语言学 distinctive features
胡壮麟.语言学第二章题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音您所查看的帖子来源于考研加油站考研论坛() Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative以下内容跟帖回复才能看到==============================Key:I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme neveroccur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.。
语言学 术语翻译及术语解释
术语翻译及术语解释汇总术语翻译1.Design features of language（语言的甄别特征）Arbitrariness（任意性），Duality（二层性/二重性），Creativity（创造性/原创性），Displacement（移位性），Cultural transmission（文化传播），Interchangeability（可互换性）2. Functions of languagereferential 指称功能poetic 诗学功能emotive情感功能conative 劝慰功能phatic寒暄功能metalingual function 元语言功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇/文本功能Informative（信息/告知功能），Performative Function（施为功能），Emotive Function（情感功能），Phatic communion（寒暄交谈），Recreational Function（娱乐功能），3. Phonetics(语音学)，Phonology（音系/音位学）; Morphology（形态学），Syntax（句法学）;Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）Articulatory phonetics发音语音学Acoustic phonetics声学语音学Auditory phonetics听觉语音学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学4. Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式和规定式Synchronic vs. diachronic共时和历时Langue vs. parole语言和言语Competence vs. performance语言能力和语言行为5. V ocal tract 声道(resonating cavities共鸣腔)，pharynx咽腔, oral cavity口腔and nasal cavity鼻腔.其它的一些发音器官：lungs肺, windpipe（trachea）气管, vocal folds声带, larynx喉, epiglottis会厌，次声门, pharynx咽, uvula小舌, hard palate硬腭,soft palate软腭, alveolar ridge齿龈6.Consonants and vowels（辅音和元音）A. Manners of articulation发音方式B. Places of articulation发音位置7. Stop (or plosive)爆破音Fricative摩擦音Approximant近似音Lateral (approximant)边音Affricates塞擦音, trill颤音and tap 闪音Bilabial双唇音Labiodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Postal veolar后齿龈音Retroflex卷舌音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Uvular小舌音, pharyngeal咽音glottal声门音monophthong vowel: 单元音diphthongs双元音triphthongs三元音Lax vowels短元音Tensed vowels长元音8.Coarticulation and phonetic transcription协同发音和标音anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音. broad transcription宽式标音narrow transcription严式标音9. minimal pairs最小对立体Phoneme音位phonemic transcriptions音位转写phonetic transcriptions语音转写phones音子allophones音位变体complementary distribution互补分布phonetic similarity发音近似性Free variation自由变体assimilation同化regressive assimilation逆同化progressive assimilation顺同化phonological rule 音系规则Epenthesis增音binary 二分的Distinctive features区别特征Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构subordinate and coordinate从属和并列Conceptual meaning概念意义Associative meaning:联想意义Connotative meaning内涵意义Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning情感意义Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义Thematic meaning主位意义denotation: 外延意义connotation: 内涵The referential theory:指称理论Semantic triangle语义三角Sense and reference：涵义和指称Synonymy同义关系Antonymy反义关系Hyponymy上下义关系Polysemy一词多义关系Homonymy 同音/形异意关系Dialectal synonyms 地域同义词Stylistic synonyms风格同义词Collocational synonyms搭配同义词gradable antonymy 等级反义关系cover term覆盖项Marked vs. unmarked terms标记项和非标记项complementary antonymy 互补反义关系converse antonymy 逆向反义关系homophones: 同音异义词homographs : 同形异义词complete homonyms semantic components语义部分术语解释1.Design feature的定义：the defining（最典型的，起决定作用的）properties ofhuman language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Synchronic共时：It refers to the description of a language at some point of timein history.3.Diachronic历时：It studies the development or history of language. In otherwords, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .4.prescriptive规定式：A kind of linguistic s tudy aims to lay down rules for “correctand standard” behavior in using language.5.descriptive描写式: A kind of linguistic study aims to describe and analyze thelanguage people actually use.6.Arbitrariness（任意性）:By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean thatthere is no logical connection between meaning and sound.7.Duality（二层性/二重性）:it means that language is a system, which consists oftwo levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of meaning.8.Displacement（移位性）: it means that language can be used to communicateabout things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.petence语言能力:it refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlyingsystem of rules in a language.10.Performance语言行为: it refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker ina real communicational context.ngue语言: it refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of thelanguage that he speaks.12.Parole言语: it is the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.13.Cultural transmission（文化传播）:It refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew（重新，再）by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.14.Phatic communion（寒暄交谈）:it refers to ritual exchanges, exchanges that havelittle meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.15.Phonetics(语音学): it is the study of the characteristics of speech sounds andprovides methods for their description, classification and transcription.16.V owels元音：the sounds in the production of which no articulators come veryclose together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.17.Consonants辅音：The sounds in the production of which there is an obstructionof the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.18.Phonology: it is the study of the sound systems of languages and it is concernedwith the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages. And it studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.19.Phoneme音位: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish twowords.20.Allophone音位变体: it refers to the different forms of a phoneme.21.Assimilation: it is a process by which one sound takes on some or all thecharacteristics of a neighboring sound.22.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlappingarticulations are involved.plementary distribution互补分布:when two sounds never occur in thesame environment, they are in complementary distribution.24.Free variation自由变体: if two sounds occurring in the same environment do notcontrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.25.Distinctive features区别特征：A phonetic feature which distinguishes onephonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another.26.minimal pairs最小对立体----- which can be defined as pairs of words whichdiffer from each other by only one sound.27.vowel glides滑音: The vowels involving movement from one sound to anotherare called vowel glides.28.Epenthesis增音：it means a process of inserting a sound after another sound.29.Substitution relation: it refers to the relation specifically between an individualunit and others that can replace it in a given sequence.30.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, orapproaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole.31.Exocentric construction: a group of syntactically related words where none ofthem is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group32.Reference: it is the relationship between words and the objects, actions orproperties that the words stand for. It deals with the extra-linguistic relationships between words and expressions and the world they describe.(具体的物质性的东西)33.Synonymy ：It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.ponential analysis ：Componential analysis defines the meaning of alexical element in terms of semantic components语义部分.35.Sense: it refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguisticelements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.（概念性的东西）36.Semantics：semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words andsentences in particular.37.Homonymy: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.38.Antonymy：It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words.39.Hyponymy上下义关系：Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upperterm in this sense relation is called superordinate上义词,and the lower terms, hyponyms下义词, members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
regional dialects, sociolects or social dialects, and functional speech varieties known as registers. The term dialect, as a technical term in linguistics, carries no value judgment and simply refers to a distinct form of language.在社会环境中使用的语言都属于某种言语变体。
一种言语变体具有一些与其它言语变体不同的特征。
这些特征反映在发音、句法规则、词汇上。
言语变体可以指一种不同的语言，如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体、正式语体等。
言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之分。
a)R egional variation 地域变异Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible and definable.语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。
语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。
地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。
The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent. Often speakers ofthe same language but of different regional dialects of the language have a very difficult time communicating. One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning.语言地域变异的最显著特征是地域口音。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1_3章
胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。
英语语言学概论
英语语言学概论GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-Chapter 1 Language语言1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in makingand comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon thatthere is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, orsound that represents something else by association or convention.5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that thesounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact thathuman language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into twolevels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the factthat language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any humanbeing can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1.★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2.★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a languageoperates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4.★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initialfunctions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functionsof children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能 [osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学)The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2.synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it betweensuccessive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents anaccount of language as it is at some particular point in time.3.theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学)The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4.microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) Theformer studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.ngue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstractlinguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actualsituation by an individual speaker.petence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’sknowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7.speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form oflanguage whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possiblelinguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behaviorpotential.9.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation (横组合关系与纵聚合关系)The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information iscalled verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided:consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions betweendifferent parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offersignificant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3.★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学 is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of aspeaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, includingmeaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organsproduce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2.acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties andof the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3.auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceivespeech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4.consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form thelanguage is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from thelungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cordvibration.6.bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow ofair is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p] [b] [m] [w]7.affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream andthen immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [tX] [dY] [tr] [dr]8.glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9.rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel soundpronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10.diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][Oi] [Qu][au]11.triphthongs (三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced bymoving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [eiQ][aiQ][OiQ] [QuQ][auQ]x vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels,vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.2.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1)The state of the velum2)The position of the tongue.3)The openness of the mouth.4)The shape of the lips.5)The length of the vowels.6)The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3.★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ fromeach other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce thesounds is called articulatory phonetics.2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and ofthe transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3)Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speechsounds is called auditory phonetics.4.★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants andvowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include thefollowing:1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.7)Coronal.8)Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1.phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the soundsystem of a language.2.allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants andrealizations of a particular phoneme.3.phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a streamof speech is called a phone.4.minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ fromeach other only by one sound.5.contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur inthe same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.plementary distribution (互补分布) If two or more sounds neverappear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7.free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the sameenvironment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8.distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a featurewhich distinguishes one phoneme from another.9.suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological)features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10.tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch tocontrast meaning at word level.11.intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those whichuse pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12.juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary featureswhich may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1)Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physicalproperties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particularlanguages.2)Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology isconcerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2.Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phonesand allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3.How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1)The two forms are different in meaning.2)The two forms are different in one sound segment.3)The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4.★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1)Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are incontrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] willresult in a change of meaning.2)Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and theunaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution becausethe former occurs either initially in a word or initially in astressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3)Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pro nounce intwo ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds/i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5.What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmentalfeatures? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phonemefrom another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groupslarger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one soundsegment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What’s th e difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch todistinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7.★What’s th e difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemictranscriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter wasintended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1.morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in thegrammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2.roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word thatcarries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3.inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicategrammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4.empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but nomeaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5.IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze alinguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6.immediate constituents (直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one ofthe largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are thosegrammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7.morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine howmorphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8.word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2.How are morphemes classified?1)Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories:root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2)Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: freemorphemes and bound morphemes.3.★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structuralclassifications of morphemes.a)All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b)All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes areaffixes.4.What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a)Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b)Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5.Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixesin term of both function and position.a)Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and nevercreate new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b)In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can besuffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6.What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a)un- + adj. ->adj.b)Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c)V. + -able -> adj.d)Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1.syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships betweenconstituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2.IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which makemajor divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3.constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4.surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of alinguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression isa theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5.phrase structure rules(短语结构规则)are a way to describe a givenlanguage's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6.transformational rules (转换规则)7.structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1.What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1)Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements ofsentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2)Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are moreabstract.3)Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deepstructures give the meanings of sentences.4)Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2.Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3.What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we start with surfacestructures or with deep structures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4.What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optionalone?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5.What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1.Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaningin language.2.Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3.Reference(所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the realworld.4.Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting theobjective world in the human mind.5.Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basicmeaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6.Connotation(内涵) refers to the emotional associations which aresuggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.ponential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaningof a word into its components.8.Semantic field(语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply alisting of independent items, but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9.Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a moregeneral, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10.Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity ofmeaning.11.Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12.Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13.Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may havemore than one meaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that wordshaving different meanings have the same form.15.Sentence semantics(句子语义学) refers to the study of sentencemeaning in language.1.What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into itssub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2.What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3.What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis andthe theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?。
语言学考试范围(带答案)
判断题（20道题，共计20分）Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false on the Answer Sheet.选择题（20道题，共计20分）Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement.名词解释：(20选6)共计30分Use your own words to explain the following terms on the Answer Sheet.1. Language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Metalanguage:certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.4. Articulatory phonetics: It is a branch of phonetics which is the study of the production of speech sounds.5. Allophone: The different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment is called allophone.6. Distinctive features: They are phonological relevant properties which can distinguish one phoneme from another.7. IPA: It is abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc. .8. Morpheme: It is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.9. Compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.10. Blending: It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.11. Back-formation: It is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.12. Embedding: It refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination.13. Recursiveness: It mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within (i.e. be dominated by) another constituent having the same category.14. Cohesion: It is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.15. Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it is concerned with the relation between a world and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.16. Sense: It is the semantic relations between one word or another. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations.17. Hyponymy(必考): It is a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym).18. Conversational implicature: It refers to the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, unders tandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.19. Illocutionary act: It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.20. Deep structure: It is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.讨论题（6选3）共计30分Read the following questions and write down your understanding on the Answer Sheet.1.Cite examples from English and Chinese to discuss the concept of the syllable.English: a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Chinese: word or part of word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.In English we can divide a syllable into two parts: the phyme and the onset. As the vowel within the thyme is the nucleus, the consonant after it will be termed the coda, for example clasp .All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable, for example: bar, tie. While a syllable with coda is known as closed syllable, for example: hard, tied, dead.English syllable can be represented as (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) , However ,the Chinese syllable allows at most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals in the coda for the Putonghua .Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C) e.g. “split”, “sixths” and “prompts”. “您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”2.The sentence “John saw the police with binoculars” has two semantic interpretations. You arerequired to explain why the sentence is two-way ambiguous. Syntactic tree diagrams are necessary for your explanation.3. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples to show how the flouting of these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature (Give at least two examples, each flouting a different maxim).(1) Quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. E.g. War is war.> War is cruel----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. E.g. A: Where is Tom? B: He has gone to the library. He said so when he left.> I am not sure and I do not believe what he said.(2) Quality----Do not say what you believe to be false. E.g. He is made of iron ----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. E.g. A:would you like to come to our party tonight? B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.(3) Relation----Be relevant. E.g. A: Prof. Wang is an old bag. B: Nice weather for the time of year. > I don’t want to talk about Prof. Wang.(4) Manner----Avoid obscurity of expression. E.g. A: Let’s get the kids something. B: Ok, butI veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> don’t give them chocolate ----Avoid ambiguity. E.g. A: Name and title, please? B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor. ----Be brief. E.g. A: Did you get my assignment? B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.>not satisfied. ----Be orderly.4. Use structural approach and traditional approach to analyze the sentence “I bought a book yesterday”5. How do you understand the design features of language?1) Arbitrariness,According to Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. For instance, we cannot explain why a book is calleda /buk/ and a pen a /pen/.2) Duality. It refers to the property of having two levels of structures: units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.3）Creativity. By creativity we mean language is resourceful owing to its duality and its recursiveness. Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. For example, “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”4) Displacement. Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Displacement enables people to handle generalizations and abstractions. For example, a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days. Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.6. Why Saussure is hailed as the father of modern linguistics?1) the book “Course in General Linguistics”(1916),which is the most improtant source of Saussure’s ideas,marked t he beginning of modern linguistics.2) Seaussure was the first to notice the complexities of language which direct our attention to essential of language and make clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. He belived that language is a system of signs, called conventions. He heled this sign is the union of a form an an idea, which he called the signifier and the signified.3) Seassure’s idea on the arbitraty nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguisticunits, on the distiction of langue and parole and synchronic and diachronic linguistics,ect.pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.。
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. 5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions,one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i] rice [rʌis]rise [ra i z]by [ba i] type [tʌip]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i] wife [wʌif]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌik]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in thedialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》章节题库(语言与社会) 【圣才出品】
第8章语言与社会I. Multiple choices:1. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purpose of trading is called______.A. dialectB. idiolectC. pidginD. register【答案】C【解析】pidgin洋泾浜是原本讲不同语言的人们由于某些特殊原因（如商业交流）的直接交流目的而产生的特殊语言混合体。
dialect的意思是方言，idiolect是个人方言，register是语域。
因此，本题的正确答案为C。
2. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______.A. lexicalB. syntacticC. phonologicalD. psycholinguistic【答案】D【解析】语言的变体可以是词法、句法、音位方面的变化。
心理语言学是语言学的一个分支。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
3. Which of the following is NOT the speech variety?A. Regional dialects.B. Sociolects.C. Registers.D. Discourse accents.【答案】D【解析】在社会语言学的研究中，人们对三种言语变体特别感兴趣，即：地域方言、社会方言和语域。
因此，本题的正确答案为D。
4. Which of the following does NOT fall into dialectal varieties?A. Regional dialects.B. Sociolects.C. Registers.D. Idiolects.【答案】C【解析】一门语言的变体是该语言的一般概念的实际体现，它们被假定为与语言的使用者和语言的用途相关。
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows chil dren’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, o ne may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.Synchronic（共时的）:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）:said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）:to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.Descriptive（描写式）:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.Competence（语言能力）:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。
Performance（语言运用）:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。
Langue（语言）:the language system shared by a “speech community”.一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。
英语专业八级_语言学_总结
4??互补分布?complementary distribution
5??自由变体??free variation
6??区别特征??distinctive features
7??超音段特征?suprasegmental feature
???音节?syllable?重音stress?语调tone?声调intonation
???突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
???突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4?????????伦敦学派?the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
???声学语言学acoustic phonetics?研究语音的物理属性
???听觉语音学?auditory phonetics?研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位?phoneme
英语专业八级 语言学 总结
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of??language
???任意性??arbitrariness??指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
???二重性??duality??指语言由两层结构组成
???创造性??creativity??指语言可以被创造
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
语言学教程胡壮麟考研笔记
Unit 1 invitations to linguistics1.Design features of language:The design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals●ArbitrarinessThe absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. / The forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.✓Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.(e.g. murmurous / murderous)✓Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelFunctionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language existed inthe distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pinand bin, or fish and dish.(e.g. As the night fell, the wind rose.)✓Arbitrariness and conventionConvention: it is an idiom------it is a convention to say things like this way.(When in Rome, do as romans do.)●Duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (words and phrase) and meaningless segments(sound and letters)The secondary units are meaningless and the primary units are meaningful.✓Traffic light system does not have duality: it cannot be divided into meaningless units, so it only has primary level like animals.A large number of meaningful units can be formed out of a small number ofelements----productive power.●CreativityThe speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.It’s potential to create endless sentences. (recursiveness)●DisplacementThe ability of language enable their users symbolize objects, events an d concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.2.Origin of language●The “bow-bow” theory: imitating of animal calls in wild environment●The “pooh-pooh” theory: they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.●The “yo-he-yo” theory: as primitive people worked together, they produced somerhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.3.Functions of language：●Informative function: to tell and to give something out●Interpersonal function: (人際功能) by which people establish and maintain their statusin a society.For example, the way in which people address others and refer to themselves.Dear Sir……●Performative function: the performative function of language is primarily to change thesocial status of persons, such as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals andcursing of enemies●Emotive function: (also called expressive function) uttered without any purpose ofcommunicating to others, but essentially a verbal response to a person’s own feeling.●Phatic communion:It refers to social interaction of language.Broadly speaking it refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargon…….●Recreational function: The use of language for hearty joy of using it.●Metalingual function:Our language can be used to talk about itself. (self-reflexive) we human beings can talk about talking and can think about thinking.For example: To be honest, to make a long story short, in a word.4.Main branches of linguistics:●PhoneticsIt studies speech sound, including the production of speech, the description andclassification of speech sounds, words and connected speech……●PhonologyIt is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables.●MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words.For example: The dog sees the rabbit. In English, different order gives different meaning. However, in Latin and also in Russian, dog and rabbit take on somemorphological endings depending on whether they are subject or object. So,different sentence order did not change its meaning.●SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.For example:✓The children watched [the firework from the hill].✓The children watched [the firework] [from the hill].●SemanticsExamine how meaning is encoded in a language.It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below words and above it, such as meaning of morphemes andsentences.●PragmaticsThe study of meaning in context.5.Macrolinguistics●Psycholinguistics (心理語言學)It investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producingutterances and in language acquisition for example.●Sociolinguistics （社會語言學）It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of theirfunctions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact andchange within a speech community.●Anthropological linguistics （人類語言學）Anthropological linguist are concerned with the emergence of language and also thedivergence of language over thousands of years.●Computational linguistics （電腦語言學）The use of computers to process or produce human language.6.Important distinctions in linguistics●Descriptive and descriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things are and how things ought to be.Descriptive:✓To make an objective and systematic account of patterns and use of a language or variety.✓People don’t say X.Prescriptive:✓To make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.✓Don’t say X●Synchronic and diachronicSynchronic (共時)✓Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” of time.✓For example: the structure of Shakespeare’s English.Diachronic （歷時）✓Said of the study of development of language and languages over time.✓For example: Pejorative sense development in English●Langue and paroleLangue✓The language system shared by a “speech community”Parole✓The concrete utterances of a speaker.●Competence and performanceCompetence✓Unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance✓The language actually used by people in speaking and writing.Unit 2 phonetics and phonology1.The major branches of phonetics:●Articulatory phoneticsThe study of production of speech sounds●Auditory phoneticsIt studies the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, that is, the sound perceived by thehearer.●Acoustic phoneticsIt studies the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.2.Speech organs●Inside the throat: pharynx and larynx●Inside the oral cavity: upper lip, upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate and thesoft palate, and the uvula.●The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and themandible(下頷).●In phonetics: the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the backand the root.●In phonology: the tongue is divided into coronal(tip and blade), dorsal(front and back)and radical(root)3.Manner of articulation (a picture is added here)●Stops:The sound is produced when the obstruction is complete, and the sound is producedwhen the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out against.●NasalsThe sound is produced by lowing the soft palate and the air pass through the nose.●Fricatives:It refers to sound produced when an obstruction is partial and the air is forced through anarrow passage in the mouth, so as to cause definite local frication at the point.●AffricativesIt refers to the sound produced when obstruction, complete at first, is released slowlywith the frication resulting from partial obstruction.●ApproximantsOne articulator is close to another but without the vocal tract narrow to cause aturbulent.●LateralsThe obstruction of airstream is at a point along the center of oral tract, with incompleteclosure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.●TrillIt is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by air stream, such as /r/ in red.●TapWhen the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only onevibrate.●FlapIt is produced when the tip of the tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture anthen striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its positionbehind the lower front teeth.4.Place of articulation:It refers to wherein the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of the air.5.Vowels:V owels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.6.The criteria of the vowel ( a picture is added here)●The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, low●The position of highest part of the tongue: front, central, back●The length or tenseness of the tongue: long or short; tense or lax●The shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded7.Monophthongs diphthongs and tripthongs●They are those pure vowels with unchanging quality●If a single movement from one element of the tongue is involved, the combining vowelis called diphthongs●If two movements from one element to second, from the second to the third of thetongue is involved, the combining vowel is called tripthongs.8.CoarticulationIt refers to the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.●Anticipatory coarticulation: the sound becomes more like the following sound, such as inthe case lamb●Preservative coarticulation: the sound becomes more like the preceding sound, such as inthe case of map9.Narrow transcription and broad transcription:●Narrow transcription: we try to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including eventhe minutest shades of pronunciation. It contains a set of diacritics.10.Phonological theory:●Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair For example, pin and pen; tip and tap●Phone, phoneme, and allophonesPhone: it is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.Phoneme: it is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features. For example, /t/ /d/……The different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, [p h]●Complementary distributionWhen two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguishen meaning and never occur in the same context, then the allophones are said to be incomplementary distribution.[p] and [p h]; [l] and [l]●Free variationIf two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution for another does not produce a different word form, but merely adifferent pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.For example, in cup the /p/ and /p/●Phonemic contrast and distinctive featuresPhonetic contrast: if two phonemes occurs in a minimal pair occur in the same place and distinguish meaning, these two phonemes are said to be in phonemiccontrast.Distinctive features: they are those features which are phonologically revant properties and can distinguish meaning, for example, plosiveness, bilabiality, andvoicelessness in English phonology. Some of the major distinctions includeconsonantal, sonorant, nasal and voiced. These are known as binary features whichhave two values denoted by “+” and “-”11.Phonological process●Any phonological process must has aspects to it:A set of sound to undergo the processA set of sound produced by the processA set of situation in which the process applies●Assimilation:Regressive assimilation: a following sound is influencing a preceding soundProgressive assimilation: a preceding sound is influencing a following sound●Devoicing:Voiced sounds become voiceless●Epenthesis:Insertion of a sound●Nasalization: a sound in a word is influenced by a nasal sound●Dentalization: a sound in a word is influenced by a dental sound●Velarization: it refers to the process in which a sound in a word takes on the features of avelar segment.●Deletion rule:A sound is deleted although it is orthographically representedFor example: sign: delete a /g/ in this word.12.Suprasegmental featuresThe features that occur above the level of segments and can distinguish meaning are called suprasegmental features.●Syllable structure: a syllable can be divided into two parts, the rhyme and the onset. Asthe vowel within the rhyme is nucleus, the consonants after it will be termed coda.Maximal onset principleOn set: at most 3; coda: at most 4●Stress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.●Tones: tones are pitch variations, which are caused by differing rates of vibration ofvocal cords.●Intonation: when pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than theword in isolation, they are collectively as intonation.Falling toneRising toneThe fall-rise tone.。
语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)
第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure ofsounds and meaning）3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number withsentences）4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
刘润清版新编语言学教程1-3章复习【精选文档】
1.1.1 填空判断：①linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language。
It is a science studies the rules systems and principles of language。
3 cannons(标准）:exhaustiveness全面性consistency一致性 economy.②linguistics study the origin， growth, organization。
Nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language。
2 purposes: study the nature, establish a theory and describe language by that theory; examines all language and seeks understanding ways to fulfill the needs human need。
1.1.2 填空判断选择：Linguistics differ from traditional grammar:①linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. ②linguists regard spoken as primary not written. Speech came earlier than writing system。
③traditional grammar based on Latin while linguistics describes each language on its own merits。
语言学复习要点
语言学的复习要点（一）1、Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.2、Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3、Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing4、Design features”refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.（1）Arbitrariness :the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relational to their meaning（2)Daulity:the property of having two levels of structures.(3)Creativity:it refers to the property that language enables language user to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentence.(4)Displacement:human language enable their user to symbolize object,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.5、Informative function：Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.6、Interpersonal function：he interpersonal function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.people establish and maintain their status in a society.7、Performative function：The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.8、Emotive function：The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.9、Phatic communion：Phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language10、Recreational function11、Phonetics：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.12、Phonology: studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.13、Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning —morphemes and word-formation processes.14、Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word.15、Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.16、Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.17、Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally structured.（二）1、Phonetics mainly deals with the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds.2、Phonology explores the patterns that govern the combination of sounds, i.e, it studies how speech sounds are grouped together to convey meaning in linguistic communication3、phone (音素，语音)—the phonetic segment and unit is called a phone4、Phoneme—a sound segment with distinctive value. It is the smallest unit of sound in a language to distinguish words.5、allophones (音位变体)—the different phones that represent the one phoneme are called allophones of that phoneme.6、minimal pair/minimal set：For two words (pronunciation concerned), if they are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then they are minimal pairs(最小对立体).If more than two sound combinations are involved, then they are minimal sets(最小对立组).7、Distinctive features：It is this phonetic feature [±voiced] that distinguishes the two words.8、General rule1：In English, a vowel is nasalized before a word-final or syllable-final nasal consonant.9、General rule 2：In English, a voiceless stop is aspirated when it occurs word initially or syllable initially.10、（1）If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to be in phonemic contrast.（2）If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they occur in different phonetic contexts but not contrast meanings. Then, the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.11、phonological rules：The patterning of phonemes in a language is rule-governed. The phonological rules determine how phonemes are combined to form permissible words in a language for communication.12、Distinctive features that occur in units larger than sound segments, such as the syllables, words, phrases and sentences, are called suprasegmental features (超音段特征).（三）1、Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.2、The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful unit of language3、A syllable is a phonetic and phonological unit. In PHONETICS, a syllable is defined as a chest pulse. In PHONOLOGY, a syllable is defined by the way in which VOWELS and CONSONANTS combine to form various sequences. In a word, the definition of a syllable is related with pronunciation and has nothing to do with meaning. A morpheme may be represented by one syllable, like boy and dog, or by two or more syllables.The syllabic structure of a word and the morphemic structure ofa word don’t always correspond4、Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves5、Affix: Collective term for bound formatives or word-forming elements that constitute subcategories of word classes. Affixes are classified according to their functions and then their placement on the stem.6、Derivational morphemes —the morphemes which change the meaning, or grammatical class of words, e.g. Inflectional morphemes —the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.7、Prefix: Morphemes that occur only before other morphemes. (Bound morphemes that precede the stem.)Suffix: Morphemes that only occur after other morphemes. (Bound morphemes that are attached finally to free morpheme constructions)8、A root is the basic form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left, whether free or bound, when all the affixes are removed. It carries the main component of meaning in a word.9、A stem is a form that is of concern only with inflectional morphology, i.e. only inflectional affixes (but not derivational affixes) can be added to it. (Bauer 1983:20) A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It is the form that the morphological operation applies to.10、There are two kinds of root morphemes: free root morphemes that can stand bythemselves and bound root morphemes that can not stand by themselves and whose number is relatively limited11、A word can be defined the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently. It is different from a morpheme in that a word can constitute by itself a complete utterance while a morpheme cannot sometimes.12、A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg13、Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, egOpen-class words: New members can be added, eg14、Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.15、Derivation: refers to the process of how new words are formed.16、Compound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single word.17、Orthographically: a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate word.18、Syntactically: the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.19、Semantically: the meaning of the compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.20、Phonetically: the stress of a compound a word always fall on the first element, while the second element receives second stress.21、Invention: technological and economic activities22、Blending: a new word is formed by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word23、Back-formation: A shorter word is derived by deleting a supposed affix from an already existing longer word.24、Analogy: words are created in imitation of other words. It is also called reanalysis.(四）1、Syntax (句法学) is a branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.2、A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.3、Tense: indicating time related to the time of utterance.4、Aspect: the internal temporal structure of a verb.5、Concord: the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.6、Government: a word of a certain class governs the form of others. Usually the verb or the preposition determines the form of pronoun after it.7、Positional relation, or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words ina language. This positional relation is also called horizontal relation or chain relation8、endocentric construction向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents9、exocentric construction 离心结构refer to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole10、Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.11、.yntax categories (句法范畴) A syntax category is a word or phrase that performa particular grammatical function.12、Subordination structures the structures in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent.13、Conjoining: Refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.14、Embedding: refers to the means by which one clause is included into another sentence (main/matrix clause) in syntactic subordination.15、Cohesion:It refers to relations of meaning exist within text, and defines it as a text.16、Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.17、Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information18、A transformation is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another. It can be inversion (倒置), insertion (插入) or other kinds of movement.(五）1、Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.2、Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real , physical world.3、Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.（1）Absolute or complete synonyms are words identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. words that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances.（2）Relative or near synonyms may differ in different ways.4、Dialectal synonyms（方言同义词）Synonyms belonging to different dialects of the language5、Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)Words having the same cognitive meaning but having different stylistic meanings6、Synonyms differing in emotive or evaluative meaning7、Semantically different synonyms These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean8、Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects9、Stylist synonyms----synonyms differing in style10、Antonymy--- is used for oppositeness of meaning.words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms11、Complementaries (互补反义词) = binary antonyms the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.12、Contraries (相对反义词) = gradable antonyms there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.13、Converses (逆反反义词) = relational opposites exhibit the reversal of the relationship between the two items.14、Polysemy--- the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning.15、Homonymy --- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.（1)Homophones when two words are identical in sound（2)Homograph when two words are identical in spelling(3)Complete Homonyms when two words are identical in both sound and spelling 16、Hyponymy (上下义关系) is the sense relation between a more general word, a inclusive word and a more specific word.17、(1) Synonymy (同义关系)(2) inconsistency (自相矛盾)(3) Entailment (蕴涵)(4) Presupposition (预设)(5) X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)(6) X is semantically anomalous (反常的)(7) Implicature (含意)18、Synonymy (同义关系) :X is synonymous with Y19、inconsistency (自相矛盾) :X is inconsistent with Y20、Entailment (蕴涵): X entail Y21、Presupposition (预设)X presupposes Y22、Semantic components (语义成分) or semantic features (语义特征) are the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of words may be described as a combination of semantic components or features.23、There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning24、Predication analysis (述谓结构分析) is a way to analyze sentence meaning, proposed by the British linguist G. Leech. (P81)Predication (述谓结构) is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) (变元) and predicate (谓词).An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.25、Predication (述谓结构) is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) (变元) and predicate (谓词).An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.(六）1、Pragmatics:A general definition: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfully communication.2、If we think a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually used.3、Sentence meaning: abstract, detextulazied .Utterance meaning: concrete, and context-dependent4、Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is5、Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.6、Conclusion:The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.All sentences can be used to do things.7、A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.8、illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act preformed in saying something.9、A perloutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; It is the consequence of , or the change brought about by the utterance10、Directives指令类: are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.11、commissives承诺类: committing the speaker himself to some course of action. When speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation.12、Expressives表达类: expressing feelings and attitude towards an existing state.13、declarations: bringing about immediate change by saying something.(七)1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2、Culture：3、Language determines culture (linguistic determinism)Culture determines language (culture determinism)4、（1）Culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.（2）Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.（3）Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture (or consolidating it over time)（4）Culture affects language.5、Benjamin Lee Whorf studied at Yale University under Edward Sapir and became interested in Sapir's ideas. He was influenced by the work of 18th-century German philosophers John Gottfried von Herder and Wilhelm von Humbolt, who theorized, based on their study of European languages, that language had a bearing on how people viewed the world.6、Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.7、Linguistic relativity: Similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualisation of the world will be. (modified hypothesis)。
《语言学》术语及英文解释
《语言学》术语及英文解释Define the following terms:1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which o riginates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenui th or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge abou t the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.术语251. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth perio d of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his ownconsciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.术语3101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng. 114. communicative competence: a speaker’s know ledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying s omething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily f ollows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unma rkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of p assage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s repr esentation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of theircharacters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.术语4puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s。
distinctive features语言学
distinctive features语言学在语言学中，"distinctive features"（独特特征）是一种用于描述和区分不同语音单位的概念。
它们是一组二进制特征，用于描述语音单位（如音素、音节、单词）的构成方式。
这些特征通常是与语音单位的声音产生方式和音韵特性相关的。
最早提出这一概念的是美国语言学家Jakobson和Halle。
他们认为，所有语音单位都可以由一组二进制特征来描述，并且通过这些特征的不同组合来区分不同的语音单位。
这些特征可以是二选一的，例如“清音”和“浊音”、“鼻音”和“非鼻音”，也可以是多选一的，例如“高音”、“低音”和“中音”。
通过对这些特征的组合和排列，可以描述出各种不同的音素和音节。
独特特征的一个重要特点是，它们是相对的，即一个特征的存在与否是通过与其他特征的对比来确定的。
例如，在描述辅音音素时，可以针对喉音、唇音、齿音、舌音等特征来描述辅音的不同发音方式。
通过对这些特征进行组合和对比，可以精确地描述出一个特定辅音音素的特征。
独特特征的应用不仅仅局限于语音学领域，它还可以应用于其他语言学分支，如音韵学、语法学等。
在音韵学中，可以通过独特特征来描述音位之间的差异。
在语法学中，可以用独特特征来描述词类、时态和人称等语法单位的特征。
通过使用独特特征，语言学家可以更准确地描述和分析语言中的各种语音和语法现象。
"distinctive features"在语言学中是一种用于描述和区分不同语音单位的概念。
它为语言学家提供了一种系统化和精确化的方法来研究和理解语言的声音和结构特征。
通过对独特特征的研究，我们可以更深入地了解不同语言之间的差异和共同点，并推动语言学的进一步发展。
distinctive features语言学
distinctive features语言学distinctive features，即显著特征，是语言学中一个重要的概念。
它指的是不同语言中用来对不同音素进行区分或辨认的一组声学或音韵特点。
这些特征通过在不同音素之间的对比中产生，并在不同语言中的不同音系中起到区分不同音素的作用。
distinctive features在语言学理论研究和语音学分析中，都起到了重要的作用。
distinctive features的概念最早由美国语言学家罗曼·雅各布森于1960年提出。
他认为，通过深入研究不同语言中的音系，并对比不同语言间的音素差异，可以将这些音素特征归纳为一组声学特征，从而达到对比和描述各种语言中的音系的目的。
经过多年来的研究，学者们一致认为distinctive features是语言学中分析音素差异的最基本的工具之一。
在音系学中，distinctive features被用来描述和分析语音中的声音特征。
通过对比不同语言中的音系，可以发现某些特定的声学特征在不同语言中具有区分和辨认不同音素的作用。
distinctive features理论的核心观点是，任何一个语言都包含了一个完整的音素库，这些音素通过一组细微的、相对独立的声学特征来区分。
这些声学特征又被称为distinctive features。
共有的distinctive features可以用来构成比较语言间的音素差异的特征矩阵。
举例来说，汉语中有一个音素/p/，而英语中则没有这个音素。
通过对比这两个语言中的音系，可以发现音素/p/与英语的音素差异在于在/p/音出现时，声带振动频率没有起到明显的作用。
这个特征可以被归纳为一个distinctive feature，用来比较和描述不同语言中的音素差异。
还可以举例说明distinctive features在语音学分析中的作用。
例如，当分析一个语言的音系时，可以通过对比不同音素的distinctive features来找出它们之间的差异。
distinctive features语言学
distinctive features语言学摘要：1.引言2.语言的定义与特性3.语言的独特性4.语言学研究5.结论正文：【引言】语言是人类文明的基石，它使我们能够进行有效的沟通与交流。
在众多人类社会现象中，语言的独特性一直吸引着学者们的关注。
因此，一门专门研究语言的学科——语言学应运而生。
本文将从语言的独特性角度出发，探讨语言学的相关内容。
【语言的定义与特性】语言是一种复杂的符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用等要素组成。
语言具有以下特性：首先，语言具有共享性，即语言是社会成员共同遵循的规则；其次，语言具有创造性，人们可以通过有限的语言规则说出和理解无限的句子；再次，语言具有结构性，即语言遵循一定的规律和结构进行组合；最后，语言具有变异性，随着时间的推移和社会的发展，语言会发生变化。
【语言的独特性】语言的独特性主要体现在以下几个方面：1.语言是人类特有的。
与其他生物的交流方式相比，人类语言具有更高的抽象性和普遍性，能够表达复杂的思想和情感。
2.语言具有世界性。
虽然世界上存在众多不同的语言，但它们在一定程度上都可以互相理解与沟通。
3.语言具有生成性。
语言可以通过有限的规则生成无限的句子，满足人们在交流中的需求。
4.语言具有文化性。
语言是文化的载体，它反映了一个民族的历史、文化和思维方式。
【语言学研究】语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它旨在揭示语言的本质、规律和发展趋势。
语言学研究包括语音学、词汇学、语法学、语用学、社会语言学等诸多领域。
通过语言学研究，人们可以更好地了解语言的特性和功能，为语言教学、翻译、文化交流等领域提供理论支持。
【结论】总之，语言的独特性使得语言学成为一门重要的学科。
通过研究语言的特性、规律和发展趋势，我们可以更好地理解语言在人类社会中的作用和价值。
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Diachronic linguistics
Evolutionary linguistics
演化语言学
Synchronic linguistics
Static linguistics
静态语言学
Langue Vs Parole
Langue---所有（语言使用）使用个体头脑中存储
的词语——形象之总和
--- the abstract systematic principles of a
language
Parole---某个个体在实际语言使用language use
Characteristics
Langue--- abstract fixed social
Parole---concrete dynamic varying from person to person or situation to situation
Competence Vs performance
Etic vs Emic
• First used by American linguist K. L Pike in 1954 • Derived from the linguistic terms “phonetic ” and “phonemic”
• Etic perspective---the external researchers’ interpretation of the same custom and beliefs.局外人的研究者对相同习俗和信仰 的解释说明 • Emic perspective---the "insider's" or "native's" interpretation of his or her customs/beliefs. 局内人的”或者“ 本族人 的”对其习俗、信仰的解释或说明
Descriptive Linguistics VS Prescriptive Linguistics
Descriptive Linguistics (描述语言学)--- the work
of analyzing and describing how language is actually spoken now
• Modern linguistics is more descriptive
Prescriptive Grammar
characterized by a concern for “good” “proper” “correct” usage. describing language as we would like to be, rather than we find them.
Descriptive grammar
explaining the facts of language use
no assumption of correctness or appropriateness.
accepting alternative forms
“I think sensible prescription ought to be part of any education” ---proposed by Noom Chomsky
Synchronic Vs Diachronic
---a contribution made by Saussure
• Synchronic linguistics--- description of a language
at some point of time
• Diachronic linguistics---description of a language
---discussed by Chomsky in his aspects of the theory of syntax
• Competence---a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules • Performance---the actual use of language in concrete use
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
• Descriptive VS Prescriptive • Synchronic Vs Diachronic
• Langue Vs Parole • Competence Vs performance
• Etic Vs Emic
• Phonetics--- the study of how speech sound are produced, transmitted, perceived • Phoneme---the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning
• Preposition stranding(介词悬空) eg: what are you talking about ? the chair was sat on.
• Split infinitive(分离不定式) eg：she decided to gradually get rid of the teddy bears she had collected.
Prescriptive Linguistics(规定语言学) --- an
account of how a language should be used instead of how it is actually used
• Who does she speak to? • Whom does she speak to ?