Deriving exact results for Ising-like models from the cluster variation method

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高中英语上外版必修第二册 Unit 4 Sports 课后练习、课时练习

一、根据首字母填写单词(单词拼写)1. When studying a______, everybody may experience culture shock.(根据首字母单词拼写)2. Mr. Wang is so responsible that his students a________him from the bottom of their hearts. (根据首字母单词拼写)3. P________ basketball player Kobe Bryant, 41, has died in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California.(根据首字母单词拼写)二、根据汉语意思填写单词(单词拼写)4. The local government warned them to stop illegal hunting________(立即). (根据汉语提示单词拼写)5. The exhibition is held___________(每年). (根据汉语提示单词拼写)6. If you__________(发现) any mistakes in the article, just mark them with a red pen. (根据汉语提示单词拼写)三、根据中英文提示填写单词(单词拼写)7. Thc company admitted that it had been a t______ (艰难的) year. (根据中英文提示单词拼写)8. She pronounced the word very slowly and p________ (准确地). (根据中英文提示填空)四、完成句子9. 我的贡献不大，因为有时候我没有办法用英语清楚表达自己的观点。

I could not make a great __________ because sometimes I wasn’t able to __________ myself __________ .10. 同学们都很友好。

J.Nanopart.Res.,2009,11,1513–Rheological behaviour of ethylene glycol-titanate nanotube nano

BRIEF COMMUNICATIONRheological behaviour of ethylene glycol-titanate nanotube nanoﬂuidsHaisheng Chen ÆYulong Ding ÆAlexei Lapkin ÆXiaolei FanReceived:11July 2008/Accepted:4February 2009/Published online:26February 2009ÓSpringer Science+Business Media B.V.2009Abstract Experimental work has been performed on the rheological behaviour of ethylene glycol based nanoﬂuids containing titanate nanotubes over 20–60°C and a particle mass concentration of 0–8%.It is found that the nanoﬂuids show shear-thinning behaviour particularly at particle concentrations in excess of *2%.Temperature imposes a very strong effect on the rheological behaviour of the nanoﬂuids with higher temperatures giving stronger shear thinning.For a given particle concentration,there exists a certain shear rate below which the viscosity increases with increasing temperature,whereas the reverse occurs above such a shear rate.The normalised high-shear viscosity with respect to the base liquid viscosity,however,is independent of temperature.Further analyses suggest that the temperature effects are due to the shear-dependence of the relative contributions to the viscosity of the Brownian diffusion and convection.The analyses also suggest that a combination of particle aggregation and particle shape effects is the mechanism for the observed high-shear rheological behaviour,which is also supported by the thermal conductivity measure-ments and analyses.Keywords Rheological behaviour ÁEthylene glycol ÁTitanate nanotube ÁNanoﬂuid ÁThermal conductivityNanoﬂuids are dilute suspensions of particles with at least one dimension smaller than about 100nm (Choi 1995).Such a type of materials can be regarded as functionalized colloids with special requirements of a low-particle loading,a high-thermal performance,favourable ﬂow/rheolgocial behaviour,and a great physical and chemical stability over a wide range of process and solution chemistry conditions.Nano-ﬂuids have been shown to be able to enhance heat transfer (Choi 1995;Wang and Mujumdar.2007),mass transfer (Krishnamurthy et al.2006),and wetting and spreading (Wasan and Nikolov 2003),and have been a hot topic of research over the past decade (Wang and Mujumdar 2007;Keblinski et al.2005).Most published studies have focused on the heat transfer behaviour including thermal conduction (Choi 1995;Wang et al.1999;Wang and Mujumdar 2007;Keblinski et al.2005;Eastman et al.2001;He et al.2007;Ding et al.2006),phase change (boiling)heat transfer (Das et al.2003;Pak and Cho 1998),and convective heat transfer (Wang and Mujumdar 2007;Keblinski et al.2005;He et al.2007;Ding et al.2006,Chen et al.2008;Prasher et al.2006a and Yang et al.2005).Only few studies have been devoted to the rheological behaviour ofH.Chen ÁY.Ding (&)Institute of Particle Science and Engineering,University of Leeds,Leeds,UK e-mail:y.ding@pkin ÁX.FanDepartment of Chemical Engineering,University of Bath,Bath,UKJ Nanopart Res (2009)11:1513–1520DOI 10.1007/s11051-009-9599-9nanoﬂuids(He et al.2007;Chen et al.2008;Prasher et al.2006a,b;Kwak and Kim2005;Lee et al.2006), although there is a large body of literature on suspensions rheology;see for example,Russel et al. (1991);Chow(1993);Petrie(1999),Larson(1999); Goodwin et al.(2000)l;Mohraz et al.(2004);Larson (2005);Egres and Wagner(2005);Abdulagatov and Azizov(2006).Particularly,there is little in the literature on the effect of temperature on the rheo-logical behaviour of nanoﬂuids.Clearly,there is a gap in the current rheological literature for this type ofﬂuids.Furthermore,recent work has shown that the thermal behaviour of nanoﬂuids correlates well with their rheological behaviour(Prasher et al.2006a, b;Chen et al.2007a;Abdulagatov and Azizov2006). In a recent study,we investigated systemically the rheological behaviour of ethylene glycol(EG)based spherical TiO2nanoﬂuids(Chen et al.2007b).The results show that the nanoﬂuids are Newtonian over a shear rate range of0.5–104s-1and the shear viscosity is a strong function of temperature,particle concentration and aggregation microstructure.This work is concerned about the rheological behaviour of EG based nanoﬂuids containing titanate nanotubes (TNT).The speciﬁc objectives of the work are to investigate the effects of particle shape,particle concentration and temperature on nanoﬂuids viscosity, and to understand the relationship between the rheo-logical behaviour and the effective thermal conductivity of nanoﬂuids.It is for theﬁrst time that the rheological behaviour of a highly viscous EG based TNT nanoﬂuids is investigated in a systematic manner.As will be seen later,the results of this work provide further evidence that the rheological measure-ments could provide information of particle structuring for predicting the effective thermal conductivity of nanoﬂuids.The EG-TNT nanoﬂuids used in this work were formulated by using the so-called two-step method with EG purchased from Alfa Aesar and TNT synthesized in our labs using a method described elsewhere(Bavykin et al.2004).The details of nanoﬂuids formulation can be found elsewhere(Wen and Ding2005;He et al.2007;Chen et al.2007b). The TNT particles have a diameter(b)of*10nm and a length(L)of*100nm,giving an aspect ratio of(r=L/b)of*10.To avoid complications in interpreting the experimental results,no dispersants/ surfactants were used in the formulation.The nanoﬂuids formulated were found stable for over 2months.The rheological behaviour of the nano-ﬂuids was measured by using a Bolin CVO rheometer (Malvern Instruments,UK)over a shear rate range of 0.03–3,000s-1,a nanoparticle mass concentration of w=0–8%,and a temperature range of20–60°C (293–333K).The nanoﬂuids were characterised for their size by using a Malvern Nanosizer(Malvern Instruments,UK)and a scanning electron microscope (SEM).The average effective particle diameter was found to be*260nm for all nanoﬂuids formulated. This size is much larger than the equivalent diameter of the primary nanoparticles due to aggregation;see later for more discussion.Note that the particle size characterisation was performed both before and after the rheological measurements and no detectable changes to particle size were found.Figure1shows the viscosity of pure EG and EG-TNT nanoﬂuids as a function of shear rate at 40°C.The results at other temperatures are similar.It can be seen that the EG-TNT nanoﬂuids exhibit highly shear-thinning behaviour particularly when the TNT concentration exceeds*2%.Such behaviour is different from the observed Newtonian behaviour of EG-TiO2nanoﬂuids containing spherical nanoparti-cles over similar shear rate range(Chen et al.2007b) where the base liquid,EG,is the same as that used in the current wok.The behaviour is similar to the observations of carbon nanotube nanoﬂuids(Ding et al.2006)and CuO nanorod nanoﬂuids(Kwak and Kim2005),although there are important differencesbetween them such as temperature dependence as will be discussed later.The shear-thinning behaviour of well-dispersed suspensions can be interpreted by the structuring of interacting particles(Doi and Edwards1978a,b and Larson1999).In a quiescent state,a rod-like particle has three types of motion due to Brownian diffusion: rotational(end-over-end)motion around the mid-point and translational motion in parallel or perpendicular to the long axis.For dilute suspensions with a number density,c,ranging between0and1/L3or volume fraction,u,ranging between0and1/r2),the average spacing between the particles is larger than the longest dimension of the rod,and zero shear viscosity can be approximated by gð0Þ%g0ð1þAÁcL3Þwith g0the base liquid viscosity and A,a numerical constant(Doi and Edwards1978a).For suspensions with 1/L3\c\1/bL2or1/r2\f/\1/r,the rod-like particles start to interact.The rotational motion is severely restricted,as well as the translational motion perpendicular to the long axis,and the zero shear viscosity can be estimated by gð0Þ%g0ð1þðBcL3Þ3Þ; with B a numerical constant(Doi and Edwards1978b). As a consequence,the zero shear viscosity can be much greater than the base liquid viscosity.The large viscosity is due to the rod-like shape effect and the viscosity is very sensitive to shear,which tends to align particles and hence the shear-thinning behaviour as shown in Fig.1.Note that the above mechanism can give a qualitative explanation for the experimental observations at low-shear rates and the shear-thinning behaviour as shown in Fig.1,it does not explain the high-shear viscosity of the nanoﬂuids,which will be discussed later.It should also be noted that the criteria for classifying nanoﬂuids given above need to be modiﬁed due to the presence of aggregates;see later for more discussion.Figure2shows the shear viscosity of4.0%EG-TNT nanoﬂuids as a function of shear rate at different temperatures.The results under other concentrations are similar.It can be seen that the temperature has a very strong effect on the rheological behaviour of nanoﬂuids with higher temperatures giving stronger shear thinning.For shear rates below*10s-1,the shear viscosity increases with increasing temperature, whereas the trend is reversed when the shear rate is above*10s-1.As mentioned above,this behaviour was not observed for carbon nanotube(Ding et al. 2006)and CuO nanorod(Kwak and Kim2005)nanoﬂuids and we have not seen reports on such behaviour for nanoﬂuids in the literature;see later for more discussion on the underlying mechanisms. Figure2also shows that the strongest shear thinning occurs at40–60°C,whereas very weak-shear thinning takes places at20–30°C.It is also noted that the shear viscosity of nanoﬂuids at all temperatures investigated approaches a constant at high-shear rates.If the high-shear viscosity is plotted against temperature,Fig.3is obtained where the shear rate corresponding to the high-shear viscosity is taken as *2,000s-1.An inspection of all the data indicates that theyﬁt the following equation very well:ln g¼AþBÂ1000=TþCðÞð1Þwhere g is the shear viscosity(mPaÁs),T is the absolute temperature(K),and A,B and C areconstants given in Table1.Equation(1)takes a similar format as that widely used for liquid viscosity (Bird et al.2002)and for EG based nanoﬂuids containing spherical particles(Chen et al.2007b).If the measured high-shear viscosity is normalized with respect to the shear viscosity of the base liquid, the relative increaseðg i¼ðgÀg0Þ=g0Þof the high-shear viscosity is found to be only a function of concentration but independent of temperature over the temperature range investigated in this work.The relative increments in the shear viscosities of nano-ﬂuids containing0.5%,1.0%,2.0%,4.0%and8.0% particles are 3.30%,7.00%,16.22%,26.34%and 70.96%,respectively.Similar temperature indepen-dence of the shear viscosity was also observed for EG-TiO2and water-TiO2nanoﬂuids containing spherical nanoparticles(Chen et al.2007b).The experimentally observed temperature depen-dence can be interpreted as follows.Given the base liquid and nanoparticles,the functional dependence of viscosity on shear rate is determined by the relative importance of the Brownian diffusion and convection effects.At temperatures below*30°C,the contribu-tion from the Brownian diffusion is weak due to high-base liquid viscosity.As a consequence,the shear dependence of the suspension is weak(Fig.2).The contribution from the Brownian diffusion becomes increasingly important with increasing temperature particularly above40°C due to the exponential dependence of the base liquid viscosity on temperature (Fig.3).At very high-shear rates,the Brownian diffusion plays a negligible role in comparison with the convective contribution and hence independent of the high-shear viscosity on the temperature.We now start to examine if the classical theories for the high-shear viscosity predict the experimental measurements(note that there is a lack of adequate theories for predicting the low shear viscosity).Figure4shows the shear viscosity increment as a function of nanoparticle volume concentration together with the predictions by the following Brenner &Condiff Equation for dilute suspensions containing large aspect ratio rod-like particles(Brenner and Condiff1974):g¼g01þg½ uþO u2ÀÁÀÁð2Þwhere the intrinsic viscosity,½g ;for high-shear rates has the following form(Goodwin and Hughes2000):½g ¼0:312rln2rÀ1:5þ2À0:5ln2rÀ1:5À1:872rð3ÞAlso included in Fig.4are the data for EG-TiO2 nanoﬂuids with spherical nanoparticles(Chen et al. 2007b)and predictions by the Einstein Equation (Einstein1906,1911)for dilute non-interacting suspensions of spherical particles,g¼g01þ2:5uðÞ: It can be seen that both the Einstein and Brenner& Condiff equations greatly underpredict the measured data for the EG-TNT nanoﬂuids.The high-shear viscosity of EG-TNT nanoﬂuids is much higher than that of the EG-TiO2nanoﬂuids containing spherical nanoparticles,indicating a strong particle shape effect on the shear viscosity of nanoﬂuids.Although the shear-thinning behaviour of the nanoﬂuids could be partially attributed to the structuring of interacting rod-like particles,the large deviation between the measured high-shear viscosity and the predicted ones by the Brenner&Condiff equation cannot fully be interpreted.In the following,an attempt is made to explain the experimental observations from the viewpoint of aggregation of nanaoparticles,which have been shown to play a key role in thermal behaviour of nanoﬂuids in recent studies(Wang et al. 2003;Xuan et al.2003;Nan et al.1997;Prasher et al. 2006a,b;Keblinski et al.2005).Such an approach is also supported by the SEM and dynamic lightTable1Empirical constants for Eq.(1)a Maximum discrepancies;b Minimum discrepancies Concentration(wt%)A B C MaxD a(%)MinD b(%)0.0-3.21140.86973-154.570.62-1.440.5-3.42790.94425-148.490.93-0.471.0-2.94780.81435-159.14 1.11-0.692.0-2.2930.65293-174.57 1.64-0.694.0-2.63750.7574-165.820.99-0.948.0-2.73140.93156-145.010.88-1.57scattering analyses,which,as mentioned before, show clear evidence of particle aggregation.According to the modiﬁed Krieger-Dougherty equation(Goodwin and Hughes2000;Wang et al. 2003;Xuan et al.2003;Nan et al.1997),the relative viscosity of nanoﬂuids,g r,is given as:g r¼1Àu a=u mðÞÀ½g u mð4Þwhere u m is the maximum concentration at which the ﬂow can occur and u a is the effective volume fraction of aggregates given by u a¼u=u ma with u ma the maximum packing fraction of aggregates.As aggre-gates do not have constant packing throughout the structure,the packing density is assumed to change with radial position according to the power law with a constant index(D).As a result,u a is given as u a¼uða a=aÞ3ÀD;with a a and a,the effective radii of aggregates and primary nanoparticles,respectively. The term D is also referred as the fractal index meaning the extent of changes in the packing fraction from the centre to the edge of the aggregates.Typical values of D are given in normal textbook as D= 1.8–2.5for diffusion limited aggregation(DLA)and D=2.0–2.2for reaction limited aggregation(RLA); see for example Goodwin and Hughes(2000).For nanoﬂuids containing spherical nanoparticles,the value of D has been shown experimentally and numerically to be between1.6and1.8(Wang et al. 2003,Xuan et al.2003)and between1.8and2.3, respectively(Waite et al.2001).A typical value of 1.8is suggested for nanoﬂuids made of spherical nanoparticles(Prasher et al.2006a,b).However,little research has been found on the fractal index for nanoﬂuids containing rod-like nanoparticles.The colloid science literature suggests a fractal index of 1.5–2.45for colloidal suspensions depending on the type of aggregation,chemistry environment,particle size and shape and shearﬂow conditions(Haas et al. 1993;Mohraz et al.2004;Hobbie and Fry2006; Micali et al.2006;Lin et al.2007).In a recent study, Mohraz et al.(2004)investigated the effect of monomer geometry on the fractal structure of colloi-dal rod aggregates.They found that the fractal index is a non-linear function of the monomer aspect ratio with the D increasing from*1.80to*2.3when the aspect ratio of the rod-like nanoparticles increases from1.0to30.6.Based on the above,a value of D=2.1is taken for nanoﬂuids used in this work (Mohraz et al.2004,Lin et al.2007).Although the fractal model may appear to simplify the complexity of microstructures in aggregating systems containing rod-like particles,excellent agreement between the model prediction and experimental measurements exists when a a/a=9.46;see Fig.4.Here the aggregates are assumed to formﬂow units of an ellipsoidal shape with an effective aspect ratio of r a¼L a=b a;where L a and b a are the effective length and diameter,respectively.In the calculation,a typical value of u m of0.3is taken(Barnes et al.1989),and the intrinsic viscosity[g]is calculated by Eq.(3).It is to be noted that the aggregate size thatﬁts well to the rheological data(Fig.4)is consistent with the particle size analyses using both the SEM and the Malvern Nanosizer.A comparison between the EG-TNT data (a a/a=9.46,D=2.1,u m=0.30)and the EG-TiO2 data(a a/a=3.34,D=1.8,u m=0.605)(Chen et al. 2007b)in Fig.4suggests that the larger aggregate size in TNT nanoﬂuids be an important factor responsible for the stronger shear-thinning behaviour and higher shear viscosity of TNT nanoﬂuids.An inspection of Eq.(4)indicates that the effec-tive volume fraction u a u a¼u a a=aðÞ3ÀDis much higher than the actual volume fraction(u).This leads to the experimentally observed high-shear viscosity even for very dilute nanoﬂuids,according to the classiﬁcation discussed before.As a consequence,the demarcations deﬁning the dilute and semi-concen-trated dispersions should be changed by using the effective volume fraction.The model discussed above can also provide a macroscopic explanation for the temperature indepen-dence of the high-shear viscosity.From Eq.(4),one can see that the relative high-shear viscosity depends on three parameters,the maximum volume fraction, u m,the effective volume fraction,u a and the intrinsic viscosity,[g].For a given nanoﬂuid at a temperature not far from the ambient temperature,the three parameters are independent of temperature and hence the little temperature dependence of the relative shear viscosity.Microscopically,as explained before,the temperature-independent behaviour is due to negligi-ble Brownian diffusion compared with convection in high-shearﬂows.To further illustrate if the proposed aggregation mechanism is adequate,it is used to predict the effective thermal conductivity of the nanoﬂuids by using the following conventional Hamilton–Crosser model(H–C model)(Hamilton and Crosser1962):k=k0¼k pþðnÀ1Þk0ÀðnÀ1Þuðk0Àk pÞk pþðnÀ1Þk0þuðk0Àk pÞð5Þwhere k and k0are,respectively,the thermal conductivities of nanoﬂuids and base liquid,n is the shape factor given by n=3/w with w the surface area based sphericity.For TNT used in this work,the sphericity w is estimated as0.6(Hamilton and Crosser1962).For suspensions of aggregates,the above equation takes the following form:k=k0¼k aþðnÀ1Þk0ÀðnÀ1Þu aðk0Àk aÞa0a0að6Þwhere k a is the thermal conductivity of aggregates.To calculate k a,Eq.(6)is combined with the following Nan’s model(Nan et al.2003)for randomly dispersed nanotube-based composites:k a=k0¼3þu in½2b xð1ÀL xÞþb zð1ÀL zÞ3Àu in½2b x L xþb z L zð7Þwhere/in is the solid volume fraction of aggregates, b x¼ðk xÀk0Þ=½k mþL xðk tÀk mÞ and b z¼ðk zÀk0Þ=½k mþL zðk tÀk mÞ with k x,k m and k t being the thermal conductivities of nanotubes along trans-verse and longitudinal directions and isotropic thermal conductivity of the nanotube,respectively. In this work,k x,k m and k t are taken the same value as k p for aﬁrst order of approximation due to lack of experimental data,and L x and L z are geometrical factors dependent on the nanotube aspect ratio given by L x¼0:5r2=ðr2À1ÞÀ0:5r coshÀ1r=ðr2À1Þ3=2 and L z¼1À2L x:Figure5shows the experimental results together with predictions by the original H–C model(Eq.5) and revised H–C model(Eq.6).Here the experiment data were obtained using a KD2thermal property meter(Labcell,UK)(Murshed et al.2005;Chen et al. 2008).One can see that the measured thermal conductivity is much higher than the prediction by the conventional H–C model(Eq.5),whereas the modiﬁed H–C model taking into account the effect of aggregation(Eq.6)agrees very well with the exper-imental data.The above results suggest that nanoparticle aggregates play a key role in the enhancement of thermal conductivity of nanoﬂuids. The results also suggest that one could use the rheology data,which contain information of particle structuring in suspensions,for the effective thermal conductivity prediction.In summary,we have shown that EG-TNT nano-ﬂuids are non-Newtonian exhibiting shear-thinning behaviour over20–60°C and a particle mass concen-tration range of0–8%,in contrast to the Newtonian behaviour for EG-TiO2nanoﬂuids containing spher-ical particles.The non-Newtonian shear-thinning behaviour becomes stronger at higher temperatures or higher concentrations.For a given particle concen-tration,there exists a certain shear rate(e.g.*10s-1 for4wt%)below which the viscosity increases with increasing temperature,whereas the reverse occurs above such a shear rate.The normalised high-shearviscosity with respect to the base liquid viscosity, however,is found to be independent of temperature. These observations have not been reported in the literature for nanoﬂuids.Further analyses suggest that the temperature effects are due to the shear-depen-dence of the relative contributions to the viscosity of the Brownian diffusion and convection.The analyses also suggest that a combination of particle aggregation and particle shape effects is the mechanism for the observed high-shear rheological behaviour,which is supported not only by the particle size measurements but also by the thermal conductivity measurements and analyses using a combination of the H–C and Nan’s models.The results of this work also indicate that one could use the information of aggregation from the rheological experiments for predicting the effec-tive thermal conductivity of nanoﬂuids. 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拓展创新学程第三册 Unit 4 What is life

拓展创新学程第三册Unit 4What is life?基础知识盘点Ⅰ.重点单词1．wayward adj.难以控制的，任性的，倔强的2．shiver v i.& n．颤抖，哆嗦(因寒冷、恐惧、激动等)3．abyss n．深渊4．echo v i.回响，回荡n．回响，回声，回音；映现，暗示，启示，反响；共鸣，附和，重复5．torture v t.使痛苦，使苦恼，使焦急，使受煎熬；拷打，拷问n．拷打，拷问，酷刑；(精神上或肉体上的)折磨，痛苦，折磨人的事物6．clarity n．清晰，清楚，明确；清晰的思维(或理解)能力；(画面、物质或声音的)清晰，清楚，清澈7．prologue n．序言，序幕，开场白8．magnet n．磁铁，磁石，吸铁石；有吸引力的人(或地方、事物)；磁体，磁性物体9．epic adj.具有史诗性质的，史诗般的；漫长而艰难的，艰苦卓绝的；宏大的，壮丽的，给人深刻印象的n．史诗；史诗般的作品；壮举，惊人之举10．heel n．脚跟，脚后跟11．grip n．理解，了解；紧握，紧抓；(对……的)控制，影响力v t.(gripped，gripped)紧握，紧抓；使感兴趣，使激动，吸引住(某人)的注意；对……产生强有力的影响12．neglect v t.忽略，忽视，不予重视；疏于照顾，未予看管；疏忽，疏漏n．忽略，忽视，未被重视13．faculty n．官能，天赋；才能，能力；(高等院校的)系，院；(高等院校中院、系的)全体教师14．gaze n．凝视，注视v i.凝视，注视，盯着15．imprint v t.产生重大影响，铭刻，使铭记；印，压印n．印记，压印，痕迹；持久影响16．listlessness n．无精打采，没有活力17．glimpse n．一瞥，一看18．inhabitant n．(某地的)居民，栖息动物19．overtone n．弦外之音，言外之意，暗示20．hint n．暗示，提示，示意；征兆，迹象v i.& v t.暗示，透露，示意21．petty adj.小的，琐碎的，次要的；小气的，狭隘的22．overwhelmingly ad v.压倒性地，不可抵抗地23．mockery n．嘲笑，愚弄；笑柄，被嘲笑的对象24．compassionate adj.有同情心的，表示怜悯的25．vigor (BrE vigour) n．精力，力量，活力，热情26．tenderness n．和善，温柔，亲切，慈爱27．hasty adj.匆忙的，仓促而就的，草率的28．long v．渴望→longing n．(对……的)渴望，热望adj.渴望的，热望的，表示渴望的29．union n．联合，结合，合并；工会；协会，联合会，会社，俱乐部→unite v．团结；统一；(为某事)联合，联手→united adj.联合的；统一的；和谐的；一致的30．latter n．(提及的两者中)后者adj.(提及的两者中)后者的；后半期的，后面的→(反义词)former adj.前任的；以前的；前者的31．glory n．荣誉，光荣，桂冠v i.因某事而喜悦，为某事而欣喜→glorious adj.值得称道的；光荣的；荣耀的32．hazy adj.朦胧的；薄雾蒙蒙的；记不清的→hazily ad v.记不清地，模糊地33．thrill v t.使非常兴奋；使非常激动n．激动；兴奋→thrilling adj.惊险的，紧张的，扣人心弦的，令人兴奋不已的→thrilled adj.非常兴奋；极为激动34．companion n．伙伴；同伴→companionship n．友情，交谊，友谊Ⅱ.核心短语1．get to grips with sth开始理解并着手处理难题2．hold sway占统治地位；具有重大影响力3．regard...as...把……视为……4．sum up总结5．Achilles heel致命弱点6．reflect upon/on反思Ⅲ.经典句型1．“介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句And I have tried to understand the Pythagorean power by which number holds sway above the flux. 我试图理解毕达哥拉斯学派的理论，他们认为数字控制着万物流转。

广东省深圳市光明区2024-2025学年高三上学期10月英语测试

广东省深圳市光明区2024-2025学年高三上学期10月英语测试一、阅读理解VOLUNTEERING IN SRI LANKAExplore International V olunteer Headquarters’ exciting Sri Lanka volunteer abroad program. With affordable fees and top-rated projects trusted by over 142,000 travelers, IVHQ is the best volunteer organization in Sri Lanka.HIGHLIGHTS• Airport pick-up, welcome session,meals and 24/7 in-country support;• Accommodation in volunteer houses in many regions;• A special Cultural Introduction Week available as an add-on.PROJECTSIMPORTANT THINGS TO NOTEAll programs attract a Registration Fee of $299 in addition to the Program Fee.Recommended spending money: V olunteers typically need $50 per week for expenses.1．What will IVHQ volunteers enjoy?A．Travel guidance.B．Welcome gifts.C．Free accommodation.D．Considerate services.2．Which project may attract wildlife enthusiasts?A．Childcare in Kandy.B．Women’s Education in Kandy.C．Elephant Welfare in Randeniya.D．Construction and Repair in Kandy. 3．What is the cost for two applicants for the Women’s Education project?A．$1,378.B．$780.C．$1,079.D．$689.“For a species dependent on plants for food, we give plants curiously little respect,” said biologist David George Haskell in Scientific American. But as Zoe Schlanger’s “breathtaking” book The Light Eaters makes clear, plants do more than just provide the oxygen-rich atmosphere and turn light and air into usable energy; their significance is more than that. Plants appear to sense touch, communicate, remember, and make decisions, and her survey of the current science “will transform how you see not only plants but the nature of all life.”“In places, Schlanger’s assumptions are likely to displease researchers,” said Dr. Beronda L. Montgomery in Nature. Botanists (植物学家) are debating whether to credit intelligence to plants, but that doesn’t mean the field is in chaos. Schlanger sometimes rushes to generalize from a single researcher’s work, but The Light Eaters “overflows with her enthusiasm,” and as Schlanger visits researchers and shares their discoveries, she provides “a rare and welcome insight into the humanity and devotion of botanists.” Among her discoveries, some tomato plants release a distasteful chemical when caterpillars (毛毛虫) feed on them. Similarly, corn plants use caterpillar saliva (唾液) to attract bees that hunt caterpillars.Laura Miller, in her Slate review, appreciates Schlanger’s The Light Eaters for showing the plant kingdom’s wonders. But she finds the book’s focus on proving plant intelligence to be a minor imperfection. Schlanger seems to believe that humans need reasons to identify with plants to respect them, an opinion Miller challenges. She assumes that it’s the great differences between plants and humans, like the calming strangeness of nature, that we find appealing. Miller puts forward that plants might be driven by forces beyond our comprehension, making them exciting to study not for their intelligence, but for their secrets.4．What makes Schlanger’s work so amazing?A．Its clear explanation.B．Its revolutionary view.C．Its widespread survey.D．Its scientific foundation.5．What is Beronda’s attitude towards The Light Eaters?A．Favorable.B．Dismissive.C．Doubtful.D．Unclear.6．What does Laura suggest we do?A．Embrace plant diversity.B．Appreciate plant mystery.C．Label plants as intelligent.D．Build reactions with plants.7．What is the purpose of the text?A．To praise a botanist.B．To remember a writer.C．To recommend a book.D．To introduce a phenomenon.The rock group Counting Crows were onto something when they chose their band name. Crows (乌鸦) can indeed count, according to research published this week in Science.The results show that crows have counting capacities near those of human babies, says lead study author Diana Liao, a researcher at the University of Tübingen in Germany. “We think this is the first time this has been shown for any animal species,” she adds.Crows do not appear to be capable of symbolic counting, where numbers serve as an exact representation. Instead, the birds count by controlling the number of vocalizations (发声) they produce to correspond to associated hints. This is similar to how young children count before learning symbolic numbers, Liao says. For example, a baby who is asked how many apples are on a tree may answer, “One, one, one”. The baby produces the number of speech sounds which agree with that of the apples, rather than just saying, “Three.”In the study, Liao and her colleagues presented the crows with randomly ordered hints, four of which were visual-colored numbers that appeared on a touch screen. And four of them were auditory (听觉的), including sounds made by guitars and drums. Through trial and error, the birds had to figure out the correct number of calls to pair with each hint. If they got it right, they received a worm reward.After receiving about 180 training sessions, all of the crows were able to produce the correct number of vocalizations associated with the hints — a “pretty cool” finding, Liao says.She suspects, too, that the crows could have mastered numbers higher than four if they were given the opportunity.Onur Güntürkün, a biopsychologist at Ruhr University Bochum in Germany, who was not involved in the research, says the new paper is “excellent” even if the findings are “not unexpected” given all that scientists already know about crows’ intelligence.8．What is the new research about?A．Crows’ ability to count.B．Crows’ skill of solving problems.C．A comparison between crows and babies.D．An investigation into a famous rock group.9．Why does the author mention a baby counting apples in paragraph 3?A．To clarify how crows count.B．To explain how babies think.C．To illustrae the wisdom of crows.D．To display baby learning progress.10．How did the crows get the worm rewards?A．By counting objects on the screen.B．By picking colors from the touch screen.C．By choosing between sounds and images.D．By matching sounds to visual and audio hints.11．What can be inferred from the last paragraph?A．The research is poorly recognized.B．The results fit with previous findings.C．The study needs further confirmation.D．The biopsychologist is critical of the study.A new study has found that a person’s face tends to evolve to suit their name. The researchers sought to determine how parents choose baby names. Do they pick a name that fits the baby’s appearance? Or does the person’s face change over time to match the name they were given?In the study, children and adults were asked to match faces to names. The findings revealed that both the children and the adults correctly matched adult faces to their corresponding names, significantly above the chance level. However, when it came to children’s faces and names, the participants were unable to make accurate associations.In another part of the study, a machine learning system was fed a large database of human face images. The computer recognized patterns in the faces of adults and found that those with the same name had more similar facial features. These faces were more alike than those of adults with different names. However, no significant similarity was found among children with the same name compared to those with different names.The researchers concluded that the similarity between a person’s face and their name results from a self-fulfilling(自我应验的)prediction. The facial appearance changes over a long period of time to align with social stereotypes(刻板印象)associated with the name. Stereotypes can develop in various ways, such as when a name is linked to a celebrity or a cultural figure. For example, individuals named “Rose” might be regarded as more attractive or gentle, leading them to adopt softer facial expressions over time.Dr. Yonat Zwebner from Reichman University says, “Our research highlights the broader importance of this surprising effect-the intense influence of social expectations. We have demonstrated that social constructs, or structuring, do exist-something that until now has been almost impossible to test experimentally.“Social structuring is so strong that it can affect a person’s appearance. These findings may imply the extent to which other personal factors that are even more significant than names, such as gender or cultural background, may shape who people grow up to be.” Dr. Yonat added. 12．What did the researchers focus on?A．A name-appearance link.B．Reasons for face changes.C．A name-selection process.D．Benefits of name matching.13．What did the machine learning system suggest?A．Grown-ups generally look alike.B．Adults’ names tend to lack diversity.C．Names may affect certain face features over time.D．Machine testing is more reliable than human testing.14．What does the underlined phrase “align with” in paragraph 4 probably mean?A．Depart from.B．Depend on.C．Result in.D．Correspond to. 15．What does Dr. Yonat’s comment stress?A．The importance of facial appearance.B．The impact of social factors on identity.C．The concern of choosing proper names.D．The difficulty of testing social structuring.How to Reconnect with Nature Through WritingWhether you’re in the wilderness or a city park, being present with other beings can be deeply rewarding. The wild is calling, and writing offers a powerful tool for re-connection. Through keen observation and warm language, we can develop a deeper connection with our environment. 16The first step is raising a keen awareness of your surroundings. By sharpening your senses, you’ll capture the essence of a plant or place in vivid detail. Imagine describing a forest after a summer rain: What can you see? Maybe sunlight passing through the leaves? 17 Sensory details create an experience that brings both you and the reader into the heart of the forest.Limiting your focus to one single being. This limitation creates a deeper connection between you and your fellow creature, whether a sunflower pushing through a crack (裂缝) in the sidewalk, or a strange-looking mushroom. 18 By exploring this nature-being, you gain a richer understanding and appreciation for its existence.19 It can also be about experiencing the natural world from a different angle. Try writing a letter to your wild friend: Choose a plant, animal, or natural element. Imagine how the world might appear through the eyes and ears of them. They also have stories to tell.Nature writing is a journey of continuous discovery. 20 Keep writing, keep exploring your local environment, and keep rewilding yourself. Share your experiences and remember, even the smallest backyard can be a place for wonder and inspiration.A．Or do you smell the natural smell of wet soil in the air?B．Nature writing isn’t just about humans observing nature.C．How does a plant sense the surroundings compared to you?D．Let’s explore some tips to set off on your wild writing journey.E．Use all your senses to capture the unique details of one creature.F．The following are some techniques to unlock your creative potential.G．The practice of it can awaken a new appreciation for the world around you.二、完形填空I will always cherish the memories of my trip to Goa, especially that unforgettable night on the train.I went on this trip with my school friends to 21 our minds and escape from our 9-to-5 lives. As an Indian, 22 Goa is a dream for everyone. Our group traveled from Mumbai to Goa, enjoying ourselves by singing and making 23 inside the train. After a while, a young man approached us and politely 24 , “Please go to sleep and let everyone 25 ”Despite his request, we were still in high 26 and paid little attention to his words.A little while later, he returned, visibly 27 this time. I can still recall his words clearly: “You guys are heading to Goa, which is fine. I 28 that you’ll hit the beach in the morning, but I have a 29 court case to prepare for tomorrow!” He explained that 30 this case required him to rest so he could 31 defending an innocent person. We were shocked by the realization that the train accommodated such a 32 range of passengers-some traveling for enjoyment like us, while others, like the lawyer, had important33 .So, 34 our enjoyment with respect for fellow travelers is necessary. We should acknowledge that quiet and rest might be crucial for some, even in a setting typically associated with 35 and fun like a train trip to Goa.21．A．refresh B．challenge C．limit D．guide 22．A．surveying B．improving C．visiting D．protecting 23．A．complaints B．music C．memories D．noise 24．A．begged B．requested C．declared D．apologized 25．A．rest B．eat C．play D．walk 26．A．demand B．pressure C．risks D．spirits 27．A．amused B．tired C．annoyed D．surprised 28．A．understand B．ensure C．plan D．recall29．A．strange B．critical C．basic D．boring 30．A．investigating B．reviewing C．deciding D．winning 31．A．learn about B．dream of C．focus on D．feel like 32．A．small B．diverse C．specific D．common 33．A．proof B．knowledge C．insights D．responsibilities 34．A．replacing B．mixing C．balancing D．comparing 35．A．leisure B．romance C．business D．education三、语法填空阅读下面短文，在空白处填入1个适当的单词或括号内单词的正确形式。

Coupled heat and moisture transfer in multi-layer building materials

For decades, many researchers have devoted their work to modeling the heat and moisture transfer in buildings. Most of the research is still carried out by using phenomenological macroscopic models, introducing heuristic laws relating thermodynamic forces to ﬂuxes through moisture and temperature dependent transport coefﬁcients. In this way, one of the most used and accepted macroscopic models for studying heat and moisture transfer through porous media is the Luikov model [5] or Phillip and de Vries model [6], which use the temperature and moisture content as driving potentials. On the other hand, it is well known that there are three main difﬁculties to use these models to calculate the non-isothermal moisture in porous materials. Firstly, the moisture content proﬁle is discontinuous at the interface between two porous media, due to their different hygroscopic behavior. Secondly, in the

2008年考研英语真题及解析

2008年全国硕士研究生招生考试英语（一）试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text. Choose the best word (s) for each numbered blank and mark [A], [B], [C] or [D] on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)The idea that some groups of people may be more intelligent than others is one of those hypotheses that dare not speak its name. But Gregory Cochran is 1 to say it anyway. He is that 2 bird, a scientist who works independently3 any institution. He helped popularize the idea that some diseases not 4thought to have a bacterial cause were actually infections, which aroused much controversy when it was first suggested.5 he, however, might tremble at the6 of what he is about to do. Together with another two scientists, he is publishing a paper which not only7 that one group of humanity is more intelligent than the others, but explains the process that has brought this about. The group in 8are a particularpeople originated from central Europe. The process is natural selection.This group generally do well in IQ test, 9 12-15 points above the 10 value of 100, and havecontributed 11 to the intellectual and cultural life of the West, as the 12 of their elites, including severalworld-renowned scientists, 13 . They also suffer more often than most people from a number of nasty genetic diseases, such as breast cancer. These facts, 14 , have previously been thought unrelated. The former hasbeen 15 to social effects, such as a strong tradition of 16 education. The latter was seen as a (an) 17 of genetic isolation. Dr. Cochran suggests that the intelligence and diseases are intimately 18 . His argument is that the unusual history of these people has19 them to unique evolutionary pressures that have resulted in this 20 state of affairs.1.[A] selected [B] prepared [C] obliged [D] pleased2.[A] unique [B] particular [C] special [D] rare3.[A] of [B] with [C] in [D] against4.[A] subsequently [B] presently [C] previously [D] lately5.[A] Only [B] So [C] Even [D] Hence6.[A] thought [B] sight [C] cost [D] risk7.[A] advises [B] suggests [C] protests [D] objects8.[A] progress [B] fact [C] need [D] question9.[A] attaining [B] scoring [C] reaching [D] calculating10.[A] normal [B] common [C] mean [D] total11.[A] unconsciously[B] disproportionately[C] indefinitely[D] unaccountably12.[A] missions [B] fortunes [C] interests [D] careers13.[A] affirm [B] witness [C] observe [D] approve14.[A] moreover [B] therefore [C] however [D] meanwhile15.[A] given up [B] got over [C] carried on [D] put down16.[A] assessing [B] supervising [C] administering [D] valuing17.[A] development [B] origin [C] consequence [D] instrument18.[A] linked [B] integrated [C] woven [D] combined19.[A] limited [B] subjected [C] converted [D] directed20.[A] paradoxical [B] incompatible [C] inevitable [D] continuousSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing [A], [B], [C] or [D]. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (40 points)Text 1While still catching up to men in some spheres of modern life, women appear to be way ahead in at least one undesirable category. “Women are particularly susceptible to developing depression and anxiety disorders in response to stress compared to men,” according to Dr. Yehuda, chief psychiatrist at New York’s Veteran’s Administration Hospital.Studies of both animals and humans have shown that sex hormones somehow affect the stress response, causing females under stress to produce more of the trigger chemicals than do males under the same conditions. In several of the studies, when stressed-out female rats had their ovaries (the female reproductive organs) removed, their chemical responsesbecame equal to those of the males.Adding to a woman’s increased dose of stress chemicals, are her increased “opportunities” for stress. “It’s not necessarily that women don’t cope as well. It’s just that they have so much more to cope with,” says Dr. Yehuda. “Their capacity for tolerating stress may even be greater than men’s,” she observes, “it’s just that they’re dealing with so many more things that they become worn out from it more visibly and sooner.”Dr. Yehuda notes another difference between the sexes. “I think that the kinds of things that women are exposed to tend to be in more of a chronic or repeated nature. Men go to war and are exposed to combat stress. Men are exposed to more acts of random physical violence. The kinds of interpersonal violence that women are exposed to tend to be in domestic situations, by, unfortunately, parents or other family members, and they tend not to be one-shot deals. The wear-and-tear that comes from these longer relationships can be quite devastating.”Adeline Alvarez married at 18 and gave birth to a son, but was determined to finish college. “I struggled a lot to get the college degree. I was living in so much frustration that that was my escape, to go to school, and get ahead and do better.” Later, her marriage ended and she became a single mother. “It’s the hardest thing to take care of a teenager, have a job, pay the rent, pay the car payment, and pay the debt.I lived from paycheck to paycheck.”Not everyone experiences the kinds of severe chronic stresses Alvarez describes. But most women today are coping with a lot of obligations, with few breaks, and feeling the strain. Alvarez’s experien ce demonstrates the importance of finding ways to diffuse stress before it threatens your health and your ability to function.21. Which of the following is true according to the first two paragraphs?[A] Women are biologically more vulnerable to stress.[B] Women are still suffering much stress caused by men.[C] Women are more experienced than men in coping with stress.[D] Men and women show different inclinations when faced with stress.22. Dr. Yehuda’s research suggests that women .[A] need extra doses of chemicals to handle stress[B] have limited capacity for tolerating stress[C] are more capable of avoiding stress[D] are exposed to more stress23. According to Paragraph 4, the stress women confront tends to be .[A] domestic and temporary[B] irregular and violent[C] durable and frequent[D] trivial and random24. The sentence “I lived from paycheck to paycheck.” (Line 5, Para. 5) shows that .[A] Alvarez cared about nothing but making money[B] Alvarez’s salary barely covered her household expens es[C] Alvarez got paychecks from different jobs[D] Alvarez paid practically everything by check25. Which of the following would be the best title for the text?[A] Strain of Stress: No Way Out?[B] Response to Stress: Gender Difference[C] Stress Analysis: What Chemicals Say?[D] Gender Inequality: Women Under StressText 2It used to be so straightforward. A team of researchers working together in the laboratory would submit the results of their research to a journal. A journal editor would then remove the author’s names and affiliations from the paper and send it to their peers for review. Depending on the comments received, the editor would accept the paper for publication or decline it. Copyright rested with the journal publisher, and researchers seeking knowledge of the results would have to subscribe to the journal.No longer. The Internet—and pressure from funding agencies, who are questioning why commercial publishers are making money fromgovernment–funded research by restricting access to it—is making access to scientific results a reality. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has just issued a report describing the far-reaching consequences of this. The report, by John Houghton of Victoria University in Australia and Graham Vickery of the OECD, makes heavy reading for publishers who have, so far,made handsome profits. But it goes further than that. It signals a change in what has, until now, been a key element of scientific endeavor.The value of knowledge and the return on the public investment in research depends, in part, upon wide distribution and ready access. It is big business. In America, the core scientific publishing market is estimated at between $7 billion and $11 billion. The International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers says that there are more than 2,000 publishers worldwide specializing in these subjects. They publish more than 1.2 million articles each year in some 16,000 journals.This is now changing. According to the OECD report, some 75% of scholarly journals are now online. Entirely new business models are emerging; three main ones were identified by the report’s authors. There is the so-called big deal, where institutional subscribers pay for access to a collection of online journal titles through site-licensing agreements. There is open-access publishing, typically supported by asking the author (orhis employer) to pay for the paper to be published. Finally, there are open-access archives, where organizations such as universities or international laboratories support institutional repositories. Other models exist that are hybrids of these three, such as delayed open-access, where journals allow only subscribers to read a paper for the first six months, before making it freely available to everyone who wishes to see it. All this could change the traditional form of the peer-review process, at least for the publication of papers.26. In the first paragraph, the author discusses .[A] the background information of journal editing[B] the publication routine of laboratory reports[C] the relations of authors with journal publishers[D] the traditional process of journal publication27. Which of the following is true of the OECD report?[A] It criticizes government-funded research.[B] It introduces an effective means of publication.[C] It upsets profit-making journal publishers.[D] It benefits scientific research considerably.28. According to the text, online publication is significant in that .[A] it provides an easier access to scientific results[B] it brings huge profits to scientific researchers[C] it emphasizes the crucial role of scientific knowledge[D] it facilitates public investment in scientific research29. With the open-access publishing model, the author of a paper is required to .[A] cover the cost of its publication[B] subscribe to the journal publishing it[C] allow other online journals to use it freely[D] complete the peer-review before submission30. Which of the following best summarizes the text?[A] The Internet is posing a threat to publishers.[B] A new mode of publication is emerging.[C] Authors welcome the new channel for publication.[D] Publication is rendered easily by online service.Text 3In the early 1960s Wilt Chamberlain was one of the only three players in the National Basketball Association (NBA) listed at over seven feet. If he had played last season, however, he would have been one of 42. The bodies playing major professional sports have changed dramatically over the years, and managers have been more than willing to adjust team uniforms to fit the growing numbers of bigger, longer frames.The trend in sports, though, may be obscuring an unrecognized reality: Americans have generally stopped growing. Though typically about two inches t aller now than 140 years ago, today’s people—especially those born to families who have lived in the U.S. for many generations—apparently reached their limit in the early 1960s.And they aren’t likely to get any taller. “In the general population today, at this genetic, environmental level, we’ve pretty much gone as far as we can go,” says anthropologist William Cameron Chumlea of Wright State University. In the case of NBA players, their increase in height appears to result from the increasingly common practice of recruiting players from all over the world.Growth, which rarely continues beyond the age of 20, demands calories and nutrients—notably, protein —to feed expanding tissues. At the start of the 20th century, under-nutrition and childhood infections got in the way. But as diet and health improved, children and adolescents have, on average, increased in height by about an inch and a half every 20 years, a pattern known as the secular trend in height. Yet according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, average height—5'9" for men, 5'4" for women—hasn’t really changed since 1960.Genetically speaking, there are advantages to avoiding substantial height. During childbirth, larger babies have more difficulty passing through the birth canal. Moreover, even though humans have been upright for millions of years, our feet and back continue to struggle with bipedal posture and cannot easily withstand repeated strain imposed by oversize limbs. “There are some real constraints that are set by the geneti c architecture of the individual organism,” says anthropologist William Leonard of Northwestern University.Genetic maximums can change, but don’t expect this to happen soon. Claire C. Gordon, senior anthropologist at the Army Research Center in Natick, Mass., ensures that 90 percent of the uniforms and workstations fit recruits without alteration. She says that, unlike those for basketball, the length of military uniforms has not changed for some time. And if you need to predict human height in the near future to design a piece of equipment, Gordon says that by and large, “you could use today's data and feel fairly confident.”31. Wilt Chamberlain is cited as an example to .[A] illustrate the change of height of NBA players[B] show the popularity of NBA players in the U.S.[C] compare different generations of NBA players[D] assess the achievements of famous NBA players32. Which of the following plays a key role in body growth according to the text?[A] Genetic modification.[B] Natural environment.[C] Living standards.[D] Daily exercise.33. On which of the following statements would the author most probably agree?[A] Non-Americans add to the average height of the nation.[B] Human height is conditioned by the upright posture.[C] Americans are the tallest on average in the world.[D] Larger babies tend to become taller in adulthood.34. We learn from the last paragraph that in the near future .[A] the garment industry will reconsider the uniform size[B] the design of military uniforms will remain unchanged[C] genetic testing will be employed in selecting sportsmen[D] the existing data of human height will still be applicable35. The text intends to tell us that .[A] the change of human height follows a cyclic pattern[B] human height is becoming even more predictable[C] Americans have reached their genetic growth limit[D] the genetic pattern of Americans has alteredText 4In 1784, five years before he became president of the United States, George Washington, 52, was nearly toothless. So he hired a dentist to transplant nine teeth into his jaw—having extracted them from the mouths of his slaves.That’s a far different image from the cherry-tree-chopping George most people remember from their history books. But recently,many historians have begun to focus on the role slavery played in the lives of the founding generation. They have been spurred in part by DNA evidence made available in 1998, which almost certainly proved Thomas Jefferson had fathered at least one child with his slave Sally Hemings. And only over the past 30 years have scholars examined history from the bottom up. Works of several historians reveal the moral compromises made by the nation’s early leaders and the fragile nature of the country’s infancy. More significant, they argue that many of the Founding Fathers knew slavery was wrong—and yet most did little to fight it.More than anything, the historians say, the founders were hampered by the culture of their time. While Washington and Jefferson privately expressed distaste for slavery, they also understood that it was part of the political and economic bedrock of the country they helped to create.For one thing, the South could not afford to part with its slaves. Owning slaves was “like having a large bank account,” says Wiencek, aut hor of An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. The southern states would not have signed the Constitution without protections for the “peculiar institution,” including a clause that counted a slave as three fifths of a man for purposes of congressional representation.And the statesmen’s political lives depended on slavery. The three-fifths formula handed Jefferson his narrow victory in the presidential election of 1800 by inflating the votes of the southern states in the Electoral College. Once in office, Jefferson extended slavery with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; the new land was carved into 13 states, including three slave states.Still, Jefferson freed Hemings’s children—though not Hemings herself or his approximately 150 other slaves. Washington, who had begun to believe that all men were created equal after observing the bravary of the black soldiers during the Revolutionary War, overcame the strong opposition of his relatives to grant his slaves their freedom in his will. Only a decade earlier, such an act would have required legislative approval in Virginia.36. George Washington’s dental surgery is mentioned to .[A] show the primitive medical practice in the past.[B] demonstrate the cruelty of slavery in his days.[C] stress the role of slaves in the U.S. history.[D] reveal some unknown aspect of his life.37. We may infer from the second paragraph that .[A] DNA technology has been widely applied to history research.[B] in its early days the U.S. was confronted with delicate situations.[C] historians deliberately made up some stories of Jefferson’s life.[D] political compromises are easily found throughout the U.S. history.38. What do we learn about Thomas Jefferson?[A] His political view changed his attitude towards slavery.[B] His status as a father made him free the child slaves.[C] His attitude towards slavery was complex.[D] His affair with a slave stained his prestige.39. Which of the following is true according to the text?[A] Some Founding Fathers benefit politically from slavery.[B] Slaves in the old days did not have the right to vote.[C] Slave owners usually had large savings accounts.[D] Slavery was regarded as a peculiar institution.40. Washington’s decision to free slaves originated from his .[A] moral considerations.[B] military experience.[C] financial conditions.[D] political stand.Part BDirections:In the following text, some segments have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list A-G to fit into each ofthe numbered blanks. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the blanks. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)The time for sharpening pencils, arranging your desk, and doing almost anything else instead of writing has ended. The first draft will appear on the page only if you stop avoiding the inevitable and sit, stand up, or lie down to write. (41)_______________.Be flexible. Your outline should smoothly conduct you from one point to the next, but do not permit it to railroad you. If a relevant and important idea occurs to you now, work it into the draft. (42) _______________. Grammar, punctuation, and spelling can wait until you revise. Concentrate on what you are saying. Good writing most often occurs when you are in hot pursuit of an idea rather than in a nervous search for errors.(43) _______________. Your pages will be easier to keep track of that way, and, if you have to clip a paragraph to place it elsewhere, you will not lose any writing on either side.If you are working on a word processor, you can take advantage of its capacity to make additions and deletions as well as move entire paragraphs by making just a few simple keyboard commands. Some software programs can also check spelling and certain grammatical elements in your writing. (44) _______________. These printouts are also easier to read than the screen when you work on revisions.Once you have a first draft on paper, you can delete material that is unrelated to your thesis and add material necess ary to illustrate your points and make your paper convincing. The student who wrote “The A&P as a State of Mind” wisely dropped a paragraph that questioned whether Sammy displays chauvinistic attitudes toward women. (45) _______________.Remember that your initial draft is only that. You should go through the paper many times—and then again—working to substantiate and clarify your ideas. You may even end up with several entire versions of the paper. Rewrite. The sentences within each paragraph should be related to a single topic. Transitions should connect one paragraph to the next so that there are no abrupt or confusing shifts. Awkward or wordy phrasing or unclear sentences and paragraphs should be mercilessly poked and prodded into shape.[A] To make revising easier, leave wide margins and extra space between lines so that you can easily add words, sentences andcorrections. Write on only one side of the paper.[B] After you have already and adequately developed the body of your paper, pay particular attention to the introductory and concluding paragraphs. It’s probably best to write the introduction last, after you know precisely what you are introducing. Concluding paragraphs demand equal attention because they leave the reader with a final impression.[C] It’s worth remembering, however, that though a clean copy fresh off a printer may look terrible, it will read only as well as the thinking and writing that have gone into it. Many writers prudently store their data on disks and print their pages each time they finish a draft to avoid losing any material because of power failures or other problems.[D] It makes no difference how you write, just so you do. Now that you have developed a topic into a tentative thesis, you can assemble your notes and begin to flesh out whatever outline you have made.[E] Although this is an interesting issue, it has nothing to do with the thesis, which explains how the setting influences Sammy’s decision to quit his job. Instead of including that paragraph, she added one that described Lengel’s crabbed response to the girls so that she could lead up to the A & P “policy” he enforces.[F] In the final paragraph about the significance of the setting in “A&P” the student brings together the reasons Sammy quit his job by referring to his refusal to accept Lengel’s store policies.[G] By using the first draft as a means of thinking about what you want to say, you will very likely discover more than your notes originally suggested. Plenty of good writers don’t use outlines at all but discover ordering principles as they write. Do not attempt to compose a perfectly correct draft the first time around.Part CDirections:Read the following text carefully and then translate the underlined segments into Chinese. Your translation should be written neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (10 points)In his autobiography，Darwin himself speaks of his intellectualpowers with extraordinary modesty. He points out that he always experienced much difficulty in expressing himself clearly and concisely, but (46)he believes that this very difficulty may have had the compensating advantage of forcing him to think long and intently about every sentence, and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in his own observations. He disclaimed the possession of any great quickness of apprehension or wit, such as distinguished Huxley. (47) He asserted, also, that his power to follow a long and purely abstract train of thought was very limited, for which reason he felt certain that he never could have succeeded with mathematics. His memory, too, he described as extensive, but hazy. So poor in one sense was it that he never could remember for more than a few days a single date or a line of poetry. (48) On the other hand, he did not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that, while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning. This, he thought, could not be true, because the “Origin of Species” is one longargument from the beginning to the end, and has convinced many able men. No one, he submits, could have written it without possessing some power of reasoning. He was willing to assert that “I have a fair share of invention, and of common sense or judgment, such as every fairly successful lawyer or doctor must have, but not, I believe, in an y higher degree.” (49)He adds humbly that perhaps he was “superior to the common run of men in noticing things which easily escape attention, and in observing them carefully.”Writing in the last year of his life, he expressed the opinion that in two or three respects his mind had changed during the preceding twenty or thirty years. Up to the age of thirty or beyond it poetry of many kinds gave him great pleasure. Formerly, too, pictures had given him considerable, and music very great, delight. In 1881, ho wever, he said: “Now for many years I cannot endure to read a line of poetry. I have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music.” (50) Darwin was convinced that the loss of these tastes was not only a loss of happiness, but might possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character.Section III WritingPart A51. Directions:You have just come back from Canada and found a music CDin your luggage that you forgot to return to Bob, your landlord there. Write him a letter to1) make an apology, and2) suggest a solution.You should write about 100 words on ANSWER SHEET 2.Do not sign your own name at the end of the letter. Use “Li Ming” instead.Do not write the address. (10 points)Part B52. Directions:Write an essay of 160-200 words based on the following drawing. In your essay, you should1) describe the drawing briefly,2) explain its intended meaning, and then3) give your comments.You should write neatly on ANSHWER SHEET 2. (20 points)2008年全国硕士研究生招生考试英语（一）答案详解Section I Use of English一、文章总体分析这是一篇议论文。

AWL英语学术词汇表

《英语常用学术词汇表》《英语学术词汇表》(The Academic Word List, AWL)是一个由Victoria University of Wel lington, New Zealand 的一些应用语言学家统计出来的词汇表，它包含了学术英语(English for Academic Purpose)中最常用的570个词目(headwords)。

《英语学术词汇表》分10个sublists (小类)，除了第10小类包含30个词目外，其他小类均含有60个词目。

Sublist 1（第1类）包含的词汇最常用，sublist 2（第2类）中的词汇使用频率稍低，其他的sublist3 依次类推。

Sublist 1 of the Academic Word Listanalyseanalysedanalyseranalysersanalysesanalysinganalysisanalystanalystsanalyticanalyticalanalyticallyanalyzeanalyzedanalyzesanalyzing approachapproachableapproachedapproachesapproachingunapproachable areaareasassessassessableassessedassessesassessing economyeconomiceconomicaleconomicallyeconomicseconomieseconomisteconomistsuneconomical environmentenvironmentalenvironmentalistenvironmentalistsenvironmentallyenvironmentsestablishdisestablishdisestablisheddisestablishesdisestablishingdisestablishmentestablishedestablishesestablishingestablishmentestablishments estimateestimatedestimateslegismajormethooccurperceassessmentassessmentsreassessreassessedreassessingreassessmentunassessedassumeassumedassumesassumingassumptionassumptions authorityauthoritativeauthorities availableavailabilityunavailablebenefitbeneficialbeneficiarybeneficiariesbenefitedbenefitingbenefitsconceptconceptionconceptsconceptualconceptualisationconceptualiseconceptualisedconceptualisesconceptualisingconceptually consistconsistedconsistencyconsistentconsistentlyconsistingconsistsinconsistencies estimatingestimationestimationsover-estimate overestimateoverestimated overestimates overestimating underestimate underestimated underestimates underestimatingevidentevidencedevidenceevidentialevidently exportexportedexporterexportersexportingexportsfactorfactoredfactoringfactorsfinancefinancedfinancesfinancialfinanciallyfinancierfinanciersfinancing formulaformulaeformulasformulateformulatedformulatingformulationformulationsreformulate periopolic princproceproce requi resea respoinconsistencyinconsistent constituteconstituenciesconstituencyconstituentconstituentsconstitutedconstitutesconstitutingconstitutionconstitutionsconstitutionalconstitutionallyconstitutiveunconstitutional contextcontextscontextualcontextualisecontextualisedcontextualisinguncontextualisedcontextualizecontextualizedcontextualizinguncontextualized contractcontractedcontractingcontractorcontractorscontractscreatecreatedcreatescreatingcreationcreationscreativecreativelycreativitycreatorcreators reformulated reformulating reformulation reformulationsfunctionfunctionalfunctionallyfunctionedfunctioningfunctionsidentifyidentifiableidentificationidentifiedidentifiesidentifyingidentitiesidentityunidentifiable incomeincomesindicateindicatedindicatesindicatingindicationindicationsindicativeindicatorindicators individualindividualisedindividualityindividualismindividualistindividualistsindividualisticindividuallyindividuals interpretinterpretationinterpretationsinterpretativeinterpreted role sectisecto signisimil sourc speci strucrecreaterecreatedrecreatesrecreatingdatadefinedefinabledefineddefinesdefiningdefinitiondefinitionsredefineredefinedredefinesredefiningundefined derivederivationderivationsderivativederivativesderivedderivesderiving distributedistributeddistributingdistributiondistributionaldistributionsdistributivedistributordistributorsredistributeredistributedredistributesredistributingredistributioninterpretinginterpretiveinterpretsmisinterpretmisinterpretationmisinterpretationsmisinterpretedmisinterpretingmisinterpretsreinterpretreinterpretedreinterpretsreinterpretingreinterpretationreinterpretations involveinvolvedinvolvementinvolvesinvolvinguninvolvedissueissuedissuesissuinglabourlaborlaboredlaborslabouredlabouringlabourslegalillegalillegalityillegallylegalitylegallytheorvarySublist 2 of the Academic Word Listachieve achievable achieved achievement achievements achievesachievingacquire acquiredacquires acquiringacquisitionacquisitions administrate administratesadministration administrationsadministrative administratively administratoradministrators affect affected affecting affective affectively affectsunaffected appropriate appropriacy appropriately appropriateness inappropriacy inappropriateinappropriately aspectaspects assistassistance assistant assistants assisted assistingassists distinctdistinction distinctions distinctive distinctively distinctly indistinct indistinctlyelementelements equate equatedequatesequating equationequations evaluate evaluated evaluates evaluatingevaluationevaluations evaluative re-evaluate re-evaluated re-evaluates re-evaluatingre-evaluationfeaturefeatured features featuring final finalisefinalisedfinalisesfinalisingfinalize finalized finalizes finalizing finality finallyfinalspartipercepositpotenpreviprimapurchrangeregioregulunassisted categorycategoriescategorisationcategorisecategorisedcategorisescategorisingcategorizationcategorizedcategorizescategorizing chapterchapters commissioncommissionedcommissionercommissionerscommissioningcommissions communitycommunities complexcomplexitiescomplexity computecomputationcomputationalcomputationscomputablecomputercomputedcomputerisedcomputerscomputing concludeconcludedconcludesconcludingconclusionconclusionsconclusiveconclusivelyinconclusive focusfocusedfocusesfocusingfocussedfocussingrefocusrefocusedrefocusesrefocusingrefocussedrefocussesrefocussingimpactimpactedimpactingimpactsinjureinjuredinjuresinjuriesinjuringinjuryuninjuredinstituteinstitutedinstitutesinstitutinginstitutioninstitutionalinstitutionaliseinstitutionalisedinstitutionalisesinstitutionalisinginstitutionalizedinstitutionalizesinstitutionalizinginstitutionallyinstitutionsinvestinvestedinvestinginvestmentinvestmentsrelevresidresourestrsecurinconclusively conductconductedconductingconducts consequentconsequenceconsequencesconsequently constructconstructedconstructingconstructionconstructionsconstructiveconstructsreconstructreconstructedreconstructingreconstructionreconstructs consumeconsumedconsumerconsumersconsumesconsumingconsumption creditcreditedcreditingcreditorcreditorscreditscultureculturalculturallyculturedculturesuncultured designdesigneddesignerdesignersinvestorinvestorsinvestsreinvestreinvestedreinvestingreinvestmentreinvestsitemitemisationitemiseitemiseditemisesitemisingitemsjournaljournalsmaintainmaintainedmaintainingmaintainsmaintenancenormalabnormalabnormallynormalisationnormalisenormalisednormalisesnormalisingnormalizationnormalizenormalizednormalizesnormalizingnormalitynormallyobtainobtainableobtainedobtainingobtainsunobtainableseekselecsitestratsurvetexttraditransdesigningdesignsSublist 3 of the Academic Word Listalternativealternativelyalternatives circumstancecircumstances commentcommentariescommentarycommentatorcommentatorscommentedcommentingcomments compensatecompensatedcompensatescompensatingcompensationcompensationscompensatory componentcomponentrycomponents consentconsensusconsentedconsentingconsents considerableconsiderably constantconstancyconstantlyconstantsinconstancyinconstantly constrainconstrained emphasisemphasiseemphasisedemphasisingemphasizeemphasizedemphasizesemphasizingemphaticemphatically ensureensuredensuresensuring excludeexcludedexcludesexcludingexclusionexclusionaryexclusionistexclusionsexclusiveexclusively frameworkframeworks fundfundedfunderfundersfundingfundsillustrateillustratedillustratesillustratingillustrationillustrationsconstrainingconstrainsconstraintconstraintsunconstrained contributecontributedcontributescontributingcontributioncontributionscontributorcontributors conveneconventionconvenesconvenedconveningconventionalconventionallyconventionsunconventional coordinatecoordinatedcoordinatescoordinatingcoordinationcoordinatorcoordinatorsco-ordinateco-ordinatedco-ordinatesco-ordinatingco-ordinationco-ordinatorco-ordinators corecorescoringcored corporatecorporatescorporationcorporationsillustrative immigrateimmigrantimmigrantsimmigratedimmigratesimmigratingimmigration implyimpliedimpliesimplying initialinitially instanceinstances interactinteractedinteractinginteractioninteractionsinteractiveinteractivelyinteracts justifyjustifiablejustifiablyjustificationjustificationsjustifiedjustifiesjustifyingunjustified layerlayeredlayeringlayerslinklinkagelinkageslinkedlinkinglinkslocatecorrespondcorrespondedcorrespondencecorrespondingcorrespondinglycorresponds criteriacriterion deducededuceddeducesdeducingdeductiondeductions demonstratedemonstrabledemonstrablydemonstrateddemonstratesdemonstratingdemonstrationdemonstrationsdemonstrativedemonstrativelydemonstratordemonstrators documentdocumentationdocumenteddocumentingdocuments dominatedominancedominantdominateddominatesdominatingdominationlocatedlocatinglocationlocationsrelocaterelocatedrelocatesrelocatingrelocation maximisemaxmaximisedmaximisesmaximisingmaximisationmaximizemaximizedmaximizesmaximizingmaximizationmaximumminorminoritiesminorityminors negatenegativenegatednegatesnegatingnegativelynegatives outcomeoutcomes partnerpartnerspartnershippartnershipsSublist 4 of the Academic Word Listaccessaccessedaccessesaccessibilityaccessibleaccessinginaccessible adequateadequacyadequatelyinadequaciesinadequacyinadequateinadequately annualannually apparentapparently approximateapproximatedapproximatelyapproximatesapproximatingapproximationapproximations attitudeattitudes attributeattributableattributedattributesattributingattribution civilcodecodedcodescodingcommitcommitmentcommitments errorerroneouserroneouslyerrorsethnicethnicitygoalgoalsgrantgrantedgrantinggrantshencehypothesishypotheseshypothesisehypothesisedhypothesiseshypothesisinghypothesizehypothesizedhypothesizeshypothesizinghypotheticalhypothetically implementimplementationimplementedimplementingimplementsimplicateimplicatedimplicatesimplicatingimplicationimplicationsimposeimposedimposesimposingimpositionparallelparameterphasepredictprincipalpriorprofessioprojectpromotecommits committed committing communicate communicable communicated communicates communicatingcommunication communications communicative communicativelyuncommunicative concentrate concentrated concentratesconcentrating concentration conferconference conferences conferred conferring confers contrast contrasted contrasting contrastive contrasts cycle cycled cycles cyclic cyclical cycling debate debatable debated debatesdebating despite dimensiondimensionaldimensions integrate integrated integrates integrating integration internal internalise internalised internalises internalising internalize internalized internalizes internalizing internally investigate investigated investigates investigating investigation investigations investigative investigator investigators job jobs label labeled labeling labelled labelling labels mechanism mechanisms obvious obviously occupy occupancy occupant occupants occupation occupational occupations occupied regimeresolve retainseries statisticstatus stresssubsequensumsummarymultidimensional domestic domestically domesticate domesticated domesticating domestics emerge emerged emergence emergent emerges emergingoccupieroccupiers occupies occupyingoption optionaloptions outputoutputsoverall undertakeSublist 5 of the Academic Word Listacademy academia academic academically academics academies adjust adjusted adjusting adjustment adjustments adjusts readjust readjusted readjusting readjustment readjustments readjusts alter alterable alteration alterations altered alteringalternate expandexpanded expandingexpands expansionexpansionismexpansive expose exposed exposes exposing exposure exposures external externalisation externalise externalisedexternalisesexternalising externality externalization externalize externalized externalizesexternalizingalternatingaltersunalterableunaltered amendamendedamendingamendmentamendmentsamendsawareawarenessunaware capacitycapacitiesincapacitateincapacitated challengechallengedchallengerchallengerschallengeschallenging clauseclauses compoundcompoundedcompoundingcompounds conflictconflictedconflictingconflicts consultconsultancyconsultantconsultantsconsultationconsultationsconsultativeconsultedconsultsconsulting contact externallyfacilitatefacilitatedfacilitatesfacilitiesfacilitatingfacilitationfacilitatorfacilitatorsfacility fundamentalfundamentally generategeneratedgeneratesgenerating generationgenerations imageimageryimagesliberalliberaliseliberalismliberalisationliberalisedliberalisesliberalisingliberalizationliberalizeliberalizedliberalizesliberalizingliberateliberatedliberatesliberationliberationsliberatingliberatorliberatorsliberallyliberals licencecontactablecontactedcontactingcontacts declinedeclineddeclinesdeclining discretediscretelydiscretiondiscretionaryindiscreteindiscretion draftdrafteddraftingdraftsredraftredraftedredraftingredrafts enableenabledenablesenabling energyenergeticenergeticallyenergies enforceenforcedenforcementenforcesenforcing entityentities equivalentequivalence evolveevolutionevolvedevolvingevolves licences licenselicensed licensing licenses unlicensedlogicillogicalillogicallylogicallogicallylogicianlogicians marginmarginalmarginallymargins medicalmedically mentalmentalitymentally modifymodificationmodificationsmodifiedmodifiesmodifyingunmodified monitormonitoredmonitoringmonitorsunmonitored networknetworkednetworkingnetworks notionnotions objectiveobjectivelyobjectivityevolutionary evolutionist evolutionistsSublist 6 of the Academic Word Listabstract abstraction abstractions abstractlyabstracts accurate accuracy accurately inaccuracy inaccuracies inaccurate acknowledge acknowledged acknowledges acknowledging acknowledgement acknowledgements aggregate aggregated aggregates aggregating aggregation allocate allocated allocates allocating allocation allocations assignassigned assigning assignment assignments assigns reassign reassignedreassigning enhanceenhanced enhancement enhancesenhancingestateestates exceed exceeded exceedingexceeds expertexpertise expertly expertsexplicitexplicitly federalfederation federations feefees flexibleflexibility inflexible inflexibility furthermore gendergenders ignorant ignorance ignore ignored ignoresignoringincentiveincentives neutralneverthe overseasprecedepresumerationalreassignsunassigned attachattachedattachesattachingattachmentattachmentsunattached authorauthoredauthoringauthorsauthorship bondbondedbondingbondsbriefbrevitybriefedbriefingbrieflybriefs capablecapabilitiescapabilityincapablecitecitationcitationscitedcitingcites cooperatecooperatedcooperatescooperatingcooperationcooperativecooperativelyco-operateco-operatedco-operates incidenceincidentincidentallyincidentsincorporateincorporatedincorporatesincorporatingincorporationindexindexedindexesindexinginhibitinhibitedinhibitinginhibitioninhibitionsinhibitsinitiateinitiatedinitiatesinitiatinginitiationinitiationsinitiativeinitiativesinitiatorinitiatorsinputinputsinstructinstructioninstructedinstructinginstructionsinstructiveinstructorinstructorsinstructsintelligentintelligenceintelligentlyunintelligentrecoverrevealscopesubsidytapetracetransforco-operation co-operative co-operatively discriminate discriminated discriminates discriminating discrimination displaydisplayed displaying displays diverse diversely diversification diversified diversifies diversify diversifying diversity domaindomains editedited editing edition editions editor editorial editorials editors edits interval intervals lecturelectured lecturer lecturers lectureslecturingmigratemigrant migrantsmigratedmigratesmigratingmigration migrations migratoryminimum ministryministeredministeringministerialministries motive motivate motivated motivates motivating motivation motivations motivesunmotivatedtransporunderlieutiliseSublist 7 of the Academic Word Listadapt adaptability adaptable adaptation adaptations adapted adaptingadaptiveequip equipment equipped equipping equipsextract extractedextractingprohibitpublicatadaptsadultadulthoodadults advocateadvocacyadvocatedadvocatesadvocatingaidaidedaidingaidsunaided channelchannelledchannellingchannels chemicalchemicallychemicals classicclassicalclassics comprehensivecomprehensively comprisecomprisedcomprisescomprising confirmconfirmationconfirmedconfirmingconfirms contrarycontrarily convertconversionconversionsconvertedconvertibleconvertingconvertsextractionextractsfilefiledfilesfilingfiniteinfiniteinfinitely foundationfoundationsglobeglobalgloballyglobalisationglobalizationgradegradedgradesgradingguaranteeguaranteedguaranteeingguaranteeshierarchyhierarchicalhierarchiesidenticalidenticallyideologyideologicalideologicallyideologiesinferinferenceinferencesinferredinferringinfersinnovateinnovationinnovatedinnovatesinnovatingquotereleasereversesimulatesolesomewhatsubmitsuccessosurvivecouplecoupledcouplingcouplesdecadedecadesdefinitedefinitelydefinitiveindefiniteindefinitely denydeniabledenialdenialsdenieddeniesdenyingundeniable differentiatedifferentiateddifferentiatesdifferentiatingdifferentiation disposedisposabledisposaldisposeddisposesdisposing dynamicdynamicallydynamics eliminateeliminatedeliminateseliminatingelimination empiricalempiricallyempiricisminnovationsinnovativeinnovatorinnovatorsinsertinsertedinsertinginsertioninsertsinterveneintervenedintervenesinterveninginterventioninterventionsisolateisolatedisolatesisolatingisolationisolationismmediamodemodesparadigmparadigms phenomenonphenomenaphenomenalpriorityprioritiesprioritisationprioritiseprioritisedprioritisesprioritisingprioritizationprioritizeprioritizedprioritizesprioritizingthesistopictransmitultimateuniquevisiblevoluntarSublist 8 of the Academic Word Listabandonabandonedabandoningabandonmentabandons accompanyaccompaniedaccompaniesaccompanimentaccompanyingunaccompanied accumulateaccumulatedaccumulatingaccumulationaccumulates ambiguousambiguitiesambiguityunambiguousunambiguously appendappendixappendedappendsappendingappendicesappendixes appreciateappreciableappreciablyappreciatedappreciatesappreciatingappreciationunappreciated arbitraryarbitrarinessarbitrarily automateautomaticautomatedautomatesautomating detectdetectabledetecteddetectingdetectiondetectivedetectivesdetectordetectorsdetectsdeviatedeviateddeviatesdeviatingdeviationdeviationsdisplacedisplaceddisplacementdisplacesdisplacingdramadramasdramaticdramaticallydramatisedramatiseddramatisingdramatisesdramatisationdramatisationsdramatistdramatistsdramatizationdramatizationsdramatizedramatizeddramatizesdramatizingeventualeventualityeventuallyexhibitexhibitedminiminucleaoffsetparagrpluspractipredomprosperadicarandomreinforestorautomaticallyautomationbiasbiasedbiasesbiasingunbiasedchartchartedchartingchartsunchartedclarifyclarificationclarifiedclarifiesclarifyingclarity commoditycommodities complementcomplementarycomplementedcomplementingcomplements conformconformableconformabilityconformanceconformationconformedconformingconformistconformistsconformityconformsnonconformistnonconformistsnonconformitynon-conformistnon-conformistsnon-conformity contemporarycontemporaries exhibiting exhibition exhibitions 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anticipateanticipatedanticipatesanticipatinganticipationunanticipated assureassuranceassurancesassuredassuredlyassuresassuring attainattainable diminishdiminisheddiminishesdiminishingdiminutionundiminisheddistortdistorteddistortingdistortiondistortionsdistortsdurationerodeerodederodeserodingerosionethicethicalethicallyethicsunethicalpreliminprotocolqualitatrefinerelaxrestrainattainedattainingattainmentattainmentsattainsunattainable behalfbulkbulkyceaseceasedceaselessceasesceasing coherentcoherencecoherentlyincoherentincoherently coincidecoincidedcoincidescoincidingcoincidencecoincidencescoincidentcoincidental commencecommencedcommencescommencementcommencingrecommencesrecommencedrecommencing compatiblecompatibilityincompatibilityincompatible concurrentconcurrently confineconfinedconfines 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compilecompilation depressdepresseddepressesdepressingdepressionencounterencounteredencounteringencountersenormousenormityenormouslyforthcominginclineinclinationinclinationsinclinedongoingpanelpersistposereluctance。

U6-Discussion(1)

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In conclusion, the significance of this study is that ...
Move 3 This move most often provides the “yes or no” answer to our hypothesis, or makes the definitive statement about what the study has achieved. There is likely to be a statement of research questions which arise from this study, and therefore suggestions for further research. What needs to be investigated further is whether or not ...
Step Four of Move 2
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Our findings are similar to those of Tanaka
et al., who observed that ...
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The present study differs from previous
studies including...
educational program improved the quality of
life of patients with Parkinsonism.
(past tense)
Step One of Move 2
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These findings suggest that a
community-based educational

新教材同步系列2024春高中英语Unit12Innovation课件北师大版选择性必修第四册

This technique could bring significant benefits for those who
have genetic syndromes. The real value here is that for some of these ultra-rare diseases，the process of diagnosis can be many，many
分析：这是一个复合句。主句的主语为 “the facial regions”，谓语为 “are highlighted”和 “made”；“that are most helpful in the determination”是定语从句，“As the system makes its assessments”为时间状语从句。
As the system makes its assessments，the facial regions that are most helpful in the determination are highlighted and made available for doctors to view. This helps them to understand the relationships between genetic make-up and physical appearance.
probability of having certain disorders. 分析：这是一个复合句 “If faces can reveal details about
genetics”是条件状语从句，in principle，secretly 是状语，“to discriminate against people”是动词不定式作目的状语，“who have a high probability of having certain disorders”是定语从句，修饰先行词“people”。

2023年12月六级真题第2套

大学英语六级考试2023年12月真题(第二套)Part] Writing (30 minutes) Directions: For this part,you are allowed 30 minutes to write an essay that begins with the sentence “Nowadaysparents are increasingly aware that allowing kids more freedom to explore and learn on their own helps foster their independence and boost their confidence.”You can make comments,cite examples or use your personal experiences to develop your essay.You should write at least 150words but no more than 200words (not including the sentence given).Part II Listening Comprehension (30 minutes) Section ADirections: In this section,you will hear two long conversations.At the end of each conversation,you will hear four questions.Both the conversation and the questions will bespoken only once.Afier you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter o n Answer Sheet I with a single line through the centre.Questions 1 to 4 are based on the conversation you have just heard.1.A)Renting a car instead of driving their own. C)Exploring more summer holiday resorts.B)Surfing online to check out the best deals. D)Spending their holidays in a novel way.2.A)He once owned a van. C)He did not find holiday homes appealing.B)He was well travelled. D)He did not like to be locked into one place.3.A)Ensure the safety of passengers. C)Receive instructions via computers.B)Drive under any weather condition.D)Generate their own electricity.4.A)Having one's basic needs covered while away from home.B)Enjoying the freedom to choose where to go and work.C)Slowing down in one's increasingly hectic life.D)Riding one's mountain bike on vacation.Questions 5 to 8 are based on the conversation you have just heard.5.A)She has missed several important appointments lately.B)Her job performance has worsened over the past month.C)She has lagged behind most of her co-workers in output.D)Her physical health has deteriorated these past few weeks.6.A)Serious health issues. C)Some problems at home.B)Disturbance of her mind. D)Penalty for curtailed output.7.A)The woman's work proficiency. C)His engaging personalityB)The woman's whole-hearted support. D)His management capability8.A)The woman will resume her work in two weeks.B)The man will be back at his 100%in a couple of weeks.C)The woman will be off work on the next two Mondays.D)The man will help the woman get back to her usual self.·2023年12月六级真题(第二套)·10Section BDirections: In this section,you will hear two passages.At the end of each passage,you will hear three or four questions.Both the passage and the questions will be spoken only once.After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet I with a single line through the centre.Questions 9 to 11 are based on the passage you have just heard.9.A)It can have an impact on our moods and emotions.B)It can enable us to live a healthier and longer life.C)It can improve our financial status significantly.D)It can help us achieve better work performance.10.A)One's health tends to differ before and after marriage.B)One's health status is related to one's social background.C)The wealthier one's spouse is,the healthier one becomes.D)The spouse's level of education can impact one's health.11.A)They benefited a lot from their career achievements.B)They showed interest in their spouse's occupations.C)They had much in common with their spouses.D)They had more education than their spouses.Questions 12 to 15 are based on the passage you have just heard.12.A)Eliminating their root cause. C)Identifying the cities'geological features.B)Forecasting flood risks accurately. D)Finding out the changing climate patterns.13.A)To validate his hypothesis about the gravity of floods.B)To determine the frequency of high tides causing floods.C)To improve his mathematical flooding model.D)To see the feasibility of his project on flooding.14.A)To study the consequences of high tides on flooded areas.B)To teach local citizens how to collect data of incoming floods.C)To forecast rapid floods in real time.D)To classify the flooding data processed.15.A)They set up Internet-connected water-level sensors.B)They tracked the rising tides with video-cameras.C)They used newly-developed supercomputing facilities.D)They observed the direction of water flow on the spot.Section CDirections: In this section,you will hear three recordings of lectures or talks followed by three or four questions. The recordings will be played only once.Afier you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A),B),C)and D).Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet I with a single line through the centre.Questions 16 to 18 are based on the recording you have just heard.16.A)To argue about the value of a college degree.B)To debate the validity of current survey data.11·2023年12月六级真题(第二套) ·C)To account for the drastic decline in employment among men.D)To compare men without college degrees with those who have.17.A)The increase in women taking up jobs. C)The factor of wages.B)The issue of changing job requirements. D)The impact of inflation.18.A)Men's unwillingness to accept low wages in times of growing inflation.B)The wage gap between those with college degrees and those without.C)More jobs requiring their holders to have a college degree nowadays.D)The sharp decline in marriage among men with no college degrees.Questions 19 to 21 are based on the recording you have just heard.19.A)More and more people attach importance to protecting endangered animals.B)More and more people prioritize animal welfare when buying things to wear.C)An increasing number of people demand to free animals being kept in cages.D)An increasing number of people follow the latest trend of becoming vegetarians.20.A)Avoided the use of leather and fur. C)Refrained from using chemicals in their products.B)Labelled all their products as vegan.D)Utilized a silk substitute made from mushrooms.21.A)Whether they actually signify a substantial change. C)Whether they can be considered sustainable.B)Whether they effectively protect animals at large. D)Whether they can be regarded as ethical.Questions 22 to 25 are based on the recording you have just heard.22.A)The era we live in is the most peaceful in history.B)The world has seen more violence in recent years.C)The environmental welfare has worsened in the world.D)The belief is less prevalent that the world is going to hell.23.A)They were actually not in their right mind.B)They believed the world was deteriorating.C)They did not wish to live in the previous century.D)They were convinced by the statistics presented to them.24.A)The subjectivity of mass media. C)Our psychological biases.B)The current state of affairs. D)Our ancestors'influence.25.A)Spreading exciting news around us far and wide. C)Calculating dangerous risks to our survival.B)Vacuuming up depressing or enraging stories. D)Paying attention to negative information. Part ⅢReading Comprehension (40 minutes)Section ADirections: In this section,there is a passage with ten blanks.You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage.Read the passage through carefiully before making your choices.Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter:Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.Our brains respond to language expressing facts differently than they do to words conveying possibility, scientists at New York University have recently found.Their work offers new insights into the impact word choice has on how we 26between statements expressing what is real versus what is merely possible.The ·2023年12月六级真题(第二套)·12researchers assert their findings are important because we are presented with false information all the time. Some of this is 27 ,as is the case with deceptive advertisements,but the problem is 28_by individuals who believe they are sharing correct information.Thus,it is more important than ever to separate the factual from the possible or merely 29 in how we communicate.This is especially true as the study makes clear that information presented as fact 30 special responses in our brains,which are distinct from when we process the same content with clear indicators of 31In their new study,the scientists intended to 32 how the brain computes possibilities as expressed by words such as “may,”“might,”and “if.”The researchers compared brain responses to statements expresing factual 33 and those expressing possibility."There is a monster under my bed"exemplifies a factual statement.“I will stay home,”is also factual.This is opposed to statements that express possibility,like “There might be a monster under my bed,"or “If it rains,I will stay home."The results of the study showed that factual language_ 34 a rapid increase in brain activity,with the brain responding more powerfully and showing more engagement with factual phrases compared to those communicating possibility.Thus,facts rule when it comes to the brain.Brain regions involved in processing 35 rapidly distinguish facts from possibilities.Further,these regions respond in a much more robust fashion to factual statements.Section BDirections: In this section,you are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it.Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs.Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived.You may choose a paragraph more than once.Each paragraph is marked with a letter:Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2.Treasure FeverA)Most visitors come to Cape Canaveral,on the northeast coast of Florida,for the tourist attractions.It's hometo the second-busiest cruise ship port in the world and is a gateway to the cosmos.Nearly 1.5 million visitors flock here every year to watch rockets,spacecraft,and satellites blast off into the solar system from Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex.Nearly 64 kilometers of undeveloped beach and 648 square kilometers of protected refuge fan out from the cape's sandy shores.B)Yet some of Cape Canaveral's most legendary attractions lie unseen,wedged under the sea's surface inmud and sand,for this part of the world has a reputation as a deadly ship trap.Over the centuries,dozens of majestic Old World sailing ships smashed and sank on this irregular stretch of windy Florida coast.They were vessels built for war and commerce,crossing the globe carrying everything from coins to cannons,boxes of silver and gold,chests of jewels and porcelain,and pearls from the Caribbean.13·2023年12月六级真题(第二套)·C)Cape Canaveral contains one of the greatest concentrations of colonial shipwrecks in the world.In recentyears,advances in radar,diving,detection equipment,computers,and GPS have transformed the hunt.The naked eye might see a pile of rocks,but technology can reveal the precious artifacts(人工制品) that lie hidden on the ocean floor.D)As technology renders the seabed more accessible,the hunt for treasure-filled ships has drawn a fresh tideof salvors(打捞人员)and their investors—as well as marine archaeologists(考古学家)wanting to bring to light the lost relics.But of late,when salvors have found vessels,their rights have been challenged in court.The big question:who should have control of these treasures?E)High-stakes fights over shipwrecks pit archacologists against treasure hunters in a vicious cycle ofaccusations.Archacologists regard themselves as protectors of history,and they see salvors as careless destroyers.Salvors feel they do the hard work of searching for ships,only to have them stolen from under them when discovered.This kind of clash inevitably takes place on a grand scale.Aside from the salvors, their investors,and the maritime archacologists who serve as expert witnesses,the battles sweep in local and international govemments and organizations like UNESCO that work to protect under-water heritage.The court cases that ensue stretch on for years.Are finders keepers,or do the ships belong to the countries that made them and sent them sailing centuries ago?Where once salvors and archacologists worked side by side, now they belong to opposing,and equally contemptuous,tribes.F)Nearly three million vessels lie wrecked on the Earth's ocean floor-from old canoes to the Titanic—andikely less than one percent have been explored.Some—like an ancient Roman ship found off Antikythera, Greece,dated between 70 and 60 BC and carrying astonishingly sophisticated gears and dials for navigating by the sun-are critical to a new understanding of our past.No wonder there is an eternal stirring among everybody from salvors to scholars to find them.G)In May 2016,a salvor named Bobby Pritchett,president of Global Marine Exploration (GME)in Tampa,Florida,announced that he had discovered scattered remains of a ship buried a kilometer off Cape Canaveral.Over the prior three years,he and his crew had obtained 14 state permits to survey a nearly 260-square- kilometer area off the cape;they worked 250 days a year,backed by investor funds of,he claims,US S4 million.It was hard work.Crew members were up at dawn,dragging sensors from their expedition vessels back and forth,day in and day out,year after year,to detect metal of any ing computer technology, Pritchett and his crew created intricate,color-coded maps marked with the GPS coordinates of thousands offinds,all invisible under a meter of sand.H)One day in 2015,the magnetometer (磁力计)picked up metal that turned out to be an iron cannon;when thedivers blew the sand away,they also discovered a more precious bronze cannon with markings indicating French royalty and,not far off,a famous marble column carved with the coat of arms of France,known from historical paintings.The discovery was cause for celebration.The arifacts indicated the divers had likely found the wreck of La Trinité,a 16th-century French vessel that had been at the center of a bloody battle between France and Spain that changed the fate of the United States of America.I)And then the legal storm began,with GME and Pritchett pitted against Florida and France.The SunkenMilitary Craft Act of 2004,a US federal act,protects any vessel that was on a military mission,allowing the originating country to claim their ship even centuries later.In 2018,two long years after Pritchett's discovery, the federal district court ruled in favor of France.For Pritchett,the decision was lions of dollars of investor funding and years of labor were lost.J)But this is far from the first time a salvor has lost all rights to a discovery.In 2012,for instance,Spain won a five-year legal battle against Odyssey Marine Exploration,which had hauled 594,000 gold and silver coins ·2023年12月六级真题(第二套) · 14from a Spanish wreck off the coast of Portugal across the Atlantic to the United States.“Treasure hunters can be naive,”says attorney David Concannon,who has had several maritime archaeologists as clients and represented two sides in the battles over the Titanic for 20 years.“Many treasure hunters don't understand they are going to have to fight for their rights against a govemment that has an endless supply of money for legal battles that treasure hunters are likely to lose.”K)Puting an inflated price on artifacts rather than viewing them as cultural and historical treasures that transcend any price is what iritates many archaeologists.For the archaeologist,everything in a wreck matters-hair,fabric,a fragment of a newspaper,rat bones-all things speak volumes.Archacologists don't want artifacts ending up in a private collection instead of taking humanity on a jourmey of understanding.L)George Bass is one of the pioneers of under-water archacology,and a researcher at Texas A&M University.He has testified in court against treasure hunters,but says archacology is not without its own serious problems.He believes archacologists need to do a better job themselves instead of routinely criticizing treasure hunters.“Archaeology has a terrible reputation for not publishing enough on its excavations (发掘) and finds,"he says.Gathering data,unearthing and meticulously preserving and examining finds,verifying identity and origin,piecing together the larger story,and writing and publishing a comprehensive paper or book can take decades.A bit cynically,Bass describes colleagues who never published because they waited so long they became ill or died.Who is more at fault,Bass asks,the professional archacologist who carefully excavates a site and never publishes on it or the treasure hunter who locates a submerged wreck,salvages part,conserves part,and publishes a book on the operation?M)Pritchett concedes that his find deserves careful excavation and preservation."I think what I found should go in a museum,"he says."But I also think I should get paid for what I found.”Indeed,it's a bit of a mystery why governments,archacologists,and treasure hunters can't work together-and why salvors aren't at least given a substantial finder's fee before the original owner takes possession of the vessel and its artifacts.36.Exploration of shipwrecks on the sea floor is crucial in updating our understanding of humanity's past.37.Quite a number of majestic ships sailing from Europe to America were wrecked off the Florida coast over thecenturies.38.Pritchett suffered a heavy loss when a US district court ruled against him.39.Recently,people who found treasures in shipwrecks have been sued over their rights to own them.40.Pritchett claims he got support of millions of dollars from investors for his shipwreck exploration.41.One pioneer marine scientist thinks archacologists should make greater efforts to publish their findings.42.With technological advancement in recent years,salvors now can detect the invaluable man-made objectslying buried under the sea.43.According to a lawyer,many treasure hunters are susceptible to loss because they are unaware they face afinancially stronger opponent in court.44.Salvors of treasures in sunken ships and marine archaeologists are now hostile to each other.45.Archacologists want to see artifacts help humans understand their past instead of being sold to privatecollectors at an outrageous price.Section CDirections: There are 2 passages in this section.Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements.For each of them there are four choices marked A),B),C)and D).You should decide on the best choice and mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre.15 ·2023年12月六级真题(第二套) ·Passage OneQuestions 46 to 50 are based on the following passage.Could you get by without using the internet for four and a half years?That's exactly what singer and actress Selena Gomez has done in a bid to improve her mental health.She has spoken extensively about the relationship between her social media usage and her mental wellbeing, recalling feeling like “an addict”when she became Instagram's most followed user in 2016.“Taking a break from social media was the best decision that I ve ever made for my mental health”,says she.“The unnecessary hate and comparisons went away once I put my phone down.”Ditching the web at large,however,is a far more subtle and complicated prospect.The increasing digitisation of our society means that everything from paying a gas bill to ploting a route to a friend's house and even making a phone call is at the merey of your internet connection.Actively opting out of using the internet becomes a matter of privilege.Ms Gomez's multi-millionaire status has allowed her to take the “social"out of social media,so she can continue to leverage her enormous fame while keeping the trolls(恶意挑衅的帖子)at bay.The fact that she's still the second most-followed woman on Instagram suggests it's entirely possible to maintain a significant web profile to promote various projects-by way of a dedicated team—without being exposed to the cruel comments, hate mail and rape or death threats.It goes without saying that this is fundamentally different from how the rest of us without beauty deals and films to publicise use the likes of Instagram,TikTok and Twiter,but even the concept of a digital detox( 戒瘾 ) requires having a device and connectivity to choose to disconnect from.The UK's digital divide has worsened over the past two years,leaving poorer families without broadband connections in their homes.Digital exclusion is a major threat to wider societal equality in the UK,so witnessing companies like Faccbook championing the metaverse(元宇宙)as the next great frontier when school children are struggling to complete their homework feels particularly irritating.Consequently,it's worth bearing in mind that while deleting all social media accounts will undoubtedly make some feel infinitely better,many other people benefit from the strong sense of community that sharing platforms can breed.Intemet access will continue to grow in importance as we edge further towards web 3.0,and greater resources and initiatives are needed to provide the underprivileged with the connectivity they desperately need to learn,work and ive.It's crucial that people who feel that social media is having a detrimental effect on their mental health are allowed to switch off and for those living in digital exclusion to be able to switch on in the first place.46.What do we learn about singer and actress Selena Gomez in the past four and a half years?A)She has had worsening mental problems. C)She has refrained from using social media.B)She has won Instagram's most followers. D)She has succeeded in a bid on the internet.47.Why does actively opting out of using the internet become a matter of privilege?A)Most people find it subtle and complicated to give up using the internet.B)Most people can hardly ditch the web while avoiding hate and comparisons.C)Most people can hardly get by without the internet due to growing digitisation.D)Most people have been seriously addicted to the web without being aware of it.48.Why does the author say “witnes ing companies…feels particularly irritating”(Lines2-4,Para.6)?A)The UK digital divide would further worsen due to the metaverse.B)The concept of the metaverse is believed to be still quite illusory.·2023年12月六级真题(第二套) ·16C)School children would be drawn farther away from the real world.D)Most families in the UK do not have stable broadband connections.49.What is worth bearing in mind concerming social media platforms?A)They are conducive to promoting societal equality.B)They help many people feel connected with others.C)They provide a necessary device for a digital detox.D)They create a virtual community on the internet.50.What does the author think is really important for those living in digital exclusion?A)Having access to the internet. C)Getting more educational resources.B)Edging further towards web 3.0. D)Opening more social media accounts.Passage TwoQuestions 51 to 55 are based on the following passage.Psychologists have long been in disagreement as to whether competition is a learned or a genetic component of human behavior.Whatever it is,you cannot but recognize the effect competition is exerting in academics and many other areas of contemporary life.Psychologically speaking,competition has been seen as an inevitable consequence of human drives. According to Sigmund Freud,humans are born screaming for attention and full of organic drives for fulfillment in various areas.Initially,we compete for the attention of our parents.Thereafter,we are at the mercy of a battle between our base impulses for self-fulfillment and social and cultural norms which prohibit pure indulgence.Curent work in anthropology(人类学)has suggested,however,that this view of the role of competition in human behavior may be incorrect.Thomas Hobbes,one of the great philosophers of the seventeenth century,is perhaps best remembered for his characterization of the "natural world,"that is,the world before the imposition of the will of humanity,as being“nasty,brutish,and short.”This image of the pre-rational world is still widely held,reinforced by Charles Darwin's highly influential work,The Origin of Species,which established the doctrine of natural selection.This doctrine,which takes for granted that those species best able to adapt to and master the natural environment in which they live will survive,has suggested that the struggle for survival is an inherent human trait which determines a person's success.Darwin's theory has even been summarized as “survival of the fittest”—a phrase Darwin himself never used—further highlighting competition's role in success. As it has often been pointed out,however,there is nothing in the concept of natural selection that suggests that competition is the most successful strategy for “survival of the fittest.”Darwin asserted in The Origin of Species that the struggles he was describing should be viewed as metaphors and could easily include dependence and cooperationMany studies have been conducted to test the importance placed on competition as opposed to other values, such as cooperation—by various cultures,and generally conclude that Americans uniquely praise competition as natural,inevitable,and desirable.In 1937,the world-renowned anthropologist Margaret Mead published Cooperation and Competition among Primitive Peoples,based on her studies of several societies that did notprize competition,and,in fact,seemed at times to place a negative value on it.One such society was the Zuni Indians of Arizona,and they,Mead found,valued cooperation far more than competition.After studying dozens of such cultures,Mead's final conclusion was that competitiveness is a culturally created aspect of human behavior,and that its prevalence in a particular society is relative to how that society values it.17 ·2023年12月六级真题(第二套) ·51.What does the author think is easy to see in many areas of contemporary life?A)The disagreement on the inevitability of competition.B)The consequence of psychological investigation.C)The effect of human drives.D)The impact of competition.52.According to psychology,what do people strive to do following the initial stage of their life?A)Fulfill individual needs without incurring adverse effects of human drives.B)Indulge in cultural pursuits while keeping their base impulses at bay.C)Gain extensive recognition without exposing pure indulgence.D)Satisfy their own desires while observing social conventions.53.What do we learn about the “natural world”characterized by Thomas Hobbes?A)It gets misrepresented by philosophers and anthropologists.B)It gets distorted in Darwin's The Origin of Species.C)It is free from the rational intervention of humans.D)It is the pre-rational world rarely appreciated nowadays.54.What can we conclude from Darwin's assertion in The Origin of Species?A)All species inherently depend on others for survival.B)Struggles for survival do not exclude mutual support.C)Competition weighs as much as cooperation as a survival strategy.D)The strongest species proves to be the fittest in natural selection.55.What conclusion did Margaret Mead reach after studying dozens of different cultures?A)It is characteristic of humans to be competitive.B)Americans are uniquely opposed to cooperation.C)Competition is relatively more prevalent in Western societies.D)People's attitude towards competition is actually culture-bound.Part IV Translation (30 minutes) Directions: For this part,you are allowed 30 minutes to translate a passage from Chinese into English.You should write your answer on Answer Sheet 2.随着经济与社会的发展，中国人口结构发生了显著变化，逐渐步入老龄化社会。

四川省泸州高级中学2025届高考英语必刷试卷含解析

四川省泸州高级中学2025届高考英语必刷试卷考生须知：1．全卷分选择题和非选择题两部分，全部在答题纸上作答。

选择题必须用2B铅笔填涂；非选择题的答案必须用黑色字迹的钢笔或答字笔写在“答题纸”相应位置上。

2．请用黑色字迹的钢笔或答字笔在“答题纸”上先填写姓名和准考证号。

3．保持卡面清洁，不要折叠，不要弄破、弄皱，在草稿纸、试题卷上答题无效。

第一部分（共20小题，每小题1.5分，满分30分）1．I shook hands and ________ greetings with the manager, who I impressed a lot.A．conveyed B．swapped C．exchanged D．switched2．The book ______ through the air to Aunt Dede and she began to read it aloud.A．got B．pushed C．sailed3．--- Hello, Tom. This is Mary speaking.--- What a coincidence! I_________ about you.A．just thought B．was just thinkingC．have just thought D．would just think4．_____ here, come and have a cup of tea.A．Passing B．To pass C．Pass D．Having passed5．I called her nearly ten minutes this morning, but I couldn’t ________.A．get through B．go through.C．live through D．look through6．U.S. President Barack Obama arrived in China’s economic center Shanghai on Sunday night, November 15th2009, ______a state visit to China.A．starting B．started C．to start D．having started7．— How do you think I can make up with Jack?— Set aside _______ you disagree and try to find _______ you have in common.A．what; what B．what; where C．where; what D．where; whether8．When caught _____ in the exam, he begged for the teacher’s pardon and tried ______ pu nishment.A．cheating; escaping B．to be cheating; to escapeC．cheating; to escape D．to be cheating; escaping9．Wolf Warrior 2, which ________ the “Award for Best Visual Effects” at the Beijing Film Festival, indicates China's film industry has come of age.A．wins B．wonC．has won D．had won10．________ has greater potential than flammable ice being mined from underneath the South China Sea when it comes to a global energy revolution.A．nothing B．neitherC．no one D．none11．He is a bad-tempered fellow, but he ________ be quite charming when he wishes.A．shall B．shouldC．can D．must12．At one time, she is fine, ________ at another, she is abnormal.A．and B．or C．but D．so13．—How about going sightseeing this Saturday afternoon?Sorry, I _______ my research report the whole weekend.A．will have written B．will be writingC．have written D．have been writing14．______ far in the contest, we are so disappointed.A．Not getting B．Not to getC．Not having got D．Not got15．After the fire，________________ would otherwise be a cultural center is now reduced to a pile of ashes.A．that B．itC．what D．which16．The reds and golds _____ into each other as the sun sank. What a beautiful sight!A．bumped B．pressedC．melted D．turned17．She was such a proud person that she would die she would admit she was wrong.A．since B．whenC．unless D．before18．Time is pressing．You cannot start your task _____ soon．A．too B．very C．so D．as19．If he ________ his teacher’s suggestion, he would have won the English Speech Con test.A．had followed B．should followC．was to follow D．followed20．I ________ able to catch the first flight home, but my watch betrayed me.A．were B．had beenC．would be D．would have been第二部分阅读理解（满分40分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。

你是i人还是e人英语作文结尾

你是i人还是e人英语作文结尾As I stand at the precipice of this introspective journey, I find myself grappling with the question that has long haunted the human psyche: am I an "i" person or an "e" person? This seemingly innocuous query belies a profound exploration of one's cognitive preferences, emotional landscape, and fundamental approach to life.The "i" and "e" dichotomy, popularized by psychologist Carl Jung, categorizes individuals based on their preferred mode of perceiving and processing information. "i" persons, or introverts, are characterized by their inward-facing nature, deriving energy and fulfillment from solitary pursuits and introspection. "e" persons, on the other hand, are extroverts, energized by interactions with others and thriving in social environments.While this distinction may appear clear-cut, the human psyche is a complex tapestry woven with myriad threads. Few individuals fall neatly into one category or the other, andmost navigate the spectrum with varying degrees of introversion and extroversion. For me, this introspective odyssey has been a winding path, marked by moments of both solitude and gregariousness.In the quiet recesses of my own mind, I find solace and inspiration. I am drawn to the written word, finding refuge in the pages of books and the rhythm of poetry. I cherish moments of uninterrupted contemplation, where I can delve into the depths of my thoughts and emotions without the distractions of the external world. Loneliness is not a burden but a companion, a space where I can cultivate my inner life.Yet, within this introspective realm, there exists a flicker of extroversion. I am not a recluse, shunning all social contact. I crave meaningful connections, the exchange of ideas, and the shared laughter that comes from genuine human interaction. I find myself drawn to small gatherings of close friends, where I can engage in intimate conversations and forge lasting bonds.The balance between introversion and extroversion is a delicate dance, a constant negotiation between my need for solitude and my desire for connection. I have learned to embrace both sides of my nature, recognizing that they are not mutually exclusive but complementary aspects of my being.In the tapestry of life, both introversion and extroversion play vital roles. Introverts bring depth, reflection, and creativity to the world, while extroverts foster connections, ignite enthusiasm, and drive progress. It is in the interplay between these two forces that true harmony lies.As I continue on my journey, I am reminded of the words of the great philosopher Lao Tzu: "Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom. Mastering others is strength; mastering yourself is true power." The pursuit of self-knowledge is an ongoing endeavor, alifelong exploration of the intricate labyrinth of our own minds.Whether I am an "i" person or an "e" person is less important than the profound understanding I gain from this introspective voyage. By embracing both my introverted and extroverted tendencies, I unlock the fullness of my potential and forge a life that is both authentic and fulfilling.。

英语三级笔译综合能力2004年试卷、答案及解析

英语三级笔译综合能力2004年试卷Section 1 Vocabulary and Grammar (25 points)This section consists of three parts. Bead the directions for each part before answering the questions. The time for this section is 25 minutes.Part 1 Vocabulary SelectionIn this party there are 20 incomplete sentences. Below each sentence, there are four choices respectively marked by letters A, B, C and D. Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence. There is only ONE right answer. Then blacken the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your Machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.1. Grover Cleveland was the first president ______ in the White House.A. got marriedB. to get marriedC. has got marriedD. was married2. If cauliflowers are not _____ from extreme temperatures, the heads get discolored.A. protectedB. shelterC. shadeD. saved3. The gas ______ from the tank is dangerous.A. given offB. giving outC. giving awayD. given up4. When it started to snow, we turned round and _____ the hotel.A. got byB. searched forC. made forD. cleared up5. Since writing home to their parents for money, they had lived _____ hope.A. inB. forC. onD. through6. Rice is the ______ food of most Southeast Asians.A. commonB. generalC. stapleD. popular7. William Byrd was the owner of the largest library in colonial ______.A. periodB. timeC. timesD. periods8. Exobiology is the study of life ______ other planets.A. inB. atC. onD. to9. The Declaration of Independence, _______ the Constitution of the United States,was drawn up with the help of Benjamin Franklin.A. andB. alsoC. as well asD. so too10. It was from the Lowell Laboratory that the ninth ______, Pluto, was sighted in1930.A. planetB. constellationC. stardomD. satellite11 .The rodent, _______ the mouse, rat, guinea pig, and porcupine, are mammals withincisor-like teeth in both jaws.A. made upB. includingC. consistingD. constitute12. ______ into oceans and rivers is a serious form of pollution.A. Pouring sewageB. Emptying litterC. Throwing garbageD. Dumping sewage13. Products which are made from dirts and are _____ high temperatures are knownas ceramics.A. tempered inB. subjected toC. exposed toD. baked in14. A pigment called melanin protects the _____ layers of skin from sun rays.A. underB. belowC. underlyingD. underneath15. Oranges are a ______ source of vitamin C.A. wellB. betterC. goodD. very16. Even after having their grandchildren live with them for ten years, the couple feltthat ______ children these days was the most difficult of all family matters.A. risingB. raisingC. caringD. taking care17. The most important ______ of the farmers in Iraq is dates, of which Iraq is theworld's leading exporter.A. economic cropB. cash cropC. money cropD. staple18. More has been learned about the Moon than any other of the Earth's neighbors inspace because of the Apollo program, which enabled men to walk on the Moon and bring back hundreds of pounds of _____.A. rocksB. rockC. stoneD. stones19. _____ the variety that the average family has in beef, fish, poultry, and vegetarianrecipes, they find most meals unexciting.A. InspiteB. InspiteC. Despite ofD. Despite20. The speaker _____ have criticized the paraprofessionals, knowing full well thatthey were seated in the audience.A. should not toB. must notC. ought not toD. may notPart 2 Vocabulary ReplacementThis part consists of 15 sentences in which one word or phrase is underlined. Below each sentence, there are four choices respectively marked by letters A, By C and D. Choose the word or phrase that can replace the underlined part without causing any grammatical error or changing the basic meaning of the sentence. There is only ONE right answer. Blacken the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your Machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.21. Iceland has the oldest parliament, which goes as far back to 930 A. D. whenAlthing, the legislative organization, was established.A. officeB. adobeC. assemblyD. building22. The only problem with the debate last week was that the beginning sounded morelike a personal attack than a dispassionate, intellectual arguing.A. discussionB. argumentC. talkD. speech23. Susan Jones was at the bus stop well on time to take the 7:01 bus, but she had tomiss her breakfast to do it.A. catch up withB. catchC. run up toD. be catching24. Since her father could not drive her to the airport, she requested her uncle to driveher instead.A. takeB. bringC. dispatchD. deliver25. A famous collection of Persian, Indian, and Arabian folktales, the Arabian Nightswas supposedly told by the legendary queen Scheherazade to her husband every night for 1,001 days.A. imaginaryB. imageryC. fabledD. legend26. What may be the oldest fossil footprint yet found was discovered in June 1968 byWilliam J. Meister, a non-professional fossil collector.A. a part-timeB. a spare-timeC. an untrainedD. an amateur27. Most of us think of sharks as dangerous, owing to lack of information rather thanfear.A. due toB. becauseC. asD. for28. Double Eagle D, the first trans-Atlantic balloon, was greeted by avid crowds inFrance.A. eagerB. surgingC. appreciativeD. vigorous29. The discovery of the connection between aspirin and Reyessyndrome, a rare anddeadly ailment, is a recent example of the caution with which drugs must be used, even for medical purposes.A. diseaseB. sickC. illD. illness30. My parents moved out of their old home sometime last year after they hadcelebrated their 50th year there.A. anniversaryB. years oldC. ageD. wedding31. The library she worked in lent books, magazines, audio-cassettes and maps to itscustomers, who could keep them for four weeks.A. borrowersB. lendersC. patronsD. clients32. A common question that people ask a story writer is whether or not he hasexperienced what he has written about.A. fictionB. scienceC. imaginaryD. literary33. At the World literacy Center, an organization that works to help people read, thehelpers work hard, enabling them to successfully reach their goals.A. assistantsB. volunteersC. part-timersD. amateurs34. The officers made it clear that they were letting her go only because that she wasold and not because she was above suspicion.A. for reasonB. due toC. because ofD. on the grounds35. The book, which is a useful guide for today's young people, deals with manyquestions and problems that face them at school and at home as well as in society.A. are facedB. confrontC. in oppositionD. meetPart 3 Error CorrectionThis part consists of 75 sentences in which there is an underlined part that indicates a grammatical error. Below each sentence, there are four choices respectively marked by letters A, B, C and D. Choose the word or phrase that can replace the underlined part so that the error is corrected. There is only ONE right answer. Blacken the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your Machine-scoring ANSWERSHEET.36. All don't have a free ticket must pay the admission fee.A. Everyone who doesn't have a free ticketB. No one who doesn't have a free ticketC. No one who has free ticketsD. Anyone who has free tickets37. When I last saw them, the police had chased the robbers down Columbus Street.A. were chasingB. was chasingC. chasedD. were on a chase38. Erosion that is a slow process, but it constantly changes the features on the surfaceof the earth.A. which isB. althoughC. beingD. is39. When an organism is completely encapsulated and preserved, it becomes a fossil,therefore turning into evidence of things that once lived.A. therebyB. as a result ofC. soD. in the end40. The pictures of the Loch Ness Monster show a remarkable resemblance to aplesiosaur, a large water reptile of the Mesozoic era presuming extinct for more than 70 million years.A. supposedB. presumablyC. presumptuousD. is presumed41. In our own galaxy, the Milky Way, there are perhaps 200 billion stars, a small partof them probably have planets on which life is feasible.A. a small fraction in whichB. a small fraction of whichC. a small fraction whichD. which a fraction of42. "But you'll be able to come, won’t you?" "Yes, I think such."A. thatB. itC. soD. this43. The professor is quite difficult pleased.A. to pleaseB. to be pleasedC. for pleasingD. pleasing44. Because everyone knows, facts speak louder than words.A. SinceB. ThatC. ItD. As45. The trapeze artist who ran away with the clown broke up the lion tamer's heart.A. broke awayB. broke downC. brokeD. broken down46. His heavy drinking and fond of gambling makes him a poor role model.A. and fact that he gamblesB. and that he gamblesC. and he gambles whichD. and gambling47. Depression that inflicts people who believe their lives lack content when the rushof the busy week stops referred to by a prominent psychiatrist as Sunday Neurosis.A. has been referred to by a prominent psychiatristB. has been referred to as by a prominent psychiatristC. a prominent psychiatrist has referred to itD. it has been referred to by a prominent psychiatrist48. Just as there are occupations that require college degrees also there areoccupations for which technical training is necessary.A. so to there areB. so too there areC. so there areD. so too are there49. Most of the older civilizations which flourished during the fifth century B. C. aredied out.A. they have died outB. has died outC. have died outD. they had died out50. The student asked her professor if he would have gone on the spaceship he didknow earlier.A. if he knewB. if he knowsC. he had knownD. had he known Section 2 Reading Comprehension (55 points)In this section you will find after each of the passages a number of questions or unfin-ished statements about the passage, each with four (A, B, C and D) choices to com-plete the statement. You must choose the one which you think fits best. Then blacken the corresponding letter with a single bar across the square brackets on your Machine-scoring ANSWER SHEET.Passage OneQuestions 51 - 56 are based on die following passage.Awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1918, German physicist Max Planck is best remembered as the originator of the quantum theory. His work helped usher in a new era in theoretical physics and revolutionized the scientific community’s understanding of atomic and subatomic processes.Planck introduced an idea that led to the quantum theory, which became the foundation of twentieth century physics. In December 1900, Planck worked out an equation that described the distribution of radiation accurately over the range of low to high frequencies. He had developed a theory which depended on a model of matter that seemed very strange at the time. The model required the emission of electromagnetic radiation in small chunks or particles. These particles were later called quantums. The energy associated with each quantum is measured by multiplying the frequency of the radiation, v, by a universal constant, h. Thus, energy, or E, equals hv. The constant, h, is known as Planck's constant. It is now recognized as one of the fundamental constants of the world.Planck announced his findings in 1900, but it was years before the full consequences of his revolutionary quantum theory were recognized. Throughout his life, Planck made significant contributions to optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, among other fields.51. In which of the following fields did Max Planck NOT make a significantcontribution?A. Optics.B. Thermodynamics.C. Statistical mechanics.D. Biology.52. The word "revolutionary" as used in Line 15 means_.A. radicalB. extremistC. momentousD. militaristic53. It can be inferred from the passage that Planck’s work led to the development of________.A. The rocketB. The atomic bombC. The internal combustion engineD. The computer54. The particles of electromagnetic radiation given off by matter are known as ____.A. quantumsB. atomsC. electronsD. valences55. The implication in this passage is that ______.A. only a German physicist could discover such a theoryB. quantum theory, which led to the development of twentieth century physics, isbasically a mathematical formulaC. Planck's constant was not discernible before 1900D. radiation was hard to study56. ―An idea‖ as used in line 5, refers to _____.A. a model of matterB. emission of electromagnetic radiationC. quantumsD. the equation that described the distribution of radiation accurately over the range of low to high frequenciesPassage TwoQuestions 57 ~ 62 are based on the following passage.There has been much speculation about the origin of baseball. In 1907 a special commission decided that the modern game was invented by Abner Doubleday in 1839. One hundred years later the National Baseball Museum was opened to honor Doubleday. Historians, however, disagree about the origin of baseball. Some say that baseball comes from bat-and-ball games of ancient times. It is a matter of record that in the 1700s English boys played a game they called ―baseball‖. Americans have played a kind of baseball since about 1800. At first the American game had different rules and different names in various parts of the country —―town ball‖, ―rounders‖, or ―one old cat‖. Youngsters today still play some of these simplified forms of the game.Baseball did not receive a standard set of rules until 1845, when Alexander Cartwright organized the Knickerbocker Baseball Club of New York City. The rules Cartwright set up for his nine-player team were widely adopted by other clubs and formed the basis of modern baseball. The game was played on a "diamond" infield with the bases 90 feet apart. The first team to score 21 runs was declared the winner. By 1858 the National Association of Baseball Players was formed with 25 amateur teams. The Cincinnati Red Stockings began to pay players in 1869.57. Which of the following is true about the origins of baseball?A. Historians agree that baseball was invented by Abner Doubleday.B. Baseball, as played in the early 19th century, differed very little from today'sgame.C. As early as the 1700s, English boys played a game called "baseball".D. The first standard set of baseball rules was established at the turn of the century.58. What was the first professional baseball team called?A. New York Knickerbockers.B. Milwaukee Braves.C. Cincinnati Red Stockings.D. Brooklyn Dodgers.59. Who first gave baseball a standard set of rules?A. Abner Doubleday.B. Alexander Cartwright.C. Albert Spalding.D. Babe Ruth.60. Which of the followings was not a predecessor of baseball?A. Rounders.B. Town ball.C. Cricket.D. One old cat.61. The tone of the passage is ______.A. persuasiveB. informativeC. biasedD. argumentative62. The passage implies that until 1869, baseball was played for all of the followingreasons except _______.A. exerciseB. leisureC. profitD. socializingPassage ThreeQuestions 63-68 are based on the following passage.The blue of the sea is caused by the scattering of sunlight by tiny particles suspended in the water. Blue light, being of short wavelength, is scattered more efficiently than light of longer wavelengths. Although waters of the open ocean are commonly some shade of blue, green water is commonly seen near coasts, especially in tropical or subtropical regions. This is caused by yellow pigments being mixed with blue water. Phytoplankton are one source of the yellow pigment. Other microscopic plants may color the water brown or brownish-red. Near the shore, silt or sediment in suspension can give water a brownish hue. Outflow of large rivers can often be observed many miles offshore by the coloration of suspended soil particles.Marine phytoplankton (Greek for "plant wanderers") are microscopic single-celled plants that include diatoms, dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, green algae, and blue-green algae, among others. The growth of these organisms, which photogynthesize light, depends on a delicate balance of nutrient enrichment via vertical mixing, which is often limited by the availability of nitrogen and light. Diatoms are one-celled plants with patterned glass coverings. Each glass, or silicon dioxide box, is ornamented with species-specific designs, pits, and perforations making them popular with microscopists and, more recently, electron scanning microscopists.63. Green water near coastlines is almost always caused by _____.A. sand colorB. red pigments in coastal watersC. blue pigmentD. reflected light and yellow pigment from plant life64. Phytoplankton are the source of which color pigment?A. Red.B. Green.C. Yellow.D. Blue.65. What can give waters a brownish hue near the shore?A. Sediment.B. Phytoplankton.C. Blue pigment.D. Diatoms.66. Which of the following is NOT a type of phytoplankton?A. Green algae.B. Diatoms.C. Blue-green algae.D. Amoeba.67. The growth of phytoplankton is often limited by the availability of _____.A. oxygenB. hydrogenC. nitrogenD. carbon dioxide68. The main idea of this passage is that _____.A. light causes sea colorB. sea coloration is varied because of a combination of length of light waves andmicroscopic plant life and siltC. microscopic plant life causes sea colorD. water composition causes sea colorPassage FourQuestions 69 - 75 are based on the following passage.The United States government publishes guidelines for appropriate nutrient intakes. These are known as the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and are updated regularly based on new research in nutrition. RDAs are suggested amounts of calories, protein, and some minerals and vitamins for an adequate diet. For other dietary substances, specific goals must await further research. However, for the U.S. population as a whole, increasing starch and fiber in one's diet and reducing calories (primarily from fats, sugar, and alcohol) is sensible. These suggestions are especially appropriate for people who have other factors for chronic diseases due to family history of obesity, premature heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and high blood cholesterol, or for those who use tobacco.Snacks can furnish about one-fourth of the calorie requirements among teenagers. Those snacks should also provide much of the day's allowances for protein, minerals, and vitamins. Sandwiches, fruit, and milk make good snacks for active teenagers. Food from the food pyramid may be part of any meal. A grilled cheese sandwich or a bowl of whole-grain cereal is just as nutritious in the morning as it is at noon. In addition, a good breakfast consists of any foods that supply about one-fourth of the necessary nutrients for the day.69. The passage directly states that most of the U. S. population should increase theirintake of ______.A. proteinB. fatsC. starch and fiberD. sandwiches70. A good breakfast should supply about what percentage of the necessary nutrientsfor the day?A. One-half.B. One-third.C. One-fourth.D. Less than one-fourth.71. The passage implies which of the following?A. The rime of day when food is consumed affects its nutritive value.B. Different foods can be combined to increase total nutrition value.C. It can be detrimental to your health to eat breakfast foods later in the day.D. When food is eaten has no bearing on its nutritive effects.72. Why are RDAs regularly updated?A. New discoveries in the science of nutrition are constantly being made.B. Americans' diets are constantly changing.C. As people age, their nutritional needs change.D. Very little is currently known about nutrition.73. In this passage RDAs refers to___.A. types of vitaminsB. types of proteinC. types of mineralsD. amounts of energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals74. One implication in this passage is that _____.A. all RDAs have been establishedB. not all RDAs have been established yetC. it's not important to know RDAsD. RDAs are necessary only for sick people75. The reduction of calories in the diet is particularly good for people who sufferfrom ________.A. obesityB. premature heart disease and diabetesC. high blood pressure and cholesterol levelsD. all of the abovePassage FiveQuestions 76 - 81 are based on the following passage.The most popular organic gem is the pearl. A pearl is the response of a marine mollusk to the presence of an irritating impurity accidentally introduced into its body;a cultured pearl is the result of the intentional insertion of a mother-of-pearl bead into a live mollusk. Whether introduced accidentally or intentionally, the pearl-making process is the same: the mollusk coats the irritant with a substance called nacre. Nacre is composed chiefly of calcium carbonate. Because very few natural pearls are now on the market, most pearls used in fine jewelry are cultured. These include "Biwa" pearls and most other freshwater pearls. Cultured pearls are not easily distinguished from natural pearls except by an expert.76. Which of the following people could tell the difference between a cultured pearland an organic pearl?A. Scuba diver.B. Fisherman.C. Jeweler.D. Clerk.77. What is the chief component of nacre?A. Sand.B. Bead.C. Calcium carbonate.D. Biwa.78. The difference between a pearl and a cultured pearl is the nature of the ____.A. colorB. introduction of the irritating impurityC. coating materialD. irritating impurity79. Nacre is a substance that is ______.A. mechanically manufacturedB. the result of laboratory testingC. organically secreted by the molluskD. present in the chemical composition of freshwater pounds80. The main idea of this passage is that ______.A. most marketable pearls are cultured because nature does not produce enough ofits own to satisfy the marketB. cultured pearls are of a higher quality than natural pearlsC. there are two major methods of pearl-makingD. a natural ―drought‖ of pearl production is taking place81. Cultured pearl is formed by ____.A. insertion of a pearl into a live molluskB. an oyster into which a piece of grit has been placedC. putting in a live molluskD. placing a bead into culturePassage SixQuestions 82-87 are based on the following passage.Stress is with us all the time. It comes from mental or emotional activity as well as physical activity. It is unique and personal to each of us. So personal, in fact, that what may be relaxing to one person may be stressful to another. For example, if you're a busy executive who likes to keep occupied all of the time, "taking it easy" at the beach on a beautiful day may be extremely frustrating, nonproductive, and upsetting. You may be emotionally distressed from "doing nothing." Too much emotional stress can cause physical illnesses such as high blood pressure, ulcers, or even heart disease. Physical stress from work or exercise is not likely to cause such ailments. The truth is that physical exercise can help you to relax and to better handle your mental or emotional stress.82. Which of the following people would find ―taking it easy‖ stressful?A. Construction workers.B. Business executives.C. Farm workers.D. Truck drivers.83. Which of the following would be a determinant as to what people find stressful?A. Personality.B. Education.C. Marital status.D. Shoe size.84. This article, published by the Department of Health and Human Services,probably came from the ______.A. Federal Bureau of InvestigationB. Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health AdministrationC. Education AdministrationD. Communicable Diseases Administration85. A source of stress NOT specifically mentioned in this passage is _____.A. educational activityB. physical activityC. mental activityD. emotional activity86. Physical problems caused by emotional stress can appear as all of the followingEXCEPT _____.A. ulcersB. pregnancyC. heart diseaseD. high blood pressure87. One method mentioned to help handle stress is ____.A. physical exerciseB. tranquilizersC. drugsD. taking it easy Passage SevenQuestions 88 ~ 92 are based on the following passage.With the sudden onset of severe psychotic symptoms, the individual is said to be experiencing acute schizophrenia (精神分裂症) - "Psychotic" means out of touch with reality, or unable to separate real from unreal experiences. Some people have only one such psychotic episode. Others have many episodes during a lifetime but lead relatively normal lives during interim periods. The individual with chronic (continuous or recurring) schizophrenia often does not fully recover normal functioning and typically requires long-term treatment, generally including medication, to control the symptoms. These symptoms may include hallucinations (幻觉), incoherence, delusions, lack of judgment, deterioration of the abilities to reason and feel emotion, and a lack of interaction between the patient and his environment. The hallucinations may be a visual, auditory, or tactile. Some chronic schizophrenic patients may never be able to function without assistance of one sort or another.88. Which of the following is not a symptom of schizophrenia?A. Hallucinations.B. Delusions.C. Incoherence.D. Vertigo.89. It can be inferred from the passage that a person experiencing acute schizophreniamost likely ______.A. cannot live without medicationB. cannot go on livingC. can hold a full-time jobD. cannot distinguish real from unreal90. According to this passage, thinking that one can fly might be an example of ____.A. medicine overdoseB. being out of touch with realityC. recovering normal functioningD. symptom control91. The passage suggests that the beginning of severe psychotic symptoms of acuteschizophrenia may be any of the following EXCEPT_____.A. debilitatingB. sudden occurrenceC. occurring after a long period of normalcyD. drug-induced92. The passage implies that normal life may be possible for the chronicschizophrenic with the help of ______.A. medicinesB. neurotic episodesC. psychotic episodesD. time Passage EightQuestions 93 ~ 100 are based on the following passage.Aspirin is one of the safest and most effective drugs invented by man. The most popular medicine in the world today, it is an effective pain reliever. Its bad effects are relatively mild. It is also cheap.For millions of people suffering from arthritis, it is the only thing that works. Aspirin, in short, is truly the 20th-century wonder drug. It is also the second largest suicide drug and is the leading cause of poisoning among children. It has side effects that, although relatively mild, are largely unrecognized among users.Although aspirin was first sold by a German company in 1899, it has been around much longer than that. Hippocrates, in ancient Greece, understood the medical value of tree barks and leaves which today are known to contain a chemical found in aspirin. During the 19th century, there was a great deal of experimentation in Europe with this。

测试的准确性英语作文

测试的准确性英语作文标题，The Importance of Testing Accuracy。

In today's fast-paced world, testing accuracy plays a crucial role in various fields, ranging from medicine to technology. It ensures reliability, safety, and efficiency in products, services, and processes. In this essay, we will delve into the significance of testing accuracy, exploring its implications and benefits across different sectors.Firstly, testing accuracy is paramount in the medical field. In healthcare, accurate diagnostic tests are vital for identifying diseases and conditions, enabling healthcare professionals to administer appropriate treatments. For instance, in the case of infectious diseases like COVID-19, accurate testing is essential for early detection and containment. Moreover, precision medicine, which tailors medical treatment to individual characteristics, relies heavily on accurate diagnostictests to determine the most effective therapies for patients.Furthermore, testing accuracy is indispensable in ensuring the safety and quality of consumer products. From food and pharmaceuticals to electronic devices and automobiles, rigorous testing procedures help identify potential hazards and defects, thereby preventing harm to consumers. For example, in the automotive industry, crash tests evaluate the safety of vehicles and influence design improvements to enhance occupant protection. Similarly, in the food industry, stringent testing protocols detect contaminants and ensure compliance with regulatory standards, safeguarding public health.Moreover, in the realm of technology and innovation, testing accuracy is fundamental for the development and deployment of reliable software, hardware, and systems. Software testing, including functional, performance, and security testing, helps identify bugs and vulnerabilities, ensuring the stability and security of digital platforms and applications. Hardware testing ensures the durabilityand performance of electronic devices, such as smartphones and computers, before they reach the market. Additionally, in emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and autonomous vehicles, rigorous testing is critical to assess reliability and mitigate risks associated with algorithmic biases and system failures.In the field of education, testing accuracy plays a pivotal role in evaluating students' knowledge and skills, guiding instructional practices, and informing educational policies. Standardized tests, such as the SAT and ACT, provide objective measures of academic proficiency and facilitate college admissions processes. However, critics argue that overemphasis on standardized testing may lead to teaching to the test and neglect other aspects of learning, such as critical thinking and creativity.Despite its significance, testing accuracy is not without challenges and limitations. Factors such as sample size, test sensitivity, specificity, and variability can influence the reliability and validity of test results. Moreover, human error, equipment malfunction, andenvironmental factors may affect testing procedures and outcomes. Therefore, continuous improvement and validation of testing methods are essential to ensure accuracy and consistency over time.In conclusion, testing accuracy is indispensable across various domains, including healthcare, consumer products, technology, and education. It underpins quality assurance, safety, and innovation, driving advancements and improvements in products, services, and processes. By prioritizing accuracy in testing procedures and embracing technological advancements, we can enhance reliability, efficiency, and effectiveness in our endeavors.。

效果会有提升吗英文作文

效果会有提升吗英文作文User is looking for an essay in both English and Chinese, discussing whether there will be improvements in performance. The essay should be at least 1500 words, written in the first person, include examples, idioms, and colloquial language for a more human touch, and not reveal the user's prompt.tion. Let's explore some of these factors in more detail.Firstly, environmental factors play a crucial role. For example, if an athlete has access to state-of-the-art training facilities, they may be able to train more efficiently and effectively, leading to improved performance. Similarly, having experienced coaches who can provide valuable insights and guidance can also make a significant difference.Secondly, personal factors such as motivation and physical condition are equally important. An athlete who is highly motivated is more likely to put in the effortrequired to improve their performance. Likewise, being in good physical condition can enhance an athlete's ability to perform at their best.Additionally, external factors like competition canalso drive improvements in performance. For example, if an athlete faces tough competition, they may be more motivated to train harder and improve their skills to stay ahead.In conclusion, there are many factors that cancontribute to an improvement in performance. Environmental factors, personal factors, and external factors all play a role in determining how well an athlete performs. By addressing these factors, athletes can enhance their performance and achieve their goals.中文：提升效果是一个多方面因素的结果。

Multi-server

Multi-server queueing systems with multiple priority classes
Mor Harchol-Balter∗ Takayuki Osogami† Alan Scheller-Wolf‡ Adam Wierman§
Abstract We present the ﬁrst near-exact analysis of an M/PH/k queue with m > 2 preemptive-resume priority classes. Our analysis introduces a new technique, which we refer to as Recursive Dimensionality Reduction (RDR). The key idea in RDR is that the m-dimensionally inﬁnite Markov chain, representing the m class state space, is recursively reduced to a 1-dimensionally inﬁnite Markov chain, that is easily and quickly solved. RDR involves no truncation and results in only small inaccuracy when compared with simulation, for a wide range of loads and variability in the job size distribution. Our analytic methods are then used to derive insights on how multi-server systems with prioritization compare with their single server counterparts with respect to response time. Multi-server systems are also compared with single server systems with respect to the effect of different prioritization schemes – “smart” prioritization (giving priority to the smaller jobs) versus “stupid” prioritization (giving priority to the larger jobs). We also study the effect of approximating m class performance by collapsing the m classes into just two classes.

眼见为实英语作文

In the realm of perception,the phrase seeing is believing holds a significant place.It encapsulates the idea that visual confirmation is the ultimate test of truth.This essay delves into the concept,its implications,and the potential limitations of relying solely on visual evidence.The Power of Visual EvidenceThe human brain is wired to process visual information more quickly and effectively than any other sensory input.This is why the phrase seeing is believing resonates so strongly with us.Visual evidence can be incredibly persuasive,as it allows us to directly observe and interpret events,objects,or phenomena.This immediacy and tangibility can make visual information seem more reliable and trustworthy than hearsay or written descriptions.For instance,in the field of science,the ability to see experimental results or data visualizations can provide a clear and undeniable understanding of the phenomena being studied.Similarly,in journalism,the power of a photograph or a video clip can convey the gravity of a situation more effectively than a written report.The Limitations of Visual PerceptionDespite the apparent strength of visual evidence,it is not without its flaws.Our perception is not always accurate,and what we see can be influenced by various factors such as lighting,angle,and even our own biases.The human eye can be deceived,and what we perceive as reality might not be the complete truth.One classic example is optical illusions,which play tricks on our visual system,leading us to perceive things that are not actually there or misinterpret what we see.Furthermore, the context in which visual information is presented can significantly alter its interpretation.For example,a photograph taken out of context can lead to misunderstandings or misrepresentations.The Role of Other Senses and ReasoningWhile sight is a powerful sense,it is not the only means through which we gather information.Other senses,such as hearing,touch,and smell,can provide additional layers of understanding that can corroborate or contradict what we see.Moreover,the use of reason and critical thinking is essential in evaluating visual evidence.For example,in a courtroom,a piece of visual evidence like a security camera footagemust be analyzed in conjunction with other evidence,such as witness testimonies and physical evidence,to form a comprehensive understanding of an event.The ability to crossreference and corroborate information from multiple sources is crucial in ensuring that our conclusions are as accurate as possible.ConclusionIn conclusion,while seeing is believing is a compelling adage that underscores the importance of visual evidence,it is essential to recognize its limitations.Our reliance on sight should be balanced with the use of other senses,critical thinking,and the consideration of additional evidence.By adopting a holistic approach to understanding the world around us,we can mitigate the risks of being misled by our own perceptions and ensure that our beliefs are as grounded in reality as possible.。

Environmental Policy and Technological Change

Environmental and Resource Economics22:41–69,2002.41©2002Kluwer Academic Publishers.Printed in the Netherlands.Environmental Policy and Technological ChangeADAM B.JAFFE1,RICHARD G.NEWELL2and ROBERT N.STA VINS3∗1Department of Economics,Brandeis University and National Bureau of Economic Research;2Resources for the Future;3John F.Kennedy School of Government,Harvard University and Resources for the Future(∗author for correspondence,e-mail:robert_stavins@)Abstract.The relationship between technological change and environmental policy has received increasing attention from scholars and policy makers alike over the past ten years.This is partly because the environmental impacts of social activity are signiﬁcantly affected by technological change,and partly because environmental policy interventions themselves create new constraints and incentives that affect the process of technological developments.Our central purpose in this article is to provide environmental economists with a useful guide to research on technological change and the analytical tools that can be used to explore further the interaction between technology and the environment.In Part1of the article,we provide an overview of analytical frameworks for invest-igating the economics of technological change,highlighting key issues for the researcher.In Part2, we turn our attention to theoretical analysis of the effects of environmental policy on technological change,and in Part3,we focus on issues related to the empirical analysis of technology innovation and diffusion.Finally,we conclude in Part4with some additional suggestions for research.Key words:diffusion,environmental policy,innovation,invention,technological change1.Economic Frameworks and Issues in Technological Change Economists have examined a diverse set of issues associated with technological change that go well beyond those analyses that have focused directly on implic-ations for environmental policy,including:the theory of incentives for research and development(Tirole1988;Reinganum1989;Geroski1995);the measurement of innovative inputs and outputs(Griliches1984and Griliches1998);analysis and measurement of externalities resulting from the research process(Griliches 1992;Jaffe1998);the measurement and analysis of productivity growth(Jorgenson 1990;Griliches1998;Jorgenson and Stiroh2000);diffusion of new technology (Karshenas and Stoneman1995;Geroski2000);the effect of market structure on innovation(Scherer1986;Sutton1998);market failures related to innovation and appropriate policy responses(Martin and Scott2000);the economic effects of publicly funded research(David et al.2000);the economic effects of the patent system(Jaffe2000);and the role of technological change in endogenous macroe-conomic growth(Romer1994;Grossman and Helpman1994).In this part of the article,we provide a very brief guide to some of this research.In particular, we introduce approaches for measuring technological change,we examine crit-ical aspects of the process of technological change,and we describe modeling42ADAM B.JAFFE ET AL. approaches and potential market failures relating to technology innovation and diffusion.1.1.MEASUREMENT OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGEThe measurement of the rate and direction of technological change rests funda-mentally on the concept of the transformation function,T(Y,I,t)≤0,(1) where Y represents a vector of outputs,I represents a vector of inputs,and t is time.Equation(1)describes a production possibility frontier,that is,a set of combinations of inputs and outputs that are technically feasible at a point in time. Technological change is represented by movement of this frontier that makes it possible over time to use given input vectors to produce output vectors that were not previously feasible.In most applications,separability and aggregation assumptions are made that make it possible to represent the economy’s production technology with a produc-tion function,Y=f(K,L,E;t),(2) where Y is now a scalar measure of aggregate output(for example,gross domestic product),and the list of inputs on the right-hand side of the production function can be made arbitrarily long.For illustrative purposes,we conceive of output as being made from a single composite of capital goods,K,a single composite of labor inputs,L,and a single composite of environmental inputs,E(for example,waste assimilation).Again,technological change means that the relationship between these inputs and possible output levels changes over time.Logarithmic differentiation of the production function(Equation(2))with respect to time yieldsy t=A t+βLt l t+βKt k t+βEt e t,(3) in which lower case letters represent the percentage growth rates of the corre-sponding upper case variable;theβ’s represent the corresponding logarithmic partial derivatives from Equation(2);and the t indicate that all quantities and para-meters may change over time.1The term A t corresponds to“neutral”technological change,in the sense that it represents the rate of growth of output if the growth rates of all inputs were zero.But the possibility that theβ’s can change over time allows for“biased”technological change,that is,changes over time in relative productivity of the various inputs.Equations(2)and(3)are most easily interpreted in the case of process innov-ation,in whichﬁrmsﬁgure out more efﬁcient ways to make existing products, allowing output to grow at a rate faster than inputs are growing.In principle,ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE43 these equations also apply to product innovation.Y is a composite or aggregate output measure,in which the distinct outputs of the economy are each weighted by their relative value,as measured by their market price.Improved products will typically sell at a price premium,relative to lower quality products,meaning that their introduction will increase measured output even if the physical quantity of the new goods does not exceed the physical quantity of the old goods they replaced.In practice,however,product improvement will be included in measured productivity only to the extent that the price indices used to convert nominal GDP or other nominal output measures to real output measures are purged of the effects of product innovation.In general,ofﬁcial price indices and the corresponding real output measures achieve this objective only to a limited extent.On its face,Equation(3)says nothing about the source of the productivity improvement associated with the neutral technological change term,A t.If, however,all inputs and outputs are properly measured,and inputs(including R&D) yield only normal investment returns,then all endogenous contributions to output should be captured by returns to inputs,and there should be no“residual”differ-ence between the weighted growth rates of inputs and the growth rate of output.The observation that the residual has been typically positive is therefore interpreted as evidence of exogenous technological change.1.2.PROCESS OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGEEconomic theories of the process of technological change can be traced to the ideas of Josef Schumpeter(1942),who distinguished three stages in the process by which a new,superior technology permeates the marketplace.Invention constitutes theﬁrst development of a scientiﬁcally or technically new product or process. Inventions may be patented,though many are not.Either way,most inventions never actually develop into an innovation,which is accomplished only when the new product or process is commercialized,that is,made available on the market. Aﬁrm can innovate without ever inventing,if it identiﬁes a previously existing technical idea that was never commercialized,and brings a product or process based on that idea to market.The invention and innovation stages are carried out primarily in privateﬁrms through a process that is broadly characterized as “research and development”(R&D).2Finally,a successful innovation gradually comes to be widely available for use in relevant applications through adoption byﬁrms or individuals,a process labeled diffusion.The cumulative economic or environmental impact of new technology results from all three of these stages,3 which we refer to collectively as the process of technological change.1.3.INDUCED INNOVATION AND EVOLUTIONARY APPROACHESIf the imposition of environmental requirements can stimulate invention and innov-ation that reduces the cost of complying with those requirements,this has profound44ADAM B.JAFFE ET AL. implications for both the setting of environmental policy goals and the choice of policy instruments.It is useful to identify two major strands of thought regarding the determinants of innovative activity.We call these two broad categories of modeling approaches the“induced innovation”approach and the“evolutionary”approach.Induced innovation.Within the induced innovation approach,ﬁrms undertake an investment activity called“R&D”with the intention of producing proﬁtable new products and processes.Decisions regarding the magnitude and nature of R&D activities are governed byﬁrms’efforts to maximize their value,or,equivalently, to maximize the expected discounted present value of cashﬂows.In some appli-cations,the output of R&D is explicitly modeled as“knowledge capital,”an intangible asset thatﬁrms use together with other assets and other inputs to generate revenues(Griliches1979;Hall et al.2000).When viewed as an investment activity,R&D has important characteristics that distinguish it from investment in equipment or other tangible assets.First,although the outcome of any investment is uncertain to some extent,R&D investment appears to be qualitatively different.Not only is the variance of the distribution of expected returns much larger than for other investments,but much or even most of the value may be associated with very low-probability but very high value outcomes(Scherer et al.2000).This skewness in the distribution of the outcomes of the research process has important implications for modelingﬁrms’R&D decision making(Scherer and Harhoff2000).In addition,the asset produced by the R&D investment process is specialized,sunk and intangible,so that it cannot be mort-gaged or used as collateral.The combination of great uncertainty and intangible outcomes makesﬁnancing of research through capital market mechanisms much more difﬁcult than for traditional investment.The difﬁculty of securingﬁnancing for research from outside sources may lead to under-investment in research,partic-ularly for smallﬁrms that have less internally generated cash and/or less access to ﬁnancial markets.In addition to theseﬁnancing difﬁculties,research investment differs from physical investment because the asset produced by the research process–new knowledge about how to make and do things–is difﬁcult to exclude others from using.Asﬁrst noted in the classic paper by Arrow(1962),this means that the creator of this asset will typically fail to appropriate all or perhaps most of the social returns it generates.Much of this social return will accrue as“spillovers”to competingﬁrms,to downstreamﬁrms that purchase the innovator’s products, or to consumers(Griliches1979,1992;Jaffe1986,1998).This“appropriability problem”is likely to lead to signiﬁcant underinvestment by privateﬁrms in R&D, relative to the social optimum(Spence1984).The recognition that R&D is a proﬁt-motivated investment activity also leads to the hypothesis that the rate and direction of innovation are likely to respond to changes in relative prices.Since environmental policy implicitly or explicitlyENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE45 makes environmental inputs more expensive,the“induced innovation”hypothesis suggests an important pathway for the interaction of environmental policy and tech-nology,and for the introduction of impacts on technological change as a criterion for evaluation of different policy instruments.We consider empirical approaches and evidence on induced innovation in Section3.1below.The evolutionary perspective.While viewing R&D as a proﬁt-motivated invest-ment activity comes naturally to most economists,the large uncertainties surrounding the outcomes of R&D investments make it very difﬁcult forﬁrms to make optimizing R&D decisions.Accordingly,Nelson and Winter(1982)used Herbert Simon’s idea of boundedly rationalﬁrms that engage in“satisﬁcing”rather than optimizing behavior(Simon1947)to build an alternative model of the R&D process.In this“evolutionary”model,ﬁrms use“rules of thumb”and“routines”to determine how much to invest in R&D,and how to search for new technologies. The empirical predictions of this model depend on the nature of the rules of thumb thatﬁrms actually use(Nelson and Winter1982;Winter et al.2000).Ifﬁrms are not optimizing,a logical consequence of the evolutionary model is that it cannot be presumed that the imposition of a new external constraint(for example,a new environmental rule)necessarily reduces proﬁts.There is at least the theoretical possibility that the imposition of such a constraint could be an event that forces a satisﬁcingﬁrm to rethink its strategy,with the possible outcome being the discovery of a new way of operating that is actually more proﬁtable for theﬁrm. This raises the possibility that environmental regulation can lead to a“win-win”outcome in which pollution is reduced and proﬁts increased.Porter and other“win-win”theorists have argued that in a non-optimizing world,regulation may lead to“innovation offsets”that“can not only lower the net cost of meeting environmental regulations,but can even lead to absolute advan-tages overﬁrms in foreign countries not subject to similar regulations”(Porter and van der Linde1995:98).Of course,the fact thatﬁrms engage in non-optimizing behavior creates a possibility for proﬁt improvements,without suggesting that such improvements would be the norm,would be systematic,or even likely.Porter and van der Linde(1995)provided case studies ofﬁrms which adopted new technology in response to regulation,and appear to have beneﬁted,but win-win theorists do not claim that all environmental regulations generate signiﬁ-cant innovation offsets.Indeed,they emphasize that regulation must be properly designed in order to maximize the chances for encouraging innovation.Quantit-ative evidence is limited–much of it from a large related literature on the impact of environmental regulation on productivity and investment4–and results seem to be industry and methodology dependent.Boyd and McClelland(1999)and Boyd and Pang(2000)employ data envel-opment analysis to evaluate the potential at paper and glass plants for“win-win”improvements that increase productivity and reduce energy use or pollution.They suggest that the paper industry could reduce inputs and pollution by2–8%without46ADAM B.JAFFE ET AL. reducing productivity.Berman and Bui(2001)found signiﬁcant productivity increases associated with air pollution regulation in the oil reﬁning industry,but Gray and Shadbegian(1998)found that pollution abatement investment“crowds out”productive investment almost entirely in the pulp and paper industry.Green-stone(1998)found that air pollution regulation has a statistically signiﬁcant but very small impact on overall costs,implying a small negative productivity impact.Generally,economists have been skeptical of the win-win theory(Palmer et al.1995;Oates et al.1993).From a theoretical perspective,it is possible to model apparently inefﬁcientﬁrm behavior as the(second-best)efﬁcient outcome of imperfect information and divergent incentives among managers or between owners and managers in a principal/agent framework.5From this perspective, the apparent inefﬁciency does not have normative implications.Sinceﬁrms are doing the best they can given their information environment,it is unlikely that the additional constraints represented by environmental policy interventions would be beneﬁcial.On a more concrete level,Palmer et al.(1995)surveyedﬁrms affected by regulation–including those cited by Porter and van der Linde as success stories –and found that mostﬁrms say that the net cost to them of regulation is,in fact, positive.For regulation to have important informational effects,the government must have better information thanﬁrms have about the nature of environmental problems and their potential solutions.Furthermore,while it seems likely that environmental regulation will stimulate the innovation and diffusion of technologies that facilitate compliance,creation and adoption of new technology will typically require real resources,and have signiﬁcant opportunity costs.Overall,the evidence on induced innovation and the win-win hypothesis seems to be a case of a“partially full glass”that analysts see as mostly full or mostly empty,depending on their perspective.1.4.MICROECONOMICS OF TECHNOLOGY DIFFUSIONFrom the mechanical reaper of the nineteenth century(David1966),through hybrid corn seed(Griliches1957),steel furnaces(Oster1982),optical scanners(Levin et al.1987)and industrial robots(Mansﬁeld1989),research has consistently shown that the diffusion of new,economically superior technologies is a gradual process. Typically,the fraction of potential users that has adopted a new technology follows a sigmoid or“S-shaped”path over time,rising only slowly atﬁrst,then entering a period of very rapid growth,followed by a slowdown in growth as the technology reaches maturity and most potential adopters have switched(Geroski2000).The explanation for the apparent slowness of the technology diffusion process has been a subject of considerable study.Two main forces have been emphasized. First,potential technology adopters are heterogeneous,so that a technology that is generally superior will not be equally superior for all potential users,and may remain inferior to existing technology for some users for an extended period of time after its introduction.Second,adopting a new technology is a risky under-ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE47 taking,requiring considerable information,both about the generic attributes of the new technology and about the details of its use in the particular application being considered.It takes time for information to diffuse sufﬁciently,and the diffusion of the technology is limited by this process of diffusion of information.The two main models of the diffusion process each emphasize one of these two aspects of the process.The probit or rank model,ﬁrst articulated in an unpub-lished paper by David(1969),posits that potential adopters are characterized by a distribution of returns associated with the new technology.Because adoption is costly,at any moment in time there is a threshold point on this distribution,such that potential users with values above this threshold will want to adopt,and users for whom the value of the new technology is at or below this threshold will not want to adopt.Because the new technology will typically get cheaper and better as time passes,this threshold will gradually move to the left,and eventually sweep out the entire distribution.If the distribution of underlying values is normal(or another single-peaked distribution with similar shape),this gradual movement of the threshold across the distribution will produce the typical S-shaped diffusion curve.The other widely-used model is the epidemic model(Griliches1957;Stoneman 1983).The epidemic model presumes that the primary factor limiting diffusion is information,and that the most important source of information about a new technology is people orﬁrms who have tried it.Thus technology spreads like a disease,with the instigation of adoption being contact between the“infected”population(people who have already adopted)and the uninfected population. Denoting the fraction of the potential using population that has adopted as f,thisleads to the differential equation dfdt =βf(1−f).Solution of this equation yieldsa logistic function,which has the characteristic S-shape.The parameterβcaptures the“contagiousness”of the disease,presumably related to the cost of the new tech-nology and the degree of its superiority over the technology it replaces(Griliches 1957).6Both of the models discussed above predict that the present value of bene-ﬁts from adoption and the initial adoption cost enter into decisions affecting the diffusion rate.In the probit model,this net present value comparison determines the location of the adoption threshold that determines what fraction of potential adopters will adopt at a moment in time.In the epidemic model,this net present value comparison determines the magnitude of the“contagiousness”parameter, which in turn determines the speed at which the technology spreads from adopters to previous non-adopters.While the induced innovation literature focuses on the potential for environ-mental policy to bring forth new technology through innovation,there is also a widely-held view that signiﬁcant reductions in environmental impacts could be achieved through more widespread diffusion of existing economically-attractive technologies,particularly ones that increase energy efﬁciency and thereby reduce emissions associated with fossil fuel combustion.For example,the report of the48ADAM B.JAFFE ET AL. Interlaboratory Working Group(1997)compiled an analysis of technologies that reportedly could reduce energy use and hence CO2emissions at low or even negative net cost to users.The observation that energy-efﬁcient technologies that are cost-effective at current prices are diffusing only slowly dates to the1970s, having been identiﬁed as a“paradox”at least as far back as Shama(1983).The apparent potential for emissions reductions associated with faster diffusion of existing technology raises two important questions.First,what is the theoretical and empirical potential for“induced diffusion”of lower-emissions technologies? Speciﬁcally,how do environmental policy instruments that implicitly or explicitly increase the economic incentive to reduce emissions affect the diffusion rate of these technologies?A second and related question is the degree to which historical diffusion rates have been limited by market failures in the energy and equipment markets themselves(Jaffe and Stavins1994).To the extent that diffusion has been and is limited by market failures,it is less clear that policies that operate by increasing the economic incentive to adopt such technology will be effective.On the other hand,if such market failures are important,then policies focused directly on correction of such market failures provide,at least in principle,opportunities for policy interventions that are social-welfare increasing,even without regard to any environmental beneﬁt.Potential sources of market failure include prob-lems regarding inadequate information and uncertainty,principal-agent problems, constrained capitalﬁnancing,and positive adoption spillovers.Information plays a particularly important role in the technology diffusion process.First,information is a public good that may be expected in general to be underprovided by markets.Second,to the extent that the adoption of the technology by some users is itself an important mode of information transfer to other parties, adoption creates a positive externality and is therefore likely to proceed at a socially suboptimal rate.As discussed further in Section3.2,Howarth et al.(2000)explored the signiﬁcance of inadequate information in inhibiting the diffusion of more efﬁ-cient lighting equipment.Metcalf and Hassett(1999)compared available estimates of energy savings from new equipment to actual savings realized by users who have installed the equipment.They found that actual savings,while signiﬁcant,were less than those promised by engineers and product manufacturers.Also related to imperfect information are a variety of agency problems that can inhibit the adoption of superior technology.An example of an external agency problem would be a landlord/tenant relationship,in which a tenant pays for utilities but the landlord makes decisions regarding which appliances to purchase,or vice versa.Internal agency problems can arise in organizations where the individual or department responsible for equipment purchase or maintenance differs from the individual or department whose budget covers utility costs.7DeCanio(1998) explored the signiﬁcance of organizational factors in explainingﬁrms’perceived returns to installation of energy-efﬁcient lighting.Uncertainty is another factor that may limit the adoption of new technology (Geroski2000).Such uncertainty is not a market failure,merely a fact of economicENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE49 life.Uncertainty can be inherent in the technology itself,in the sense that its newness means that users are not sure how it will perform(Mansﬁeld1968).For resource-saving technology,there is the additional uncertainty that the economic value of such savings depends on future resource prices,which are themselves uncertain.This uncertainty about future returns means that there is an“option value”associated with postponing the adoption of new technology(Pindyck1991; Hassett and Metcalf1995,1996).Closely related to the issue of uncertainty is the issue of the discount rate or investment hurdle rate used by purchasers in evaluating the desirability of new technology.A large body of research demonstrates that purchasers appear to use relatively high discount rates in evaluating energy-efﬁciency investments (Hausman1979;Ruderman et al.1987;Ross1990).The implicit or explicit use of relatively high discount rates for energy savings does not represent a market failure in itself;it is rather the manifestation of underlying aspects of the decision process including those just discussed.At least some portion of the discount rate premium is likely to be related to uncertainty,although the extent to which the premium can be explained by uncertainty and option value is subject to debate(Hassett and Metcalf1995,1996;Sanstad et al.1995).Capital market failures that make it difﬁcult to secure externalﬁnancing for these investments may also play a role(Shrestha and Karmacharya1998).For households and smallﬁrms,adoption of new technologies with signiﬁcant capital costs may be constrained by inadequate access toﬁnancing.And in some countries, import barriers may inhibit the adoption of technology embodied in foreign-produced goods(Reppelin-Hill1999).It is impossible to generalize,however, particularly across countries.Finally,the presence of increasing returns in the form of learning effects, network externalities,or other positive adoption externalities suggests that market outcomes for technologies exhibiting these features may be inefﬁcient.For example,the idea that we are“locked into”a fossil-fuel-based energy system is a recurring theme in policy discussions regarding climate change and other energy-related environmental problems.At a more aggregate level,there has been much discussion of the question of whether it is possible for developing countries to take less environmentally-damaging paths of development than have industrialized countries(Evenson1995).2.Theory of the Effects of Environmental Policy on Technological Change The effects of environmental policies on the development and spread of new tech-nologies may,in the long run,be among the most important determinants of success or failure of environmental protection efforts(Kneese and Schultze1975).It has long been recognized that alternative types of environmental policy instruments can have signiﬁcantly different effects on the rate and direction of technological change (Orr1976).Environmental policies,particularly those with large economic impacts。

判断结果英文作文

判断结果英文作文英文：Judging results can be a tricky task, as there are often multiple factors to consider. In my experience, the best way to approach this is to first establish clear criteria for evaluation. This could include things like accuracy, efficiency, creativity, and teamwork.Once these criteria are established, it's important to gather as much data as possible to make an informed decision. This could involve reviewing performance metrics, soliciting feedback from colleagues or customers, and conducting interviews or assessments.It's also important to keep in mind the context in which the results are being judged. For example, if you're evaluating a sales team, you may want to consider factors like market conditions and competition.Ultimately, the key to judging results effectively is to remain objective and unbiased. It can be easy to let personal preferences or biases influence our decisions, but it's important to stay focused on the criteria and data at hand.中文：判断结果是一项棘手的任务，因为通常有多个因素需要考虑。

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a r X i v :h e p -l a t /9909155v 1 24 S e p 19991Deriving exact results for Ising-like models from the cluster variation methodAlessandro Pelizzola a ∗aIstituto Nazionale per la Fisica della Materia and Dipartimento di Fisica del Politecnico di Torino,c.Duca degli Abruzzi 24,10129Torino,ItalyThe cluster variation method (CVM)is an approximation technique which generalizes the mean ﬁeld approxi-mation and has been widely applied in the last decades,mainly for ﬁnding accurate phase diagrams of Ising-like lattice models.Here we discuss in which cases the CVM can yield exact results,considering:(i)one-dimensional systems and strips (in which case the method reduces to the transfer matrix method),(ii)tree-like lattices and (iii)the so-called disorder points of euclidean lattice models with competitive interactions in more than one dimension.The cluster variation method (CVM)is a hi-erarchy of approximation techniques for discrete (Ising-like)classical lattice models,which has been invented by Kikuchi [1].In its modern formulation [2]the CVM is based on the varia-tional principle of equilibrium statistical mechan-ics,which says that the free energy F of a model deﬁned on the lattice Λis given by F =min F [ρΛ]=min Tr(ρΛH +ρΛln ρΛ),(1)where H is the hamiltonian of the model,β=1for simplicity,and the density matrix ρΛmust be properly normalized:Tr(ρΛ)=1.As a ﬁrst step one usually introduces the cluster density matrices and the cluster entropies ρα=Tr Λ\αρΛS α=−Tr(ραln ρα),(2)where αis a cluster of n αsites and Tr Λ\αdenotes a summation over all degrees of freedom except those belonging to the cluster α.One then in-troduces the cumulant expansion of the cluster entropiesS α= β⊆α˜S β⇔˜S β=α⊆β(−1)n α−n βS α,(3)in terms of which the variational free energy canbe rewritten asF [ρΛ]=Tr(ρΛH )−β⊆Λ˜S β.(4)2which it turns out to be exact.The simplest ex-ample is that of a system deﬁned on a lattice Λwhich can be regarded as the union of two clusters Λ=A ∪B ,such that,denoting by K =A ∩B their intersection,there is no interaction between A ′=A \K and B ′=B \K .In this case the hamilto-nian has the general form H =H A (σB )and it is easy to check that the density matrix canbe written as ρΛ=ρA ρBL=min Tr (ρII H II +ρII ln ρII −ρI ln ρI ).(9)Denoting by σ′the two sets of degrees of freedom of the two I subclusters of a II cluster we can solve for ρII and recover the transfer matrix formalism in the formf =−ln max σ′ρ1/2I (σ,σ′)(10)with the normalization constraintσ)=1.It is interesting to note that the CVM comeswith a natural ﬁxed point algorithm [3]for ﬁnd-ing the local miima of the free energy,which in this case reduces to the power method for ﬁnding the largest eigenvalue of the transfer matrix.The last (and perhaps the most interesting)case we want to consider is that of disorder points.As an example we consider the square lattice Ising model with competitive interactions,with hamil-tonianH =−K 1ijσi σj −K 2 ijσi σj −K 4[ijkl ]σi σj σk σl ,(11)where K 1>0is the NN coupling,K 2<0thenext nearest neighbour coupling and K 4the pla-quette coupling.It is known [4]that in the disor-dered phase of this model there is an integrable subspace given by cosh(2K 1)=e 2K 4cosh(4K 2)+e −2K 23 largest eigenvalue is also a pure tensorial prod-uct[4],and hence the density matrix and thetwo-site correlations are factorized.Because ofthis factorization(and the corresponding decom-position of the entropy)one can expect that themodel can be solved exactly by the CVM and in-deed this is the case.It is enough to choose M={plaquettes and their subclusters}(of courselarger maximal clusters work as well)to verify eq.13and also to calculate the two-site correlationfunctionsΓ(x,y)= σ(x0,y0)σ(x0+x,y0+y) :Γ(x,y)=g|x|+|y|,exp(−4K2)−cosh(2K1)g=.(15)e4K4(1−e8K2)+4e2K2(e2K4+e2K2)Details,and generalizations to other models,willbe reported elsewhere[5].REFERENCES1.R.Kikuchi,Phys.Rev.81(1951)988.2.G.An,J.Stat.Phys.52(1988)727;T.Morita,J.Stat.Phys.59(1990)819.3.R.Kikuchi,J.Chem.Phys.60(1974)1071;J.Chem.Phys.65(1976)4545.4.see e.g.I.G.Enting,J.Phys.C10(1977)1379;R.J.Baxter,J.Phys.A17(1984)L911;H.Meyer et al,Phys.Rev.E55(1997)5380and refs.therein.5. A.Pelizzola,in preparation.。