Hubert's - Introduction_of_“how to improve the education system”(有关改善中国的教育)
a moden introductio to probability and statistics
a moden introductio to probability andstatistics“A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics” is a comprehensive textbook that provides a broad overview of the principles and techniques of probability and statistics. It is an excellent resource for anyone who wants to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter.Step 1: IntroductionThe book begins with an introduction that outlines the principles of probability and statistics. It provides a clear understanding of what these two fields are all about and how they are used in various applications. The authors also introduce the key concepts that will be covered in the restof the book.Step 2: ProbabilityThe next section of the book focuses on probability. It covers the basics of probability theory and explains how to calculate probabilities of events. The authors also introduce different probability distributions, such as the normal distribution and the binomial distribution.Step 3: StatisticsThe third section of the book covers statistics. It explains how to gather and analyze data using various statistical techniques. These include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and hypothesis testing. The authors also cover regression analysis and the methods used to analyze time series data.Step 4: ApplicationsThe final section of the book provides a range of applications of probability and statistics. These include applications in finance, engineering, and the social sciences. The authors use real-world examples to demonstrate how these concepts are applied in practice.Step 5: ExercisesThroughout the book, there are numerous exercises that can be used to test your knowledge and understanding of the concepts covered. These exercises range from simple calculations to more complex applications. There are also detailed solutions provided at the back of the book.Conclusion:“A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics”is an excellent textbook that provides a comprehensive overview of the subject matter. The authors use clear and concise language throughout the book, making it accessible to beginners, while also providing in-depth coverage of the principles and techniques involved. The exercises andsolutions provided also make it an excellent resource for anyone who wants to test their knowledge and understanding of the material. Overall, this book is a must-read for anyonewho is serious about learning probability and statistics, and its applications to real-world problems.。
RECSIT1.1中英文对照全文
New response evaluation criteria in solid tumours: Revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1)新版实体瘤疗效评价标准：修订的RECIST指南（1.1版本）Abstract摘要Background背景介绍Assessment of the change in tumour burden is an important feature of the clinical evaluation of cancer therapeutics: both tumour shrinkage (objective response) and disease progression are useful endpoints in clinical trials. Since RECIST was published in 2000, many investigators, cooperative groups, industry and government authorities have adopted these criteria in the assessment of treatment outcomes. However, a number of questions and issues have arisen which have led to the development of a revised RECIST guideline (version 1.1). Evidence for changes, summarised in separate papers in this special issue, has come from assessment of a large data warehouse (>6500 patients), simulation studies and literature reviews.临床上评价肿瘤治疗效果最重要的一点就是对肿瘤负荷变化的评估：瘤体皱缩（目标疗效）和病情恶化在临床试验中都是有意义的判断终点。
新视野大学英语第二册读写教程unit
Intensive Study
7 Apparently, such prejudices can affect classroom achievement as well. In a study conducted by Herbert Harari of San Diego State University, and John McDavid of Georgia State University, teachers gave consistently lower grades on essays apparently written by boys named Elmer and Hubert than they awarded to the same papers when the writer’s names were given as Michael and David. However, teacher prejudice isn’t the only source of classroom difference. Dr. Thomas V. Busse and Louisa Seraydarian of Temple University found those girls with names such as Linda, Diane, Barbara, Carol, and Cindy performed better on objectively graded IQ and achievement tests than did girls with less appealing names. (A companion study showed girls’ popularity with their peers was also related to the popularity of their names – although the connection was less clear for bo names with a positive sense can work for you, even encourage new acquaintances. A recent survey showed that American men thought Susan to be the most attractive female name, while women believed Richard and David were the most attractive for men. One woman I know turned down a blind date with a man named Harry because “he sounded dull”. Several evenings later, she came up to me at a party, pressing for an introduction to a very impressive man; they’d been exchanging glances all evening. “Oh,” I said. “You mean Harry.” She was ill at ease.
Unit1课文翻译素材-高中英语牛津译林版(2020)选修第二册
高中英语译林版选修二课文翻译（原文+中文翻译）Unit 1 Beware and take care当心保重ReadingFighting the hidden enemy抗击隐秘的敌人An enemy appeared without warning, attacking its unsuspecting victims with efficiency. This silent and invisible enemy moved swiftly through communities and secretly crossed borders.The world soon learnt that the enemy we faced was Covid-19.它像一部恐怖电影一样展现在我们面前。
一个致命的杀手毫无预警地出现了，以残酷的效率攻击亳无戒备的受害者。
这种沉默而无形的敌人迅速穿过社区，秘密跨越边界，一路上播下了害怕的种子。
Covid-19 is caused by a new strain of coronavirus. Once entering the body, the virus multiplies inside the cell quickly and infects neighbouring cells. Common symptoms can include fever, tiredness, a dry cough, a headache, loss of taste or smell. However, in some cases, the virus causes the body's own immune system to overreact, resulting in the body killing its own healthy cells. Consequently, the disease can become worse, causing damage to the body's organs and tissues.新冠病毒是由2019年末首次识别的一种新型冠状病毒株引起的，一旦进入人体，病毒在细胞中迅速繁殖并感染邻近细胞。
高中英语教材话题统计双向细目表
Films and TV programmesFilm
review：Crouching tiger,hidden dragon；Steven Spielberg Film director
Literature and art&Entertainm ent and sports（当代名人）
My first ride on a trainMy first ride on
a train；The maglev the fastest train in the world
Traveland
transport
Module 4
A social survey My neighbourhood A lively city；Problems of some villagers in western Europe
Entertainment and sports
Unit 3
ComputersWho am I；Andy—the
android
Popular science and modern technology
Unit 4
Wildlife protection How Daisy learned to help wildlife；Animal extinction
Language learning
Unit3
Travel journalJourney down the
Mekong
Traveland
transport
Unit 4
EarthquakesA night the earth didn't
sleep
Nature
Unit 5
thematic proto-roles and argument selection
Thematic Proto-Roles and Argument SelectionDavid DowtyOhio State UniversityAs a novel attack on the perennially vexing questions of the theoretical status of thematicroles and the inventory of possible roles, this paper defends a strategy of basing a accountsof roles on more unified domains of linguistic data than have been used in the past tomotivate roles, addressing in particular the problem of argument selection(principlesdetermining which roles are associated with which grammatical relations). It is concludedthat the best theory for describing this domain is not a traditional system of discrete roles(Agent, Patient, Source, etc.) but a theory in which the only roles are two cluster-conceptscalled Proto-Agent and Proto-Patient, each characterized by a set of verbal entailments:an argument of a verb may bear either of the two proto-roles (or both) to varying degrees,according the number of entailments of each kind the verb gives it. Both fine-grained andcourse-grained classes of verbal arguments (corresponding to traditional thematic roles andother classes as well) follow automatically, as do desired "role hierarchies". By examiningoccurrences of the "same" verb with different argument configurations (e.g. two forms ofpsych predicates and object-oblique alternations as in the familiar spray/load class), it canalso be argued that proto-roles act as defaults in the learning of lexical meanings. AreProto-Role categories manifested elsewhere in language or as cognitive categories? If so,they might be a means of making grammar acquisition easier for the child, might explaincertain other typological and acquisitional observations, and may lead to an account ofcontrasts between unaccusative and unergative intransitive verbs that does not rely onderiving unaccusatives from underlying direct objects.1. IntroductionThere is perhaps no concept in modern syntactic and semantic theory which is so often involved in so wide a range of contexts, but on which there is so little agreement as to the nature and definition of the concept, as thematic role(or thematic relation) and its derivative,theta-role in Government-Binding Theory (GB). In addition to the "argument-indexing function in GB (see below), thematic roles have been invoked in the statement of multifarious syntactic generalizations in that and in other syntactic theories, and the existence of thematic roles is so taken for granted that psycholinguists now attempt to study their role in mental processing experimentally (Carlson and Tanenhaus 1988, Stowe 1989), and an introductory text in formal semantics (Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet 1990) offers a technique for formalizing roles while presupposing their necessity in a linguistic theory.Yet apart from some syntactic correlates of thematic roles, there is in fact a notable absence of consensus as to what thematic roles are (cf. below). At best, they are obviously creatures of the syntax-semantics interface, and thus require a sound semantic theoretical basis as well as a syntactic one (and mutually consistentones) in order to be considered respectable parts of a linguistic theory. But at worst, appeal to them can be a confusion of notions from the syntactic, semanticand pragmatic domains, or a "thinly disguised wild card to meet the exigencies of syntax" (Jackendoff 87:371). Despite the mention of Thematic roles in the Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet text, they have hardly been studied at all informal semantics1, which seems to have gotten by up to this point without any significant purpose for them to serve. Ray Jackendoff, the only semanticist whohas studied the concept extensively (non-model-thoeretically) and who is rituallycited by syntacticians at their first mention of the notion, has evolved a detailed understanding of thematic roles within his own theoretical framework (Jackendoff 1972, 1976, 1983, 1987) that is clearly quite different from and inconsistent withthat of GB or of many current syntacticians (Jackendoff 1987).Though the term thematic relation(later role) was introduced by Gruber (1965) andmade widely known by Jackendoff (1972), as semantic categories they obviously corresponded to a great extent to the (semantic)Deep Cases of Fillmore’s contemporaneous Case Grammar (1966, 1968) --- and this in turn harks back toideas of structuralists such as Frank Blake (1930), and ultimately to Panini’s karakas--- but Deep Cases played a quite different part within his theory fromthat of thematic roles for Gruber-Jackendoff or Ú-Roles do in GB. Chomsky (1981: 35), in introducing Ú-roles into GB and citing precedents for the idea, claimed thematic roles such as Agent had been primitives of Donald Davidson’s event-logic (Davidson 1967a), but he was in error: Davidson did not analyze events in termsof Agent and Patient but in fact rejected H ector Caten~eda’s suggestion (Casten~eda 1967) that the Davidsonian event analysis be modified to do so (in Davidson 1967b:125)2. Though many linguists seem to assume that linguistic theory should include a finite (and short) language-universal canon of thematic roles (that includes the familiar members such as Agent, Patient, Goal, Source, Theme, Experiencer, Instrumental, etc.), no one that I know of has ever attempted to propose a complete list3. There is disagreement even on the most familiar roles(e.g. whether Theme, usually "something that moves or changes state", can be1The exceptions I know of being Chierchia (1984), Carlson (1984), and Dowty (1989), the last discussed below.2That is, what Davidson did propose was that adjuncts (temporal, locative and adverbial modifiers) were predicates of an existentially-qualified event variable in logical form, but subject and object were not: they are traditional "arguments", related to the event variable by the n-place predicate denoted by the verb.3The most comprehensive list I have seen is also the earliest: Blake (1930), who argued that semantically-defined "case relationships" (clearly a similar notion to today’s thematic role-types) are "numerous but not infinite; they are not indefinite and subjective, depending on the lucubrations of the individual mind, but objective, definite, and determined once for all by general grammatical principles and the laws of thought", offered as a "pioneer study" an organized system of 87 temporal and locative roles and 26 other roles, includ-ing such subsequently ignored roles as additional("he gave him a sum of money besides the cattle"),substitu-tive("he gave me promises instead of money") and similative("he barked like a dog").’assigned by’ a stative predicate; and whether Theme is the same role as Patient or whether they are distinct), and new candidates for Thematic Roles are being proposed all the time (e.g.Figure and Ground in Talmy (1985a),Neutral in Rozwadowska 1988),Landmark in Jackendoff (1982), even Subject in Baker 1985).A paper such as this cannot begin to do justice to all the diverse literature on the subject, and a warning to this effect to the reader, plus apologies to the authorswho are omitted or overlooked, are hereby issued.4Among the various understandings of thematic roles, we can distinguish two kinds.What I will call the argument-indexing view of thematic roles is demanded by theÚ-Criterion of GB: each NP argument of a predicate is assigned exactly one Ú-Role,and the same Ú-Role is not assigned to two NP arguments of the same predicate (Chomsky 1981:36, 139). By clear implication, the Ú-Roles that Chomsky originallyhad in mind to fulfill this criterion were the familiar Agent, Patient, etc. from Gruber, Jackendoff, and others. By virtue of the Ú-Criterion, Ú-roles served (originally at least) two main purposes in the GB theory, (i) distinguishing "real", semantically contentful arguments of a predicate from dummy arguments such as itand there, and (ii) helping to keep track of identity and distinctness of NPs as particular semantic arguments of a predicate during the course of a derivation.From the structure of the early Case Grammar theory (Fillmore 1968), it is obviousthat Deep Cases also served an argument-indexing function there, since in Deep Structure each NP argument bears exactly one case label (Agentive, Instrumental, Dative, Locative, etc.), and subsequent syntactic transformations are stated in termsof these labels, not arbitrary or tree-structurally positioned NPs, and this seems to presuppose that there is not more than one Agentive (etc.) NP per clause. (Thiswas modified later: cf. below.)In order for such systems to work, in an account in which the roles Agent, Theme, Goal, etc. are given explicit semantic content, the meanings of all natural language predicates must turn out to be of a very particular sort: forevery verb in the language, what the verb semantically entails about each of its arguments must permit us to assign the argument, clearly and definitely, to some official thematic role or other--it cannot be permitted to hover over two roles,or seem to "fall in the cracks" between roles---and what the meaning entails aboutevery argument must always be distinct enough that two arguments clearly notfall under the same role definition. This is a very strong empirical claim about possible meanings of natural language predicates, and, as soon as we begin to try tobe precise about exactly what Agent, Patient, etc. "mean", all too subject to4In this paper I have tried to follow the practice of citing papers in which, in my view, the essence of a proposal or insight was first made, but not necessarily later discussions of the insight (under the same or different terminology) unless I believe they contributed something new that is relevant here. Hence relatively more references are made to early literature by Fillmore, Jackendoff and their contemporaries, and relatively fewer references to recent literature on roles, than is sometimes found elsewhere.difficulties and apparent counterexamples.Doubts as to whether the familiar short lists of Roles/Deep Cases (or refinements thereof) would ever really work this way already arose in the Case Grammar days (e.g. Cruse 1973, H uddleston 1970, Mellema 1974, Fillmore 1971a, and many others). Later GB writers saw the danger too, and proposed to circumvent the problem by refraining from committing themselves to the traditional roles, whatI will henceforth call thematic role types, and instead invoked individual thematic roles---these terms from (Dowty 1989)5. That is, we simply call the thematic role of the subject of the verb hit the "hitter role", that of the subjectof kill the "killer role", of build the "builder role", and so on, with no assumptionmade that there is one thematic role type common to these arguments (Marantz 1984, van Riemsdijk and Williams 1986)---though the possibility that role typesalso exist need not be ruled out, either. Trivially then, there will be enough distinct Ú-roles around (i.e., the individual roles) to permit the Ú-Criterion to be satisfied, i.e. to preserve the argument-indexing view of thematic roles.Nevertheless, many syntacticians working within the GB framework have continued to appeal to the traditional thematic role types to state syntactic generalizations (Rappaport and Levin 1988, Nishigauchi 1984, Belletti and Rizzi 1986, etc.). And appeal to a particular hierarchy of thematic roles, such as Nishigauchi (1984) does in stating control principles (i.e. Source >... ), requiresALL arguments of predicates (at least those that ever occur in control relationships), to have roles mentioned in the hierarchy, i.e. a role-type, not an individual role. Thus for such hypotheses, it IS a crucial question whether there isa small set of distinguishable role-types that effectively index all arguments.In contrast to the argument-indexing view, Jackendoff’s research on thematic rolesis of a fundamentally different kind. For him, thematic relations (the term he prefers to roles) are most importantly notions of conceptual structure, as elucidatedin Jackendoff (1983, 1987), rather than basically syntactic or interface notions;they are not theoretical primitives but are defined by particular configurations of primitive operators such as GO, STAY and CAUSE in conceptual structure; one discovers their nature and distribution empirically by looking at certain lexicaland syntactic patterns in natural language in relation to their meanings, e.g. the distribution of prepositions in particular (though not, perhaps surprisingly, by psychological experiment). And the thematic roles one finds by this method do notby any means turn out to obey the theta-criterion: some verbs turn out to assignmore than one role to the same argument, others assign the same role to two different arguments, and some verbs "have" thematic roles that they do not assignto any NP, e.g.to butter has both a Theme and a Goal role, but the Theme is5For convenience, I will continue to use Thematic Role for role types, when no confusion between role types and individual roles can arise."completely expressed by the verb" (1987:387). Whether all arguments of all verbs receive one of the thematic relations he has mentioned may not be stated, but his view of roles would not seem to require that they all do. In short, Jackendoff’s interest in thematic roles arises purely from his desire to describe semantic patterns in lexical subcategorization and in syntax (that to him reveal conceptual structure), not to index arguments, and that thematic biuniqueness does not seem to result is of no concern. The individual-thematic-role escape hatch is of no interest to the Jackendoffs and Fillmores (or to this writer), for it ignores precisely the semantic generalization of role-type across verbs that gives the notion its interest. It should be added that Fillmore’s later work on Case Grammar also permitted more than one case per argument (Fillmore 1977) (and of course he had never advocated a one-to-one relation between Deep (semantic structure) Cases and surface constituents).Alas, this paper is not going to solve all these problems and does not purport to offer a theory of thematic roles that serves everyone’s needs perfectly---nor does it attempt to demolish the notion once and for all. Its goal are more modest: (1) to lay out some methodological groundwork for studying thematic roles with the tools of model-theoretic semantics, and to propose some new strategies for attacking the area one step at a time, (2) to propose one new account of thematic roles (not unrelated to some other recent proposals) that seems to have merit at the "first step" in the strategy, and (3) perhaps most important of all, to make syntacticians and all linguists recognize the dangers of continuing to take this notion for granted and of assuming thematic roles are as well-motivated as phonemes or phrase-markers, and to encourage others, by this one example, to invent and explore other novel theories of thematic roles. And though this is not a psycholinguistics article and I am not a psycholinguist, I believe the linguist making a theoretical proposal about an area such as this has the responsibility to point out what psycholinguistic implications his proposal could have (the extent is it correct) and what questions it raises; thus the paper will include some speculations of this kind.As is customary in model-theoretic semantics, I begin with the question of what logical type thematic roles should have, summarizing briefly the results of Dowty (1989) in §2. As the traditional empirical difficulties with arriving at a well-motivated set of role-types (most of all an argument-indexing set) may not be well-known today, I survey these in §3, including some pitfalls of misidentifying roles. It is argued in §4. that a fundamental methodological problem is that we have no agreement on what kind of linguistic evidence is appropriate for identifying a role-type correctly, and as a remedy, a strategy is defended of examining first the domain of argument-selection alone. As a further constraint on legitimate kinds of roles, I argue in §5 that event-dependent but not perspective-dependent roles be admitted. The inventory of role-types must, in view of the definitions in §4, be widened to involve a new kind ofrole,Incremental Theme(§6.). With this preparation, I introduce a new theory of roles, in while roles are "prototypes", here called thematic proto-roles, rather than discrete categories (§7); the argument-selection principles for this theory and their workings are discussed in §8. Most interesting for this account of roles are three cases of subtly-contrasting argument selection: partially symmetric interactive predicates (§9.1), psychological predicates (§9.2), and the spray-load alternations (§l.3). Comparisons of the present view of roles with related proposals in the literature are made in §10. Some psycholinguistic implications that this account suggests for the place of thematic roles in the acquisition of grammar and of lexical meanings are considered in §11, and finally, what this account might imply about the so-called "unaccusative" phenomenon is considered in §12. The paper concludes with a brief summary of its proposals in §13.2. The Logical Type of Thematic RolesBecause this paper uses model-theoretic semantics as its main investigative tool, we should begin our semantic investigation by asking what logical type thematic roles must be given in a formal semantic theory, in order for our theory to model the properties linguists have traditionally attributed to them. As Dowty (1989) is devoted to that question, I summarize here only very briefly the results of that paper and refer the reader to it for further details.From the semantic point of view, the most general notion of thematic role (type) is a set of entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments of each.(Thus a thematic role type is a kind of second-order property, a property of multi-placed predicates indexed by their argument-positions.)For example, consider the subject argument of the two-place predicates x murders y, x nominates y , x interrogates y: entailments they all share include that x does a volitional act, that x moreover intends this to be the kind of act named by the verb, that x causes some event to take place involving y(y dies,y acquires a nomination,y answers questions--or at least hears them), that x moves or changes externally (i.e. not just mentally). The first entailment is not shared by kills (traffic accidents also kill), the second not by convinces(once can convince, or kill, inadvertently but cannot murder inadvertently), the third not by looks at, the last not by understands. By entailment, I mean the standard logical sense: one formula entails another if in every possible situation (in every model) in which the first is true, the second is true also. Since we are discussing entailments of "non-logical" predicates, I take this to be the same as an analytic implications (for which I also use the term lexical entailment: the implication follows from the meaning of the predicate in question alone). That is, a role-type like "Agent" is defined semantically as whatever entailments of verbs about NP referents are shared by the verbal argument-positions we label with the term "Agent" (and excludes whatever is entailed for those arguments that differs from one verb to the next); this sidesteps the question of whether "Agent" has a more "atomic" meaning underlying it, but it iss precisely the point here to have an exact way of semantically characterizing roles that avoids such a presupposition, that can describe a possibly "arbitrary" as well as a "natural" role type, so that we can investigate and compare theories which do and don’t involve the traditional notions.Some of the lexical entailments that will be under discussion are perhaps also correctly described as presuppositions (in which case they correspond to the selectional restrictions of Chomsky (1965), but I assume it is now uncontroversial that these are correctly analyzed as semantic properties, not syntactic properties, of words). But the difference between presupposition and lexical entailments will not be important for our purposes.This definition has the advantage that it is compatible with a theory, like Jackendoff’s (1972, 1987) or Foley and van Valin’s (1984), in which thematic role-types are defined by certain configurations of the (explicitly or implicitly interpreted) logical structures into which natural language predicates are translated1; with a theory, like Zaenen’s (1988) or Rozwadowska’s (1988), in which thematic roles are sets of semantic features (as long as we can fix a definite set of entailments, within some formal semantic framework, to correspond to each such feature of those accounts), as well as a theory in which there is no internal "structure" to lexical meanings and in which entailments of lexical meanings are all listed independently (e.g. by meaning postulates) and do not completely "cross-classify" by semantic primitives in any neat way as structuralist semantic theories assume lexical meaning does. It is also neutral as to whether thematic roles are argument-indexing or not.2Yet the definition allows us to be as precise as possible in describing the substantive semantic content of thematic roles: as precise or more so, I believe, than any kind of current semantic theory does. When "entailments" are mentioned below, the reader should keep in mind that this notion is neutral among these various theoretical views.1See Dowty (1979) for a demonstration of how English predicates can be interpreted (compositionally within asentence) by translating them into a "logical form" or "semantic representation" where they are decomposed intoelements such as CAUSE and BECOME, these translations then being part of a formal model-theoreticinterpretation of English.2Dowty (1989) also points out that if there is a set of effectively argument-indexing thematic role types for allpredicates of a language, then an expressively equivalent language is one in which n-place predicates arerepresented in the "neo-Davidsonian" way with such predicates and their arguments replaced by event-predicateswith thematic roles as relations between events and participants, e.g. in which "Mary kissed John yesterday" isrepresented by (ii) rather than (i):(i) yesterday[kiss(Mary, John)](ii) Ee[kissing(e) & Agent-of(John,e) & Patient-of(Mary,e) & yesterday(e)](but of course this conversion is not possible if thematic roles are not effectively indexing). However, it is not clearwhat kind of conceptual or computational advantage, if any, (ii) achieves, once lexical entailments are also takenaccount of (Dowty 1989). The view of thematic roles as second-order properties of relations indexed by argumentis equally adequate whether thematic roles are indexing are not.3. Traditional Problems in Identifying Thematic Roles and Using Them to Distinguish Arguments3.1 Role Fragmentations and Unclear BoundariesOf various examples that might be cited of the question how "finely" to divide thematic roles, perhaps Agent is most striking: this is one of the most oft-cited and in some sense a very intuitive role, but it is one of the hardest to pin down. Jackendoff (1983) divides it into Agent vs. Actor, but D. A. Cruse (1973) split it four ways,(1) a.Volitive"an act of the will is stated or implied" (p. 18).b.Effective"exerts a force...because of its position, movement, etc." (p.19)c.Initiative"initiation of an action by giving a command" (p. 20)d.Agentive"performed by an object [living things, certain types ofmachine, and natural agents] regarded as using its own energyin carrying out the action." (p. 21)and cites syntactic tests to isolate each new role type. Possibly Lakoff (1977: 244) offered the largest fragmentation of Agency ever proposed, in which there were fourteen supposedly distinct characteristics (though properly speaking, some of Lakoff’s characteristics involved the RELATIONSHIP between agent and patient, not agency by itself). The dilemma is, if we adopt the finer categorization of roles to achieve certain distinctions, do we thereby not miss generalizations by not being able to refer to the grosser Agent category as well?Linguists have often found it hard to agree on and motivate the location of the boundary between role types. The sentences in (2) show one example of the difficulties that can be involved:(2) a. I walked a mileI swam 30 meters,I slept twelve hours.b. This weighs five poundsThe piano measures 6’5".It took me an hour to grade the papers.The book cost me $5.c. I paid $5 (this amount) (?this $5-bill) for the book.The book cost me $5 (?this amount) (#this $5-bill).I bought the book for $5 (this amount) (#this $5-bill)d. I paid for the book with ?$5 (#this amount) (this $5-bill).I bought the book with ?$5 (#this amount) (this $5-bill).e. I’ll trade this record for the book.These sentences may involve a little-studied thematic role that has been be called Extent (Andrews 1985). Note first that in (2a) the phrases a mile, 30 meters, 12 hours are adjuncts rather than subcategorized elements (they may be freely omitted without lose of acceptability or, apparently, change in the meaning of the rest of the sentence) and have an "adverbial function". Can adjuncts, or adverbs themselves, be assigned a thematic roles? Fillmore (1988) said yes, but there would seem to be room for doubt. If we can assign measures of distance or weight a thematic role, how about measures of rate, as in He drove the car 50 m.p.h.?But then where do we stop? E.g. does too fast have a thematic role in He drove the car too fast, or does quickly in She walks quickly?On the other hand, similar NPs are clearly subcategorized argument NPs in (2b), so surely they ARE assigned thematic roles here, and their meaning seems quite parallel to (2a): If we say these NPs have thematic roles in (2b) but not in (2a) (contrary to Fillmore, I presume), then it seems we ignore the semantic parallelism and say that it is a matter of syntactic form, not the meaning of a sentence alone, that determines what thematic roles are involved. (Perhaps indeed this is the correct conclusion, but the concept of thematic role becomes quite a different one if the conclusion is accepted rather than rejected, and if we cannot use meaning alone to decide thematic assignment, then we need to justify which syntactic differences we allow to indicate role differences and which we do not.)What do we make of the differences between (2c) and (2d)?five dollars and this amount, like a mile, etc., seem to refer to an measurement of monetary quantity (in the abstract), while this five-dollar bill refers to a concrete object, a piece of paper that has such a value. So perhaps the correct thing to say is that the verb forms in (c) make reference to the measurement (and have the Extent role) while those in (d) refer to a physical quantity of currency (and have some other role, say Theme, parallel to (e)). The break, however, is not quite that clean. One can also say That bad investment cost me my house in the country(where my house...is not merely an Extent NP). And in the temporal domain, we have John spent Tuesday writing the paper as well as John spent an hour washing the car(suggesting Tuesday can express Extent, though cf.#It took John Tuesday to wash the car).But the confusing part is about (c) and (d) is that in the common commercial transaction there exist BOTH a concrete pile of currency that changes hands AND a particular measurement of value that this currency has (except that in purchase by check or credit card, the former may be absent in concrete form, yet presumably there is still a "virtual Theme" of currency). So, we wonder, by analogy to Jackendoff’s。
The American Dream is a national ethos of the United States
The American DreamIntroductionThe American Dream is a national ethos of the United States, a set of ideals in which freedom includes the opportunity for prosperity and success, and an upward social mobility achieved through hard work. This includes the opportunity for one's children to grow up and receive a good education and career without artificial barriers. It is the opportunity to make individual choices without the prior restrictions that limited people according to their class, caste, religion, race, or ethnicity.This term was first used by James Truslow Adams1in his book The Epic of America which was written in 1931. He states: "The American Dream is "that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position." This idea of the American Dream is rooted in the United States Declaration of Independence which proclaims that "all men are created equal" and that they are "endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights" including "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."2The meaning of the "American Dream" has changed over the course of history, and includes both personal components (such as home ownership and upward mobility) and a global vision. Historically the Dream originated in the mystique regarding frontier life. As the Royal Governor of Virginia noted in 1774, the Americans "for ever imagine the Lands further off are still better than those upon which they are already settled". He added that if they attained Paradise, they would1Adams, James Truslow. (1931). The Epic of America (Little, Brown, and Co. 1931)move on if they heard of a better place farther west. In the 19th century, many well-educated Germans fled the failed 1848 revolution. They welcomed the political freedoms in the New World, and the lack of a hierarchical or aristocratic society that determined the ceiling for individual aspirations. One of them explained:“The German emigrant comes into a country free from the despotism, privileged orders and monopolies, intolerable taxes, and constraints in matters of belief and conscience. Everyone can travel and settle wherever he pleases. No passport is demanded, no police mingles in his affairs or hinders his movements....Fidelity and merits are the only sources of honor here. The rich stand on the same footing as the poor; the scholar is not a mug above the most humble mechanics; no German ought to be ashamed to pursue any occupation....[In America] wealth and possession of real estate confer not the least political right on its owner above what the poorest citizen has. Nor are there nobility, privileged orders, or standing armies to weaken the physical and moral power of the people, nor are there swarms of public functionaries to devour in idleness credit for. Above all, there are no princes and corrupt courts representing the so-called divine 'right of birth.' In such a country the talents, energy and perseverance of a person...have far greater opportunity to display than in monarchies.”3The discovery of gold in California in 1849 brought in a hundred thousand men looking for their fortune overnight—and a few did find it. Thus was born the California Dream of instant success. Historian H. W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation: “The old American Dream . . . was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard" . . . of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in3F. W. Bogen, The German in America (Boston, 1851), quoted in Stephen Ozment, A Mighty Fortress: a New History of the German People (2004) pp 170-71a twinkling by audacity and good luck. [This] golden dream . . . became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter's Mill.”4In 20th century, Historian James Truslow Adams popularized the phrase "American Dream" in his 1931 book Epic of America: But there has been also the American dream, that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to his ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position. The American dream, which has lured tens of millions of all nations to our shores in the past century, has not been a dream of merely material plenty, though that has doubtlessly counted heavily. It has been much more than that. It has been a dream of being able to grow to fullest development as man and woman, unhampered by the barriers which had slowly been erected in the older civilizations, unrepressed by social orders which had developed for the benefit of classes rather than for the simple human being of any and every class.Martin Luther King, Jr., in his "Letter from a Birmingham Jail" (1963) quest for the American Dream:“We will win our freedom because the sacred heritage of our nation and the eternal will of God are embodied in our echoing demands...when these disinherited children of God sat down at lunch counters they were in reality standing up for what is best in the American dream and for the most sacred values in our Judeo-Christian heritage, thereby bringing our nation back to those great wells of democracy which were dug deep by the founding fathers in their formulation of the Constitution and the4F. W. Bogen, The German in America (Boston, 1851), quoted in Stephen Ozment, A Mighty Fortress: a New History of the German People (2004) pp 170-71Declaration of Independence.”5The American Dream in different fields of the USALiteratureThe term is used in popular discourse, and scholars have traced its use in American literature ranging from the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin,6to Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925), Theodore Dreiser's An American Tragedy (1925). Other writers who used the American Dream theme include Edward Albee7, John Steinbeck,8The American Dream is also discussed in Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman; the play's protagonist, Willy, is on a journey for the American Dream. The American Dream has been credited with helping to build a cohesive American experience, but has also been blamed for inflated expectations. Some commentators have noted that despite deep-seated belief in the egalitarian American Dream, the modern American wealth structure still perpetuates racial and class inequalities between generations. One sociologist notes that advantage and disadvantage are not always connected to individual successes or failures, but often to prior position in a social group.Since the 1920s, numerous authors, such as Sinclair Lewis in his 1922 novel Babbitt, and F. Scott Fitzgerald, in his 1925 classic, The Great Gatsby, satirized or ridiculed materialism in the chase for the American dream. For example, Jay Gatsby's death mirrors the American Dream's demise, reflecting the pessimism of modern-day Americans. A lot of people follow the American Dream to achieve a greater chance of5Brueggemann, John. Rich, Free, and Miserable: The Failure of Success in America (Rowman & Littlefield; 2010) 233 pages; links discontent among middle-class Americans6J. A. Leo Lemay, "Franklin's Autobiography and the American Dream," Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography (Norton Critical Editions, 1986) pp ^ Harold Bloom and Blake Hobby, Eds. The American Dream (2009)7Nicholas Canaday, Jr., "Albee's the American Dream and the Existential Vacuum." South Central Bulletin V ol. 26, No. 4 (Winter 1966) pp 28-348Hayley Haugen, ed., The American Dream in John Steinbeck's of Mice and Men (2010)becoming rich. Some posit that the ease of achieving the American Dream changes with technological advances, availability of infrastructure and information, government regulations, state of the economy, and with the evolving cultural values of American demographics. The American Dream has been credited with helping to build a cohesive American experience, but has also been blamed for inflated expectations. In 1949 Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman, in which the American Dream is a fruitless pursuit. The novel "Requiem for a Dream" by Hubert Selby, Jr., is an exploration of the pursuit of American success as it turns delirious and lethal, told through the ensuing tailspin of its main characters.PoliticsScholars have explored the American Dream theme in the careers of numerous political leaders, including Hillary Clinton,9Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln. In 2006 U.S. Senator Barack Obama wrote a memoir, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. It was this interpretation of the American Dream that helped establish his statewide and national reputations. Political conflicts, to some degree, have been ameliorated by the shared values of all parties in the expectation that the American Dream will resolve many difficulties and conflictsPublicsRecent research suggests that the United States show roughly average levels of occupational upward mobility, and lower rates of income mobility, than comparable societies. Blanden et al. report, "The idea of the US as …the land of opportunity‟ persists; and clearly seems misplaced." According to these studies, "by international standards, the United States has an unusually low level of intergenerational mobility: our parents‟ income is highly predictive of our incomes as adults. Intergenerational mobility in the United States is lower than in France, Germany, Sweden, Canada,9Dan Dervin, "The Dream-Life of Hillary Clinton," Journal of Psychohistory, Fall 2008, V ol. 36 Issue 2, pp 157-162Finland, Norway and Denmark. Among high-income countries for which comparable estimates are available, only the United Kingdom had a lower rate of mobility than the United States." "This challenges the notion of America as the land of opportunity."10To a majority of Americans, the American Dream is more about spiritual happiness than material goods. Majorities state that working hard is the most important element for getting ahead. However, an increasing minority stated that hard work and determination does not guarantee success. On the pessimistic side, most Americans predict that achieving the Dream with fair means will become increasingly difficult for future generations. They are increasingly pessimistic about the opportunity for the working class to get ahead; on the other hand, they are increasingly optimistic about the opportunities available to poor people and to new immigrants. Furthermore, most support programs make special efforts to help minorities get ahead.Influence of the American Dream on other parts of the worldThe aspirations of the "American dream" in the broad sense of upward mobility has been systematically spread to other nations since the 1890s as American missionaries and businessmen consciously sought to spread the Dream, says Rosenberg. Looking at American business, religious missionaries, philanthropies, Hollywood, labor unions and Washington agencies, she says they saw their mission not in catering to foreign elites but instead reaching the world's masses in democratic fashion. "They linked mass production, mass marketing, and technological improvement to an enlightened democratic spirit....In the emerging litany of the American dream what historian Daniel Boorstin later termed a "democracy of things" would disprove both Malthus's predictions of scarcity and Marx's of class conflict." It was, she says "a vision of global social progress." Rosenberg calls the overseas10Sandra L. Hanson, and John Zogby, "The Polls—Trends," Public Opinion Quarterly, Sept 2010, V ol. 74 Issue 3, pp 570-584version of the American Dream "liberal-developmentalism" and identified five critical components:“(1) belief that other nations could and should replicate America's own developmental experience; (2) faith in private free enterprise; (3) support for free or open access for trade and investment; (4) promotion of free flow of information and culture; and (5) growing acceptance of [U.S.] governmental activity to protect private enterprise and to stimulate and regulate American participation in international economic and cultural exchange.”11BritainThe American dream regarding home ownership has little resonance before the 1980s. In the 1980s, the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked to create a similar dream, by selling public-housing units to their tenants. Her Conservative party called for more home ownership: "HOMES OF OUR OWN: To most people ownership means first and foremost a home of their own.... We should like in time to improve on existing legislation with a realistic grants scheme to assist first-time buyers of cheaper homes."12Guest calls this Thatcher's approach to the American Dream. Knights and McCabe argue that, "a reflection and reinforcement of the American Dream has been the emphasis on individualism as extolled by Margaret Thatcher and epitomized by the 'enterprise' culture." 13RussiaSince the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union in 1991, the American Dream11Cullen, Jim. The American dream: a short history of an idea that shaped a nation, Oxford University Press US, 2004. ISBN0-19-517325-212Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World (2009) p 25213David E. Guest, "Human Resource Management and the American Dream," Journal of Management Studies (1990) 27#4 pp 377-97, reprinted in Michael Poole, Human Resource Management: Origins, Developments and Critical Analyses (1999) p. 159has fascinated Russians. The first post-Communist leader Boris Yeltsin embraced the "American way" and teamed up with Harvard University free market economists Jeffrey Sachs and Robert Allison to give Russia economic shock therapy in the 1990s. 14The newly independent Russian media idealized America and endorsed shock therapy for the economy. In 2008 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev lamented the fact that 77% of Russia's 142 million people live "cooped up" in apartment buildings.ConclusionTo me the American dream is the liberty offered to its citizens; the freedom to attend school, to start a business, to work, to pray if you want to, and not how many things I own. The American dream is to have all the basics that all people share, but I worry the dream is dying because government is debasing the currency, taxing income, and selling children into debt slavery at far too fast a rate to benefit bond holders and rich people. The American dream is not embracing diversity or racist affirmative action quotas for Hebrews, Africans, women, homosexuals, immigrants, and minorities. The American dream is merit, doing a good job, well done. The dream is in danger because so many incompetent people have been promoted to meaningless high paying jobs like airport underwear inspectors. Government has to change. It is devouring the American dream.14Richard M. Ryan et al., "The American Dream in Russia: Extrinsic Aspirations and Well-Being in Two Cultures," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, (Dec. 1999) vol. 25 no. 12 pp 1509-1524,References:1 Dan Dervin, "The Dream-Life of Hillary Clinton," Journal of Psychohistory, Fall2008, V ol. 36 Issue 2, pp 157-1622 Dalton Gross and MaryJean Gross, Understanding The Great Gatsby (1998) p 5 H.W. Brands, The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream (2003) p. 442.3 Deborah F. Atwater, "Senator Barack Obama: The Rhetoric of Hope and theAmerican Dream," Journal of Black Studies,Nov 2007, V ol. 38 Issue 2, pp 121-1294 Edward J. Blum, "Lincoln's American Dream: Clashing Political Perspectives,"Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association, Summer 2007, V ol. 28 Issue 2, pp 90-935 F. W. Bogen, The German in America (Boston, 1851), quoted in Stephen Ozment, AMighty Fortress: a New History of the German People (2004) pp 170-716 Hayley Haugen, ed., The American Dream in John Steinbeck's of Mice and Men(2010)7 J. A. Leo Lemay, "Franklin's Autobiography and the American Dream," BenjaminFranklin's Autobiography (Norton Critical Editions, 1986) pp8 Nicholas Canaday, Jr., "Albee's the American Dream and the Existential Vacuum."South Central Bulletin V ol. 26, No. 4 (Winter 1966) pp 28-349 Sandra L. Hanson, and John Zogby, "The Polls—Trends," Public Opinion Quarterly,Sept 2010, V ol. 74 Issue 3, pp 570-58410 Richard M. Ryan et al., "The American Dream in Russia: Extrinsic Aspirations andWell-Being in Two Cultures," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, (Dec.1999) vol. 25 no. 12 pp 1509-1524,。
基泰尔 固体物理导论 英文版 第八版 introduction
基泰尔固体物理导论英文版第八版introductionIntroductionSolid-state physics is a critical field of study that delves into the fundamental properties and behaviors of materials in their solid form. The understanding of solid-state phenomena has been instrumental in the development of numerous technological advancements, from semiconductor devices to superconducting materials. The eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" provides a comprehensive and up-to-date exploration of this dynamic and ever-evolving discipline.At the heart of solid-state physics lies the study of the crystalline structure of materials and the ways in which atoms and molecules are arranged within these structures. This knowledge is essential for understanding the physical, chemical, and electrical properties of solids, as well as their response to various external stimuli, such as temperature, pressure, and electromagnetic fields.One of the key topics covered in this textbook is the concept oflattice structures. Lattices are the underlying frameworks that define the spatial arrangement of atoms or molecules in a solid material. By understanding the symmetry and periodicity of these lattice structures, researchers can gain valuable insights into the behavior of electrons, phonons (vibrations of the crystal lattice), and other fundamental particles within the material.The book also delves into the electronic properties of solids, exploring the behavior of electrons in the presence of a crystalline structure. This includes the study of energy bands, which describe the allowed energy levels for electrons in a solid, as well as the concept of semiconductors and their applications in modern electronics.Another crucial aspect of solid-state physics is the study of magnetic materials. The textbook examines the various types of magnetic ordering, such as diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, and antiferromagnetism, and how these properties are influenced by the atomic structure and composition of the material.In addition to these core topics, the eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" also covers more advanced concepts, such as superconductivity, the quantum Hall effect, and the behavior of materials under extreme conditions, such as high pressure or intense magnetic fields.One of the strengths of this textbook is its clear and concise explanations of complex theoretical concepts, accompanied by numerous illustrations and examples to aid in the reader's understanding. The authors have also included a wealth of problem sets and exercises at the end of each chapter, allowing students to apply the knowledge they have gained and deepen their understanding of the subject matter.Furthermore, the textbook is regularly updated to reflect the latest advancements in the field of solid-state physics, ensuring that readers are exposed to cutting-edge research and emerging technologies. This commitment to staying current with the rapidly evolving field of solid-state physics is a testament to the dedication and expertise of the authors and the publishers.In conclusion, the eighth edition of "Bataile's Introduction to Solid-State Physics" is an invaluable resource for students, researchers, and professionals working in the field of materials science, condensed matter physics, and related disciplines. Its comprehensive coverage, clear explanations, and practical applications make it an essential tool for anyone seeking to deepen their understanding of the fascinating world of solid-state physics.。
艺术设计专业英语
the evaluation of furniture aesthetic value from qualitative description to
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巴兹尔·伯恩斯坦教育、符号控制与认同英文版
巴兹尔·伯恩斯坦.教育、符号控制与认同英文版Basil Bernstein: Education, Symbolic Control, and IdentityIntroductionBasil Bernstein was a groundbreaking sociologist who revolutionized the field of education with his theories on symbolic control and identity. His work has had a lasting impact on the way we understand the role of education in society and the ways in which we construct our identities. In this paper, we will explore Bernstein's key ideas and their implications for education and social theory.BackgroundBasil Bernstein was born in London in 1924 and studied at the University of London and Cambridge University. He began his career as a teacher before becoming an academic, specializing in sociology and education. Bernstein's work focused on the ways in which language, communication, and social class shape the educational experiences of students. He argued that education is not just about acquiring knowledge and skills, but also about socialization and the transmission of cultural values.Symbolic ControlOne of Bernstein's most influential concepts is that of symbolic control. He argued that education is a form of social control that operates through the manipulation of symbols, language, and communication. In other words, schools not only teach students what to think, but also how to think. By controlling the symbols and language that are used in the classroom, educators can shape students' perceptions and understanding of the world.According to Bernstein, there are two main forms of symbolic control: hierarchical and horizontal. Hierarchical control refers to the use of formal language and specialized knowledge to maintain social order and reinforce existing power structures. This form of control is typical of traditional educational systems, where teachers are the authority figures and students are expected to passively receive information.Horizontal control, on the other hand, involves the use of informal language and everyday experiences to promote collaboration and critical thinking. This form of control is more egalitarian and democratic, encouraging students to question authority and challenge conventional wisdom. Bernstein believed that a balance between hierarchical and horizontalcontrol is essential for a well-rounded education that fosters both conformity and creativity.IdentityIn addition to symbolic control, Bernstein also explored the concept of identity in his work. He argued that our sense of self is shaped by the social contexts in which we live and interact. In the classroom, students develop their identities through interactions with teachers, peers, and the curriculum. Education is not just about learning facts and figures, but also about constructing a coherent sense of self that is influenced by our social background and experiences.Bernstein believed that social class plays a pivotal role in shaping identity, as students from different backgrounds have access to different forms of knowledge and cultural capital. Working-class students, for example, may struggle to adapt to the formal language and conventions of the classroom, while middle-class students may find it easier to navigate the hidden curriculum of school. These differences in cultural capital can lead to inequalities in educational outcomes and reinforce existing social hierarchies.Implications for EducationBernstein's theories have important implications for education policy and practice. By understanding the ways in which symbolic control and identity shape the educational experiences of students, educators can design more inclusive and equitable learning environments. Schools can promote horizontal forms of control that encourage collaboration and critical thinking, rather than relying solely on hierarchical forms of control that reinforce social hierarchies.In addition, educators can be more mindful of the ways in which social class influences students' identities and educational achievements. By recognizing the diverse backgrounds and experiences of students, teachers can create a more supportive and nurturing learning environment that meets the needs of all learners. This includes providing additional support for students who may struggle with the formal language and conventions of the classroom, as well as challenging the stereotypes and biases that can limit their academic success.ConclusionBasil Bernstein's work on education, symbolic control, and identity has had a profound impact on our understanding of the role of schools in society. By exploring the ways in which language, communication, and social class shape the educationalexperiences of students, Bernstein has provided a powerful lens through which to view the complexities of the education system. His theories have important implications for education policy and practice, guiding educators in their efforts to create more inclusive and equitable learning environments. Ultimately, Bernstein's work reminds us of the transformative potential of education to shape our identities and empower us to create a more just and equitable society.。
学术英语(第二版)医学教师用书Unit 8
UNIT 8 Principles of Biomedical EthicsTeaching ObjectivesAfter learning Unit 8, Ss are expected to accomplish the following objectives:To know the boundaries between medical research and practice To have a clear understanding of the moral principles and behavioral guidelines for the biomedical research and medical practice To understand the boundaries drawn between medical research and practice To know three basic ethical principles of research involving human subjects To learn the requirements when basic principles are properly applied in research To be more prepared for a life-or-death decision in medical practice To get more insights into the ethical justification of dilemmas in medical practice To know some building blocks in medical terminologyTo be familiar with expressions used to define key termsTo further develop awareness of formal and informal language To get familiar with the Cornell note-taking system To know the two approaches to medical decisions: traditional paternalistic mode and more recent collaborative modeTo learn how to develop a strong conclusion To know the format requirements of the reference listTo be able to make a reference list according to style requirements To be aware of the balance between medical authority and patients ’ autonomyProfessionalknowledgeReadingAcademic vocabulary anddiscourseViewingSpeakingWritingResearchingTeaching Activities and ResourcesPart 1 ReadingText ALead-inSuggested teaching plan1. To draw Ss’ attention and to raise their awareness of the importance ofbiomedical ethics, T is advised to relate the discussion of this unit to the real-world happenings.Before starting the class,search the media for the latest news reports,either at home or abroad,about controversial events in medicine community or healthcare settings.2. Start the class by doing Task / Lead-in and relate the content of the video clip toyour findings in the pre-class searching.Key to the task2) Death4) Patient rightsScriptWell,advancements in medical science have afforded us the opportunity to live decades longer than in previous generations.For every new possibility offered, we now face an equal number of challenges and we find ourselves confronting decisions that are unprecedented in human history.When does life begin?When should life end? How do we define death when we have the ability to keep people technically alive,or we should say,technologically alive long after their discrete body parts no longer function? Welcome to “Matter and Beyond . ” I’m your host MaryLynn Schiavi.In this program we’re going to explore issues around medical science that are forcing us to define life, death, quality of life, patient rights, and confront the moral and ethical questions that arise when facing critical healthcare decisions.3. Introduce the topic of Text A as a natural continuum of Lead-in .Text Comprehension1. Make good use of Lead-in video clip as it serves as a perfect introduction to thetopic of this unit. Elaborate on the connection of its content with the latest events in the real world. Naturally, ask Ss how medicine differs from other branches of natural science, especially when human subjects are involved in the research. Here are some hints:2. Analyze the text and lead Ss to discuss, integrating Task 2 / Critical reading andthinking / Text A into analysis and discussion. The presentation topics should be assigned to individual Ss for preparation at least one week in advance. Ask other Ss to preview the text with the guidance of presentation topics.3. Integrate Task 2 / Language building-up / Text A when a careful definition ofkey terms is covered.4. When analyzing the text, ask Ss to pay special attention to the sentences listed inLanguage focus below.5. If time allows, ask Ss to do Task 1 / Critical reading and thinking / Text A inabout five minutes. Check out the task by asking one or two Ss to read their answers. This is done to get an overview about the text.Language focus 1. … described in a formal protocol that sets forth an objective … (P185, Para.2)set forth 是动词词组，表示用清晰、具体的方式解释或描述，多用于正式的 书面语中。
《三体》英文演讲ppt
பைடு நூலகம்
Main characters and events
A series of climaxes and unexpected endings The climate of the story comes when Trisolarans launches their invasion of Earth, using a highly advanced technology that exceeds human defenses However, in a twist that no one saw coming, Luo Jian manages to use his knowledge to turn the tables on the invaders, saving Earth from destruction The ending leaves readers with a sense of uncertainty and the knowledge that the conflict between Trisolaris and Earth is far from over
Three Body English Speech
BIG DATA EMPOWERS TO CREATE A NEW ERA
目录
CONTENTS
Introduction to the Three Body Problem The plot of "The Three Body Problem" Science fiction elements in The Three Body Problem The Influence and Evaluation of "The Three Body Problem"
三打白骨精英语剧本
Translation and expression of dialogue
The embodiment of character traits
Each character in the script should have distinct traits and personalities, clearly defined in English
Culture specific expressions
Translating cultural specific expressions and phrases to ensure their accurate communication in English
Accuracy
Dialogue translation should be accurate, reflecting the original meaning of the Chinese text
目录
01
Role Introduction
Main roles
The Monk Send pao - The Monk Send pao is a wise and compounded Buddhist Monk who leads the group on their journey to the West He is the main protocol of the story and his goal is to collect the Buddhists scripts from the West and bring them back to the Emperor of China
They believe that good deals will be rewarded, encouraging them to continue to do good
puberty名词解释(一)
puberty名词解释(一)PubertyPuberty is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by rapid growth, hormonal changes, and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. In this article, we will explore some important nouns related to puberty and provide explanations with examples.Hormones•Hormones are chemical substances produced by the body that regulate various physiological processes. Duringpuberty, the body undergoes hormonal changes, whichdirectly influence physical and emotional development. •Example: “Estrogen and testosterone are hormones that play a crucial role in the onset and progression ofpuberty.”Adolescence•Adolescence is the period of life between childhood and adulthood. It encompasses the physical, cognitive, andsocial development that occurs during puberty. •Example: “Adolescence is a time of significant change and self-discovery.”Growth spurts•Growth spurts refer to rapid periods of growth experienced during puberty. As hormone levels rise, the body undergoes significant physical growth.•Example: “Many teenagers experience growth spurts during puberty, causing them to outgrow their clothesquickly.”Secondary sexual characteristics•Secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that differentiate males from females but are notdirectly involved in reproduction. These traits develop during puberty and include breast development in females and facial hair growth in males.•Example: “The development of secondary sexual characteristics i s a sign that puberty is underway.”Menstruation•Menstruation is the monthly shedding of the uterine lining in females who have reached puberty. It is anormal part of the reproductive cycle.•Example: “Girls typically start menstruating around the age of 12 or 13, marking an important milestone in their journey through puberty.”Acne•Acne is a common skin condition characterized by the formation of pimples, blackheads, and whiteheads. It is often associated with hormonal changes during puberty. •Example: “Many teenagers struggle with acne during puberty due to the increased production of oil in their skin.”Voice changes•Voice changes refer to the deepening of the voice in males during puberty. The vocal cords lengthen andthicken, resulting in a lower pitch.•Example: “John’s voice changed dramatically during puberty, becoming much deeper and more mature.”Emotional upheaval•Emotional upheaval refers to the intense fluctuations in emotions experienced by adolescents during puberty.Hormonal changes can lead to mood swings and heightenedsensitivity.•Example: “Sarah’s emotional upheaval during puberty sometimes made her feel like she was on an emotionalrollercoaster.”These are just a few examples of nouns related to puberty. Puberty is a complex and transformative stage of life, and understanding its terminology can help individuals navigate this significant period with knowledge and awareness.。
bp所有辩题
医学：•1.THW require all healthy citizens to register their bone marrow data and donate marrow when needed. 所有健康公民应被强制登记骨髓数据并捐献。
文化：•1.THW ban time-travel TV series in prime time.应禁止在黄金时间播出穿越电视剧。
教育：•1.THBT teacher’s pay should be related to student’s performance..教师的工资应与学生的成绩挂钩。
•8.十五届China should criminalize academic dishonesty.中国应该对有关学术欺诈行为立法。
•9.十四届All the money currently spent on confucious institutions abroad should be spent instead on alleviating poverty.现在所有投资于海外孔子学院的资金都应该用来缓解贫穷。
经济：•1.THW tax junk food consumption.应就垃圾食品的消费征税。
娱乐：•1.THW ban media programs broadcasted in local dialects.应禁止所有以方言播出的媒体节目。
财经管理：•1.California should substantially increase the minimum wage.加州应大幅提高最低工资水平。
每周工作时间应该缩减至30小时。
•9.This House would end corporate welfare.国会应停止发放公司福利。
•10.This House would set a maximum limit on salaries.国会应设置最高工资限额。
A REVIEW OF METHODS FOR MEASURING WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY
A REVIEW OF METHODS FOR MEASURINGWILLINGNESS-TO-PAYChristoph Breidert1, Michael Hahsler2, Thomas Reutterer31 PONTIS Venture Partners, Austria2 Institute for Information Business, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria3 Institute of Retailing and Marketing, Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria AbstractKnowledge about a product’s willingness-to-pay on behalf of its (potential) customers plays a crucial role in many areas of marketing management like pricing decisions or new product development. Numerous approaches to measure willingness-to-pay with differential conceptual foundations and methodological implications have been presented in the relevant literature so far. This article provides the reader with a systematic overview of the relevant literature on these competing approaches and associated schools of thought, recognizes their respective merits and discusses obstacles and issues regarding their adoption to measuring willingness-to-pay. Because of its practical relevance, special focus will be put on indirect surveying techniques and, in particular, conjoint-based applications will be discussed in more detail. The strengths and limitations of the individual approaches are discussed and evaluated from a managerial point of view.Keywords: Willingness-to-pay, pricing, surveying techniques, conjoint measurement. IntroductionDespite considerable advances in both academic and applied pricing research over the past decades, many companies still make their pricing decisions without a profound understanding of the likely response of (potential) buyers and competitors to alternative prices quotations. As a result of missing adequate knowledge of the customer's willingness-to-pay (WTP) for their products, these companies fail to pursue a pricing strategy that is suitably customized to their marketing environment and thus also risk ignoring valuable sources for increasing profitability of the products offered. Different practical studies have shown that minor variations of prices and the corresponding consumer behavior can have notable effects on revenues and profits (Marn, et al., 2003).Companies often adopt some business rules and follow a strategy that could be denoted as “intuitive” pricing. Remarkably, such a behavior is not limited to retailing or service industries only, where mark-up-pricing is still representing the predominant practice (cf. Levy et al., 2004, Berman and Evans, 2001, p. 555 ff., Monroe, 2003, p. 257). Several recent studies indicate that only 8 to 15% of all companies develop pricing strategies based on likely buyer response behavior (Monroe and Cox, 2001). In contrast to what seems to be common practice, managers consider the knowledge of customers’ responses to different prices as a cornerstone of marketing strategies, particularly in the areas of product development, brand management, value audits, and competitive strategy (Anderson et al., 1993).Researchers agree with managers on the importance of valid WTP estimates. Balderjahn (2003, p. 387) considers valid estimates of WTP essential for developing an optimal pricing strategy. Similar arguments about the importance of WTP and perceptions of value by customers can also be found by many other authors (cf. Monroe, 2003, pp. 11-12, Nagle and Holden, 2002, p. 7 and pp. 104-105, and Simon, 1992, p. 365 ff.). Such estimates can be used to forecast market response to price changes and for modeling demand functions. Furthermore, various approaches to measure brand equity (cf. e.g., Farquhar, 1989, Srivastava and Shocker, 1991, Park and Srinivasan, 1994) emphasize customers’ WTP in terms of the (monetary) added value endowed by a brand to a specific product vis-à-vis its’ competitors or an unbranded baseline product. Good overviews on contemporary approaches to brand equity measurement are presented by Sattler (1995) or Ailawadi et al. (2003).As our literature review will show, a huge variety of competing approaches and corresponding analytical techniques for measuring WTP has been added to the realm of marketing literature in the past. Equally, evidence on the relative empirical performance is scattered across a number of comparative studies of selected measurement approaches. Despite that fact, today the research area is rather fragmented and there has been relatively little attention paid to attempts towards an in-depth and comprehensive synopsis of the various existing approaches as well as what is known from empirical research regarding their effectiveness and efficiency to measure WTP. The purpose of this paper is to provide some insights into this direction. Moreover, we conceptualize a general evaluation framework that aims to be helpful for managers when it comes to select a particular measurement approach in practical applications. Against this managerial background, it is important to balance the specific merits and obstacles of the available approaches.The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: First, we provide a review of methods for measuring WTP and the corresponding data collection techniques. For the sake of clarity, we start with a classification of the various methods, thereafter we provide references to related substantial theoretical and empirical work, and discuss advantages and drawbacks for each method. Finally, we consolidate the most important results to provide guidance for managers who plan to measure WTP and provide ideas how to enhance indirect surveying techniques.Classification of MethodsSeveral authors proposed different hierarchical classification frameworks to organize existing methods to WTP estimation. Marbeau (1987) distinguishes the estimation methods on the highest level, whether they are monadic tests or competitive tests. In the former, price information is elicited without considering a competitive context. In the latter, a competitive context is present. Balderjahn (2003) distinguishes estimation methods on the highest level, whether they elicit price information at the individual level or at the aggregate level. Nagle and Holden (2002) classify techniques for measuring price sensitivity at the highest level into uncontrolled and experimentally controlled measurement of the variables. Furthermore, they classify the techniques based on the variable measurement into measurement of purchase behavior and measurement of purchase intention.To guide the reader through this paper, we use the classification framework based on data collection methods as presented in Figure 1. On the highest level, methods can be distinguished whether they utilize surveying techniques or whether they are based on actual or simulated price-response data. Taking a closer look at response data, market observations can be used or data can be generated by performing experiments. Experiments can further be divided into field experiments and laboratory experiments. Since auctions are a very important form of laboratoryexperiment, we included them as an extra method in the classification framework. Results obtained from price-responses are often referred to as revealed preference data. Looking at survey-based techniques for estimation of WTP, there exist direct and indirect surveys for collecting the relevant data. In contrast to revealed preferences, preference data derived from surveys are frequently referred to as stated preferences (cf. Louviere et al., 2000, p. 20 ff.).Figure 1 Classification framework for methods to measure willingness-to-pay.With direct surveys, respondents (e.g., selected customers) are asked to state how much they would be willing to pay for some product. In indirect surveys some sort of rating or ranking procedure for different products is applied in order to estimate a preference structure from which WTP can be derived. Conjoint analysis and discrete choice analysis are examples of indirect surveying methods.In practice, selecting a feasible method for measuring WTP is often restricted, for example, by time or monetary constraints. Data collection determines to a great extent the time and the costs of the method. Therefore, this framework provides a useful guideline for choosing an appropriate method and it was used to structure this paper.Analysis of Market DataAnalyzing observed market data (i.e., sales data) is often used to estimate price-response functions. Depending on their data sources, sales data suitable for WTP estimation can be roughly subdivided into the following two subtypes: (1) Panel data – individual purchase data reported by members of a customer panel and (2) store scanner data – sales records from retail outlets. Using historical market data is based on the assumption that past demands can be used to predict future market behavior. This implies that the product for which future demand is estimated has only been exposed to minor variations in the product profile. A problem of the method arises if the historical data do not contain the necessary price variations to cover the desired spectrum of WTPs. Indeed, small ranges of observed price variations often appear to be apitfall when analyzing historical sales data. For this reason Sattler and Nitschke (2003) even classify WTP estimation based on market data as infeasible. Demand curves based upon sales data are usually modeled with regression techniques. A restriction is that this is only possible if the requirements of the independent variables are met (cf. Balderjahn, 2003, p. 399, Nessim and Dodge, 1995, p. 72).Note that sales data are often available at the aggregate level only. The data are aggregated over time and different stores are combined. In such cases derivation of individual customer level estimates is infeasible. This is different with panel data where the actual prices paid for products are observed at the individual level. The drawbacks are that running a customer panel entails high operating costs. Furthermore, it is often questionable, whether the customer panel adequately represents the market (Nagle and Holden, 2002, p. 335).Conventional scanner data provided by commercial market research companies are usually not aggregated over time but aggregated at the store level. Scanner data are useful for observing response to short time price variations. But because of store level aggregation, individual level repeated purchase behavior cannot be extracted from such sources of scanner data. Parallel to the diffusion of point-of-sale (POS) scanning technologies combined with customer ID cards, however, customer specific reactions to items’ price variations are accessible at least for purchase transactions realized with a specific retailer (cf. Kahn and McAllister, 1997, p. 106 ff.). Inclusion of price variations across competing stores is warranted by POS-ID scanner panels (cf. e.g., Simon et al,. 1982 and Erichson, 1992).In general, using market data has the advantage that real purchases, which include information about competing products, are used instead of, for example, only stated purchase intentions. Limitations are that the price variations in the data are normally very limited and that it is not possible to estimate WTP for entirely new products where no data are available (yet). Empirical applications are provided by Kamakura and Russell (1993) or Leeflang and Wittink (1992).ExperimentsGenerally, experiments can be divided into laboratory experiments and field experiments (e.g., Malhotra, 2004). Both types can be applied in pricing studies including WTP estimation.Laboratory ExperimentsIn laboratory experiments, purchase behavior is typically simulated by giving the subjects an amount of money and asking them to spend the money on a specific selection of goods. The goods and prices are varied systematically. Methods for accessing price response of this form have been applied by Silk and Urban (1978) in their well-know ASSESSOR procedure. In laboratory experiments the results are obtained quickly. Due to the non-biotic context of investigation, a major drawback is that the subjects are aware of the experimental situation. This might lead to subjects becoming more rational of their purchase behavior compared to their normal shopping behavior which can lead to low external validity (Nessim and Dodge, 1995, p.74). Another source of bias might be the artificial setup as described above, in which the subjects either do not take real possession of the “purchased” goods, or do not use their own money (Nagle and Holden, 2002, p. 341).Field ExperimentsField experiments or in-store purchase experiments do not suffer from the problem of the artificial setup because they are performed in a real-world shopping environment. Depending on the experimental conditions, the respondents are aware of participating in an experiment or not. Field experiments are often conducted in form of so-called test markets. In different test markets the prices are systematically varied and the consumers’ responses are analyzed. A crucial issue in test market analysis is to select small scaled market environments that are representative for the target market under investigation. An overview of institutional test market simulations in Germany is provided by Gaul et al. (1996). Compared to laboratory experiments, considerably higher expenditures and the longer time intervals entailed by monitoring market responses to price changes are reported as main drawbacks of test markets as well as other forms of field and in-store experiments (Nagle and Holden 2002 p. 341, Sattler and Nitschke, 2003, and Urban and Hauser, 1993, p. 495 ff.).AuctionsA special application of experiments are auctions which can be carried out as laboratory or field experiments. In laboratory settings auctions have been intensively employed for WTP elicitation. If the true monetary evaluation of a product as perceived by the customer(s) were known, there would be no need for an auction. The offering party would simply sell the good to the bidder with the highest valuation at a price close or equal to that valuation. If the seller is uncertain about customers’ valuations, however, an auction can provide valuable insights to sell the item at a fair price. Therefore, an auction is useful to gain knowledge of consumers’ evaluations of a product or brand and can therefore be used to reveal consumers’ valuations to facilitate future pricing decisions.According to Wertenbroch and Skiera incentives to reveal true WTP can be provided with Vickrey auctions: “Vickrey suggests that incentive compatibility is ensured if a given bid determines only whether the bidder has the right to buy the good that is auctioned off” Wertenbroch and Skiera (2002). The Vickery auction takes place in sealed form, and the purchase price is determined by the second highest bid. A participant in the auction submits a bid containing how much he or she would be willing to pay in sealed form, for example in a closed envelope. If the participant has the highest bid, he or she wins the auction. However, the participant only has to pay the price of the second highest bid. With this mechanism the participants are provided an incentive to reveal their true valuation, because they must buy the good if their bid wins the auction (Vickrey, 1961).Skiera and Revenstorff (1999) investigate the ability of Vickrey auctions to reveal consumers’ WTP. The mechanism of the auction was described to the students, and the optimal bidding strategy was explained (which is bidding the true valuation) and different phone contracts were offered in a Vickrey auction. Based on a questionnaire the subjects seemed to have a good understanding of the mechanism of the auction. But the optimal bidding strategy (bid the true valuation) was less clear to the subjects which might be a problem for the method.In a different experiment Sattler and Nitschke (2003) find that the Vickrey auctions in addition to the first-price auctions (auction where the highest bid wins) both tend to overestimate consumers’ WTP. The authors suppose that this effect is due to the overbidding phenomenon. The overbidding phenomenon occurs when bidders strategically place bids above their true WTP to increase their chance of winning (Kagel et al., 1987).Another incentive compatible auction form is the well-known BDM procedure introduced by the authors Becker, DeGroot and Marshak (cf. Becker et al., 1964). In BDM every participant simultaneously submits an offer price to purchase a product. A sale price is randomly drawn from a distribution of prices. The possible prices cover an interval from zero to a price greater than the anticipated maximum price, which any bidder would submit. The bidders whose bids are greater than the sale price receive a unit of the good and pay an amount equal to the sale price. The mechanism is incentive compatible for the same reason as the Vickrey auction: A given bid determines only whether the bidder has the right to buy the good that is auctioned off. The price is set by some mechanism and is below the participants bid.The BDM procedure was tested by a number of researchers for its ability to forecast WTP. Wertenbroch and Skiera (2002) tested it together with a Vickrey auction in a field experiment with a purchase obligation for the participants. The participants of the experiment easily understood the BDM method and hardly any of the approached individuals refused to participate. Validity was determined by relating the estimated WTPs to data from an additional questionnaire asking the respondents to rate their desire of the tested products. After the experiment the participants rated how satisfied they were with their purchase. The buyers as well as the non-buyers were extremely satisfied with the outcome of the BDM experiment. This result indicates that BDM does not suffer from the overbidding bias, which is found in some Vickrey auctions. In a study published by Noussair et al. (2004) the Vickrey auction is compared with the BDM mechanism, with the aim to test which method converges towards the optimal bidding strategy (bidding the true valuation) more rapidly. The authors found that under the Vickrey auction the bias from the true valuation is more rapidly reduced and the dispersion of bids is narrowed down more rapidly. That is, the subjects learn the best bidding strategy more quickly. The authors argue that the reason for this difference lies in the fact that a deviation from the optimal strategy is more costly under the Vickrey auction than under the BDM mechanism. With respect to these results Noussair et al. (2004) conclude that Vickrey auctions are superior to the BDM procedure for elicitation of WTP towards private goods.Applied research using experimental auctions in laboratory settings for estimating products’ WTP is rather limited. However, auctions are applied as sales mechanisms in practice as for example by EBAY and can deliver useful information for understanding buyer's likely response behavior to different prices.Another approach to estimate WTP with an auction-like procedure is the so-called reverse-pricing or name-your-own-price mechanism (e.g., Chernev, 2003 and Spann et al., 2004). In this mechanism each buyer names a price he or she is willing to pay for a certain product. Based upon a price threshold set by the seller but unkown to the buyers, the buyers who have the right to purchase the product are determined. Each buyer pays the price which he or she named. Unlike the Vickrey auction and the BDM mechanism, reverse-pricing is not incentive compatible. In the latter each buyer has the incentive to name a lower price than the true valuation in order to get a better deal. However, it is argued that the named prices will be determined by the WTP and if each buyer can submit several bids, WTP can be estimated. In contrast to more conventional auction procedures, numerous applications of reverse-pricing can be found in practice. A well-known example is , a US-based retailer operating since 1998, whose primarily focus is on sales of flights, rental cars, and vacation packages.Direct SurveysIn the previous sections, we discussed methods for measuring WTP based on revealed preference data. It is not always possible for a marketing analyst to obtain such data in order to estimate price-response functions. For example, new or differentiated products would have to be designed and manufactured before they can be tested experimentally. Typically the number of possible differentiated products is large and not all candidates can be tested under justifiable budget and time restrictions. In this case specific surveying techniques that render respondents’ statements with respect to their price preferences are better suited.In the next sections, an overview of various surveying and related data analytical techniques with relevance to WTP estimation will be given. The most important methods, namely conjoint analysis and discrete choice analysis, are discussed in more detail. According to the classification provided above, direct surveys can be further divided into expert judgments and customer surveys. Reflecting their relative suitability to deliver accurate WTP estimates, we only review expert judgments briefly while focusing on customer surveys.Expert JudgmentsAs a heuristic to assess customers’ WTP as well as to provide rough estimates of expected demand in response to different price levels, expert judgments are quite popular in marketing practice. They can be collected more time and cost efficient as compared to interviewing customers.Usually sales or marketing managers serve as experts in projecting customers’ WTP. Since sales representatives work directly in the market and in close connection with the consumers, they are aware of the competitive structure in the market and are sensitive to trends in consumer needs. Therefore, interviewing sales people can provide an important source of information for demand estimates. Nevertheless, the opinion of sales people might be biased because of conflicting objectives of the marketer and the sales force. For example, if the sales force’s rewarding system is tied to sales volume, intentionally or unintentionally overstated or understated expert judgments might result in biased estimates (Nessim and Dodge, 1995, p. 70).Conversely, marketing experts’ estimates of product demand under different price schedules might suffer from the distance to the market and the consumers. In contrast to judgments provided by sales people there are no incentives to over- or understate the true estimates. Usually, there are less marketing executives in a company than sales force people and the opinions of few marketing managers might lead to poor forecasts of future demand.In general, expert judgments seem to be best applicable in a market environment with only small numbers of customers. In such an environment the customers are known well enough to adequately approximate their WTP. With a larger and more heterogeneous customer base, the availability of this knowledge becomes a critical issue.Authors are divided on the usefulness of using exclusively expert judgments. For example, Nessim and Dodge (1995, p. 70) argue that expert judgments are an important source of information because an educated guess is better than a random selection of a presumably adequate price from a number of price possibilities. Other authors, for example Balderjahn (2003, p. 391), label expert judgments as a poor measurement instrument with low validity and discourage from its use.Customer SurveysIf one attempts to forecast consumer behavior in response to different prices, the evident way is to directly ask the customers. One of the first applications of direct surveys was a psychologically motivated method for estimating WTP developed by Stoetzel (1954). Stoetzel’s idea was that there is a maximum and minimum price for each product which can be elicited by directly asking the customers. Studies based on this idea consist of the following two questions formulated by Marbeau (1987).1.“Above which price would you definitely not buy the product, because you can’tafford it or because you didn’t think it was worth the money?2.Below which price would you say you would not buy the product because you wouldstart to suspect the quality?”Directly asking respondents to indicate acceptable prices is referred to as a direct approach to measure WTP. Other researchers continued to build upon this idea and research in this area became quite popular (e.g., Abrams, 1964, Gabor et al,. 1970, and Stout, 1969). Van Westendorp (1976) introduced a price sensitivity meter which included two additional questions on a reasonable cheap price and a reasonable expensive price of the product under consideration. Applications of this approach can be still found in commercial applications (for example, the pan-european market research company GfK utilizes the procedure to attain critical price ranges for new or re-launched products).Recently, several other procedures based on direct customer surveying have been established. An example is the commercial tool BASES Price Advisor by ACNielsen. The tool’s procedure presents the subjects with several typical product profiles. The products can be in an early conceptual phase or already marketable. The subjects are then asked to name prices at which they consider a product to have a very good value, an average value, and a somewhat poor value. From the responses, purchase probabilities for different prices are derived. According to Balderjahn (2003, p. 392) the price for “a somewhat poor” value could be interpreted as reflecting a respondent’s WTP.Quite obviously, directly surveying customers has some flaws:1.By directly asking the customers for a price, there is an unnatural focus on price whichcan displace the importance of a product’s other attributes.2.Customers do not necessarily have an incentive to reveal their true WTP. They mightoverstate prices because of prestige effects or understate prices because of consumer collaboration effects. Nessim and Dodge (1995, p. 72) suppose that “buyers in direct responding may also attempt to quote artificially lower prices, since many of them perceive their role as conscientious buyers as that of helping to keep prices down”. Nagle and Holden (2002, p. 344) observe the opposite behavior. To not appear stingy to the researcher respondents could also overstate their WTP.3.Even if customers reveal their true valuations of a good, this valuation does notnecessarily translate intro real purchasing behavior (Nessim and Dodge, 1995, p. 72).4.Directly asking for WTPs especially for complex and unfamiliar goods is a cognitivelychallenging task for respondents (Brown et al., 1996). While it remains unclear whether this leads to over- or understating of true valuations a bias is likely to occur. Note, thatthis effect also occurs in the Vickrey auction and the BDM mechanism which were introduced in the previous section about experiments.5.The perceived valuation of a product is not necessarily stable. Buyers often misjudge theprice of a product, especially if it is not a high frequency purchase or an indispensable good (Marbeau, 1987). This can lead to an abrupt WTP change once the customer learns the market price of the product.An empirical comparison between a field experiment, a laboratory experiment, and a personal interview was carried out by Stout (1969). In this experiment the prices for different products were varied and the changes in demand were measured. The results showed significant quantity changes on systematic price changes in the field experiment. As expected, the demand for the products decreased as the prices were raised and vice versa. For the other two methods, no significant changes in demand for the products could be measured caused by raised and lowered prices. The personal interview even contained reversals. For some respondents the demand increased when the prices were raised.Overall, directly asking customers’ WTP for different products seems not to be a reliable method. Balderjahn (2003, p. 402) explicitly alludes to the distortional effects of direct surveys and pleads against its use. Nagle and Holden (2002, p. 345) even state that “the results of such studies are at best useless and are potentially highly misleading.”Indirect SurveysBrown et al. (1996) argue that for a respondent it is cognitively easier to decide whether a specific price for a product is acceptable than to directly assign a price. When the respondent is presented competing product alternatives and their prices, he or she can be asked to apply a preference rating, preference ordering or select his or her most preferred choice.In contrast to directly asking respondents for their WTP, customers are presented product profiles with systematically varied prices and are asked to indicate whether they would purchase the good at that price or not. This measurement approach is denoted to as indirect survey (cf. Marbeau, 1987).In an approach proposed by Camron and James (1987), the authors suggest to present to a random sample of respondents product profiles with randomly assigned prices. Camron and James (1987) explain their technique as follows: “Across the selection of product scenarios, the investigator is free to vary not only the proposed price, but also the levels of all other product attributes. Each consumer’s willingness or unwillingness to purchase the specific product at the designated price is recorded. If the experimental design includes variability in the levels of prices, product attributes, and consumer characteristics, the researcher will be able to use the statistical techniques [...] to calibrate the demand function.”Methods based on this idea are discussed in the following sections.Conjoint AnalysisGenerally speaking, conjoint analysis is a technique for measuring individuals’ preference structures via systematical variations of product attributes in an experimental design. A product’s attribute is considered as a set of possible realizations, which are referred to as the attribute’s levels. The respondent is presented a number of product profiles consisting of realizations of the。
Strobilurins-new fungicides for crop protection(strobilurin类杀菌剂综述)
Strobilurins––newfungicides forcrop protection Kresoxim-methyl1.IntroductionSince time immemorial,fungi have played an important part in the history of mankind,for example in the production of foodstuffs such as cheese,bread dough,and soy sauce or in alcoholic fermentation processes.In some Asian and Amer-ican cultures fungi have been used by cults as the source of hallucinogens.Also when it comes to delicacies,the fruiting bodies of fungi(to the layman the actual,that is,visible, manifestations of fungi)have been valued since olden times, none more so than the truffles prized by gourmets.However, the importance of fungi as medicines was traditionally rather low compared with that of plants.This situation remained basically unchanged until the groundbreaking discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in1928and its development as the first highly active antibiotic obtained from a mold. Since then the importance of fungi as sources of antibiotics and other pharmacologically active natural products has become ever more evident.[1]2.The Natural Strobilurins and Oudemansins2.1.BackgroundStrobilurins were first identified within the framework of a program begun in late1976aimed at discovering new antibiotic agents from basidiomycetes.This class of higher fungi,which includes many familiar species such as fly agaric and edible boletus,was in those days spurned by natural product researchers.The often sluggish growth of mycelial cultures of basidiomycetes meant they were regarded as being more difficult to handle than the extremely active substance-rich streptomycetes,which are classified as bacteria.Never-theless,studies of the pigments and toxins of the fruiting bodies[2]promised an original and diverse secondary metab-olism in mycelial cultures too.In their work on the formation of polyacetylenes in basidiomycetes,Jones and Thaller had drawn parallels between the secondary metabolism of basi-diomycetes and that of higher plants,notably Apiaceae andStrobilurins:Evolution of a New Class of Active SubstancesHubert Sauter,*Wolfgang Steglich,and Timm AnkeDedicated to Professor Hans-Jürgen Quadbeck-Seeger on the occasion of his60thbirthday[*]Dr.H.SauterBASF Aktiengesellschaft HauptlaboratoriumForschung FungizideD-67056Ludwigshafen(Germany)Fax:( 49)621-60-21156E-mail:hubert.sauter@basf-ag.deProf.Dr.W.SteglichInstitut für Organische Chemie der UniversitätButenandt Strasse5±13/F,D-81377München(Germany)Prof.Dr.T.AnkeFachbereich Biologie,Lehrbereich BiotechnologiePaul-Ehrlich-Strasse,Gebäude23D-67663Kaiserslautern(Germany)REVIEWSREVIEWS H.Sauter et al.Asteraceae.[3]This followed from the pioneering work by the groups of Anchel,Kavanagh,and Hervey,[4]who in the1940s and1950s had screened hundreds of extracts of fruiting bodies,and in some cases of corresponding fungal mycelial cultures too,for the formation of antibiotics.A pivotal discovery to emerge from their studies was pleuromutilin,a new antibacterial antibiotic with an interesting site of action,[4b]which was launched some years later by Sandoz as the semisynthetic derivative tiamulin for use as a veterinary medicine.[5]All of this,plus the congenial research environ-ment offered by the Sonderforschungsbereich in Tübingen headed by ZähnerªChemical Biology of Microorganismsº, was the spur for one of us(T.A.)to commence work on basidiomycetes.Among the first antibiotics discovered were strobilurins A and B,obtained from fermentations of Strobi-lurus tenacellus(a fungus that grows on pinecones).[6]Up till then no natural products had been isolated from this fungus. Our first publication in1977[6]reported the physical and chemical data of strobilurins A and B as well as their powerful antibiotic activity against a range of fungal species.The high cytotoxic activity towards Ehrlich ascites tumor cells led Douros of the National Cancer Institute(USA)to ask us later the same year to provide samples of the strobilurins to screen for antitumor activity.The first117mg of strobilurin A were dispatched in1978.Soon afterwards the exciting news came that strobilurin A,although exhibiting only very weak anti-tumor activity,showed no acute toxicity in the tumor-bearing mice.The structure elucidation by the research group of one of us (W.S.)showed the strobilurins to have an unusually simple structure and apparently represent a new class of antifungal antibiotics whose abundance in nature was not confined to the genus Strobilurus.[7]Strobilurin A has also been isolated from Cyphellopsis cultures and from two Mycena species.This compound was originally thought to have a side chain with an all-trans9E configuration,but this was later(1984)revised to 9Z.[8]Strobilurin A was found to show great similarity to mucidin,an antifungal antibiotic published in1969[9]and patented in1970[10]without a proposed structure;they had the same empirical formula,the same UV spectrum,and equal activity.However,the optical activity reported for mucidin ( 338(c 10)at546nm)completely ruled out a common identity with the strobilurin A.Mucidin,which was isolated from Oudemansiella mucida(a fungus that grows on the trunks of beech trees),found use in Czechoslovakia as an antifungal ointment(MuciderminªSpofaº).To be more certain that strobilurin A and mucidin were different com-pounds,samples of O.mucida were collected as starter material for mycelial cultures,which were then investigated for the formation of antifungal antibiotics.To our surprise we did not detect mucidin in these cultures,but instead a novel natural product,the crystalline,optically active oudeman-sin A,and the oily strobilurin A.[11]Like strobilurins A and B, oudemansin A also exhibited powerful antifungal activity. The quest to establish which compound corresponded to ªmucidinºproved to be highly protracted.Czech patents and publications yielded contradictory information.One pat-ent,[12]citing previous patents of the same origin,[10]cor-rectly described the structure as(9Z)-strobilurin A.No reference was made in this work to the optical rotationH.Sauter W.Steglich T.AnkeREVIEWS Strobilurinspreviously reported for mucidin.[10]Then in1981with reference to the earlier patents,[10,12]among them also the patent stating the correct9Z configuration,Sedmera et al. confusingly reported the identity of mucidin as that of(9E)-strobilurin A.[13]The optical rotation reported in the Czech patent[10b]was referred to as aªprinting errorº.Final clarification was ultimately furnished in a1986paper,[14]in which a direct spectroscopic comparison established the structures of(9Z)-strobilurin A and mucidin to be one and the same.2.2.Abundance in FungiFungi that produce strobilurins and oudemansins are found all over the world in all climate zones.[17b]With one exception (Bolinea lutea,an ascomycete)all such species are basidio-mycetes.[15]Some of the structures(Scheme1)are extremely complex,as in the case of strobilurin E,which is characterized by high antifungal activity and very high cytostatic activity.[16] The structures of the9-methoxystrobilurins K and L,stro-bilurin D,and hydroxystrobilurin D have since been re-vised.[17]The antibacterial activity of9-methoxystrobilurin L published by the company Xenova has,like the proposed structure,since been found to be erroneous.[18]2.3.Function of the Natural Products for the Producers In the search for new active substances,in the group of one of us(T.A.)basidiomycetes are normally grown on complex, highly nutrient rich media to ensure good mycelial growth and high production of secondary metabolites.However,because these conditions in no way correspond to those of their natural substrates,such as soil,leaves,or(most commonly)wood, certain strobilurin producers were also grown on their natural, presterilized substrates and then investigated for the forma-tion of antibiotics.Formation of both oudemansin A and strobilurins was observed in a Pterula species,a tropical Favolaschia species,and in Mycena tintinnabulum.[19]In Mycena tintinnabulum strobilurin D was detected both in the fruiting bodies(caps)and in the mycelially colonized substrate(oak wood)in nature.The concentrations deter-mined in the mycelially colonized oak wood were sufficient to inhibit the growth of other fungal species.This finding and the worldwide distribution of strobilurins and oudemansins leads us to conclude that the production of these compounds affords an advantage in terms of survival over other parasitic fungal species or fungi colonizing the same substrate.But how do the fungi that produce strobilurins or oude-mansins protect themselves against their own antifungal toxins,which are often produced in considerable quantities? We investigated this matter in collaboration with the group ofScheme1.The natural strobilurins and oudemansins[17b,66]and myxothiazole A.[21a]The sterocenters whose configurations are unknown are marked with an asterisk.REVIEWSH.Sauter et al.Brand and von Jagow,and found that in Strobilurus tenacellus the site of action in the cytochrome b protein (see Section 2.4)is modified such that the binding of strobilurins and oude-mansins becomes much more difficult.This is essentially due to the substitution of a small amino acid (alanine or threonine)in position 127by a larger isoleucine residue.This resistance-inducing exchange occurs in a region that is highly preserved in the species sensitive to strobilurin-type toxins.In S.tenacellus an additional small amino acid in position 254is replaced by glutamine,with the asparagine in position 261being replaced by aspartic acid.All these amino acid residues are located in the binding envelope of the reduced coen-zyme Q.[20]2.4.Mode of ActionStudies on the mode of action of strobilurins and oude-mansins revealed very early on that these compounds inhibit the respiration of fungi.Investigations with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cell cultures showed that the site of action lay exclusively in the respiratory chain (Figure 1).OthereffectsFigure 1.The site of action of strobilurins and oudemansins in the mitochondrial respiratory chain.such as the complete inhibition of protein,RNA,and DNA synthesis were attributed by one of us (T.A.)to the resulting intracellular deficiency in ATP .The oxygen uptake and ATP synthesis of rat liver mitochondria were inhibited with both a -ketoglutarate and succinate as substrates;hence the site of action had to be in either complex III or IV of the respiratory chain.[11]A fortunate turn of events led us to find in von Jagow a collaboration partner of the utmost competence,who succeeded in localizing fairly exactly the site of action of the strobilurins and oudemansins in the mitochondrial bc 1com-plex.In our first joint publication we reported that strobilur-ins A and B,oudemansin A,and myxothiazole,a compound isolated by the groups of Reichenbach and Höfle at the Gesellschaft für Biotechnologische Forschung (Society for Biotechnological Research)in Braunschweig,[21a]all bind at the same site of action.[21b]A common structural element of these compounds that is clearly essential to their mode of action is an (E )-b -methoxyacrylate subunit.Strobilurins,oudemansins,and myxothiazole bind reversibly to the ubihy-droquinone oxidation (Qp)center of the bc 1complex,a finding that has helped further our understanding of the structure and function of this part of the respiratory chain.[22]Antimycin,an antifungal antibiotic commonly found in streptomycetes that is toxic to mammals,binds to the other center of the bc 1complex,the Qn center.The crystal structure of the bc 1complex from bovine heart tissue was recently solved by the Deisenhofer group,and the binding sites for myxothiazole and antimycin A were identified.[23]The first patent application for strobilurin A was submitted in collaboration with Hoechst [26]and described the synthesis of strobilurin A,which seemed like it might find use as an antimycotic agent in human medicine.However,the com-pound compared poorly with other antimycotics on the market,and this patent was later relinquished.Several total syntheses of the natural strobilurins and oudemansins have been described and discussed in review articles.[17b,24]3.Lead Structure Optimization in Rival Industrial Research Programs3.1.First Structural VariantsWith their rare combination of favorable molecular and biological properties,the two natural products strobilurin A and oudemansin A were immediately seized upon as candi-dates for model compounds on which to base further synthetic modifications.[24]A clear attraction was the simplicity of their structures,which is a rarity in bioactive natural products.Moreover,the presence of the b -methoxyacrylate group in both natural products gave us a clue that these were not merely solitary active substances in isolation,but were instead part of a group of active compounds.Secondly,their antifungal activity in laboratory tests proved to be attractively high,which together with their ªnovelºmode of actionÐinhibition of respiration combined with low toxicity towards mammalian cellsÐtherefore gave us a powerful boost.Consequently,syntheses of molecular variants of strobilur-in A were underway as early as 1977in the research group of one of us (W.S.).The goal was easily accessible analogues with antibiotic activity that was similar or enhanced as far as possible.[25]The b -methoxyacrylate group,whose heteroatoms are capable of intermolecular,polar interactions,was regarded as essential (i.e.,as the pharmacophore)and was initially modified merely for the usual comparison purposes.The other regions of the molecule were judged to hold greater promise for structural variation.Such considerations gave rise not only to simple phenyl derivatives such as 1±3,but also to norstrobilurin A (5)and the ªshortenedºanalogue 6(Scheme 2).[24,25]Although such compounds showed a lower level of activity than the naturally occurring model compound in laboratory tests,some did show detectable,albeit weak,activity against Penicillium notatum as a representative fungal species both inREVIEWSStrobilurinsScheme 2.Structure and activity of simple strobilurin analogues.Activities were determined on the basis of the inhibition of respiration of and the agar diffusion test with Penicillium notatum .[24,25]testing for inhibition of respiration and in the agar diffusion test.From these results we were able to deduce some initial important structure ±activity relationships.[24,25]The E con-figuration of the pharmacophore as in 1is essential,as the Z isomer 2was inactive.Substituents in the aryl ring such as in 3appeared to be ªallowedº;even a C/N exchange in the enol ether group,which provided the oxime ether 4,did not result in any appreciable reduction in activity.A loss of activity was observed for the more linear (9E )-norstrobilurin A (5)and in the similarly shaped variant 6;lacking in both compounds is the characteristic conformation of strobilurin A and oude-mansin A,in which twisting of the central single bond results in an almost right-angled orientation of the b -methoxyacry-late pharmacophore relative to the phenyl-substituted side chain (Figure 2).In the variants 1±4the side chain is missing completely.In parallel to these variations of the lead structure,collaborations were sought with industrial partners with the aim of probing the usefulness of this class of active substances for the optimization of structure and activity under the viewpoint of potential applications as agricultural fungicides or clinical antimycotics.The response from industry to our overtures was,owing to other more pressing priorities,for the most part low-key.In 1982Zeneca (then still part of ICI)requested a sample of oudemansin,which they obtained from one of us (T.A.).Interest shown by BASF in 1983within the framework of a publicly funded joint project [27]in collabo-ration with several university research groups led to a sample of strobilurin A being provided for in vivo greenhouse testing on plants infected with fungal pathogens.The test results were disappointing:The activity of strobilurin A wassurprisinglyFigure puter-generated space-filling and stick models of strobil-urin A (left)and the enol ether stilbene 7a (right).Carbon:black,oxygen:red,hydrogen:white.(We are grateful to Dr.W.Altenhofen,BASF,for the calculations and the computer graphics.)weak,being barely perceptible against only two out of six phytopathogenic fungal species at high application concen-trations.[28]This was contrary to expectations after the very good results in agar diffusion tests in the laboratory,and the question was posed as to what might be the possible causes.Together with Schirmer,who at the time was responsible at BASF crop-protection research for collaboration with uni-versity research teams,we arrived at the hypothesis that the triene system of strobilurin A might have been the cause of a rapid photolytic and/or oxidative breakdown of the natural product,leading to a rapid loss of activity under the conditions of the greenhouse tests.The apparent plausibility of this hypothesis led us to dispense for the time being with verification through analytical experimentation.A different approach appeared more attractive:The idea we came up with was to stabilize the triene system with an aromatic bridge and,in the hope of improved in vivo activity,to synthesize and carry out tests on the ªenol ether stilbeneº7a .The synthesis was swiftly accomplished in the Steglich research group (Scheme 3).[29a]As it turned out,we hit the bull s-eye with 7a .Not only did it exhibit an activity against P .notatum in the inhibition of respiration test that was at least ten times higher than that of strobilurin A,[29b,c]its potency and spectrum of activity in in vivo greenhouse tests in plants infected with fungal pathogens fulfilled our ambitious expectations.Good (`15%infection)to very good activities (`5%infection)at application concentrations of 63ppm,and in some cases even at 16ppm,were recorded for the following fungal diseases:powdery mildew of wheat (Erysiphe graminis ),wheat brown rust (Puccinia recondita ),rice blast disease (PyriculariaREVIEWS H.Sauter etal.Scheme3.Synthesis of the enol ether stilbene7a.[24,29a]AIBN 2,2'-azobisisobutyronitrile,NBS N-bromosuccinimide.oryzae),barley net blotch(Drechslera teres),grapevine downy mildew(Plasmopara viticola),and late blight(Phytophthora infestans).[30]The bridging by the central arene subunit in the enol ether stilbene7a did not result in a reduction of affinity for the mitochondrial target,it was if anything even increased,and clearly bestowed on the moleculeÐas hopedÐthe required stability.Thus,compared with strobilurin A,7a represented a modified,more potent,and overall more promising lead structure.3.2.A Further Generation of Strobilurin VariantsGuided by this result,and with BASF broadening their involvement in the project,we turned our attention to the synthesis of some further variants of7,for example8±12 (Scheme4).In laboratory tests these compounds all showed activities comparable to that of strobilurin A,and exceeded this distinctly in the greenhouse tests.Some of the new derivatives exhibited even higher activity than the enol ether stilbene7a,depending on the test fungus.[30]In the design of strobilurin variants a conceptual subdivi-sion of the enol ether stilbene lead structure into three molecular regions proved useful:side chain,arene bridge,and pharmacophore(Scheme5).Through variation of the side chain we succeeded in obtaining compounds of type7,[31]8,[32] 9and10,[33]and11,[34]each the subject of separate patent applications.3.3.Initial Field Trials at BASFThe next step was the biological evaluation of preselected candidates under outdoor conditions.In the course of optimization of a lead structure the transition from green-house tests to field trials demands particularly close attention. Three aspects are of prime importance here:*The quantities of active substance required,and hence the outlay on their synthesis,rise dramatically.For in vitro testing and other laboratory tests a few milligrams are normally sufficient.Even for an extensive series of dilutions in the greenhouse tests the amount of active material required is only about100mg in total.Thousands of individual structural variants can be tested per year as a matter of routine without undue difficulty.In contrast,with application of100±1000g haÀ1,preliminary field trialsÐnormally in small plots of one square meterÐrequire between1and10g per indication depending on the plant species,fungal pathogen, and number of treatments,that is,up to100g of each active substance must be supplied.Additional amounts of active substance are also required for the development of formula-tions suitable for application under outdoor conditions,for example as emulsion concentrates,suspension concentrates, or water-dispersible powders orgranules.Scheme4.Strobilurin variants based on the enol ether stilbene7a.[24,31±34]Scheme5.Structurally modified regions of the enol ether stilbene lead structure.REVIEWS Strobilurins*For these and other practical reasons the number of compounds that can be tested under outdoor conditions is restricted to barely more than one hundred per year.This means that compounds that fail to make it to the field trial stage are essentially dropped as individual candidates in the optimization process.*Years of experience have shown the model tests in the greenhouse to be of only limited value as a predictor of the all-important activities in field trials under real-life conditions. Clearly discrepancies[35a]are possible in the sense of false positive and false negative greenhouse results,[35b]particularly when an attempt is made to assess the order of potency within individual families of active compounds.[35c,36]This special situation is evident from the values shown in the bottom line of Table1.Here,the rank correlation coefficients[39]between the field trial and greenhouse test results range from usable values(0.74for powdery mildew of wheat,0.6for late blight) to values of little prognostic usefulness(for exampleÀ0.3for net blotch disease).In this respect the selection of theªrightºcandidates for the field trials,which due to seasonal growing cycles are only possible at certain times of the year,[37]becomes the critical rate-determining step,and hence also the decisive step for the overall success[36]of the lead structure optimization process (see Figure4,Section4.4).Of the roughly100strobilurin derivatives synthesized up to December1985at BASF,a first batch of15compounds was selected for small plot trials in the1986season and tested in various indications according to the results obtained in the earlier greenhouse tests.Table1summarizes these com-pounds and the results obtained.[38]In field trials against powdery mildew of wheat a clear disparity is evident between the good results with the four dihydrostilbenes8and the lack of activity of the stilbenes7. This seems plausible in view of the known photolability of stilbenes,which can undergo E3Z isomerization and sub-sequent facile photocyclization to dihydrophenanthrenes followed by further reactions such as oxidative aromatiza-tion.[40]Overall the rank correlation with the greenhouse test results of the family of compounds tested is good(r s 0.74), though the inferiority of the stilbenes7in the greenhouse tests is not so pronounced as under the more severe photochemical conditions in the field trials.Particularly noteworthy was the activity of8d against powdery mildew of wheat in field trials. The activity of8d at maximum infection pressure(100% infection in the untreated plots),albeit at higher rates of application(1000g),exceeded that of the standard reference substance,CorbelÐa most encouraging result.In tests against net blotch disease even the three stilbenes7 tested here proved to have some activity at a lower infection pressure(35%).By contrast,the sole dihydrostilbene tested, 8d,again showed distinctly higher activity,exceedingÐalbeit at double the rate of applicationÐthe level of the standard Desmel.In tests against glume blotch on wheat8d,the front runner against powdery mildew of wheat,again showed high activity, this time,however,closely followed by stilbene7e.The tests against wheat brown rust were not especially fruitful,owing to the particularly low infection pressure(18%)and the relatively weak activity of the five dihydrostilbenes tested. In tests against late blight at a high infection pressure,the dihydrostilbene8a proved to be the best,although two of the stilbenes also showed measurable activity.In the case of activity against apple scab stilbene7a was in first place and on the level of the standard.In summary,from a structure±activity viewpoint the photolabile stilbenes were distinctly inferior to the dihydrostilbenes under outdoor conditions.The former did,however,show some activity in tests in which the interval between the application of the active substance and the evaluation of the test was relatively brief(applications against glume blotch,late blight,and apple scab),that is 8days compared with about30days in the other tests.For the structure types9and10only a single example of each underwent field trials,hence a full,experimentally-based assessment of these structure types was not possible at that time. The first results from these small-plot trials under outdoor conditions,which were of decisive importance to the assess-ment of the overall structure type,were obtained in May1986. Even at this early stage some results were highly encouraging, for example the first indication that the activities of8a,8b, and8d were very good and of the same order as that of the standard reference material Corbel.In addition,initial results from tests against net blotch disease in barley,for example after treatment with8b,gave rise to high expectations and much euphoria.Not only had our good fortune seemingly seen us through the birth of this new class of fungicidal active substances,we were able to look ahead to the further development of the baby full of hope and confidence.In the midst of our elation at this breakthrough we came face to face with a most unpleasant surprise.At the end of April1986a comprehensive patent application had been published by ICI(now Zeneca),[41]which was brought to our attention a short time later.The first priority date was October19,1984.[42]The basic formula I of what was an extremely broad and general claim is shown in Scheme6.R1 and R2represent a wide variety of substituents ranging from hydrogen toªoptionally substitutedºalkyl,aryl,cycloalkyl-alkyl,and other groups.[43]Even richer in variants were the definitions for X,Y,and Z.On the other hand,the actual core element of these structures was defined in subclaim7[41] (formula XII in Scheme6).Additional subclaims were sub-mitted for structures of type13.As individual compounds ªourºenol ether stilbene7a and the hydrogenated variant8a that had already attracted attention in our field trials,had been the subjects of specific claims.What was striking were the parallels with our ideas and concepts that lay at the heart of this application.All the BASF applications for the enol ether strobilurins[31±34]were hit by this patentÐa disaster that set us back all the more at the time,as our field trial results had led us to the brink of verifying the great potential of the strobilurins,not to mention their potential practical applica-tions.Back in the laboratory we had some hard questions to ask ourselves.How could such a thing had happened?Had we been caught napping?Had indiscretions,espionage even, played a part?The answer was soon in coming and was plain to see:All this had taken place in the context of a fair contest between rival research groups.。
清华大学考博英语阅读理解精选精读.
清华大学考博英语阅读理解精选精读Bush to thank Canberra for supportCANBERRA,Australia(CNN--U.S.President George W.Bush has arrived in Australia's capital on the last leg of his Asia trip to thank Prime Minister John Howard for his steadfast allegiance to the U.S.and support for the war on terror.Bush will address a joint sitting of the national Parliament, visit the national war memorial and discuss trade and the terror war with Howard during his21-hour stay.The Australian government hopes to use the visit to advance the progress of discussions which could lead to the striking of a free trade deal between the two nations.The Australian government has been a staunch supporter of the Bush administration's war on terror,contributing troops and military hardware to the actions in Afghanistan and Iraq and backing the U.S. position in international forums such as the United Nations.Bush has described Howard as a“good friend”and a“man of steel”and the two leaders appear to have established a genuine rapport.But Bush also created a diplomatic hiccup last week by referring to Australia asa“sheriff”in the Asian region,a description which does not sit well with some of Australia's neighbors who consider Canberra to be too closely aligned to Washington.During his speech to the parliament,Bush is expected to thankHoward's conservative government for its support,and justify the use of military force in Iraq.Bush is the fourth U.S.president to visit Australia,following Bill Clinton,his father George Bush and Lyndon Johnson in making the trip Down Under.Police are expecting around5,000demonstrators to attend rallies on Thursday with most voicing their anger over the Iraq war.They are also protesting the detention of Australian citizens at Guantanamo Bay military prison.But security will attempt to prevent protestors from getting within500meters of the president and have banned loudspeakers being directed at the official party.The Canberra visit is the final leg of a six-nation tour by President Bush which included attending the APEC leaders summit in Bangkok,Thailand.The trip also coincides with a four-day visit from Chinese President Hu Jintao to Australia,although the two leaders'paths will not cross.Hu will also address the Australian parliament.Bush arrived in Australia from Indonesia where he spent three hours on the tourist island of Bali,the site of deadly terror bombings a year ago which killed morethan200people,including around90 Australians.Bush has praised Indonesia for its support in the global war on terror and vowed to win the fight against terrorism.“Today we pay tribute to the victims,we remember the suffering of their families and we reaffirm our commitment to win the war on terror,”Bush said at a press conference on Wednesday with Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri.Before the Bali attacks last October,Indonesia--the world's most populous Muslim nation--was criticized for ignoring the terrorism problem and militant Islamic extremism within its borders.The Indonesian terrorist attacks have been blamed on the al Qaeda terror network's arm in Southeast Asia,Jemaah Islamiyah,which has an estimated3,000members.In the wake of the nightclub blasts,Jakarta doubled its efforts to crackdown on terrorism and apprehended dozens of JI suspects which earned the praise of international leaders.While both leaders characterized their talks as productive and positive,Megawati admitted that the two leaders did not agree on every issue.“Despite the fact that we do not always share common perspective…we both continue to hold mutual understanding that it is to the interest of the two countries to maintain consultation and cooperation in the pursuit of global peace,”Megawati told reporters.With anti-U.S.sentiment in Indonesia at an all-time high,Bush also pushed to ease a growing gulf in attitudes towards America among Indonesia's Muslim population.He met with eminent Hindu,Islam and Christian leaders during the Bali stopover for frank talks described by Megawati as a“positive development”.“Both sides were in agreement about the importance of religious tolerance as one of the major pillars of democracy in Indonesia,”she said at the press conference.The U.S.president urged Indonesia not to allow terrorism to be born out of religion.“Americans hold a deep respect for the Islamic faith,”Bush said.“We know that Islam is fully compatible with liberty and tolerance and progress because we see the proof in your country.”“Terrorists who claim Islam as their inspiration defile one of the great faiths.Murder has no pl ace in any religious tradition.It must find no home in Indonesia,”he said.--Senior White House Correspondent John King and CNN Correspondents Atika Shubert and Dana Bash and Senior Editor Grant Holloway contributed to this report.(PS:The way to contact yumingkaobo TEL:si ling ling-liu liu ba-liu jiu qi ba Q Q:si jiu san san qi yi liu er liu本文由“育明考博”整理编辑。
The Hazards of Science 翻译+summary
The Hazards of Science 翻译如今，有个批评科学和科学家的专用词，叫作狂妄自大（hubris）。
一旦你说出了这个词，你就说出了一切。
这一个词，概括了今天公众头脑中所有的恐惧和忧虑--忧虑的不仅是科学家们自己的让人难以忍受的态度--人们认为他们是这样的；在这同一个词里，还包含着另一层忧虑：人们还认为，科学和技术的所作所为正在使这个接近结束的世纪变得极其错误。
Hubris是个有力的词，包含着多层有力的意义。
它来自一个非常古老的世界，但有着自己的新生命，早就远远超出了本意的藩篱。
今天，它已足够强大，正以千钧之力,对人们无处不竭其心智提出非难。
人们的这种态度曾导致了露天剥采，近海钻油，DDT，食物添加剂，超音速运输机，还有那小小的圆圆的塑料粒子，新近发现，这种粒子正在塞满马尾藻海的水域；这种智力活动也想出了原子核的聚变和裂变，使之能把一个个城市先吹倒后烧掉。
现在，生物医学正急起直追，就要赶上物理化学天文地理等科学和技术了，于是也就招致同样的批评意见、用的也是那个贬义词。
据说，整个生物学革命，都是狂妄自大造成的。
是狂妄自大的态度，给我们开辟了这样的前景：行为控制，精神病外科学，胎儿研究，心脏移植，从其自身的一点一点非凡的细胞，无性繁殖出性能特出功勋卓著的政客，还有医源性疾病，人口过剩和重组DNA。
最后一个，这种让人们得以把一种生物的基因缝合到另一生物的DNA上面的新技术，被作为狂妄自大的最高典型。
人要自作主张随意制造杂种，就是狂妄自大。
于是，我们又回到了那第一个词，从杂种（hybrid）到狂妄自大（hubris），在这里，那个人为地把两个存在结合在一起的意思不知怎么仍然保留着。
今天的结合直接是希腊神话式的：这是把人的能力与诸神的特权相结合，而今天批评者使用的，正是hubris一词中所含的强作妄为的意思。
这个词就是已经长成了这个样子，成了一个警告，一个专用的咒语，一个来自英语本身的速记符号，它说明，假如人开始作那些留给诸神作的事情，把自己神化，结果会是很坏的，在象征的意义上，比公野猪配母家猪生下的杂种对古罗马人来讲还要坏。
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The Introduction of essay A
- Discuss ways to improve the education system in my country
(written by Hubert)
This year, Chinese GDP is remain steady a high increase, but there are many problems that are necessary to be solved. For example: the education system. To improve the education system, is very important to our country's future.
For discussing the way to improve the education system in my country --- China. For finishing the homework, too. I write this essay. Discussing the improving way which let the education system can teach a large group of students and chose the student go to school equally.
Main point:
1, The education is not only for student who are under age. W e can improve the adult's education level to let company accept the adult's education result. (In China, people and government spend a lot of energy and money for the result of exam ——because of education chance's equal.)
2, Education is not only knowledge education, but also human's education. (Because of the large group of students, Chinese classes always nearly 60 students per class. And because of the equal, for the chance of reading in a better school, teacher and parents have to spend most of time on student's exam.) (We can like physical examination, to make a basic psychological testing. Maybe this can find out student's issue if they have, like to less sport,etc. Because it's a basic text and only parents and student can read the result, we are not necessary to worry about one's secret——and we can change the name of "psychological testing".)
3, Education is not only basic, input education, but also discovering, developing and creating education.(Most of the students in China nearly just for the exam in their study, because of the equal system and the chance to read University. Even in University, teachers do not know how to teach, and the student do not know how to develop——most of them just can "learn". So in University Teacher and students also spend most of the time on the exam.) (We can let student know how the scientists can discover or invent——give more details about process，and less homework when they are Freshman. Make some activities to encourage student discover or invent some small point, and it can add in University's credits , give price or even give money if students do a good job.)
一些补充说明：
不让高考“一次定终身”，才可能做到减负，有更多的空间让学生自主的发展，珍惜最宝贵的年华；
素质教育有关，其实很多的问题（学习上、生活上…）只要稍加指点并尽早采取措施，是能极大地长久地有利于学生的；
发展与创新，心里面参与到过程体验成功、意识到其意义，才激发其兴趣…
我寻找的是瓶颈，可能是属于“战略上” 的要素…… 没有具体说具体的措施…… - - ，另外，发现与发明是不可分开的：一个是“希望与条件”，一个是“实现与实践”……
有一个问题不得不提醒下：教育不仅仅是学校的教育，而且跟整个社会的背景（经济、政治、文化、……）是相关的……其实教育不仅是“言传身教”，更是一种传承——如何对待下一代…… 假如孩子的家庭里本身就特别的保守，仅仅是学校的宣传是不够的…… 有关于研究教育问题的的眼光应该放开些，不能只是相对孤立的问题，应该有一个整体的构架——有一个环境、民族与国家、世界发展的影像，再在其中间研究相关的问题……首先经济要有所保障，教育的投入才有一些的保障…… 要在整一个层面以及局部的事情将人们的观念升级，”教育的事业“才有可能不会像无头苍蝇一样“只顾着救火、或者是零星的改进”……
就现在来看，人们都希望“给力”…… 但是什么叫“给力”，有什么意义？…… 在功名的背后，有没有以一种平静的心态去看待我们的世界，去尊重我们的世界？…… 不仅仅当成是“背景”，世界不能仅仅是“劳动的对象”，更是“我们存在的条件与前提”…… 这样子，才叫做懂事…… 有关战略的方面，可以看一下《孙子兵法》，孙子可是个能与老子和孔子相提并论的思想家哦——“老子是…世界‟、孔子是…社会‟、佛学是…苦难‟、孙子是…战略‟（不只是军事哦~）、……” 其实孙子的事迹——几万吴国兵打20多万的楚军，还把人家的都城攻陷了——挺牛的（毛主席的战法也可以在孙子兵法的范畴里解释哦~）
具体的措施当然要具体的讨论啦…… 其实“各种的各样的教育”都需要相互的配合，才可能比较好的附合教育的初衷……（育人、……）
育人，不能够只是看重着学生的成绩，而只是一寐的想办法去提高学生的成绩…… 更必要真心去理解学生的处境与状况——虽然当前的高压的考试与大量的人数，让老师在这一个方面特别的困难，希望我第二个措施（“有关素质教育的”）能够有效的帮助到极大多数的人……
另外，我主张在大学的时候不能再让学生“臣服于”权威之下了：“说得有道理、做得好，才真正的承认你的观点做法。
假如下一代永远不如你，你再牛有个屁用么？”鄙视那些完全靠权威压制别人的人（那些自以为是而轻蔑的人也是）。
可以保留自身的不同见解，但不要去无理的批判、或恶意的诋毁别人的见解。
其实，有一些更关键也因素：不要只认为自主的见解会有“个性与创新”，会有更多的发明创造——而且，从历史的层次来看，世界是在不断地运动与发展中的——假如完全只崇拜前人的创造，自主的见解没有足够的发展，当情况超出了经验与自主的见解、能力的范围，就会量变到质变，容易被世界所淘汰……
我们需要有较多的自主的见解，不只是“个性与创新”，还是“生存的道理”…… - -|
其实不是我们“去保护好环境”,而是要“让环境容忍生命与人类的存在”…… 不作为不代表环境会很好，关键是须要理解我们的环境，理解环境的运作与循环，“需求的追求”须要顾及到“维系我们的依赖”才可能较好的发展……。