Deixis and Reference
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In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word, the previous word is called the "antecedent".
Stephen C. Leveferent空指
Words can often be meaningful without having a referent. Fictional and mythological names such as "Bo-Peep"藏猫游戏(面孔一隐一现以逗小孩 的游戏)and "Hercules" illustrate this possibility.
Deixis and Reference
Han Jiuquan Hebei Agricultural University
“我真不明白她们在想些什么，她们都已 经是成年人，不是小孩子，我能教的都已 教给了她们。两年前她们什么都不是，但 现在她们已是世界冠军，而且出现在了奥 运赛场上，她们应该充分享受这项运动的 快乐。”
Certain sects of Judaism and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d is sometimes used, though this could be seen as a sign that refers to another sign with an absent referent.
Stephen C. Levinson
Sometimes the word-object relation is called ―denotation‖指示; the word denotes the object. The converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called ―exemplification‖例示; the object exemplifies what the word denotes.
c e
Stephen C. Levinson
Reference in a broad sense
References are indicated by sounds (like onomatopoeia), pictures (like roadsigns), text (like bibliographies), indexes (by number) and objects (a wedding ring);
Stephen C. Levinson
1. Reference指称/照应
R E F E R e
1.1 A reference in a broad sense,
A reference or a references point指称点 , is the intensional 内涵use of one thing, a point of reference or reference state, to indicate something else. When reference is intended, what the reference points to is called the n referent指示对象
Stephen C. Levinson
1.6 reference => pragmatic problem(exophora)
ex.: You are sleeping in a hotel room. Somebody suddenly knocks on your door and you do not know who this person is. So you ask: Who is this? The answer could be: It's me. => me always refers to I, I = speaking me => Utterance = true, but uninformative because there is no known referent for me => me = deictic word because me changes with the person uttering it
Stephen C. Levinson
1.4 Categories of references
1.4.1 nominal Common nouns
proper
reference
nouns = examples of linguistic expressions: with their proper reference (names of persons, institutions, objects whose reference is clear: chair, table)
Stephen C. Levinson
1.5 Anaphora [ə'næfərə]
the use of a word that refers to or replaces another word used earlier in a sentence,
for example the use of ‗does‘ in the sentence ‗I disagree and so does John‘ 首语重复；指代；照应关系（与前文出现 的某词有着相同词义或取代该词） .
Halliday，M．A．K．＆R．Hasan．Cohesion in English[M]．Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
Stephen C. Levinson
1.7 signifier and signified
The semantic sign can be considered a subset of a more general concept, the linguistic sign, first elucidated by Ferdinand de Saussure.
Stephen C. Levinson
1.2 In semantics and syntax
Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th Century.(Reimer, Marga (2009). "Reference". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ) In semantics, reference is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them. Hence, the word "John" refers to John. The word "it" refers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the "referent" of the word.[2]
Stephen C. Levinson
他觉得，中国姑娘在比赛中缺少应有的激 情，“她们把从事冰壶运动当成一项工作， 只想着拿金牌，她们并不热爱这项运动， 不能全身心地投入其中。” ---中国女子冰壶不敌俄罗斯 主帅大怒:不如在家呆着 ,2010-02-23 ,来源:
中新网(北京) ,中新社温哥华2月22日电 (记者 夏宇华 赖海隆)
A sign contains two parts, the signified (a thought that represents an object), and the signifier (the sound or written word). Both have a referent (the actual physical object).
but endless concrete and abstract methods can be used intentionally. This includes methods that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, as in cryptography Secret writing.
Stephen C. Levinson
1.4 .2 Pronominal reference ？
Pronominal reference comprises personal reference, comparative reference, and a third category of demonstrative reference, Halliday，M．A．K．＆R．Hasan．Cohesion in
Stephen C. Levinson
Contrasted with endophora, the term exophora[ek'sɔfərə]外指、外照应 names situations where the referent does not appear in the utterances of the speaker, but instead in the real world. ．
蔡議樟面對自己總覺得好累我也需要人來陪不讓我心碎其實我並不像他們說的那樣多刺難以安慰為何在夜裡卻一再流淚每天抱著寂寞入睡生活過得沒有滋味請和我面對看看我的眼角留下的淚我和你並沒有不同但我的心更容易破碎stephen1definitionetymologicaloriginextensionsignificancedilemma21philosophical
Stephen C. Levinson
In general, an anaphoric expression is represented by a pro-form替代形式or some kind of deictic. In some theories, the strict definition of anaphora includes only references to preceding utterances. Under this definition, forward references are instead named cataphora后/下指 (Bühler 1934:121 in Lyons 1977; Halliday & Hasan. 1976). ), and both effects together are endophora内指、内照应（an expression which refers to something intralinguistic, i.e. in the same text）.
English[M]．Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
Personal reference人称照应: does not only refer to persons is indicated by personal pronouns (they) and possessive pronouns (my, mine) Demonstrative reference指示照应: Demonstrative pronouns (this, then, the) Comparative reference比较照应: Adjectives or adverbs of similarity and difference (same, similar, otherwise)
Stephen C. Leveferent空指
Words can often be meaningful without having a referent. Fictional and mythological names such as "Bo-Peep"藏猫游戏(面孔一隐一现以逗小孩 的游戏)and "Hercules" illustrate this possibility.
Deixis and Reference
Han Jiuquan Hebei Agricultural University
“我真不明白她们在想些什么，她们都已 经是成年人，不是小孩子，我能教的都已 教给了她们。两年前她们什么都不是，但 现在她们已是世界冠军，而且出现在了奥 运赛场上，她们应该充分享受这项运动的 快乐。”
Certain sects of Judaism and other religions consider it sinful to write, discard, or deface the name of the divine. To avoid this problem, the signifier G-d is sometimes used, though this could be seen as a sign that refers to another sign with an absent referent.
Stephen C. Levinson
Sometimes the word-object relation is called ―denotation‖指示; the word denotes the object. The converse relation, the relation from object to word, is called ―exemplification‖例示; the object exemplifies what the word denotes.
c e
Stephen C. Levinson
Reference in a broad sense
References are indicated by sounds (like onomatopoeia), pictures (like roadsigns), text (like bibliographies), indexes (by number) and objects (a wedding ring);
Stephen C. Levinson
1. Reference指称/照应
R E F E R e
1.1 A reference in a broad sense,
A reference or a references point指称点 , is the intensional 内涵use of one thing, a point of reference or reference state, to indicate something else. When reference is intended, what the reference points to is called the n referent指示对象
Stephen C. Levinson
1.6 reference => pragmatic problem(exophora)
ex.: You are sleeping in a hotel room. Somebody suddenly knocks on your door and you do not know who this person is. So you ask: Who is this? The answer could be: It's me. => me always refers to I, I = speaking me => Utterance = true, but uninformative because there is no known referent for me => me = deictic word because me changes with the person uttering it
Stephen C. Levinson
1.4 Categories of references
1.4.1 nominal Common nouns
proper
reference
nouns = examples of linguistic expressions: with their proper reference (names of persons, institutions, objects whose reference is clear: chair, table)
Stephen C. Levinson
1.5 Anaphora [ə'næfərə]
the use of a word that refers to or replaces another word used earlier in a sentence,
for example the use of ‗does‘ in the sentence ‗I disagree and so does John‘ 首语重复；指代；照应关系（与前文出现 的某词有着相同词义或取代该词） .
Halliday，M．A．K．＆R．Hasan．Cohesion in English[M]．Beijing： Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
Stephen C. Levinson
1.7 signifier and signified
The semantic sign can be considered a subset of a more general concept, the linguistic sign, first elucidated by Ferdinand de Saussure.
Stephen C. Levinson
1.2 In semantics and syntax
Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th Century.(Reimer, Marga (2009). "Reference". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ) In semantics, reference is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them. Hence, the word "John" refers to John. The word "it" refers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the "referent" of the word.[2]
Stephen C. Levinson
他觉得，中国姑娘在比赛中缺少应有的激 情，“她们把从事冰壶运动当成一项工作， 只想着拿金牌，她们并不热爱这项运动， 不能全身心地投入其中。” ---中国女子冰壶不敌俄罗斯 主帅大怒:不如在家呆着 ,2010-02-23 ,来源:
中新网(北京) ,中新社温哥华2月22日电 (记者 夏宇华 赖海隆)
A sign contains two parts, the signified (a thought that represents an object), and the signifier (the sound or written word). Both have a referent (the actual physical object).
but endless concrete and abstract methods can be used intentionally. This includes methods that intentionally hide the reference from some observers, as in cryptography Secret writing.
Stephen C. Levinson
1.4 .2 Pronominal reference ？
Pronominal reference comprises personal reference, comparative reference, and a third category of demonstrative reference, Halliday，M．A．K．＆R．Hasan．Cohesion in
Stephen C. Levinson
Contrasted with endophora, the term exophora[ek'sɔfərə]外指、外照应 names situations where the referent does not appear in the utterances of the speaker, but instead in the real world. ．
蔡議樟面對自己總覺得好累我也需要人來陪不讓我心碎其實我並不像他們說的那樣多刺難以安慰為何在夜裡卻一再流淚每天抱著寂寞入睡生活過得沒有滋味請和我面對看看我的眼角留下的淚我和你並沒有不同但我的心更容易破碎stephen1definitionetymologicaloriginextensionsignificancedilemma21philosophical
Stephen C. Levinson
In general, an anaphoric expression is represented by a pro-form替代形式or some kind of deictic. In some theories, the strict definition of anaphora includes only references to preceding utterances. Under this definition, forward references are instead named cataphora后/下指 (Bühler 1934:121 in Lyons 1977; Halliday & Hasan. 1976). ), and both effects together are endophora内指、内照应（an expression which refers to something intralinguistic, i.e. in the same text）.
English[M]．Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press
Personal reference人称照应: does not only refer to persons is indicated by personal pronouns (they) and possessive pronouns (my, mine) Demonstrative reference指示照应: Demonstrative pronouns (this, then, the) Comparative reference比较照应: Adjectives or adverbs of similarity and difference (same, similar, otherwise)