factors, such as teachers or textbooks, to guide their learning. Instead, they take the initiative to find information, seek feedback, and create their own learning experiences. They are also willing to take risks and make mistakes, as they believe that these are essential for true learning and growth.In contrast, the reactive learner is someone who approaches learning more passively. They may be compliant and follow directions, but they lack the same level of enthusiasm and curiosity as the proactive learner. They tend to rely on external guidance and direction, waitingfor opportunities to learn rather than actively seeking them out.The reactive learner may be resistant to change and new ideas, preferring to stick with what they already know. They may also be averse to taking risks or making mistakes, fearing failure or criticism. This can limit their ability to learn and grow, as they may miss out on valuable experiences and opportunities.The differences between these two learning attitudesare not just a matter of personal preference; they can have significant impacts on academic and career success. The proactive learner is more likely to excel in school and in their chosen field because they are constantly seeking to improve themselves and their skills. They are moreadaptable and resilient in the face of challenges and change, as they have developed the ability to learn independently and creatively.On the other hand, the reactive learner may find themselves struggling to keep up with the demands of school or work. They may lack the confidence and skills necessaryto take on new challenges or seize opportunities for growth. This can lead to a sense of stagnation and dissatisfaction, as they feel like they are not making progress or achieving their potential.It is important to note that while the proactive and reactive learners represent two distinct extremes, most people's learning attitudes fall somewhere along thisspectrum. Some individuals may be more proactive in some areas of their life and more reactive in others. Additionally, learning attitudes can change over time, as individuals grow and develop new skills and perspectives.In conclusion, the contrast between proactive and reactive learners highlights the critical role thatattitude plays in learning and development. The proactive learner's approach, which emphasizes curiosity, self-motivation, and risk-taking, is associated with greater academic and career success. In contrast, the reactive learner's reliance on external guidance and aversion to change can limit their ability to learn and grow.Ultimately, the choice to adopt a proactive or reactive learning attitude is up to each individual. However, it is worth considering the potential benefits of a proactive approach, as it can lead to a deeper understanding of subjects, a greater sense of personal growth, and better outcomes in school and work. By cultivating a mindset of curiosity and self-motivation, individuals can transform their learning experiences and achieve their full potential.。
英语教学法教程14&15Learner Differences and Learner Training
Sources of information
Report forms For whom?
Test scores (marks) School or parents
Scores, notes, report, portfolio, evaluation sheets Teachers, learners
14.3 Methods for assessment
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Summative and formative assessment Teacher‟s observations Continuous assessment Self-assessment and peer assessment Project work portfolios
14.4 Criteria for assessment
Criterion-referenced assessment: based on a fixed standard or a set of criterion. Norm-referenced assessment: to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm. (relative) Individual-referenced assessment: based on how well the learner is performing relative to his or her own previous performance, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual ability.
Individual Learner Differences
Individual Learning Techniques
• First group—those involved in studying the L2 • Techniques used to develop vocabulary in the L2(Naiman et al.1978; Pickett 1978) • 1.Peparing and memorizing vocabulary lists. • 2.Learning words in context
Personal Factors
• The methodological problem has been solved in two ways. • First, through the use of diary studies. • e.g. Schumann1977;F.Schumann1980; Bailey1980&1983. • Second, by using questionnaires and interviews. • e.g. Pickett1978; Naiman et al.1978
Personal factors
Introduction
• The aim of this chapter is to examine the relationship between factors (including personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude, age)and second language acquisition(SLA).
Personal Factors
• One, the subject tend to say what they think the researcher wants to hear, or indulge in self-flattery. • Two, such techniques can reveal only those factors of which the learner is conscious. • Both the diary studies and the questionnaires/interviews have provided insights into the personal nature of language learning ,particularly classroom language learning.
16 Learnerdifferencesandlearnertraining
Task 4 ( a popular new term in recent research: multiple intelligence proposed by an American psychologist Howard Gardener. Gardner’s ideas: Intelligence does not exist in one single form like IQ. It is not static either. People’s intelligences can exist in many different forms and can be developed over a life time.) Types of intelligences: (see the explanations on pp. 266-267) Verbal/Linguistic intelligence Musical intelligence Logical/Mathematical intelligence Spatial/Visual intelligence Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Naturalist intelligence
Differences between learners
Definition of learner training
Contents of learner training
16. 1 Differences between learners
Task 1 (Different people have different learning styles.) Different types of learners:
王蔷《英语教学法教程》配套题库【章节题库】(学习者个体差异与学习策略培养)【圣才出品】
第16章学习者个体差异与学习策略培养Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. In teaching, teachers should try to use different _____ of teaching to meet the needs of students’ different _____.【答案】techniques/ ways, learning styles【解析】在教学中，教师应该尝试不同的教学法以满足学生的不同学习风格。
2. Gallacher believes that learner training is about developing students’ _____ of how they learn and about developing _____ to help them learn.【答案】awareness, strategies【解析】加拉赫认为学习者培训是培养学生对自己的学习方式的认识，并培养策略帮助学生学习。
3. The teacher needs to demonstrate from time to time what strategies are available and how to use them for different _____. Many learners simply are not aware of any learning strategies but _____ learning.【答案】purposes, rote【解析】教师应该时不时地解释可以采用的学习策略，并说明怎样将这些策略用于不同的学习目标。
许多学习者没有学习策略的意识，只是在机械地学习。
4. Preparation for language learning aims to raise _____ about oneself and different language learning strategies. _____ training aims to give learners the knowledge and practice of different learning strategies.【答案】awareness, Skills【解析】语言学习的目的是提高学习者对自身以及不同的学习策略的意识。
Unit 16 Learners Differences and Learners Training
9 省级精品课程－《英语教学法》
3. Multiple intelligence
• Multiple-intelligence theory, proposed by American psychologist Howard Hardener suggests: the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q testing, is far too limited. • In fact, there are other intelligences in the students which may prove them to be very intelligent. • People’s intelligences can exist in many different forms and can develop and be developed over a life time
龙岩学院外国语学院
15 省级精品课程－《英语教学法》
II. Learner training in language teaching
• In the present age of information explosion and knowledge-based economy, helping learners learn how to learn has become increasingly more important than just telling them what to learn.
11 省级精品课程－《英语教学法》
龙岩学院外国语学院
MultipΒιβλιοθήκη e intelligence• Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: the ability to use the body to express ideas and feelings, and to solve problems. Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand another person’s mood, feelings, motivations and intentions. Intrapersonal intelligence(内省智能): the ability to understand yourself, your strengths, weaknesses, moods, desires and intentions.
二语习得理论ppt课件
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学 生带着 问题来 学习， 而问题 的设置 具有一 定的梯 度，由 浅入深 ，所提 出的问 题也很 明确
Negative Transfer
Lado proclaimed that most of the difficulties originated from the differences between L1 and L2. He believed that the more different the two languages are, the more difficult learning would be, and by knowing this, we could predict what errors would appear.
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在整堂课的教学中，刘教师总是让学提 出的问 题也很 明确
Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Contrastive Analysis was rooted in the practical need to teach a L2 in the most effective way possible. It’s psychological base is behaviorism and linguistic base is structuralism.
Many of the errors which learners make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.
1. Some errors are similar across learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds.
学习英语的个体差异英语作文
学习英语的个体差异英语作文The Individual Differences in Learning English.English, as a global language, has become an essential skill for individuals seeking success in various domains. However, the journey of acquiring proficiency in English often varies significantly among learners, owing to a diverse array of individual differences. This essay delves into the various factors that contribute to these differences and discusses their implications for effective English language learning.Firstly, cognitive abilities play a crucial role in determining the rate and depth of English language acquisition. For instance, individuals with strong language aptitude tend to acquire new linguistic structures more quickly and efficiently. Language aptitude refers to an individual's innate ability to learn a second language, encompassing factors such as phonological awareness, grammatical sensitivity, and inductive reasoning. Theseabilities allow learners to identify patterns in language, making it easier for them to acquire new vocabulary, grammar rules, and pronunciation.Moreover, cognitive flexibility, the ability to adapt and shift perspectives, also facilitates English language learning. Learners with high cognitive flexibility can more readily overcome challenges and adapt to new learning environments.。
两种不同的学习风格英语作文
两种不同的学习风格英语作文"Two Different Learning Styles"Learning styles vary greatly among students, each influencing how they absorb and process information. Two prominent styles include visual and auditory learning, each offering unique benefits and challenges.Visual learners thrive through visual aids such as charts, graphs, and diagrams. For them, seeing information displayed visually enhances comprehension and retention. In classrooms, they often prefer presentations, videos, or written instructions that allow them to visualize concepts clearly. This approach helps them organize thoughts spatially and recall information through mental images.On the other hand, auditory learners prefer learning through listening and speaking. They grasp information effectively through lectures, discussions, and verbal instructions. These learners excel in environments where explanations are detailed and delivered verbally,allowing them to absorb content through auditory channels. Engaging in group discussions and explaining concepts aloud aids their understanding and memory retention.Both learning styles come with their strengths and challenges. Visual learners might struggle with purely auditory instruction, while auditory learners may find visual information overwhelming without verbal context. However, adapting teaching methods to accommodate both styles can create a balanced learning environment that caters to diverse student needs.In conclusion, understanding and appreciating different learning styles—whether visual, auditory, or others—promotes inclusive education. By leveraging these styles effectively, educators can foster comprehensive learning experiences that empower students to succeed academically and beyond.。
学习方式的差异英语作文
学习方式的差异英语作文People have different preferences when it comes to learning styles. Some are visual learners, preferring diagrams and videos to understand concepts. They'll often highlight key points in textbooks with colors and make mind maps to organize their thoughts. They find it easier to retain information when they can see it visually.Others are auditory learners. They love listening to lectures, podcasts, or even discussions with peers. They might read out loud to help themselves memorize and often retain more information when they hear it spoken aloud.Some people prefer hands-on learning. They thrive in practical environments, learning by doing. Labs, workshops, and field trips are their favorite ways to gain knowledge. They believe that understanding comes from experience.There are also those who prefer to learn independently. They enjoy the quiet of studying alone, free fromdistractions. They might utilize online resources, textbooks, or tutorials to explore topics at their own pace.Collaborative learning is another popular style. Some people learn best when they work with others. They enjoy brainstorming, sharing ideas, and debating concepts with group members. This type of learning encourages critical thinking and teamwork.No matter which learning style you prefer, it's important to find the one that works best.。
二语习得读书报告
一、key issues in second language acquisition(二语习得的关键问题)调查sla的框架：（1）situational factors（形势）（2）input（输入）（3）learner differences（学习者差异）（4）learner processes（学习过程）（5）linguistics output（语言输出）1.situational factors（形势）linguistic environment：situational factors & input 根据语言环境的不同，两种类型的习得：（1）naturalistic sla（自然二语习得）（2）classroom sla（课堂二语习得）2.linguistic input（语言输入）中心问题是：语言输入在多大的程度上决定了sla的过程，是仅仅激发了学习过程，还是机构化sla？本地话语者是其话语水平适应l2学习者，另一个问题是：这些话语调整在促进学习中起到什么作用。
3.learner differences（学习者差异）潜在影响因素：年龄，个人能力水平（aptitude）和智力（intelligence），动机（motivation）和需求（needs），个性（personality）和认知方式（cognitive style）另一种差异：学习者的l1，要保证对比分析假说（contrastive analysis hypothesis）服从实验测试(empirical test)4.learner processes（学习过程）学习过程包含认知学习过程（cognitive learner processes）和语言学习过程（linguistic learner processes）认知学习过程分为三个范畴：（1）学习战略（learning strategies）：内化新的l2知识（2）产生战略（production strategies）：学习者利用其现存的l2知识的方式语言学习过程涉及学习者天生具有的语法的普遍规则，提供了学习者一个起始点，其任务是扫描输入来发现目的语的什么规则是普遍的，什么规则是特殊的。
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Unit16 Learner Differences and Leaner Training Content Learner differences and leanertrainingObjectives 1.To help student understand Learner differences2.Ss are able to design their own activitiesTeaching methods communicative approach; classroom interaction; Task-based language teaching; Discussion; introduction; Video demonstration; Multi-media, CAI____________________________________________________________People learn in different ways. Some people have an instinctive ear and like learning from hearing and listening, while others prefer action such as making things with their hands, and walking about. This is because different people have different learning styles. They are different learners. They prefer different activities in the class.____________________________________________________________Eight different types of learnersVisual learners (learn through eyes/seeing)Auditory learners (learn through the ear/hearing)Tactile learners (learn through touch/hands-on activities)Kinesthetic learners (learn through body experience)Group learners (learn through working with others)Individual learners (learn through working alone)Authority oriented learners (learn by listening to the teacher)Reflective learners (learn through reflections)A variety of tasks should be given in each lesson so as to help ss learn in different ways.Good language learners use a combination of styles.____________________________________________________________What can teachers do to meet the needs of different learners?Ts have to be aware of ss learning styles as well as their own learning/teaching styles. Ts have the responsibility to provide multiple opportunities for ss to develop/expand different LS.Ts need to take risks to integrate more teaching styles into class preparation.Ts should encourage ss to try different ways of learning and adjust themselves to different LS, because certain LS are more appropriate in certain learning situations and for some special learning purposes.____________________________________________________________Multiple intelligence theoryProposed by Howard Gardner (1983, 1992), an American psychologist.Intelligence does not exist in one single form like IQ. It is not static either. People’s intelligence can exist in many different forms and can develop and be developed over a life time.In china, our emphasis of school education has long been laid on the academic achievements in language and logical thinking skills, ignoring the development of other intelligences.“Poor” students in language or logical thinking may prove themselves to be very intelligent in other areas, which unfortunately remain undiscovered or unrecognized by the formal school system.■语言文字智能( V erbal/Linguistic intelligence )：是指有效的运用口头语言或书写文字的能力。
■数学逻辑智能(Logical/Mathematical intelligence ) ：是指有效的运用数字和推理的能力。
■视觉空间智能( Visual/Spatial intelligence )：是指准确的感觉视觉空间，并把所知觉到的表现出来的能力。
■身体运动智能( Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence ) ：是指善于运用整个身体来表达想法和感觉，以及运用双手灵巧的生产或改造事物。
■音乐旋律智能( Musical/Rhythmic intelligence ) ：是指察觉、辨别、改变和表达音乐的能力。
■人际关系智能( Inter-personal intelligence ) ：是指察觉并区分他人的情绪、意向、动机及感觉的能力。
■自我认知智能(Intra-personal intelligence) ：是指有自知之明并据此做出适当行为的能力。
这项智能包括对自己有相当的瞭解，意识到自己的内在情绪、意向、动机、脾气和欲求以及自律自知和自尊的能力。
■自然观察者智慧（naturalist intelligence）：能够高度辨识动植物，对自然界分门别类，并能运用这些能力从事生产者。
再者，自然观察者擅长于确认某个团体或种族的成员，分辨成员或种族间的差异，并能察觉不同种族间的关系。
____________________________________________________________Learner training in language teaching (P273--282)To make learners take more responsibilities for their own learning so that eventually they can become independent and autonomous learners.1) Involve students in an overview of the textbook at the beginning2) Involve students in finding out about themselves3) Introduce students to a number of different learning strategies4) Help learners set up their own learning goals and make their own plans5) Share lesson aims with students in class and review them by the end of the lesson6)Use learner diary as a way to help student reflect on their learning7)Guide students to make plans for learning8) Use portfolios to promote more autonomous learning9) Help students learn to use resources__________________________________________________________ Summary:We can't please all the students all the time; it's just good to bear in mind thatthere are many different ways of learning.As teachers, we need to make an effort in teaching to meet the needs of different learners.We may not tell the differences among these learners, but at least we should realize our ss are different learners, and we need to design different activities for them. We should try to give every single student the chance to be the best they can be in their abilities.How learners are different?8 types of learners; multiple-intelligence theoryWhat is learner training?To develop ss’ awareness of how to learn and to develop strategies to help them learnWhat can we do in learner training?(psychological & methodological) Preparation for language learning;Skills trainingHow can we help learners to become more autonomous?Learners should be encouraged to choose and develop the most appropriate strategies for their own learning so that they can make their learning more effective and efficient.____________________________________________________________。