15. The non-finite clause
语言学教程练习 第4章
Chapter Four From Word to TextI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.of the following term does NOT mean the same as the relation of substitutabilityA. Associative relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Vertical relationD. Horizontal relation2. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjuncts clauses and _______.A. relative clausesB. adverbial clausesC. coordinate clausesD. subordinate clauses3. Names of the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT ______.A. subjects and objectsB. objects and predicatorsC. modifiers and complementsD. endocentric and exocentric4. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of perception and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT _______.A. inflectionB. following a prepositionC. word orderD. vertical relation5. In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by _____ and ____.A. subject; objectB. subject; predicateC. predicate; objectD. object; predicate6. Phrase structure rules have _____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. Which of the following is NOT among the three basic ways to classify languages in the worldA. Word orderB. Genetic classificationC. Areal classificationD. Social classification8. The head of the phrase the city Rome is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. The phrase on the shelf belongs to ______ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. The sentence They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves is a _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The relation of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.2.One property coordination reveals is that there is a limit on the numberof coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.3.According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, deep structure contain allthe information necessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.4.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.5.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.ually noun phrases, verb phrases and adverbial phrases belong toendocentric types of constriction.7.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct objectusually follows the verb.8.In the exocentric construction John kicked the ball, neitherconstituent stands for the verb-object sequence.9.A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.10.In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur asdaughters and co-heads of a higher S.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.1.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the Heads andconsequently, they can be called m____________.2.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman). The partin the bracket is a c_________ clause.3.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, p____________ and n__________.4.There is a tendency to make a distinction between phrase and w_______,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.5.Recursiveness, together with o_______, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.6.Traditionally, p_________ is seen as part of a structural hierarchy,positioned between clause and word.7.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identitythe s______ relationship between words in a sentence.8.Clause can be classifies into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the latterincluding the traditional infinitive phrase, p__________, and gerundial phrase.9.Gender displays such contrasts as masculine: feminine: n_______.10.English gender contrast can only be observed in g__________ and a smallnumber of l__________ and they are mainly of the natural gender type.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Relation of co-occurrence4.Category5.RecursivenessVI. Answer the following question.1.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction2.What are the basic functional terms in syntaxVII. Essay question.1.Explain an comment on the following sentence a and b.a.John is easy to please.b.John is eager to please.ment on the statement, “Linguistic structure is hiearchical”I. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.1.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but they arecapable of yielding an infinite number of sentences.2.Although, a single word can also be uttered as a sentence, normallya sentence consists of at least a subject, its predicate and an object.\3.The sentences are linearly structured, so they are composed of sequenceof words arranged in a simple linear order.4. his upon an idea.idea hit upon John.In the above sentences, the subject and object constituent by the sentences switch their position. Although sentence b is absurd, it is still grammatical, because John and an idea are of the same phrasal category.5.Though they are of a small number, the combinational rules are powerfulenough to yield all the possible sentences and rule out the impossible ones.6.In a sentence like Mary likes flowers, both Mary and flowers are notonly Nouns, but also Noun Phrases.7.The recursive property can basically be discussed in a category-basedgrammar, but not in a word-based grammar.8.An XP must contain an X which is called the phrasal head.9.In the phrase this very tall girl, tall girl is an obligatory elementand the head of the phrase.10.a. The man beat the child. b. The child was beaten by the man.In the above sentences, the movement of the child from its original place to a new place is a WH- movement.11.Tense and aspect, the two important categories of the verb, nowadaysare viewed as separate notions in grammar.12.The structuralists regard linguistic units as isolated bits in astructure (or system).13.IC analysis can help us to see the internal structure of a sentenceclearly and it can also distinguish the ambiguity of a sentence. 14.Structural linguists hold that a sentence does only have a linearstructure, but it has a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups.15.In Saussure’s view, the linguist cannot attempt to explain individualsigns in a piecemeal fashion. Instead he must try to find the value of a sign from its relation to others, or rather, its position in the system.16.The theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration, whichis a subjective order.17.What is new in Halliday is that he has tried to relate the functionsof language to its structure.18.Sentence is a basic unit of structure in functional grammar.19.The interpersonal function of language refers to the idea held byHalliday that language serves ot establish and maintain social relations.20.Finite is a function in the clause as a representation, both therepresentation of outer experience and inner experience.21.The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations,partly to paradigmatic relations.22.According to Chomsky, grammar is a mechanism that should be able togenerate all and only the grammatical sentences of a language.23.In English, the subject of a sentence is said to be the doer of anaction, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the doer.Therefore, the subject is always an agent and the patient is always the object.24.In English, the object is recognized by tracing its relation to wordorder and by inflections of pronouns.25.Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-onerelation.26.The syntactic rules of a language are finite in number, and there area limited number of sentences which can be produced.27.Structuralism views language as both linearly and hierarchicallystructured.28.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntacticcategories are formed and sentences generated.29.UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specificgift which exists in the mind of a normal human being.30.Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and theywere separated in traditional grammar.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s). 1.As is required by the ______, a noun phrase must have case and caseis assigned by verb, or preposition to the _________ position or by auxiliary to the ________ position.2.Adjacency condition states that a case _________ and a case _______should stay adjacent to each other.3.The general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of anyconstituent movement is called __________.4.The phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generatesentences at the level of _________.5.The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromthe level of ________ to that of ______.6.In English there are two major types of movement, one involving themovement of an NP is called __________ movement and the other a WH-word is called _________movement.7.a. The boy ate the apple.c.The apple was eaten by the boy.In Sentence b, the boy and the apple are moved from their original positions in Sentence a to new positions, with the boy _________ to the right and the man ________ to the left.8.In the sentence the man was bitten by a dog, the man is both the _______subject and the ___________ object.9.The decision on where to make the cuts in IC analysis relies on ________:whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same.10.IC Analysis is different from the traditional parsing in that ICemphasizes the function of the _________ level-word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well.11.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head andconsequently, they can be called __________.12.John believes (that the airplane was invented by an Irishman).The part in the bracket is a __________ clause.13.In order to account for the case of the subject in passive voice, wehave another two terms, ________ and _________.14.English gender contrast can only be observed in ________ and a smallnumber of _______ and they are mainly of the natural gender type. 15.There is tendency to make a distinction between phrase and ________,which is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.16.Recursiveness, together with _________, is generally regarded as thecore of creativity of language.17.Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicatewhich contains a ________ verb or a verb phrase.18.The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structureof a sentence is ________.19.The starting point of an utterance which is known in the givensituation and from which the speaker proceeds is named ________. 20.___________ structure can become the sole responsible structure forsemantic interpretation by the introduction of the trace theory.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.sentence John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history is a _______ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. complexD. relational2. In the sentence Mary told Jane that John liked linguistics the introductory word that is called _______.A. coordinating conjunctionB. conjunctionC. subordinatorD. embedded word3. The student The above segmentation truthfully reveals the _______ nature of sentence structure.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. horizontalD. parallel4. The sentence The tall man and women left can be illustrated by tree diagram _____.A.(1)B.(2)C. both (1) and (2)D. neitherto the following three diagram, V can only be replaced by ____.A. satB. broughtC. pushedD. nonewas linguistics that John liked the mostWhich of the following statements about the two sentences (a and b) given above is NOT trueA. In both sentence a and sentence b, John is the logical subject.B. In structural concept, John is the structural subject of asentence.C. It in sentence b is the structural subject of the matrix clause.D. John is the structural subject in both a and b.conclusion that a set of principles or rules govern language use is based on the observation that _________.make acceptability judgment about sentences they have never heard before.is a habit-structure.accounts for language acquisition.information must form part of syntactic movement.symbol N indicates a/an ________.category categorycategory D. lexical insertion rulethe following combination possibilities, ______ can NOT be generated from the following rule: NP →(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S).A. NP →N →Det Adj S →Det N →Det Adj N PPS.advantage of X-bar syntax over phrase structure syntax is that X-bar. a ploliferation of redundant intermediate categories.us to identify indefinitely long embedded sentences.C. allows as to postulate categories other than lexical and phrasal.D. forces us to conclude that the ambiguity of phrases like the EnglishKing is lexical rather than structural.11. Which set of rules generates the following tree structuresA. S →NP VPB. NP → VPNP→ N PP NP→ NP NP PPVP→ V NP VP→ V NP PPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →NVP VP D, S NP VPNP→ (NP/PP) NP →NP (NP /PP)VP →V NP VP →V NPPP →P NP PP →P NPNP→ N NP →Nseems they are quite fit for the job.b. They seem quite fit for the job.Sentence b is a result of ______ movement.. D. None13. The head of the phrase underneath the open window is _______.following statements are in accordance with Hallliday’s opinion on language EXCEPT _______.use of language involves a network of systems of choices.B. Language is never used as a mere mirror of reflected thought.is a system of abstract forms and signs.functions as a piece of human behavior.is more concerned with ____ relations in his approach to syntax.is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in Certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.C. BindingD. Co-command17. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents and the three basic types of subordinate clauses are complement clauses, adjunct clauses and _____.clauses clausesclauses clausesof the syntactic functions are expressed in all the following terms EXCEPT_____.and objects and predicatorsand complements D. endocentric and exocentricEnglish, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun and it is realized in all the following channels EXCEPT ______.a preposition order relation20. Clauses can be classified into finite and non-finite clauses, _____ including the traditional infinitive phrases, participial phrase and gerundial phrase.A. the formerB. the latter D. neitheris the _______ on case assignment that states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case Condition ConditionCondition Parameter.analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phrase…d. sentenceof the following italic parts is NOT an idiomA. How to you doB. How did you doC. He went to it hammer and tongs.D. They kept tabs on the Russian spy.we say that we can change the second word in the sentence she is singing in the room with another word or phrase, we are talking about ______.A. governmentB. linear relationsC. syntactic relationsD. paradigmatic relationsthe phrase structure rule S→NP VP, the arrow can be read as ______.A. hasB. generatesC. consists ofD. is equal toIV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.The following two sentences are ambiguous. Show the two readings ofeach by drawing its respective tree diagrams.(1)The ball man and woman left(2) Visiting professor can be interestinge an example to show what a tree diagram is (as it is used inTransformational-Generative Grammar).e an example to show what IC analysis is.4.What are the three general functions of language according to Halliday5.What distinguishes the structural approach to syntax from thetraditional one6.Some grammar books say there are three basic tenses in English-thepresent, the past and the future; others say there are only two basic tenses –the present and the past. Explain what tense is and whether it is justifiable to say there is a future tense in English.。
新世纪高等院校英语专业本科生系列教材第二版综合教程五第五单元答案
新世纪高等院校英语专业本科生系列教材第二版综合教程五第五单元答案III. Language Work1. Explain the underlined part in each sentence in your own words.1). For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery.the very same thing as2). And in proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate.appropriately in agreement with3). We have held the subject up in every light of which it is capable.considered and tried every means in order to deal with the subject4). …if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power.has given us at our disposal5). Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, …with liberty as our ultimate aim to fight for6). The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone.is not destined to be won by2. Fill in each blank with one of the two words from each pair in their appropriate forms and note the difference of meaning between them.solace console1). She was consoled to think that she at least had an understanding husband to turn to.2). The soldiers attempted to solace his wounded comrades by minimizing the extent of their3). They tried to console him for losing the prize by taking him to the theatre.4). They solaced their wretchedness, however, by duets after supper.petition plead1). All the four convicts pleaded guilty but appealed for leniency.2). In the face of questioning by the police, he pleaded ignorance of the bottle of white powder in his suitcase.3). The Church of Scotland petitioned the home secretary for stronger controls on adolescent drug use.4). All delegates to the convention were petitioning the government to take tough measures against illegal coal-mining.More…request: to ask for something politely (not used with the actual words spoken).appeal: to ask strongly for help, support, money, etc.beseech: to ask eagerly and anxiouslyimplore: to ask someone in a begging manner for sth or doing sth.base (adj.) mean1). He is the meanest person I ever know. He is never willing to spend a cent on other people.2). Rapton reached the final; that was no mean achievement, considering all 50 classes took part in the competition.3). The soldier was accused of base cowardice during the confrontation.4). The cheat was base enough to swindle a sick widow out of her life's savings.delusive misleading1). A terminally ill patient usually has a delusive faith in a wonder drug.2). There is nothing true about such an expectation; it is only delusive and vain.3). It was a misleading advertisement that deliberately left out the drug's side effects.4). The ambassador referred to the report as deceitful and misleading.3. Fill in the blank in each sentence with a word or phrase taken from the box, using its appropriate form.magnitude forge formidable snaretemporal prostrate array anguishinvincible revere remonstrate subjugation1). Her manner is friendly and relaxed and much less formidable than she appears at her after-game press conference.2). Nothing has ever equaled the magnitude and speed withwhich the human species is altering the physical and chemical world and demolishing the environment.3). When heated, the mixture becomes soft and malleable and can be formed by various techniques into a vast array of shapes and sizes.4). Where I part company with him, however, is over the link he forges between science and liberalism.5). Percy was lying prostrate, his arms outstretched and his eyes closed.6). Given data which are free from bias, there are further snares to avoid in statistical work.7). In pragmatics, the study of speech, one is able to see how specific acts are related to a temporal and spatial context.8). His dad might have been able to say something solacing, had he not been fighting back his own flood of anguish.4. Make a sentence of your own for each of the given words with meanings other than those used in the text. You may change the part of speech of these words.1). chainNo matter how we, my mum and I, protest, my dad chain-smokes as long as he is awake.2). termsThe meeting ended on reasonably amicable terms.3). slightThat doesn't interest me in the slightest.4). plainIt is plain truth that we can't afford a deluxe car, so we haveto make do with this old gas guzzler.5). entertainChildren's programs on TV should aim to both educate and entertain at the same time.6). causeThe causes are a blend of local and national tensions.5. Rewrite the following sentences in such a way as to avoid dangling non-finite clauses.1). He painted so well that he astonished every one of us.He painted so well, to the astonishment of every one of us.2). Every precaution was taken so that the plan might not fail.Every precaution was taken against the failure of the plan.3). If it had not been for Jack, they would have lost the football game.But for Jack, they would have lost the football game.4). I must remind you that you have a responsibility towards your children.I must remind you of your responsibility towards your children.5). The committee has decided that the meeting be postponed.The committee has decided on postponing the meeting.6). No one is sorry that Peter has resigned.No one is sorry about Peter's resignation.7). They will never get there unless they walk a long way.They will never get there without walking a long way.8). We were amused that you met the Harrisons there.We were amused at your meeting the Harrisons there.9). Though he had an immense fortune, he died a mostunhappy man.For all / Despite his immense fortune, he died a most unhappy man.10). Clear evidence showed that smoking was harmful to one's health, but people still refused to believe that.In spite of / Despite the clear evidence showing that smoking was harmful to one's health, people still refused to believe it.Note:A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is characteristically a noun phrase or a Wh-clause or V-ing clause. A prepositional phrase may be used in place of a non-finite clause, simplifying the structure of the sentence.6. Put a word in each blank that is appropriate for the context.On behalf of all of your American guests, I wish to thank you for the incomparable hospitality for which the Chinese people are justly (1) famous throughout the world. I particularly want to (2) pay tribute, not only to those who prepared the magnificent dinner, but also to those who have (3) provided the splendid music. Never have I heard American music played better in a (4) foreign land.So, let us, in these next five days, start a long (5) march together, not in lockstep, but on different roads (6) leading to the same goal, the goal of building a world structure of peace and justice in which all many stand together with equal dignity and in which each nation, large or small, has a right to determine its own form of government, free (7) of outside interference ordomination. The world watches. The world listens. The world waits to see what we will do. What is the world? In a personal sense, I think of my eldest daughter whose birthday is today.As I think of her, I think of all the (8) children in the world, in Asia, in Africa, in Europe, in the Americas, most of whom were born since the date of the foundation of the People’s Republic of China.What legacy shall we (9) leave our children? Are they destined to die for the hatreds which have plagued the old world, or are they destined to live because we have the vision to (10) build a new world?IV. Translation1. Translating Sentences1). 假如从不同的角度看这幅画，你会有更好的感觉。
非限定性分句
从属连词+形容词词组 从属连词 形容词词组 Although always helpful, he was not much liked by the people. 从属连词+介词词组 从属连词 介词词组 Whether by accident or by design, he arrived too late to help us. 从属连词+副词词组 从属连词 副词词组 He spoke ungraciously, if not rudely.
独立主格结构可装换成with复合结构：
由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词 with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语 由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、 介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在 分词，也可以是过去分词： 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. with或without-名词/代词+形容词； with或without-名词/代词+副词； with或without-名词/代词+介词短语； with或without-名词/代词 +动词不定式； with或without-名词/代词 +分词。
• 作条件状语 United, we stand; divided, we fall. • 表示伴随状况 He went to Beijing that winter, disguised as merchant.
• 作让步状语 Beaten by the police and sent to jail, Gandhi （甘地）invented the principle of 甘地） nonviolent resistance.(非暴力抵抗主义 非暴力抵抗主义) 非暴力抵抗主义
限定从句以及非限定从句以及动名词,动词等总结Finite and Non-fintite clauses Notes
Finite and Non-finite ClausesFinite•Comes from Latin meaning finished or limited•Implies a verb/clause that could demonstrate person and tense. For example: Eats- plural, and presentFinite Verb•Make the word define, finite verbs ‘define’ the time and the subject•Different tense, person changes verb morpheme•Verb in present, past, or imperative tenseNon-Finite Verb•Does not show tense and person•Different tense, person does not change verb morpheme•Not the main verb•Does not express any action•Serve as adjectives, nouns and etc.•Three types of non-finite verbs include: gerund (也可以不包括), infinitives, and participles (both present and past)Finite clauses: They are the basic subordinate clauses that are the focus of most work with complex sentences and dependent clauses. They have some type of “time” meaning.Non-finite clauses: They are clauses are built around verbs that do not have tense or modality – verbs that are not sentence verb phases.Finite clauses•They cannot cut from sentence or the meaning of the sentence would be incomplete.•Could use “that” to link with the rest of the sentence.•Related word sometimes can omit.•Cannot apply comma (,) to separate it from the rest of the sentence.•Generally, have primary auxiliary verb•Takes finite verb phase as its predicate verbNon-Finite clauses•They can cut from sentence, and the sentence meaning would stay the same.•Cannot use “that” to link it with the rest of the sentence•Cannot disconnect with the relate words•Need to use comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence•Not show tense, person, number•Takes non-finite verb phase as its predictorFour types of finite clausesTwo (Three) types of non-finite clausesMore ExampleFinite clauses1.It was the Sunday that I bought food.2.I buy food in the canteen.3.She buys food for Tom.4.She came latte because she had a meeting.5.He bought the toaster that was the most expensive. Non-finite clauses1.I will go buy some food.2.I will go to buy some food.3.She’s the person buying the food in the video.4.Those are the apples bought by my friends.5.6.7.8.Gerund∙It can serve as non-finite verb, and occur in non-finite clause.∙They are verbal noun.1.SubjectRunning is good for health.2.ObjectI like reading.3.Subject complementI saw Jim riding his bike4.Preposition complementI am interested in improving myself.Clause: It is a grammatical unit that includes, at minimum, a predicate (谓语) and explicit (明确的) or implied subject and express a preposition.It is group of words- subject verb combination.It has a complete meaning by itselfA simple sentence is a clause (example: He plays cricket regularly.)Dependent Clauses∙Dependent clause is also called subordinate clause.∙It is a subject, verb combination, but it is not complete thought, it dependent on main clause.∙All finite and non-finite clauses are subordinate clauses.Independent Clauses∙Independent clause is also called main clause.∙It is a complete sentence by itself, it does not need any other clause for its existence.Class Key NotesFinite clauses•They cannot cut from sentence or the meaning of the sentence would be incomplete.•Could use “that” to link with the rest of the sentence.•Related word sometimes can omit.•Cannot apply comma (,) to separate it from the rest of the sentence.•Generally, have primary auxiliary verb•Takes finite verb phase as its predicate verbNon-Finite clauses•They can cut from sentence, and the sentence meaning would stay the same.•Cannot use “that” to link it with the rest of the sentence•Cannot disconnect with the relate words•Need to use comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence•Not show tense, person, number•Takes non-finite verb phase as its predictorClass Key NotesFinite clauses•They cannot cut from sentence or the meaning of the sentence would beincomplete.•Could use “that” to link with the rest of the sentence.•Related word sometimes can omit.•Cannot apply comma (,) to separate it from the rest of the sentence.•Generally, have primary auxiliary verb•Takes finite verb phase as its predicate verbNon-Finite clauses•They can cut from sentence, and the sentence meaning would stay the same.•Cannot use “that” to link it with the rest of the sentence•Cannot disconnect with the relate words•Need to use comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence•Not show tense, person, number•Takes non-finite verb phase as its predictorFinite and Non-finite ClausesFinite•Comes from Latin meaning finished or limited•Implies a verb/clause that could demonstrate person and tense. For example: Eats- plural, and presentFinite Verb（have limits that needs changing）•Make the word define, finite verbs ‘define’ the time and the subject•Different tense, person changes verb morpheme•Verb in present, past, or imperative tenseNon-Finite Verb•Does not show tense and person•Different tense, person does not change verb morpheme•Not the main verb•Does not express any action•Serve as adjectives, nouns and etc.•Three types of non-finite verbs include: gerund (也可以不包括), infinitives, and participles (both present and past)Clause: It is a grammatical unit that includes, at minimum, a predicate (谓语) and explicit (明确的) or implied subject and express a preposition.It is group of words- subject verb combination.It has a complete meaning by itselfA simple sentence is a clause (example: He plays cricket regularly.)Dependent Clauses∙Dependent clause is also called subordinate clause.∙It is a subject, verb combination, but it is not complete thought, it dependent on main clause.∙All finite and non-finite clauses are subordinate clauses.Independent Clauses∙Independent clause is also called main clause.∙It is a complete sentence by itself, it does not need any other clause for its existence.Finite clauses: They are the basic subordinate clauses that are the focus of most work with complex sentences and dependent clauses. They have some type of “time” meaning.Non-finite clauses: They are clauses are built around verbs that do not have tense or modality – verbs that are not sentence verb phases.Finite clauses•They cannot cut from sentence or the meaning of the sentence would be incomplete.•Could use “that” to link with the rest of the sentence.•Related word sometimes can omit.•Cannot apply comma (,) to separate it from the rest of the sentence.•Generally, have primary auxiliary verb•Takes finite verb phase as its predicate verbNon-Finite clauses•They can cut from sentence, and the sentence meaning would stay the same.•Cannot use “that” to link it with the rest of the sentence•Cannot disconnect with the relate words•Need to use comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence•Not show tense, person, number•Takes non-finite verb phase as its predictorGerund∙It can serve as non-finite verb and occur in non-finite clause.∙They are verbal noun.5.SubjectRunning is good for health.6.ObjectI like reading.7.Subject complementI saw Jim riding his bike8.Preposition complementI am interested in improving myself.Four types of finite clauses Two (Three) types of non-finite clausesMore ExamplesFinite clauses6.It was the Sunday that I bought food.7.I buy food in the canteen.8.She buys food for Tom.9.She came latte because she had a meeting.10.He bought the toaster that was the most expensive. Non-finite clauses9.I will go buy some food.10.I will go to buy some food.11.She’s the person buying the food in the video.12.Those are the apples bought by my friends.13.14.15.16.。
新视野大学英语第二版第一册读写教程课后答案Unit 3
Unit 31. Inwardly I was very unhappy with what he had said, but I didn’t show it.我内心里对他说的话非常不满，但是没有表现出来。
2. I deeply regret to inform you that we cannot accept such conditions.我非常遗憾地告诉你，我们不能接受这样的条件。
3. He translated books not only from English, but also, on occasion, from French.他不仅翻译英语书，有时也翻译法语书。
4. The young couple complained about the high cost of visiting Europe.这对年轻夫妇抱怨说去欧洲旅行的花销太大了。
5. He had repeatedly urged her to come to the United States to join him, but she refused toleave her homeland.他再三催促她来美国找他，可她拒绝离开自己的祖国。
6. Government officials visited the flood area on Thursday morning to coordinate the reliefefforts.星期四上午，政府官员来到洪水肆虐的灾区协调救灾工作。
7. He showed great reluctance in signing the agreement, but he finally did it.最后，他签了这样一个协议，虽然很不情愿。
8. Driving his new red sports car, he was sure his neighbors were looking at him with envy.他开着红色新跑车，并相信邻居一定在用羡慕的眼光看他。
2022英语专业《英语语法教程(章振邦)》专有名词汇总最新版
morpheme词素free morpheme自由词素（用法use alone as simple word简单词充当root词根＋affix词缀（为derivational affix）＝derivative派生词free morpheme＋other free morpheme＝compound word复合词）bound morpheme粘附词素（分类＝词缀affix＋组合形式combining form）（①用法inflectional affix屈折词缀；derivational affix派生词缀（prefix前缀suffix 后缀）＋root＝derivative②充当root即bound root粘附词根＋affix＝primitive derivative原始派生词；＋word＝compound word；＋combining form＝neo-classical compound新古典复合词）Δallomorph词素变体word单词（构词法simple word、derivation、compound word（compound noun/adjective/verb/adverb/pronoun/conjun ction连词/preposition介词）（语法功能closed class封闭词类→function word功能词（preposition、pronoun、determiner限定词、conjunction、auxiliary 助动词）、open class开放词类→content word 实义词（noun、adjective、adverb、main verb 主动词、cardinal numeral基数词、ordinal numeral序数词）interjection感叹词介于两者之间transitional word过渡词phrase词组（head或headword中心词）noun/adjective/adverb/verb/prepositional phraseclause分句independent clause独立分句dependent/subordinate clause从属分句（从句）main clause主句simple clause简单分句simple sentence简单句complex clause复杂分句complex sentence复杂句finite clause限定分句non-finite clause非限定分句（infinitive clause 不定式分句、-ing participle clause-ing分词分句、-ed participle clause-ed分词分句）verbless clause无动词分句nominal clause名词性分句clause element分句成分（central element中心成分→subject、predicate verb/predicator 谓语动词、object、complement（subject complement＋object complement）、adverbial（adjunct/depictive adverbial））peripheral element外围成分→stance adverbial/disjunct评注性状语、linking adverbial/conjunct连接性状语……parenthesis插入语）basic clause type分句基本类型subject主语predicate谓语double predicate双重谓语complementation补足成分Δnotional subject实义主语（real subject真主语）logical subject逻辑主语sentence句子full sentence完全句（simple sentence、compound sentence并列句、complex sentence、compound-complex sentence并列复杂句）minor sentence不完全句主谓一致（主-动-致subject-verb concord）concord/agreement一致grammatical concord语法一致notional concord意义一致principle of proximity就近原则coordinate subject并列结构做主语noun phrase of amount or quantity表示数量概念的名词词组noun→noun phrase→complex noun phrase 词汇意义proper noun专有名词、commonnoun（individual noun、collective noun、mass noun/material noun、abstract noun）语法特征count/countable noun、non-count/uncountable nounnumber数→语法范畴singular number单数plural number复数（regular plural、irregular plural）partitive单位词（unit noun单位名词）case格→语法术语nominative case主格、genitive/possessive case属格/所有格、dative case与格、accusation case宾格→old English古英语genitive/possessive case、common case通格→modern English现代英语independent genitive独立属格double genitive双重属格determinerreferential meaning所指意义→specific reference特指、generic reference类指definite quantity确定数量indefinite quantity非确定数量分类：predeterminer前位限定词、central determiner、postdeterminerarticle冠词definite article定冠词indefinite article不定冠词zero article 零冠词definite specific reference确定特指（anaphoric specific reference后照应特指、cataphoric specific reference前照应特指、situational reference语境特指）indefinite specific reference非确定特指adjective形容词（open class）词的构成→one-word adjective单词形容词、compound adjective复合形容词句法功能→central adjective中心形容词、peripheral adjective外围形容词词汇意义→dynamic adjective动态形容词、stative adjective静态形容词词汇意义→gradable adjective等级形容词、non-gradable adjective非等级形容词modifier修饰语premodifier前置修饰语postmodifier后置修饰语subject complement、object complementΔcausative construction使役结构adverb→adverb phrase词的构成→simple adverb简单副词、derivative adverb派生副词词汇意义→adverb of mannar方式副词、adverb of degree程度副词、adverb of frequency频度副词、adverb of time时间副词、conjunctive adverb连接副词（the head/headword of the verb phrase when used as a linking adverbial/conjunct）usage①modifier②adverbial （adjunct/depictive adverbial修饰性状语、disjunct/stance adverbial评注性状语、conjunct/linking adverbial连接性状语）比较等级和比较结构比较等级：当adjective和adverb用于比较结构时采取的特殊的语法形式比较结构：形容词和副词比较等级用于句子当中便形成了比较结构gradable可等级的positive/absolute degree原级comparative degree比较级superlative degree最高级comparative degree and superlative degree both have two forms→regular form and irregular formregular form has two expressions①synthetic form综合形式（add suffixes-er or-est to the positive/absolute degree）②analytic form分析形式（add more or most before positive/absolute degree）comparative construction比较结构gradable noun可等级名词Δnucleus调核代词pronoun（closed class封闭词类）personal pronoun人称代词（person人称形式→first/second/third第一/二/三人称）possessive pronoun物主代词＝genitivepronoun属格代词（按语法功能分类→nominal genitive pronoun名词性属格代词、determiner genitive pronoun限定词性属格代词词）possessive determiner物主限定词（my、your 等）reflexive form反身形式reflexive pronoun反身代词（9个）（用法→emphatic use强调性用法、unemphatic use 非强调性用法）reciprocal pronoun相互代词demonstrative pronoun指示代词demonstrative determiner指示限定词demonstrative指示词interrogative pronoun疑问代词relative pronoun关系代词indefinite pronoun不定代词（分类→numeral 数次和quantifier量词、compound pronoun 复合代词）referent对象＝antecedent先行项pronoun reference代词照应（anaphoric reference前照应、cataphoric reference后照应、situational reference情景照应；personal reference人称照应、demonstrative reference 指示照应）Δnoun of common gender通性名词、pro-verb代动词介词prepositionsimple/complex preposition简单/复杂介词、two-word/three-word/four-word preposition 双词/三词/四词介词Δanalytic language分析性语言、word order 词序（nomal order正常词序＝natural order 自然词序）动词与动词词组verb动词（main verb主动词、auxiliary助动词→primary auxiliary基本主动词、modal auxiliary情态助动词、semi-auxiliary半助动词＝semi-modal半情态助动词）Δmarginal modal auxiliary边际情态助动词（need、dare 等）verb phrase动词词组（simple verb phrase简单动词词组、complex verb phrase复杂动词词组、finite verb phrase限定动词词组、non-finite verb phrase非限定动词词组）notional verb实义动词contracted form缩略形式transitive verb及物动词（monotransitive verb 单宾语及物动词、ditransitive verb双宾语及物动词、complex-transitive verb复杂及物动词）intransitive verb不及物动词、linking verb 连系动词dynamic verb动态动词、stative verb静态动词single-word verb单词动词、phrasal verb词组动词（verbal idiom成语动词）regular verb规则动词、irregular verb不规则动词finite verb限定动词、non-finite verb非限定动词finite form限定形式、non-finite form非限定形式base form原形grammatical form语法形式（5种）Δmodal idiom情态成语时tense、体aspectpresent tense现在时、past tense过去时progressive aspect进行体、perfective aspect 完成体simple present/past一般现在时/过去时present/past progressive现在/过去进行体present/past perfective现在/过去完成体present/past perfective progressive现在/过去完成进行体future tense将来时pure future单纯将来语态voiceactive/passive voice主动/被动态active/passive sentence主动/被动句BE-passive be-型被动态GET-passive get-型被动态mood式（语气）subjunctive mood虚拟语气、indicative mood 陈述语气、imperative mood祈使语气hypothetical meaning假设意义＝non-factual meaning非事实意义BE-subjunctive be-型虚拟、were-subjunctive were-型虚拟情态意义表示法ability能力、possibility可能、permission许可、obligation义务、necessity必然、prediction 预见、assumption推测、willingness意愿、intention意图、determination决心epistemic推测性、non-epistemic非推测性Δparaphrase意译非限定形式non-finite form①infinitive不定式to-infinitive带to不定式、bare infinitive不带to不定式Δsplit infinitive分裂不定式②-ing participle-ing分词（present participle 现在分词、gerund动名词）③-ed participle-ed分词（past participle过去分词）dangling participle悬垂分词（unattached participle无依着分词）attachment rule依着法则Δabsolute construction独立结构relative clause关系分句（restrictive relative clause限制性关系分句、non-restrictive relative clause非限制性关系分句）double relative clause双重关系分句embedded relative clause/pushdown relative clause嵌入式关系分句relative word关系词（relative pronoun关系代词、relative adverb关系副词、relative determiner关系限定词）attributive clause定语从句antecedent先行项、old information旧信息、given/known information已知信息register语域style语体statement陈述句（declarative sentence）emphasizer强调词、reinforcement tag强调附加结构、double negative双重否定、rhetorical question修辞疑问句、operator操作词、intonation pattern调型（low fall低降调、high fall高降调、low rise低升调、fall rise 降升调）question疑问句（interrogative sentence）（分类→general/special/alternative/tag一般＝yes-no question是非问句/特殊＝wh-question wh问句/选择/附加疑问句）command祈使句（imperative sentence）、exclamation感叹句（exclamatory sentence）interrogative exclamation问句型感叹句、echo exclamation重复感叹句existential sentence存在句complex existential sentence复杂存在句finite existential sentence限定存在句non-finite existential sentence非限定存在句locative adverbial地点状语temporal adverbial时间状语Δrheme述位IT-句型和否定结构non-referring it非指代性itassertive word肯定词non-assertive word非肯定词negative word否定词semi-negative半否定词scope of negation否定范围focus of negation否定焦点transferred negation转移否定double negation双重否定local negation局部否定pleonastic/superfluous negation多余否定并列结构coordinate structure coordinator并列连词correlative coordinator关联并列连词quasi-coordinator近似并列连词compound sentence并列句asyndetic coordination不带连词的并列结构syndetic coordinate带连词的并列结构predication述谓成分parallelism排比（作为修辞手法的并列结构）、parallel construction排比结构climax高潮从属结构subordinate construction subordination从属subordinator从属连词simple subordinator简单从属连词（one-word subordinator单词从属连词）complex subordinator复杂从属连词correlative subordinator关联从属连词marginal subordinator边际从属连词same time同时性earlier time先时性later time后时性nominal relative clause名词性关系分句nominal that-clause名词性that分句nominal wh-clause名词性wh-分句adverbial clause of time/place/manner/cause/result/purpose/co ndition/concession/accompanying circumstances时间/地点/方式/原因/结果/目的/条件/让步/伴随状语分句条件句conditionalreal conditional真实条件句unreal conditional非真实条件句implied conditional含蓄条件句basic form基本形式variant form变体形式alternative form替换形式直接引语和间接引语direct speech直接引语indirect speech间接引语reporting word引述动词free direct speech自由直接引语free indirect speech自由间接引语修饰modificationsquinting modification偏斜修饰、discontinuous modification分隔修饰、transferred modification转移修饰、partial modification局部修饰、multiple modification 多重修饰premodifier前置修饰语、postmodifier后置修饰语、restrictive modifier限制性修饰语、non-restrictive modifier非限制性修饰语、transferred modifier/epithet转移修饰语、squinting modifier偏斜修饰语contrastive meaning对比意义替代substitutionnominal/verbal/clausal名词性/动词性/分句性替代substitute替代词（nominal/verbal/clausal substitute名词/动词/分句替代词）省略ellipsis、situational ellipsis情景省略强调emphasis、rhetorical repetition修辞重复postponement后置、end focus句尾焦点、end weight句尾重心、periodic sentence尾重句、loose sentence松散句、trailing sentence 拖沓句fronting前置、inversion倒装（full inversion 完全倒装、partial inversion部分倒装cleft sentence分裂句、pseudo-cleft sentence 假分裂句focus element中心成分morphology词法、syntax句法、text语篇（＝discourse口语中）、sentence group句群（语段）、paragraph段落、correctness正确性、appropriacy适合性、unity统一性、coherence连贯性、cohesion 粘着性、mobility流动性、clearness清晰性logical connector逻辑纽带、grammatical connector语法纽带、lexical connector词汇纽带literary language文学语言、textual rhetoric 语篇修辞标点符号punctuationperiod/full stop/stop句号、question mark问号、exclamation mark感叹号、comma逗号、semicolon分号、colon冒号、ellipsis省略号、dash破折号、brackets/parentheses括号、quotation mark引号、hyphen连字号、apostrophe撇号、slant斜线、italics斜体、underlining下划线、。
英语语言限定以及非限定从句Finite and Non Finite Clauses
3-1 Types
Finite clauses Types
Adverbial clauses Noun Clauses Wh- Clauses
Relative Clauses
3-2 Types
3-3 Distinguish
Finite clauses
1
Generally have primary auxiliary verb
Non-Finite clauses
• They are clauses are built around verbs that do not have tense or modality – verbs that are not sentence verb phases.
03 Part Three Characteristics
Finite and Non Finite clause
Contents
01 Introduction 02 The word “Finite” 03 Characteristics 04 Examples 05 Further Investigation
01 Part One Introduction
need any other clause for its existence.
Finite and Non-Finite Clause Thank You
Non-Finite clauses
• They can cut from sentence, and the sentence meaning would stay the same.
• Cannot use “that” to link it with the rest of the sentence
整理文体学答案
文体学课后题1、2单元1Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples. 1）Words and phrases shilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhyme high and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhyme kith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhyme part and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme 2）Pride and Prejudice = alliteration The Love ’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliteration Bill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliteration Father in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliteration The Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration 3)Advertisements --Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision --Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision --Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment, but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful —but don ’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration 2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples 1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught. 2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare ’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master. 3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick. 3 1)phonological devices in the following extract. A creak of hinges...aisle. In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable. 2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom 3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms. “TOM!”No answer. ...--Mark Twai This is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Ｙ-o-u-u, Tom !” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard fa r away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over ” and “under ”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through. 3单元1 What are thethree ways of clause classification? classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause. 2 how do we distinguish situation types? By according to meaning or sense of the verb. 3 Name the participant roles in action types? The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4What is a simple sentence? What is a multiple sentence?Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either a compound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clauses function asmodified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incompletesentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minorsentence is supposed to be “complete ” in the sense that it is finished.An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why are you late? Because I —Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is anincomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is the use ofpre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article,numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinativeand the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to;the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines caneconomize space, and arouse the reader ’s interest as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out.Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style.Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly,guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech? Which typeof branching is preferred in written styles?Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informalpresentation of ideas.A writer may favor right-branching and useshort, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is better adapted to writing because it is structurally more compact andlogical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas arepresented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel insuspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards theend of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are the stylistic effects of fronting and postponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or lessfixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile in position. The change ofthe order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of alinguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. Forexample,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (frontingtalent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University.(Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function?Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form (e.g. tense, aspect) and phrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example, See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill. And sand. Power sand. This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand name Power.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate and that of native words? Why? Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion and official communication; and in most cases, they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people ’s basic vocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged. A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specific word? Is it true that use of specific words should always be recommended? A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class of objects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that group or class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words ismore informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader ’sor hearer ’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there is no need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vague for some (tactical) reason. 5 What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employ repetition and reiteration in speech or writing? When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example, We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 and afternoon classes begin at 2:00 again. When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. For example, We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again. In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps todirect the reader ’s attention to the interpretation of its significance. Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoidthe monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression. 6 What is collocation? What is the use pf analyzing lexical collocation of an item in a piece of language?Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of theitem. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text. 7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a general wordwhose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words. 1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk) 2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk) 4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box (container) 5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle (vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly a similar conceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associatemeanings. 9 Compare the A B extracts in terms 1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words; 2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more. In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four of which are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are from Latin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand. 10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement. (Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories) To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong,savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to showwhat good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer.5单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region(regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect).Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar andpronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one socialdialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accent?Accent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks adialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with differentaccents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from onedialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or heraccent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a Londonaccent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speakBritish English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English? Is there a standard accent with whichpeople speak Standard English?Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely acceptedsuch as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元11）What does ‘channel limitation ’ mean? How does channel limitation affect language use?Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limitedto one channel only —visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facialexpressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, onthe other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should beexplicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother ”,whichis understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context.But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make itexplicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of theclassroom building is Wang Qian ’s mother .2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ fromprepared written form?In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising oneutterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said andits response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance.If one ’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech ischaracteristically broken up by the following features of normalnon-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and falsestarts. For example,He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shall I say er- withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mmgoldfish bowl round his head - not very easy …Appreciative Neutral Pejorative work drudgery, toil, grind fashion, style vogue fad policeman, cop flatfoot civil servant government official bureaucrat famous, celebrated, renowned notorious portly, stout, chubby, plumpfat adventurous, daring reckless, rash学无止境7单元1What is role relationship? Give some examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the rolesadopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Rolerelationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer —salesman, colleagues in an office, management —employees, teacher —pupil, parent —child. 2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of various attitudes? Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility 3.What factors affect the degrees of formality? The degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on. 4 How does language vary in terms of politeness? Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between the address and addressee; the degree of social distance separating the addresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation. 5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms? The basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), First name + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith,Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) and Terms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet). 6 What is linguistic impersonality? Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to the addresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, etc 7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibility? We can measure the degrees of accessibility by the following formula: FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H) L = the average sentence length in a passage H = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passage Suppose a passage has: --a total number of words 120 --the number of sentences 6 --the number of “hard ” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20 H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3 Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3) = 13.32 Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult. 8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.A There was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I ’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for an accident to happen. It wasn ’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody ’ll get me in an accid ent. I was facing failure, real failure. I ’d never faced complete failure before. I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a little newspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn ’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together. Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling Stone B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.) My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisationalexperience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation …．“Weekend Competition ”, NewStatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. Thesentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personalpronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates thespeaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to thespeaker ’s profession as a politician ’s adviser. Most of the content ware Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract, which indicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber ’s entry in t he Dictionary denotes thatthe telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber ’and the Post Office is not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses o f such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of thepublic the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree offormality.A I ’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, Itrain students to become more sensitive and aware ofinterpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words,as well as nonverbal behavior. I try to ignite symbols in yourmind, so we can come to a point of agreement on language. Thisis an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we ’vestrong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an Americanpolitician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalisedpresidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification forimmediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recentpolicalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship ofthe NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomiclogistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be theimmediate terminalisation of readership fallout by contentamendment through extreme conservation …．“Weekend Competition ”,New Statesman Comparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though bothare formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses shortsentences and a fair portion of common words. But there areprofessional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written inprofessional jargons relating to the speaker ’s profession as a politic adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities?Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely acceptedfunctions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serve?A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect,shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a pressadvertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. Ithas been estimated that five times as many people read theheadline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospectivebuyer ’s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement?A complete press advertisement consists of the following components:Headline学无止境IllustrationBody copySignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details aresometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English.Move to Axe Miners’ JobsWoman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with WestEurope.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for EasterHolidays.。
自考现代英语语法重点
自考现代英语语法重点(总24页)-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1-CAL-本页仅作为文档封面，使用请直接删除Chapter 1 The Structureof the English Sentence(第一章绪论)一、难点、重点1.Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order.(指出构成层次结构的语法单位.)英语句子的结构层次是：分句(clauses)、词组(phrases)、单词(words)，图示如下：高级层次句子(由一个或多个分句组成)分句(由一个或多个词组组成)词组(由一个或多个词组成)低级层次词如果从语义的角度来考虑，单词以下还可再分为词素(morphemes)；句子以上还有更大的语言单位，即把句子按一定逻辑规则组织起来的语篇。
所以，从超语法的角度来看，语法层次结构可以如下图所示：高级层次语篇(由广个或多个句子组成)句子(由一个或多个分句组成)分句(由一个或多个扣组组成)词组(由一个或多个词组成)词(由一个或多个词素组成)低级层次词素2． Morphemes词素 (Terms: morpheme, morph, allomorph, free morpheme and bound morpheme)（注：此部分内容的学习可以借鉴‘词汇学’的相关内容，然而必须注意两门课程描述的不同点。
）什么是词素(morpheme)词素是语法的最小区别性单位，即最低一级的语法单位。
词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素(morph)。
词素是一种抽象形式的成分，在不同的环境中一个词素可以由若干个不同的形素体现，如英语中的复数词素可以表现为／s，z，iz／。
某一词素在不同的环境中可以用不同的变体或词素变体(allomorph)表示。
所谓词素变体是指词素的非区别性变体，几个不同的变体一起构成一个词素。
词素又分为自由词素和粘附词素。
英语语法层次
Chapter two Introduction-Grammatical Hierarchy语言（Language）是社会交际的工具，是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系。
语法（Grammar）是语言的组织规律Grammar is the structural system of a language.，它赋予语言以结构系统，而词汇（vocabulary）则是语言的建筑材料，它通过语法而赋予语言以意义内容。
The grammar of English is organized into five ranks:1.the sentence（句子）, the clause（分句）, the phrase（词组）, the word（词）and the morpheme（词素）.英语的语法结构具有层次性，分为五个不同的层次。
2. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower unit.每一层由一个或一个以上的低层次的语法结构组成。
3.A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes.句子能够一层一层地切分到它的最小组成单位----词素。
●词素MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.词素是最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。
Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes (自由词素) and bound morphemes (粘附词素).1、Free morphemes(自由词素): a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simpleword.自由词素指本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”而单独使用的词素。
英语本科-语法简答及名词解释
1、Modal auxiliaries: meaning of modal auxiliaries can be divided into two categories: predictive and non-predictive. Thepredictive meaning is concerned with the speaker’s assumption or assessment of probility and, in most cases, indicates the speaker’s confidence or lack of confidence in the truth of his statement. Eg: it must be Juhn.2、Anaphoric reference: with regard to the direction that the reference points to in the text. The anaphoric reference suggestsretrieving information from the foregoing context. Eg: wow, you’ve got a huge house, I didn’t expect it to be so big. The cataphoric reference suggests the information from the forthcoming context.3、Two tenses and two aspects: two tenses- the present tense and the past tense; two aspects-the progressive aspect and theperfective aspect.4、Non-finite verbs: the non-finitive verbs are so called because they are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. Inform it has the features of aspect and tense, while in its function, it can be object, complement, adverbial, etc. we recognize three types of non-finite verbs: infinitive ( further divided into to-infinitive and bare infinitive,) –ing participle and –ed participle.5、Extraposition: is defined as “the replacement of the postponed item by a substitute form”. The extraposed item is almostalways a nominal clause, which satisfies the desire for end-weight. In function, the extraposed item can be subject or object;in form, it can be finite or non-finite. When we remove a clausal subject or object to the final position, we use the anticipatory it to fill in the slot. (Remove a clausal subject or object to the final focal position.)6、Tex: refers to a unified passage, is one that is not only structurally well-integrated but also semantically coherent.7、Modal auxiliaries features: are a special group of words that have unique features both in syntax and in semantics. They areoften described as inflectionally defective verbs, because in syntactic terms they lack a full set of forms- not having non-finite forms or being marked for concord with the subject in semantics, modal auxiliaries are all the more complicated because nearly all of them are polysemous and, as a consequence, their interpretation is such that we forever feel the need to resort to context for clues.8、Participles: they are divided into two groups, one is “-ing participle” the other is “-ed participle.” The former used to be called“the present participle ” or “the gerund.” now they are so termed because we attach our concern to form, not to meaning. Eg: she looked depressed. I regret telling you the truth.9、Fronting: refers to the removal of an item from its unmarked postsubject position to the marked presubject position. Eg: into alarge crowd of people the plane dived.10、Ellipsis: refers to leaving out sth. understood. Strictly speaking, we refer to incomplete sentences with such a structureas to presuppose a preceding item. In this sense, ellipsis sets up cohesion on the basis of structural recoverability with reference to the linguistic context. Eg: why give me two cups of coffee? I only asked for one.11、The antecedent: is that preceding item which the relative clause modifies. A typical antecedent is nominal. i.e: a noun ora noun phrase.12、Relative clauses: restrictive relative and non-restrictive relative clause. Restrictive relative clause is an integral part ofthe noun phrase and gives essential information for the identification of what its antecedents refer to. Eg: the girl who lives next door is now traveling in SH. Non-restrictive clauses which are separated by commas in that the latter only offers additional information which is not needed to indentify the person or thing we are talking about.13、The double relative clause: is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than one relative modifyingthe same head word. Eg: this is the only book I bought which challenges this common belief. Mr. lee is the only person I know who offers an reasonable price.14、Gradable adjectives: refer to most adjectives that can take comparative forms, inflectional, or they can be modified byintensifiers like “very”“so” and graded on a scale of intensity.15、Postponement: is a means to make an emphatic statement by putting the important information at the end of thesentence. It is usually realized by active to passive transformation, by extraposition of a clause element, by discontinuity of adjacent elements or by various other means, eg: the flowers were destroyed by the rain.(passive.) it is not fun at all to make fun of a disabled man.(extraposition) she is the only girl in my class who can play the guitar.(discontinuity)16、Simple present: is used to refer to the past in such as: 1 newspaper headlines,2 photographic captions. 3 stage directions.17、The non-finite verbs: are so called because they are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord. ( to infinitive, bareinfinitive, -ing participle, -ed participle)18、Subject complements: denote what the subject is or what the subject becomes.19、Aspect: reflects the way in which verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time. Two aspects-theprogressive aspect and the perfective aspect.20、Given information: is assumed to be familiar to the receiver of the message because it was explicity provided in thepreceding linguistic context or implicity provided in view of the situational context or the shared cultural background.21、New information: is assumed to be unfamiliar to the receiver and hence is the most important part of the utterance.22、Predictive meaning of modal auxiliaries: is concerned with the speaker’s assumption or assessment of probability. Andin most cases, indicates the speaker’s confidence or lack of confidence. In the truth of his statement.23、The cataphoric reference: with regard to the direction that the reference points to in the text, the cataphoric referencesuggests the information from the forthcoming context. (Anaphoric reference retrieving information from the foregoing context.24、Double genitive: also refereed as the “post genitive.”Is so called because it is a combination the genitive and theof-phrase. eg: a friend of my father’s.25、Double relative clause: is a type of multiple postmodification which is realized by more than on relative clausemodifying the same head word. Falls into two types: one that consists of parallel clauses, it is usually coordinated by and, or or but. And the other of hierarchical clauses.26、WH-question: is a question that normally begins with a WH-series of word.27、Prepositions: are mainly used to relate people or things in place or in time.28、Inherent adjectives: denoting adjectives inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun. Non-inherent adjectivesidentify qualities in and indirect way, they are to be interpreted in terms of extended meaning. eg: A big house. A big eater. 29、Stative adjectives: the majority of adjectives are stative in nature. Describing permanent inherent qualities which isparticularly when they are used attributively. Eg: big red tall pretty30、Dynamic adjectives: many adjectives can be used in the dynamic sense, especially when they occur in the predictiveposition to denote subjective measurement or suggest a temporary state. Eg: foolish rude ambition31、Gradable adjectives: most adjective can take comparative forms, inflectional or can be modified by intensifiers like veryand so and graded on a scale of intensity.32、Non-gradable adjectives: adjectives which only act as attribute, denoting provenance, with an absolute meaning arenon-gradable. Eg: mere latter excellent perfect French Chinese33、Restrictive adjective: helps identity the referent of the noun by describing its distinctive qualities. Non-restrictiveadjective merely provides some additional information which is usually not essential for the identification of the referent. 34、Be-passive: is the normal passive auxiliary, which may occur in different tense and aspect forms and with differentmodal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.35、Get passive: is far less popular than be-passive. 1. get-passive is generally avoided in formal style, and even in informalEnglish it is far less frequent than be-passive. 2.And semantically, get-passive is typically used to refer to an event, rather thana state; 3.to denote the consequence, rather than the process of a event, and to lay emphasis on what happens usuallyunfavorably to the subject as a result of the event, rather than who actually causes the event.36、Unit nouns: also refereed to as “partities” are very special class of words that are used to specify the quantities of themodified noun.37、Predictive (shall/ will): also called “epistemic.” It expresses the speaker’s assumption or assessment of probability of afuture situation.38、Non-predictive (shall/ will): also called non-epistemic, interpretation of will or shall is subject-oriented .it typicallyexpresses the willingness or intention of person as represented by the subject of the sentence.39、Subordination: link of two units, usually two clauses at different syntactic level.40、Unit nouns: also referred to as partitives. Are a very special class of word that are used to specify the quantities of themodified noun。
英语语法专业术语整理
语态（Voice）主动态（Active voice）被动态（passive voice）be-型被动态（Be-passive）主动句（active sentence）被动句（passive sentence）不定式被动态（passive infinitive）get-型被动态（get-passive）操作词（operator）保留宾语（retained object）虚拟语气（subjunctive mood）陈述式（indicative mood）祈使式（imperative mood）虚拟式（subjunctive mood）陈述句（statement）疑问句（question）假设意义（hypothetical meaning）非事实意义（non-factual meaning）条件句（conditional）含蓄条件句（implied condition）be-型虚拟式（be-subjunctive）were-型虚拟式（were-subjunctive）推测性（epistemic）非推测性（non-epistemic）不定式（infinitive）-ing分词（-ing participle）-ed分词（-ed participle）非限定分句（non-finite clause）时（tense）人称（person）数（number）体（aspect）态（voice）一般形式（to write）进行体形式（to be writing）完成体形式（to be written）完成进行体形式（to have been writing）带to不定式（to-infinitive）不带to不定式（bare infinitive）边际情态助动词（marginal modal auxiliary）情态成语（modal idiom）排比结构（parallel construction）分裂不定式（split infinitive）深层结构（deep structure）动态形容词（dynamic adjective）静态形容词（stative adjective）逻辑主语（logical subject）非限定分句（non-finite clause）不定式分句（infinitive clause）-ing分词分句（-ing participle clause）-ed分词分句（-ed participle clause）评状性状语（disjunct）近似并列连词（quasi-coordinator）独立结构（absolute construction）现在分词（present participle）动名词（gerund）逻辑主语（logical subject）无动词分词（verbless clause）过去分词（past participle）前置修饰语（premodifier）主语补语（subject complement）宾语补语（object complement）悬垂分词（dangling participle）无依着分词（unattached participle）依着法则（attachment rule）单词形容词（one-word adjective）复合形容词（compound adjective）中心形容词（central adjective）外围形容词（peripheral adjective）动态形容词（dynamic adjective）静态形容词（stative adjective）等级形容词（gradable adjective）非等级形容词（non-gradable adjective）状语（adverbial）连接副词（conjunctive adverb）简单副词（simple adverb）派生副词（derivative adverb）方式副词（adverb of manner）程度副词（adverb of degree）时间副词（adverb of time）频度副词（adverb of frequency）地点副词（adverb of place）连接副词（conjunctive adverb）解说副词（explanatory adverb）分句成分（clause element）状语（adverbial）修饰性状语（adjunct）评注性状语（disjunct）连接性状语（conjunct）可等级的（gradable）原级（positive/absolute degree）比较级（comparative degree）最高级（superlative degree）综合形式（synthetic form）分析形式（analytic form）比较结构（comparative construction）可等级名词（gradable noun）分析性语言（analytic language）固定的词序（word order）简单介词（simple preposition）复杂介词（complex preposition）双词介词（two-word preposition）三词介词（three-word preposition）四词介词（four-word preposition）陈述句（statement）疑问句（question；interrogative sentence）一般疑问号（general question）特色疑问句（special question）选择疑问句（alternative question）附加疑问句（tag question）是非问句（yes-no question）非肯定句（non-assertive word）肯定词（assertive word）非肯定词（non-assertive word）否定词（negative word）选择疑问句（alternative question）附加问句（question tag）祈使句（command；imperative sentence）感叹句（exclamation；exclamatory sentence）强调词（emphasizer）强调附加结构（reinforcement tag）双重否定（double negative）修辞疑问句（rhetorical question）操作词（operator）调核（nucleus）调型（intonation pattern）低降调（low fall）高降调（high fall）低升调（low rise）降升调（fall rise）半否定词（semi-negative）动词祈使式（imperative mood）呼语（vocative）存在句（existential sentence）实义主语（notional subject）真主语（real subject）地点状语（locative adverbial）时间状语（temporal adverbial）复杂存在句（complex existential sentence）非限定存在句（non-finite existential sentence）述位（rheme）非指代性it（non-referring it）先行项（antecedent）否定范围（scope of negation）否定焦点（focus of negation）转移否定（transferred negation）双重否定（double negation）局部否定（local negation）多余否定（pleonastic；superfluous negation）并列连词（coordinator）并列结构（coordinate structure）并列句（compound sentence）不带连词的并列结构（asyndetic coordination）带连词的并列结构（syndetic coordination）并列连词（coordinator）关联并列连词（correlative coordinator）近似并列连词（quasi-coordinator）从属连词（subordinator）复杂介词（complex preposition）排比（parallelism）从属（subordination）从属结构（subordinate construction）简单从属连词（simple subordinator）复杂从属连词（complex subordinator）关联从属连词（correlative subordinator）边际从属连词（marginal subordinator）单词从属连词（one-word subordinator）名词性关系分句（nominal relative clause）状语分句（depictive adverbial）时间状语分句（adverbial clause of time）地点状语分句（adverbial clause of place）方式状语分句（adverbial clause of manner）原因状语分句（adverbial clause of cause）结果状语分句（adverbial clause of result）目的状语分句（adverbial clause of purpose）条件状语分句（adverbial clause of condition）让步状语分句（adverbial clause of concession）伴随状况状语分句（adverbial clause of accompanying circumstances）独立结构（absolute construction）真实条件句（real conditional）基本形式（basic form）变体形式（variant form）替换形式（alternative form）非真实条件句（unreal conditional）关系分句（relative clause）定语从句（attributive clause）限制性关系分句（restrictive relative clause）非限制性关系分句（non-restrictive relative clause）关系限定词（relative determiner）双重关系分句（double relative clause）嵌入式关系分句（embedded relative clause；pushdown relative clause）。
高三下学期英语-短文改错
[2009海南/宁夏高考]
2.冠词 (The Article)
主要考查表示特指和泛指的情况，包 括不定冠词ɑ/ ɑn的混用，定冠词the多余 或缺失；另外，固定结构中的冠词也是考 查的重点。做此类题时要结合冠词的使用 原则和句子的具体意义灵活运用。
搭配错误
1.名词 (The Nouns)
名词错误主要有：单复数错误，可数名词与 不可数名词混用。确定名词单复数可以通过以下 几种方法： （无单数修饰语通常要用复数； （4）分清可数名词与不可数名词的概念。
1.名词 (The Nouns)
二、逻辑错误
The angel touched his eyes, but he could
and
see everything clearly.
三、搭配错误
搭配错误主要是指一些固定句型、句 式或习惯用语的错用。做此类题首先要准 确掌握句型、句式或习惯用语的正确形式 和确切含义，然后判断是否有多用、漏用 和错用介词、副词、连词、冠词等情况。
从句方面的错误主要设置在从句连接 词的误用、缺失、多余等方面，正确判断 从句的类型（名词性从句、定语从句、状 语从句）是正确判断连接词的基础。
9.从句 ( Subordinate Clauses)
One day I saw a second-hand bicycle, that was only one hundred yuan.
2.冠词 (The Article)
The driver put the window down and offered us
状语从句非谓语动词作定语例句英语
状语从句非谓语动词作定语例句英语Adverbial clauses are a complex and versatile grammatical structure in the English language that can serve as modifiers in a sentence. One type of adverbial clause that is particularly interesting is the non-finite adverbial clause, where the clause contains a non-finite verb form such as an infinitive, gerund, or participle instead of a finite verb. These non-finite adverbial clauses can function as adjectives, providing additional information about a noun in the sentence.To begin, let us consider the infinitive form of the non-finite adverbial clause. An infinitive is the basic form of a verb, usually preceded by the particle "to." When used in an adverbial clause, the infinitive can provide information about purpose, reason, or result. For example, in the sentence "She studied hard to get a good grade on the exam," the infinitive clause "to get a good grade on the exam" modifies the verb "studied," explaining the purpose behind her studying. Similarly, in the sentence "To avoid the traffic, she took the back roads home," the infinitive clause "To avoid the traffic" modifies the main clause, providing the reason for her choice ofroute.Gerund phrases can also function as non-finite adverbial clauses. A gerund is the "-ing" form of a verb used as a noun. When placed in an adverbial clause, the gerund phrase can express time, manner, or cause. For instance, in the sentence "By working overtime, she was able to finish the project on time," the gerund phrase "By working overtime" modifies the main clause, indicating the manner in which she completed the project. Alternatively, in the sentence "Having studied the material thoroughly, she felt prepared for the exam," the gerund phrase "Having studied the material thoroughly" provides information about the time or circumstances before the main clause event.Finally, participles can be used in non-finite adverbial clauses as well. Participles are verb forms that function as adjectives, either in the present tense ("-ing" form) or the past tense ("-ed" or "-en" form). When used in an adverbial clause, participles can express time, cause, or condition. For example, in the sentence "Worried about the weather forecast, they decided to postpone their outdoor picnic," the present participle clause "Worried about the weather forecast" modifies the subject "they," indicating the reason behind their decision. Conversely, in the sentence "Having finished her chores, she was able to relax for the evening," the past participle clause "Having finished her chores" provides information about the timebefore the main clause event.It is important to note that non-finite adverbial clauses can be positioned in different places within the sentence, depending on the specific information they are conveying. They can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of the main clause, and their placement can impact the emphasis and flow of the sentence. Additionally, these non-finite adverbial clauses can be combined with other grammatical structures, such as relative clauses or conditional clauses, to create even more complex and nuanced sentences.In conclusion, non-finite adverbial clauses, whether containing infinitives, gerunds, or participles, are a valuable tool in the English language for providing additional information and context within a sentence. By understanding how these structures function and the various ways they can be employed, writers can craft more sophisticated and expressive prose. The ability to effectively utilize non-finite adverbial clauses is an important skill for anyone seeking to improve their English language proficiency and communication abilities.。
英语语法体系(English Grammar)
导论：英语语法体系（English Grammar）英语语法课程体系基本概念1．词性 2. 语法层次 3. 词类的功能（常规/非常规）4. 分句成分（常规/非常规）4. 词类与成分对应关系 5. 基本句型英语句子常态结构一、句内关系模块1. 支配关系（动词概述）2. 一致关系二、非限定动词模块3. 动名词4. 动词不定式5. 分词三、从句模块6. 名词性从句7. 状语从句8. 定语从句四、限定动词模块9. 动词的时与体10. 将来时间表示法11. 虚拟语气12. 情态助动词五、名词模块13. 名词及其属格14. 限定词六、修饰语模块15. 形容词16. 副词17. 介词七、英汉对比模块18. 英汉句型比较19. 英汉句子结构比较20. 英汉词汇搭配、词义对比21. 英汉表达法比较22. 英汉连贯与衔接对比英语句子的非常态结构1.（反意疑问句）2. It 句型与There be 句型3.强调句4. 倒装5.分隔（前置与后置）6. 省略7.替代综合练习1.句型判断2. 联句3.语法手段判断4. 长难句结构分析Language possess grammatical systems not, as some learners might be inclined to think, simply to make the learning of the language more difficult, but to express meanings. The grammatical devices of a language are not to be learned as an end in themselves. It is the capacity to express meaning that is the end. The grammatical system provides the necessary means.第一讲语法的内容总论英语的基本结构单位有词和句两个，因而词的构造规则和句的构造规则就成为英语语法的基本内容，分别由词法和句法去研究。
《新编英语语法教程》主要章节语法术语
《新编英语语法教程》主要章节语法术语Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy (导论—语法层次)2. Parts of speech (word class)3. Phrases词组4. Clause分句5. Sentence句子1. Morpheme词素Free morpheme 自由词素Bound morpheme 粘附词素Allomorph 词素变体Noun phraseVerb phraseAdjective phraseAdverb phrasePreposition phraseConjunctionLecture 1 Sentence Structure（L1）Sentence elements:S (subject) 主语V (predicate verb)谓语动词O (object)宾语C (complement)补足语A (Adverbial)状语1. Two ways of sentence analysis1) SVOSentenceClauseNP VP NPSubject Predicate verb ObjectAll the man have done their best.Sentence = Subject + Predicate (Predicate Verb + Object, Complement, Adverbial, etc.)●句子由主语和谓语构成，进一步把谓语剖析为谓语动词、宾语、补语、状语等。
2) Subject + Predicate (= operator + predication)SentenceClauseSubject PredicateOperator PredicationAll the man have done their best.●句子由主语和谓语构成，进一步把谓语剖析为操作词（operator）和述谓成分（predication）。
stretch back to非谓语
stretch back to非谓语Stretching Back to Non-Finite ClausesIntroduction:One important grammatical structure in English is the non-finite clause. Non-finite clauses consist of verb forms that do not show tense and do not function as main verbs in a sentence. Instead, they serve other grammatical functions, such as expressing purpose, result, condition, or manner. In this article, we will explore the various uses and forms of non-finite clauses, specifically focusing on the structure "stretch back to", which indicates a long history or duration.I. Using "stretch back to" for Historical References:The phrase "stretch back to" is commonly used to refer to a historical timeframe. It indicates that something has existed or occurred for a long period of time. For example, "The town's origins stretch back to the 15th century," implies that the town has a long history dating back to the 15th century.II. Non-Finite Clauses with "Stretch Back To":A. Infinitive Clauses:1. To stretch back to...Example: "The artist's career seems to stretch back to the Renaissance era."2. To watch history stretch back to...Example: "As we climbed the ancient ruins, we watched history stretch back to the time of the Romans."B. Present Participle Clauses:1. Stretching back to...Example: "Stretching back to ancient times, the tradition has been passed down through generations."2. Watching, silently stretching back to...Example: "She sat by the river, watching, silently stretching back to the memories of her childhood."C. Past Participle Clauses:1. Stretched back to...Example: "The lineage of the royal family can be traced and stretched back to the medieval period."2. Having stretched back to...Example: "Having stretched back to prehistoric times, these fossils provide valuable insights into the earth's history."III. Expanding the Use of "Stretch Back To" in Context:Apart from historical references, the structure "stretch back to" can also be used metaphorically to imply a long-standing tradition, influence, or impact.A. Cultural Influences:1. The cultural influence of the Chinese stretches back to ancient civilizations.2. The festival's traditions stretch back to centuries ago, preserving cultural heritage.B. Scientific Discoveries:1. The origins of the universe stretch back to the Big Bang theory.2. Our understanding of genetics stretches back to Mendel's pioneering experiments.C. Societal Changes:1. The fight for equality stretches back to the suffrage movement.2. The history of human rights stretches back to ancient civilizations.Conclusion:In conclusion, "stretch back to" is a versatile phrase that can be used in various non-finite clauses to signify a historical timeframe, an ongoing tradition, or a deep-rooted influence. By using different forms of non-finite clauses, such as infinitive, present participle, and past participle, we can accurately convey the intended meaning and provide a rich and precise description. The non-finite clause structure adds depth and variety to our language, allowing us to express complex ideas and concepts more effectively.。
英语非谓语万能句作文
英语非谓语万能句作文English:In English, non-finite verb forms, also known as non-finite clauses, are versatile tools that can enhance the complexity and variety of sentences. Participles, gerunds, and infinitives are the three main types of non-finite verbs, each serving different purposes in constructing sentences. Participles, derived from verbs and functioning as adjectives, add descriptive details to nouns or pronouns. Gerunds, derived from verbs and functioning as nouns, can serve as subjects, objects, or complements within a sentence, providing continuity and depth to the discourse. Infinitives, the base form of a verb preceded by the word "to," can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, offering flexibility in expressing various ideas and concepts. By mastering the use of non-finite verb forms, writers can create sentences with greater sophistication, fluidity, and precision, enriching the overall quality of their writing.中文翻译:在英语中，非谓语动词形式，也称为非谓语从句，是多才多艺的工具，可以增强句子的复杂性和多样性。
非限定性分句无动词独立结构
• adverbial（目的、结果、原因）： • 表示目的
He opened the window (so as / in order) to get some fresh air.
• 表示结果
It was too cold for us to go out.
He hurried home only to find that his father was dead.
paying for the damage.
• 作结果状语 It rained heavily, causing severe flooding
in that area.
三、-ed分词分句的句法功能
• 作后置定语 One of the houses wrecked by the storm
belonged to my grandfather. • 作时间状语 Heated, the metal expands. • 作原因状语 Deeply moved, he thanked her again and
四、无动词分句
无动词分句，就结构模式来说，分为不带从 属连词、带有从属连词和带有自己主语三类:
1.不带从属连词的无动词分句 由形容词表示： Speechless, Victor Henry nodded and sat on a folding seat. Right or wrong, I have given him a piece of mind (坦率的话，心里话).
• 表示原因
I am delighted to know that you have got a job.
I trembled to think of the misfortune.
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Despite this, Lu Chen did not expect to become a professional magician, instead choosing to study the Japanese language at Soochow University, while practicing amateur magic in his spare time.
Speaking to the crowd at Government House, the prime minister’s office, a protest leader, Jakrapob Penkair, said a state of emergency would be ―a
declaration of war against the people of Thailand.‖ Adverbial of time Over the past five years, the region has posted the fastest economic growth rates in the world, lifting millions of Latin Americans out of poverty. Adverbial of result
T T
F A nonfinite clause cannot take an expressed subject of its own , namely a subject independent of the main clause.
―Absolute constructions‖ are commonly used in formal literary language as a sort of rhetorical device which helps to achieve concision in wording and vividness in description. F There is no need to use a subordinator to introduce a nonfinite clause.
disarmament talks with Russia. Subject complement The American boat did not return fire and ―did not want to escalate the situation,‖ said the official, speaking on condition of anonymity because he is not authorized to speak publicly on the matter. Adverbial of manner
T
Functions of infinitive clauses
Used as phrasal element: Postmodier of NP
Complementation of AP
Used as clausal element:
Subject & object
Subject & object complement
Postmodifier By committing his country to disarmament gestures -such as, he promised his cheering acolytes (助手，随从) in Prague, ratifying the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Prepositional complmentation
Key points for class discussion
Acceptable or not? And why?
A A Rather than you do the job, I’d prefer to finish it myself. The plan was that the two parties should first reach an agreement on the basic principle, the details to be worked out later. He opened his lips as if to say something. George is a very good boy, to be sure.
A verbless clause is a clause without any form of verb element as predicator. The non-finite clause and verbless clause are inherently dependent constructions.
purpose adverbial result cause disjunct
Choose the best answer
In the sentence ―I am delighted to know that you have got a job‖, the infinitive is used as an adverbial of ____. (p.545) A A. cause B. result condition C. purpose D.
___ (To learn/Learning) to ride a bicycle!
Which is better? And why?
I’m looking for a box ___ (for holding/ to hold) chessman.
When used to denote a specific purpose, we use the infinitive rather than –ing clause. When looking out of the window, he noticed an old man ___ (cross/ crossing) the road. -ing clause indicates only part of the activity is noticed.
A A
Which is better? And why?
Your school report is very disappointing. I promised ___ (to buy/buying) you a bicycle if you passed your exams. What have you been doing with your time?
Adverbial of time
You will make yourself tired, keeping on your feet.
Adverbial of condition
The very next day, his defense secretary announced drastic cuts in missile defense, including halting further deployment of Alaska-based interceptors designed precisely to shoot down North Korean ICBMs.
Unit 15
The non-finite clauses
Contents
Check your understanding of the text Key points for class discussion
Check your understanding of the text
True or false? And why?
Having thus bravely rallied the international community and summoned the United Nations -- a fiction and a farce, respectively -- what was Obama's further response?
Adverbial of concession/result Adverbial of time
At the time, former C.I.A. officials say, his tips were extremely useful, helping to track several other important terrorists, including Mr. Mohammed.
Many of the region's economies are reliant on exports, now slumping, while some of the poorest countries have seen a sharp decline in remittances from the United States that provide their economic lifeblood.
Adverbial of result postmodifier
Since 2002, the C.I.A. has downgraded its assessment of Abu Zubaydah’s significance, while continuing to call his revelations important.
postmodifier
The agenda for the summit will include environmental preservation and alternative-energy policy, reviving the dismal economy, reversing the deteriorating public safety situation in several countries and closing a regional gap between rich and poor.