工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照94645
工程造价毕业论文外文文献
工程造价毕业设计外文文献及译文外文文献:Construction Standards and CostsUC Irvine new construction pursues performance goals and applies quality standards that affect the costs of capital projects. Periodic re-examination of these goals and standards is warranted.Co nstruction costs are not “high〞or “low〞in the abstract, but rather in relation to specific quality standards and the design solutions, means, and methods used to attain these standards. Thus, evaluating whether construction costs are appropriate involves: • first, determining whether quality standards are excessive, insufficient, or appropriate;• second, determining whether resultant project costs are reasonable pared to projects with essentially the same quality parameters.“Quality〞enpasses the durability of building systems and finishes; the robustness and life-cycle performance of building systems; the aesthetics of materials, their position, and their detailing; and the resource-sustainability and efficiency of the building as an overall system.Overall Goals and Quality StandardsUC Irvine, in order to support distinguished research and academic programs, builds facilities of high quality. As such, UC Irvine’s facilities aim to convey the “look and feel,〞as well as embody the inherent construction quality, of the best facilities of other UC campuses, leading public universities, and other research institutions with whom we pete for faculty, students, sponsored research, and general reputation.Since 1992, new buildings have been designed to achieve these five broad goals:1. New bu ildings must “create a place,〞rather than constitute stand-alone structures, forming social, aesthetic, contextually-sensitive relationships with neighboring buildings and the larger campus.2. New buildings reinforce a consistent design framework of classical contextual architecture, applied in ways that convey a feeling of permanence and quality and interpreted in ways that meet the contemporary and changing needs of a modern research university.3. New buildings employ materials, systems, and design features that will avoid the expense of major maintenance (defined as >1 percent of value)for twenty years.4. New buildings apply “sustainability〞principles -- notably, outperforming Title 24 (California’s energy code) by at least 20 percent.5. Capital construction projects are designed and delivered within theapproved project budget, scope, and schedule.UC Irvine’s goals for sustainable materials and energy performance were adopted partly for environmental reasons, and partly to reverse substantial operating budget deficits. The latter problems included a multi-million dollar utilities deficit that was growingrapidly in the early ‘90s, and millions of dollars of unfunded major maintenance that was emerging prematurely in buildings only 10-20 years old. Without the quality and performance standards adopted in 1992, utilities deficits and unfunded major maintenance costs would have exceeded $20 million during the past decade, and these costs would still be rising out-of-control.UC Irvine’s materials standards, building systems standards, sustainability and energy efficiency criteria, and site improvements all add cost increments that can only be afforded through aggressive cost management. Institutions that cannot manage capital costs tend to build projects that consume excessive energy, that cost a lot to maintain, that suffer premature major maintenance costs, and that require high costs to modify. Such problems tend to pound and spiral downward into increasingly costly consequences.Every administrator with facilities experience understands this dynamic. Without effective construction cost management, quality would suffer and UC Irvine would experience all of these problems.The balance of this document outlines in greater detail the building performance criteria and quality standards generally stated above, organized according to building systems ponent classes. Each section discusses key cost-drivers, cost-control strategies, and important cost trade-offs. Design practices cited are consistently applied (although some fall short of hard and fast “rules〞).Building Organization and MassingConstruction cost management starts with the fundamentals of building organization andmassing. UC Irvine’s new structures’ floor plates tend to have length-to-width ratios<1.5, to avoid triggering disproportionate costs of external cladding, circulation, and horizontal mechanical distribution. Our new buildings tend to be at least three floors high -- taller if floor plate areas do not dip below a cost-effective threshold, and generally taller in the case of non-laboratory buildings (but not so tall that a high-rise cost penalty is incurred). Other design ratios are observed, such as exterior cladding area/floor area <0.5, and roof+foundation area/floor area <0.4.Architectural articulation is generally achieved through textured or enriched materials,integral material detailing (such as concrete reveal patterning), and applied detailing (e.g.,2window frames and sills), particularly at the building base. Large-scale articulation is concentrated at the roofline (e.g., shaped roof forms) and at the pedestrian level (e.g.,arcades), where it will “create the biggest bang for the buck,〞rather than through modulating the building form, itself. This is more than a subtle design philosophy, as the cost impact is substantial.Lab buildings pleted in the past decade separate laboratory and non-laboratory functions into distinct, adjoined structures (although such a building may look like one structure). Consolidated non-laboratory functions include faculty, departmental, staff,post-doc, and graduate student offices; restrooms; circulation (elevators, lobbies, primary stairways); classrooms, seminar rooms, conference rooms, and social areas designed tofoster interaction and to provide a safe area for eating and drinking; dry labs and dry lab support functions; and general administrative support.Consolidating these functions into a separate structure provides considerable cost savings:lower-cost HVAC (heating/ventilation/air-conditioning) system, wider column spacing, lower floor stiffness (less stringent vibration criterion), lower floor-loading,fewer fire-control features and other code requirements, steel-framed or steel/concrete hybrid structural system with concrete flat-slab flooring system, smaller footings, and(typically) curtain wall fenestration. This approach usually enables offices to have operable windows.This two-building approach can be seen clearly at Gillespie Neurosciences Building, the Sprague Building, Hewitt Hall, and the UCI Medical Center Health Sciences Laboratory,where consolidating and separating non-laboratory functions saved 7-10 percent in overall construction costs and 15 percent/year in energy expense. (The non-laboratory building incurs a small fraction of the energy expense of the laboratory block.)A set of design strategies, applied in bination, has proven effective in controlling the cost of laboratories:• Utilizing a consistent lab module• Utilizing a reasonable vibration criterion and locating ultra-sensitive conditions at-grade or employing benchtop vibration isolation• Using 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing• Concentrating fume hoods and utility risers into a central “wet zone,〞thus limiting horizontal mechanical distribution• Concentrating laboratory support areas into the central core of a laboratory structure, where utilities are available but daylight is not needed, thus enablinglab structures to be 110-132 feet wide• Utilizing dual-usage circulation/equipment cross-corridors through this central lab support zone, with sufficient width (typically 11 feet) to line the corridors with shared equipment while providing cross-circulation through the lab support zone• Utilizing open laboratory layout with one or more “ghost〞corridors for intra lab circulation• And, most importantly, concentrating non-laboratory functions into an adjoining, lower-cost structure (as discussed in detail above).To further control laboratory construction costs, non-standard fume hood sizes are minimized, “generic〞lab casework is specified, laboratory-grade movable tables substitute for fixed casework in some lab bays, building DI systems provide intermediate water quality (with localized water purity polishing in the lab, rather than building-wide),facility-wide piped services do not include gases that can be cost-effectively provided locally via canisters, and glass-wash facilities are consolidated -- typically, one glass wash facility for an entire laboratory building.Finally, our design philosophy leans toward generic, modular laboratories supported by a robust building infrastructure, rather than highly customized spaces with limited capacity to make later changes. This is an important trade off. Although some post-occupancy expenses may be necessary to “fine-tune〞a laboratory to a PI’s requirements, building infrastructure elements – typically over sized twenty percent, including HVAC supply ducts, exhaust system capacity, emergency generator capacity, and electric risers and service capacity – seldom limit the ability to modify labs to meet researcher needs.Structural and Foundation SystemsFor both cost-benefit reasons and past seismic performance, UC Irvine favors concrete shear wall or steel braced-frame structural systems. The correlating foundation systems depend on site-specific soil conditions. Past problems with undiscovered substrates and uncharacterized soil conditions are minimized through extensive, pre-design soil-testing. This minimizes risk to both the University and the design/build contractor.When feasible, design/build contractors are allowed flexibility to propose alternate structural or seismic-force systems. All structural system designs must pass a peer review, according to Regents’ policy. This process results in conservative structural design, and an associated cost premium. However, the seismic performance of University of California buildings constructed since this policy went into effect in 1975 appears to substantiate the value of the Regents’ Seismic Revi ew Policy.Structural vibration is carefully specified in research buildings where vibration-sensitive protocols and conditions must be maintained on above-grade floors. The most cost effective tools to control vibration are generally employed: first, to program vibration sensitive procedures at on-grade locations or to isolate them at the bench; second, to space columns at a distance that does not entail excessive structural costs. In laboratory 4buildings we typically utilize 22 ft. X 22 ft. column-spacing. Conversely, where vibration is not problematic a beam/column system can be cost-optimized and lighter floor loading can be tolerated. Design/build contractors are, accordingly, allowed more flexibility under such conditions.To control costs, UC Irvine avoids use of moment-resisting structures; unconventionalseismic systems; non-standard structural dimensions; inconsistent, unconventional, or non-stacking structural modules; and non-standard means and methods.Roofs and FlashingsUC Irvine specifies 20 year roofing systems and stainless steel or copper flashings whenever possible. At minimum, we specify hot-dip galvanized flashings.Why this emphasis on flashings? Our roof replacement projects typically double in cost when the old roofing is torn off and it is determined that the flashings have deteriorated. Moreover, many roof leaks of recent years have been due to faulty flashings, rather than roofing membranes or coatings, per se. Saving money on flashings is false economy. Another special roofing expe nse we may have to incur in order to attain the Regents’ Green Building Policy is that of reflective roofing. It is too early to understand the potential cost impact.中文翻译:建立标准和本钱加州大学欧文分校新建筑追求性能目标和适用的质量标准,影响资本本钱的工程。
工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照
本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low-carbon Development 文献、资料来源:Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表(出版)日期:\院(部):\院专业:\外文文献China’s Pathway to Low-carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China’s current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon (LC) development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings –The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co-benefit approach are needed for China’s transition to a green and LC economy, and that, especially for developing countries, it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation. Instead, a concrete roadmap towards a LC future is needed that addresses key issues of technology transfer, institutional arrangements and sharing the costs in the context of a global climate regime. In this light, it is argued that China should adopt an approach for low-carbon development centred on carbon intensity reduction over the next ten years.Originality/value –The paper thus provides a unique summary, in English, of the arguments supporting China’s current low-carbon innovation policies from one of the authors of this policy. Keywords:Carbon, Sustainable development, Environmental management, Government policy, ChinaPaper type – Research paperClimate change has become the most significant environment and development challenge to human society in the twenty-first century. Responding to climate change is the core task to achieving global sustainable development, both for today and for a rather long period of time from today. International negotiations on prevention of global warming and related actions not only concern the human living environment, but also directly impact the modernization process of developing countries. Although the process of global climate protection depends on the consensus of our scientific awareness, political wills, economic intere sts, society’s level ofacceptance, as well as measures adopted, a low-carbon (LC) development path is, undoubtedly, the critical choice of future human development.The science basis of climate change and its extended political and economic implicationsGlobal warming of the climate system has become an unequivocal fact. According to a large amount of monitoring data, global average land surface temperature has risen 0.748C over the last century (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d). And the rate of rising has been sped up. In the meantime, global average sea level has been constantly rising too. Global warming has posed a serious challenge to China’s climate, environment and development. In the global context of climate change, China’s climate and environment are changing too. For instance, in the last century, the land surface average temperature has witnessed an obvious increase; though the precipitation has not changed too much, its interdecadal variations and regional disparity have been big. In the last 50 years, there have also been major changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather and climate events (Editorial Board of China’s National Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2007).The IPCC (2007a, b, c, d) integrated assessment shows that since 1750, human activities have been a major cause of global warming, while in the last 50 years, most of the global warming is the consequence of human activities, with a probability of more than 90 per cent, in particular from the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions due to the human use of fossil fuels. It is forecast that before the end of the twenty-first century, global warming will continue, and how much the temperature will rise depends on what actions humans will take. According the Third Working Group Report of the IPCC fourth Assessment (IPCC, 2007a, b, c, d), human actions to mitigate climate change are feasible, both economically and technologically. Actions to deploy key mitigation technologies in various sectors, adopting policy and administrative interference and shifting the development pathway could all contribute greatly to mitigation of climate change.With China becoming the world’s largest CO2emitter, China faces increasing pressure to reduce its emissions. Being a responsible country, China will take actions to tackle climate change. When developing its mitigation target, China will consider such factors as level ofdevelopment, technology know-how, social impact, international image and a new international climate regime underpinned by fairness and effectiveness. China will move into a win-win development path to achieve climate protection, quality economic development and other related policy targets.To develop LC economy – background, opportunities and challengesAs illustrated above, systematic solutions are required to tackle climate change, due to the complexity of the global climate system as well as its coverage of broad social and economic issues. After nearly two decades’ exploration, human society has realized that in order to effectively mitigate and adapt to climate change, we have to fundamentally reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, which means that we have to achieve the shift to a LC future from the way we produce and consume to how global assets are allocated (including industries, technology, capitals and resources) and how they are transferred. From the perspective of the limited storage capacity of GHGs in the climate system as a global public good, both a high level of human wisdom and a new international climate regime to deal with market failure are required, which also demands the participation of all stakeholders and together they shall charter a new development pathway. Human society has to pay the economic prices to solve climate warming. Thus, the three flexible “mechanisms” in the Kyoto Protocol ( joint implementation, emissions trading and clean development mechanism) demonstrate a meaningful experiment for the Annex I countries to decrease their emissions reduction costs. What is needed is to move forward from where we are now to explore a more universally applicable mechanism that would effectively allocate the resources among the key responsible stakeholders. The LC development path embodies an integrated solution strategy. It aims to build up a LC society through LC economic development, tries to achieve the restructuring of all the key elements discussed above and offers new opportunities for human society in response to climate change through collaborations.As a fundamental venue to coordinate social and economic development, guarantee energy security and respond to climate change, development of LC economy is gradually gaining the needed consensus from more and more countries. Though without a fixed academic definition, the core of developing a LC economy is to establish a development pathway that has high-energyefficiency, low-energy consumption and low emissions. Under a fair and effective international climate regime, the efficiency of energy exploration, generation, transmission, transformation and use is expected to be increased greatly and energy consumption greatly reduced, so that the carbon intensity in energy supply for economic growth is dramatically reduced, along with the carbon emissions from energy consumption. Through increasing carbon sink and using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, the GHG emissions from fossil fuels that are hard to reduce can be offset. In the meanwhile, through the establishment of reasonable and fair technology transfer and financial support mechanisms, developing countries can undertake the costs of shifting towards LC patterns while being at the lowest end of the value chain in the international trade structure. The perspectives of development value need to be changed in order to promote the transition of consumption towards a sustainable and LC future.What needs to be clarified is that, due to the differences of various countries’ social and economic contexts, the starting points towards a LC future might vary, as might the pursued goals. For developed countries that are taking the lead to commit to reduction targets, their first objective to develop a LC economy is to reduce emissions. For developing countries whose economies are still at a fast growing stage, their first priority is development and their per capita energy consumption is expected to continue to grow. The objectives shall be multiple. At the current stage, it is hard to mainstream the climate change policies domestically. What is possible is to reduce energy intensity and increase carbon productivity in order to gradually decouple economic growth and carbon emissions. What is equally important is that there exist many uncertainties in development of LC economy, particularly for developing countries. Tremendous difficulties and barriers need to be overcome in the process. At the international level, the uncertainties of developing LC economy include:Costs and markets – at this moment we could hardly be able to estimate the whole costs that are required to develop a LC economy. It is far from being as simple as calculating the direct costs of adopting LC technologies. It also takes time to establish LC technology and product markets, especially now, when the global financial crisis has hit everyone hard and when no one can give a good estimate about when the world economy could turn around and recover; though many experts and scholars hold that the response to the long-term climate change could bring new opportunities to economic recovery (Stiglitz, 2009; Wang, 2008b). What makes the situationmore complicated now is how the USA, China, India and other key countries would participate in the establishment of a LC market.Establishment of a fair international climate regime and mid- to long-term targets to tackle climate change – the development of a LC economy also depends on the international climate negotiation process and its result, of which the most critical element is whether it will result in legally binding global emissions reduction targets and the corresponding mechanisms of technology transfer and financial support, even if this was not established at Copenhagen.To date, even though some EU countries have achieved the decoupling of economic growth and carbon emissions, LC economy has not generated universally applicable, successful experiences; and what those experiences mean to developing countries still needs to be figured out and tested overtime.For developing countries, the difficulties and barriers to devel oping a LC economy are obvious, including current stage of development, international trade structure, economic costs, inadequate market, technology diffusion system, institutional arrangement, incentive policy and management system. From the historic evolution of the relationship between economic growth and carbon emissions in industrialized countries, most countries experienced successively the inverted U-shape curves of carbon intensity, per capita carbon emissions, and then total carbon emissions. But different countries or regions vary greatly in economic development level or per capita gross domestic product (GDP) relative to the carbon emissions peak. This shows that there does not exist a single, exact turning point between economic growth and carbon emissions. If you examine those countries or regions that have passed the carbon emissions pe ak, roughly 24-91 years, on average 55 years, are required between the peak of carbon emissions intensity and that of per capita carbon emissions. Some driving forces to reach different peaks have been shown in Figure 1 in terms of experience in the past and scenario analysis in the future. The point is, without strong mandatory emissions reduction measures and external support, developing countries will need relatively longer time to reach the peak of carbon emissions growth and then stabilize and decreaseStrategic measuresOn the basis of the above-mentioned analysis, the LC path with Chinese characteristics shall also focus on gradually setting up “resource-e fficient, environment-friendly and LC-oriented” society. Guided by LC development strategy and its targets, efforts shall be made to develop relevant institutional arrangements, improve management systems, stipulate development plans, accumulate experience from demonstrations and pilots, and push forward LC economic development in an orderly manner, so that a sustainable and LC future can be shaped for China. Four major aspects are the key starting points to structure a LC social and economy system:(1) Establish a legal and regulatory framework addressing climate change and improving the macro-management system. The legislative feasibility and legal model of “Law to Address Climate Change” shall be debated and articulated. Also, in the legislation process of other laws and regulations, articles related to response to climate change shall be included. For instance, a technical guideline of strategic environmental assessment shall include articles related to climate change impact assessment. A legal and regulatory framework of responding to climate change will gradually emerge. Owing to the fact that China’s administrative authority in charge of climate change remains weak and lacks capability, first, the Leading Group of the State’s Response to Climate Change and Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction Work shall play its full roles when a more flexible and diverse departmental coordination mechanism is established; and the group shall put forward strategic measure recommendations in response to climate change. Second, capacity building shall be strengthened and more administrative resources shall be allocated, so that better preparation is made for the next round of government restructuring to further improve the administrative level of the government department in charge of climate change.(2) Establish long-acting mechanism framework of LC development and stipulate related LC development policies in an orderly manner. Institutional innovation is the key to embarking on a LC development path. China shall become more pragmatic in developing a long-term incentive mechanism and policy measures that are in favour of energy saving, environmental protection and climate protection, guided by the balanced development framework and achieve the LC transition at government and business levels. At this moment, many regions and citieshave expressed their interest and enthusiasm toward LC development. As well as the complexity of LC economy and the diversity of models, related guidelines shall be rolled out to guide the macro policy and regulate the content, model, direction of development and assessment indicator system of a LC economy. Experiences and lessons from other countries can be examined and learned in order to move forward LC development in an orderly and healthy manner. Special planning and programs shall be developed at national level, and then some representative regions and cities, as well as some key sectors, can be selected for LC piloting purpose. When the market matures, LC markets shall be set up through regulating the pricing mechanism and stipulating fiscal and incentive policies.(3) Strengthen collaboration and establish a healthy LC technology system. Technological innovation is the core element in LC development. Government shall adopt integrated measures to offer a relaxed and favourable policy environment for business development and create and provide better institutional guarantees for technological innovation. As a result, the R&D and diffusion of high-energy efficiency and LC emissions technologies can be strengthened in both production and consumption. A diverse LC technology system will be gradually built for energy saving and energy efficiency, clean coal and clean energy, renewable energy and new energy, as well as carbon sinks. The level of commercialization will be improved. Thus, a strong technological foundation will be provided for LC transition and shift in the ways of economic growth. China shall also further strengthen international collaboration, not only through the climate-related international cooperation mechanism to import, absorb and adopt advanced technologies from other countries, but more importantly, through participating in the stipulation of related internation al sectoral energy efficiency standards and standard of carbon intensity, as well as benchmarking. China could consider voluntary or mandatory benchmarking management to elevate some key LC technologies, equipment and products to international leadership level.(4) Establish collaboration mechanism with all stakeholders’ participation.Low-carbon development is not just for government or business; instead, it requires all related stakeholders’ as well as the whole society’s participation. Owing to the fact that there exist some inadequacies in the general public’s awareness of climate change, publicity, education and training are required in combination with policy incentives to transform the public’s perception and thinking, increase the public’s awareness on response to climate change and gradually reach consensus on focusing onLC consumption behaviours and models. Joint actions with all the stakeholders are needed to resist the potential risks from climate change.References:EIA (2008), International Energy Outlook, EIA, USDOE, Washington, DC.He, J. (2008), “Addressing climate change through developing low carbon economy”, Keynote Speech in Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change, Beijing October 23. IEA (2008), World Energy Outlook 2008, IEA, Paris.IPCC (2007a), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, available at: www.ipcc.chIPCC (2007b), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change, available at: www.ipcc.ch IPCC (2007c), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, available at:www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdfIPCC (2007d), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Jiang, K. (2007), “A scenario research on China’s greenhouse gas emissions”,International Climate Change Regime: A Study on Key Issues in China, China Environmental Sciences Press, Beijing, pp. 8-24.Stiglitz, J.E. (2009), “Three ways to global economic recovery”, available at:/pl/2009-01-13/082317033320.shtmlWang, Y. (2008a), “A low carbon path with Chinese characteristics”,Greenleaf, No. 8, pp.46-52.Wang, Y. (2008b), Summary of Sino-Danish Forum on Climate Change: Not to Delay Climate Change Progress by Financial Crisis, available at: /news/gjcj/200810/t1981142.htm中文翻译:中国低碳发展的途径摘要:目的:这篇论文的是探索中国现存的政策和针对低碳发展政策的其他可选方向。
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照教学内容
工程造价专业外文文献翻译(中英文对照外文文献:Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of the whole system of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up a description of how it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyze the findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end results are not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycle at suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have to change the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the reference baselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projects that fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might as well start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire project life span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significant documents. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution), Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget or Cost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability to effectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting my work on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive management responsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. This means that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. They must also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head off at least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone of importance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes theproject's sponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation of a "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the Concept Phase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire project portfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporate management overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventual project. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, how do you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development and Definition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the work involved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for the actual execution of the project.• In a formalized set ting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding is often referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital Appropriation Request (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and da ta to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan is prepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in the request.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembled into Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). • Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of the Project Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level, and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the go ahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase of the project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregated to determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or "bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll cometo in a minute. Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examine the project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far, and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form of specific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at a capital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such as overheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves to cover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accou nting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projects and consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available. In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees of reliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the concept phase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full and proves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the projectNote: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will help everyone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is a mistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk in project work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effect on product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality. This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust them downwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will get spent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varying with the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes the responsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital request includes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to the project's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority to the project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exception might be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arrived at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget.Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Either the goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project's deliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for the available resources and funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is released to the project manager, a reverse process must take place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must be divided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded! This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, the Project Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a Project Cost Plan.• On a large project where differe nt corporate production divisions are involved, there may be a further intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that each division subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the tot al Project Budget received formal approval from Executive Management, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from Executive Management, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total project budget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product Scope Change.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his or her possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we ha ve the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages we can further distribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money we have as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for t he cost control function. Of course, depending on the circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then at a higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoing work is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you must learn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule act ivities and plot them as a cumulative total on the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the whole project level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the more work you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the "Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scope change that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project's Approved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Per formed" (ACWP or simply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other things as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what you see then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in the popularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed to aid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you should really be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in the same realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize the limitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significant amount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文:项目成本控制:它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到,对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题,我们仍有一些缺乏了解。
工程造价工程变更中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料外文翻译Highway engineering change reasonanalysis and cost of the project of influenceAbstract: in the implementation stage because of highway engineering design factors, environmental factors, the influence of various engineering changes happened is more common, combining with engineering practice, this paper discusses the causes and engineering change of project cost.Keywords: engineering change, Reason, CostDue to the highway project period, long, long line, so broad in construction of various causes by the engineering change is inevitable. Engineering change could lead to increase of construction cost or time limit of the owner and the contractor, between the claim will claim and the cost of the project.Owner of change and the causes of the costAnd when the owner change engineering bidding of construction conditions of commitment. "SanTongYiPing" referred to in the preceding paragraph, theengineering tight finish, delay purpose will increase the contractor's settlement fee, but little impact on total cost, the owner or project quantity change projects. Increase the project content or quantity, will increase the cost, Project content or cancel or reduce the number will reduce cost, but may affect the use function of engineering, because the owner with agreements for the existence of incomplete, or in the contract when division, can increase content of missing the contract cost, and the owners' requirements, and shorten delivery of finished ahead of the original contract period, invest more in construction unit cost of manpower and material resources, to increase, and improve the design standard requirement owner, beautiful Angle from security requirements of engineering structure change type, elevation, baseline, location, size and strength, make cost increase, and the owner to change in the construction organization design has approved the construction plan, cost increase, and the owner of the contract with the owner of the materials or equipment supply for the category and quantity, cause cost increase or decrease, and the owner of the contract specifies unreasonable, can make the cost is increasedThe design of change and the causes of the costThe design adopts the new standard, new technology, new technology, to replace the original design of the project, and put to use more favorable for owner reduce project cost, the depth of the design documents, cannot satisfy the relevant provisions of the relevant design phase of engineering change and requirements, cost increase or decrease, and when designing units in the preliminary design to fully consider the network planning, and in local government and related departments(e.g., environmental protection, water conservancy, electricity, gas, communication, navigation, etc.) and the requirements of the project, the main structure change shape and size change etc, make the cost increase, and design personnel errors or omissions caused engineering change. Due to the "two SanShen school system to implement the change that cost is increased, Unit, uncoordinated cooperation between designers, or the highway facilities with the principal part of the project design, cause sync job change, make cost increase, and the design drawing not timely delivery time delay, provide, construction, make the cost compensation shutdown caused by increased.Tthe contractor to change and cause the influence. CostThe contractor is unable to perform the contract or can't completely, the contractor shall take remedial measures proposed change, this kind of change of engineering cost, can increase by contractor burden loss, the contractor has been approved changes when bidding of construction project, this kind of change of cost, but almost no effect for the contractor may save construction cost, and the contractor for construction is convenient, or to shorten the construction period, or to reduce the investment of construction, and puts forward such reasons, and more economical and reasonable, optimizing design scheme, this kind of change if owner recognized, can reduce the construction cost, also can reduce the cost of the owner and the contractor, mutually beneficial, According to the contract, the contractor couldn't finish, engineering construction contract extension, the owner may terminate the contract terms, according to the content of construction contract in whole or in part,by the contractor, this kind of other changes generally does not make owner cost increase, but will make the contractor under loss, due to the contractor technology or management of the error caused by engineering change, this kind of change to the contractor, the owner may claim generally do not increase the cost, stipulated in the contract, the contractor change by owner procurement materials, using other kinds of materials, and therefore model brand damage by contractor, unless the owner to approbate, generally do not add costthe supervisor of change and the causes of the costSupervision by the owner, commissioned by the cause of the change of the owner or expenses directly influence the cost. 1 and supervision engineer in order to coordinate the contractor's operation, or section of this project contractors to coordinate with relevant departments or units where the relations of production, easy cause engineering change caused by increased cost. the site supervision engineers in actual situation in the contract and the technical specification for the design, according to local modification and perfect or by design, this kind of change unit may cause increased cost. and supervision engineers work and coordination ability damage caused by lack of rework, engineering cost change work. and supervision engineer proposed optimization design or construction, the design optimization or contractor agree, can reduce engineering changes caused by the project cost.The environment factors and impact on the cost of changeEngineering geology unknown or insufficiency in design, engineering costincreased to. and highway engineering construction projects from the construction, project feasibility study, design and construction drawing design to construction, due to various reasons, the project in the declaration and approval process, some problems existing in the construction stage, these problems caused by exposure to change, and engineering cost increase. and national policies, laws and regulations and standard, the change of change, resulting in increased cost. Four, the local government of the people's production and life convenient scheme adopted by engineering change after that cost increase. whose house is caused by delay, the work of engineering change, could lead to increased cost.Highway engineering change of a variety of reasons, this means that the appraisal work for engineering changes are complex and difficult to decrease the cost, the change of the effects are also different. Through the analysis, is looking for engineering changes the various causes, and through the analysis of the cost control are not isolated, control cost, the key is to establish and perfect the scientific management system. Based on control cost, quality assurance and accelerate the progress, the principle of efficiency to determine the necessity and feasibility of engineering change. Only in this way can we truly achieve the effective control of the construction project cost and improve the economic benefit and social benefit.公路工程变更原因分析及其对工程造价的影响摘要:公路工程在实施阶段由于设计因素、环境因素等多方面的影响,发生工程变更是较常见的,文章结合工程实践,探讨工程变更的原因及其对工程造价的影响。
工程造价与管理论文英文文献中英对照
英文文献Engineering cost managementProject cost control emphasis should be transferred to the project construction early days, is transferred to the project decision and design stage. Project cost control in construction projects throughout the entire process, the key lies in the pre construction investment decision-making with design phase, whereas in the investment decision is made, the key lies in designing. According to expert analysis: architectural design, in the preliminary design stage, design stage, construction design stage to the engineering effect were 75% ~ 95%, 35% ~ 75%, 5% ~ 35%; while in the construction phase, through the optimization of construction organization design, construction cost saving the possibility of only 5% to 10%. We should put the focus shifted to the design stage, in order to get twice the result with half the effort.Pay attention to the technical and economic optimization combination. The combination of technology with economy is most effective way to control engineering cost. China engineering fields for a long time did not do this. The lack of technical personnel economy idea, design thought is conservative, the design of the outcome of the economy are not fully reflect. Therefore, we should solve the problem is to improve economic efficiency as the goal, in the construction process, organization, technology and economy organic ground union rises. Through the economic analysis, comparative study and effect evaluation, correct processing of advanced technology and reasonable in economy between the relation of unity of opposites, strive to advanced technology under the conditions of economic rational, reasonable in economy based on advanced technology.Carry out "limitation is designed" method. To be consciously put the application of value engineering to the specific design, actively promote quota design in engineering design contract, by way of bidding. This has been proven in practice is an effective way, it is not only an economic problem, more precisely a technical and economic problems. This "limitation is designed" to effectively control the project cost. In order to make the "limitation is designed" to achieve the desired objectives, should be involved in the design personnel must be experienced skilled economic designer. Their design results must be practical, advanced and reasonable cost. Control of engineering cost on the other hand is the need for comparison, because the outcome is a process of gradual improvement, and not to decide, so the comparison is a measure of its practical, advanced and economical means.Do good project cost control in the process. ( 1) compilation of economic and feasible construction scheme. Before construction, construction enterprises should be combined with the construction drawings and the actual situation at the scene, their mechanical equipment, construction experience, the management level and technical specification acceptance criteria, a set of practical and feasible construction scheme. The construction scheme is engineering implementation of the programme of action. ( 2) to technical personnel, materials, machinery and personnel staff communicationand coordination. In the process of construction, construction technology, materials and mechanical personnel should cooperate closely, understand each other, to management as the core, to reduce costs for the purpose of. ( 3) to the project completion settlement. Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.Strict supervision system. Control project cost effectively, in the early phase of the project shall be subject to supervision (including cost management ) system. Through analyzing the design process of supervision, make the design more reasonable, cost control to limit the scope of, accomplish truly with the smallest investment maximize output.To establish and perfect the independent project cost advisory body, cultivate a Zhi De have both engineering team. To establish a real sense of independent engineering cost consulting agencies. Through improving the laws and regulations, normative behavior, separate government functions from enterprise management, the establishment of independent business partnership, share-holding system, the limited responsibility system and other forms of organization, an industry-based, diversified services integrated project consulting company, build and development and reform the engineering cost intermediary service institutions, make construction project management of a gradual transition by an independent specialized agency in charge of project cost whole process tracking management, truly between owner and contractor plays an intermediary role. To strengthen engineering cost consulting industry association construction, establish project cost consulting industry self-discipline mechanism, and constantly improve the Engineering Cost Association in engineering cost consulting industry status, to be truly representative of the interests of the majority of the industry practitioners, government and enterprises to become connection link and the bridge. At the same time to strengthen the project cost specialty in higher education and in service education. As a result of project cost management in construction projects and various economic interests are closely related, and the whole social economic activities play a very important role, it requires the cost engineering technical personnel should have different levels of knowledge, in addition to their professional knowledge and have a deep understanding, also deal with the design content, design process, construction technology, project management, economic laws and regulations have a comprehensive understanding of. Therefore, the project cost management, project cost per unit of society groups, has already obtained a cost engineer qualification personnel, in order to carry out plan, has the goal, multiple levels of continuing education and training, to understand and master Chinese bilateral agreements with countries project cost technology, regulations, management system and its development trend, to expand domestic and foreign exchanges, and actively participate in international or regional engineering activities, improve their professional quality, so that the current practitioners in intelligentstructure, theory and working experience three aspects can meet the needs of engineering cost management. Cost engineering professionals need to strengthen their own learning, in addition to the professional knowledge to upgrade, should also work in combination with a broad understanding and master the relevant engineering and technical expertise, educational organizations and industry regulatory bodies constitute a complete education system, so as to the field of engineering senior talent development to create good conditions.中文译文:工程造价与管理工程造价控制重点应转移到项目建设的前期,即转移到项目决策和设计阶段。
工程造价英语文献翻译
AbstractProject cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives.Keywords:cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy.Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost.As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.Engineering and cost management work of the current status of project cost management system was formed in the 1950s, 1980s perfect together. Performance of the country and directly involved in the management of economic activities. Provisions in the design stage to different estimates or budget preparation as well as government; Nothing relevant departments to formulate a budget, content, methods and approval, the budget will provide the fixed cost of equipment and materials and fixed price of the budget preparation, approval, management authority, and so on.With the historical process, after recovery, reform and development, formed a relatively complete budget estimate of quota management system. However, as the socialist market economic development, the system's many problems have also exposed. Generally speaking, the budget estimate is based on direct participation in the management of national economic activity as a precondition. enterprise is not the actual economic entities. Due to the characteristics of the planned economy, and, at the time under the conditions of productivity, will inevitably become a shortage in the economy.In severe shortage of commodities under the conditions, as long as a certain level of investment, will be certain outputs. In this environment, the project planning and technical argumentation there can be no economic analysis. State control of the project cost constitute key factors equipment and materials prices, wages and taxes of artificial distribution. In this relatively stable economic environment, the budget estimate for the system approved project cost, help the government to carry out investment plans to play a major role.As the socialist market economic system established, requires us to predict project investment and control. In recent years, international investment project developed to the requirements of prior pre-control and in the middle of control. China, the traditional practice in an objective light on the cause decision-making, implementation heavy, light the economy and technology,First, the consequences of victimization,Due to the technical personnel of the project technical and economic concepts and a weak awareness of cost control, cost management makes the quality difficult to raise. Project Cost control is difficult to achieve long-term goals.Second, the various stages of the project management view of the above circumstances, My first academia in the 1980s made the whole process of cost management and control concept, building departments will study the feasibility of projects and the budgets and final accounts to two extended at the request of the corresponding regulations put our cost management concepts and methods referred to a new height.Our task now is to be modern and cost management in line with China's national conditions of the market economy system goal, learn from the advanced experience of the developed countries, and establish sound market economic laws of project cost management system, efforts to increase the project cost levels. An investment decision-making phase of the project cost management construction project investment decision-making stage is proposed project proposals; conduct a feasibility study to determine investment estimation and the final preparation of design task. At this stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, of the construction project cost of the project after the completion of the economic benefits have a decisive influence, The construction cost is an important stage control.China's current stage of the project cost for the project management for the purpose of clearing price, and focusing only on the construction process of cost control, neglected before the start of the project investment decision-making stage of cost control. Investment decision-making phase of investment projects is estimated an important basis for decision-making. It has a direct impact on national economic and financial analysis of the results of the reliability and accuracy. Because of this phase is the preliminary work of projects, the information can not be fully, comparable works more or less that information accumulated relatively small, estimated inadequate and unscientific. Makes project cost management and cost workers is difficult at this stage do something.The various stages of the project cost control in the decision-making phase project cost control. Right project planning phase of the cost, many owners have the wrong understanding that the lower the cost the better. Cost control is not a unilateral issue, and should be a number of factors, a combination of practical, comprehensive consideration. The construction project investment decision-making stage, the project's technical and economic decision-making, Cost of the project after the completion of the project and the economic benefits, with a decisive role in project cost control is an important stage, rationally define and control the direction of the project cost of accurate positioning and building Optimization guiding role.In the decision-making phase of the most important is to do a good job feasibility study, the work is done well, returns on investment and can form a good proportion. Otherwise, invest more, less effective, resulting in loss of control and waste of investment.At present, some of the projects planned the owners of departure from the subjective desires of a feasibility study on the lack of scientific proof. Feasibility Study untrue, false or engineering functions obtaining the approval of their superiors, actually put into the feasibility study will be awarded in the study for the project after the smooth functioning buried a lot of hidden problems, lead to insufficient follow-up funds for the project and had to extend the time limit so that the project could not have planned the use of cost-effective, even become hopeless completion of the beard works.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making effectively control construction costs, we must do the following aspects:ⅰImplementation of the construction project and corporate accountability, Construction of the project from planning to implementation of the entire process and the use of the funds to repay responsibilities to the people. in addition to establishing a legal system and the project supervision matching mechanism by the departments in charge of the industry and supervision departments for setting up a monitoring group to oversee the use of funds.ⅱA realistic approach to market analysis, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduces and reduces investment risk. Fully consider building projects in the future market competitiveness, design task more scientific and reliability.ⅲCapital financing must have a formal commitment document, the parties must do investment funds in place, and funds must have documents to ensure that the project can be approved after the scheduled implementation. To the various loan conditions should be carefully analyzed to minimize the burden of interest and repayment pressure.ⅳTo strengthen the engineering geology, hydrology, geology and land, water, electricity, transport, environmental projects such as external conditions for the work of depth to make the investment estimate there are sufficient grounds.Taking extensive investigation and research, comparison of similar projects, seriously functional analysis, multi-program comparison and choice. After full technical appraisal and economic evaluation, and the final technologically advanced, functional and reliable. Reasonable economic projects, thus calculate a more accurate and realistic estimation of the amount of investment, so that the project cost from the start positioning in a more reasonable level.The design phase of the project cost control for a long time, China's building control very effective, - investment projects is not uncommon, this will affect owners of investment returns, it adds to the owners and within budget, as well as difficulties in fund owners, the impact on the future management or the owners make payments in arrears, and so on. Hence, the control of the project cost is of great significance, however the project cost is the primary means of control design,Currently most of the property owners in the design stage seldom works on cost control, and they found that the cost of the design will not have a great impact, it is wrong, on the contrary, Design phase of the project cost control is the most important step. Because it determines engineering design, construction methods, materials and equipment types, models of the project cost is of critical significance, design optimization phase of the program or minor changes, project cost will have a significant impact, Design phase of the project cost control of the total project cost of 70%. Following is how to control the project from design to create the Law: ⅰAs the owners must design, the design selected on the quality level is a direct impact on the quality of product design level, and the design quality products in the level of direct influence on the pricing of the works. Different design units on the same project design are different. the same item of different design institute works between certain aspects of the project cost on the existence of differences between, We assume that with a design from two different design institute to design, Construction plans after the completion of a requested advisory unit cost to do thebudget, certainly different design institute the total cost of the project is absolutely not the same, and most of the difference between the two over 10% even more than 30%, and not necessarily high cost than the design of low cost, and good design is often low cost, We all know that different people have different design styles and different levels, the design works naturally, therefore chosen to design units is the control on the first step. Through tender to select the design of the units is a good method, the tender documents to elaborate on this particular aspect of the requirements, cost control targets, and so on.Otherwise, in the subsequent design process design units will put an increase in the cost of the design requirements; through tendering the project design into the market, compared to select the best design units.ⅱPromoting the design bidding and design optimization campaign mode design units assessed by experts using scientific group France, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles and advanced technology, reasonable structure to meet building energy efficiency and environmental requirements, comprehensive assessment of the merits of the program design, selection of the best determination of the successful program.Successful investment program estimated to be close to the general construction project scope of investment. This means two design contracts will help design the program of choice and competition to ensure that the selected design advanced technology, unique novelty, adaptability, as well as to control the cost of the project. Design units should strive to improve their quality of the project design clever idea, contemporary reducing the project cost on to rack their brains to improve design quality, strive to put the design phase of the project cost control approval of the investment ceiling.ⅲStrengthening the design stage of the design phase to strengthen supervision of the Commissioner to determine a reasonable design, mature technology, reduction in the construction phase major design changes and changes in the program, in the effective control of the project cost will play a role. 1 to the design of the project if the project supervision to get involved, excluding unfavorable factors may generally isexcluded from the 80% errors. In the entire process of building cost control, construction began at best to save and invest 20%, the key lies in the construction phase of the identification and control costs. Supervision of the design phase include : Design Institute under the design drawings and notes help owners deal with different design options for the economy, capital expenditure to develop the preliminary estimates, to ensure that the investment can be most effectively utilized. With the owners of the Commissioner include:According to the Design Institute to provide design drawings and notes to help owners deal with different design options for the economy, capital expenditures to develop the preliminary plan to ensure that investment can be most effectively used; with the owners of different design options, the need to calculate their own materials and equipment to conduct a cost analysis and study, to the design staff costs, to assist them in the investment limit within limits designed to save and invest. To seek aone-time small investment and economic good design program made the most rational economic indicators.ⅳDesign actively promote the so-called cap limit design, even with the approval of the design task and investment estimates, guarantee the functional requirements of the premise. The preliminary design and control budget, according to the preliminary approval of the total budget for the design and construction design control. Limits, and every one professional, each of whom have a design threshold of a target. In the design process, designers should progress to more programs, design optimization, ensuring that the design is technically advanced and reasonable, innovative, stylish, and do not break the limit investment objectives, thus eliminating the engineering design raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the technical feasibility of the program, rather than economic rationality phenomenon, the project cost to ensure effective control.Also known as the value of value engineering analysis, is a modern scientific management technique, is a new techno-economic analysis, is the product of functional analysis to conserve resources and reduce the cost of the purpose of an effective method. It made up for the traditional cost management simply focus on costreduction and quality management only emphasizes improving the quality deficiencies, construction is conducive to resolving the long-standing long period, a lot of wastage, poor quality, high-cost problems. Value Engineering laws generally divided into three steps: assessment of the design of object technology and economic Score; Calculation of the target group of technical and economic indicators; calculate the geometric design of the object, on average; from comparison choose the best design.1985 summary, project cost control is a whole process of control, it should be said that every link is no room for complacency, and each one links are also important. With China's entry into the WTO, China was the main investment diversification, investment side of cost reduction, cost control, improves returns on investment increasing attention. Therefore, changes to the original construction cost estimate, budget, budget, contract prices, and the settlement price accounts for the completionof the move. Lack of continuity of the situation, the launch control system investment projects, investment in construction projects to improve the level of control. Can promote the country's socialist market economic development, adapt to the global economic integration process.摘要工程造价管理的基本内容,确定合理和有效控制工程造价。
工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10~20percent),finance and interest(100~200 percent),taxesand maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be appliedto fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10~15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, aswill as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5~10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15~20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services ., 30~50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricatorswherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percent is the “standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250, a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average” efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000, the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards”for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal”and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion ofstructural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50~75 psf) loads., similar to those for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual”standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf., two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capabilityfor making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩ to ﹩per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩ per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩, in a developedcountry, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.The estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知,建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程,其中既包含处理很多物质因素,又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。
工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’ observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10~20percent),finance and interest(100~200 percent),taxes and maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usuallytakes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10~15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, as will as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5~10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simpleerection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15~20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services (i.e., 30~50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricators wherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percent is the “standard”to be used for structure, a projected structural system shouldcost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average”efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.If the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards” for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.Ineach case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal” and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion of structural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual”floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50~75 psf) loads(i.e., similar to those for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual” standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf(i.e.,two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably. At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capability for making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to ﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50 per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩0.70 per poundand beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, in a developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知,建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程,其中既包含处理很多物质因素,又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部(SAZ)的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
工程成本预算 毕业论文外文文献翻译
外文翻译Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgetsHistorically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highlycomplex and technologically challenging projects it can easily exceed 10 years. Organizations face a major challenge in controlling project budgets over the time span between project initiation and the completion of construction. The development of cost estimates that accurately reflect project scope, economic conditions, and are attuned to community interest and the macroeconomic conditions provide a baseline cost that management can use to impart discipline into the design process. Projects can be delivered on budget but that requires a good starting estimate, an awareness of factors that can cause cost escalation, and project management discipline. When discipline is lacking, significant cost growth on one project can raze the larger program of projects because funds will not be available for future projects that are programmed for constructionA history of past project experiences can serve one well in understanding the challenges of delivering a quality project on budget. Repeatedly, the same problems cause project cost escalation and much wisdom can be gained by studying the past. The Holland Tunnel was, when it opened in 1927, the longest underwater tunnel ever constructed and it was also the first mechanically ventilated underwater tunnel. Its initial cost estimate was made by the renowned civil engineer George Washington Goethals. A review of the Holland Tunnel project serves to highlight the critical issues associated with estimating the costs of large complex projects and the fact that even the most distinguished engineers have trouble assessing cost drivers beyond the physical characteristics of a project. Many times there is no recognition of the cost driver s operating outside the project’s physical configuration. A joint New York and New Jersey commission in 1918 recommended a transportation tunnel under the river “Urges new tunnel under the Hudson.” 1918; “Ask nation to share in tunnel to Jersey.” 1918. The automobile was emerging as the predominate means of transportation and it was decided that this tunnel should be for vehicular traffic. As a result the tunnel would employ new ventilation technologies to purge the exhaust gases produced by the internal combustion engine. Eleven designs were considered for the tunnel, most notably, one by the engineer recently responsible for finishing the Panama Canal, George Washington Goethals. He envisioned a single, bileveltunnel with opposing traffic on each level. Goethals made a planning project cost estimate of $12 million and 3 years for construction. World War I had consumed much of the nation’s steel and iron production, so his design made use of cement blocks as the tunnel’s structural shell. His design was the frontrunning plan “Hudson vehicle tube.” but he had responsibilities elsewhere and was not named chief engineer for the project. Clifford M. Holland was named to head the project along with a board of five consulting engineers “Name interstate tunnel engineers.” 1919. Holland came to the project with vast experience in constructing subways and tunnels in New York. The cost of the project was taken to be $12 million, Goethals’ planning estimate. Holland produced a report in February of 1920 based on his a nalysis of the Goethals’ design of the project. His findings were not what had been expected. Holland found • Goethals’ width of 7.47 m would not accommodate the volume of traffic.• Concrete blocks would not withstand the structural loads exerted on the t unnel.• The construction methods required by Goethals’ design were completely untried.• The estimated cost of construction was grossly low.• The work could not be completed in 3 years.The board of consulting engineers gave unanimous support for Holland’s analysis. Holland then presented a design of his own which was supported unanimously by the consulting engineers. Holland’s design, which was a major scope change, called for twin cast-iron tubes. One advantage was that construction would follow established methods of tunnel construction that had been implemented for rail tunnels under the East River and further up the Hudson. Holland estimated the cost at $28,669,000 “Asks $28,669,000 for Jersey tube.” 1920 and construction time at 31/2 years.Debate about the tunnel design continued for more than a year creating disagreements between the New York and New Jersey Commissions and delaying the work—a schedule change. A disagreement about awarding a contract on the New Jersey side further delayed the start of construction and added over half of a million dollars in cost. Construction started on the New York side in October of 1920 and inlate December 1921 the New Jersey portion of the tunnel was bid “Way all cleared for Jersey tunnel.” The mandated completio n date was December 31, 1926. The construction schedule had now grown to 5 years. Estimated project cost increased multiple times throughout the early years of construction as a result of scope creep, schedule delays, and inflation. Increased traffic forecast necessitate larger entrance/exit plazas and acquisition of more right of way “Vehicular tube is growing.” 1923. Then increases in material and labor costs had added another $6 million to the project inflation. By the beginning of 1924, reestimated costs had been increased by $14,000,000 “Vehicular tunnel cost up $14,000,000.” 1924 due to functional and aesthetic factors scope creep. More intricate roadway designs for approaches, widening of the approach roadways, and architectural treatments increased the costs more scope creep. Redesign of the ventilation system added 15.24 cm to the tunnel diameter and $4,422,000. Holland also decided to substitute cast-steel for castiron to increase the strength and safety factors of the tunnel more scope creep. Last, the New Jersey ventilation shafts had to be redesigned along with their corresponding foundations at a cost of $700,000 due to unexpected soil conditions unforeseen conditions. All of these changes increased the estimate to over $42.5 million. New funds were appropriated and it was believed that these were sufficient to complete the project, but by February of 1926, there was another increase of $3,200,000 “$3,200,000 more asked for tunnel.” The commission explained that the new costs were due to increases in labor and material costs challenge in controlling cost. At this time Holland died of heart failure and his assistant, Milton H. Freeman, took over as chief engineer only to die of pneumonia 4 months later. Ole Singstad, the designer of the ventilation system then became chief engineer and brought the project to completion. Having three different chief engineers within 5 months created confusion unforeseen events. In April of 1924 water rushed into one of the tunnels from a leak forcing workers to make a hasty escape more unforeseen conditions. A final appropriation was requested in early 1927 brought the total project cost to $48,400,000. On November 13 of 1927 the tunnel officially opened “Work on tunnel began 7 years ago.” MethodologyThe cost escalation factors that lead to project cost growth have been documented through a large number of studies. Studies have identified factors individually or by groups. Each factor presents a challenge to an agency seeking to produce accurate project cost estimates. As part of a larger study seeking to improve cost estimates and management of costs from project conception to bid day, a thorough literature review was conducted to identify factors that influence cost estimates Anderson et al. 2006. The literature review included exploration of research reports and publications, government reports, news articles, and other published sources. Upon completion of the literature review the factors were analyzed and categorized by the researchers into factors that drive the cost increases experienced by transportation construction projects. This was accomplished by triangulation where multiple investigators or data sources suggested the same factor. This categorization took the individual factors which had been identified in previous research and established a global framework for addressing the issue of project cost escalation. Upon final categorization the cost escalation factor framework was verified through triangulation of data from interviews with more than 20 state highway agencies SHAs around the nation . A previous project that supported identification of the factors had included telephone interviews with all 50 SHAs Schexnayder et al. 2003 . An interview instrument was prepared and tested initially during onsite interview with two SHAs. The revised interview instrument was then sent to the SHAs before the interview so that they could prepare. The interviews were conducted onsite for five SHAs through individual interviews and through a group “peer exchange.” The remaining interviews were conducted by telephone. In all cases, the researchers followed the interview protocol to ensure consistency in data collection. The resulting categorization of cost escalation factors can help project owners and engineering professionals focus their attention on the critical issues that lead to cost estimation inaccuracy.The triangulation analysis considered methodologies from past studies and interviews to create a categorization for the causes of cost escalation. A better understanding of the cost escalation factors is achieved through understanding theforces driving each factor or where the factor originates. With this understanding it is possible to design strategies for dealing with these cost escalation factors. The factors that affect the estimate in each project development phase are by nature internal and external. Factors that contribute to cost escalation and are controllable by the agency/owner are internal, while factors existing outside the direct control of the agency/owner are classified as external. The presentation order of the factors should not be taken as suggesting a level of influence is constructed to provide an over arching summary of the factors. It summarizes the factors into logical divisions and classifications and helps in visualizing how project cost estimates are affected. It is important to note that one of the factors points to problems with estimation of labor and material cost, but most of the factors point to “influences” that impact project scope and timing.中文译文私人和公共的建设项目,一直以来有成本增长的问题。
工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land10~20percent,finance and interest100~200 percent,taxes and maintenance costs on the order of20 percent.But a discussion of theseso-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cutback. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into 1 cost of materials brought to the site, 2cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, 3cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, 4cost of management and overhead, and5 profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10~15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent or more.At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, as will as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration,and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings5~10 storiesoccupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15~20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services i.e., 30~50 percent, with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building 15 stories or more and/or long-span buildings say, 50 to 60 ft can require a higher percentage for structural costs about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs,with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricators wherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary.Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average of typical efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percent is the “standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250,000.If a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average”efficient design estimate stated above the savings,20 percent,would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000,000.If the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural and mechanical and electrical design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards”for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩14.In each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal”and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion ofstructural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual”floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light50~75 psf loadsi.e., similar to those for apartment and office structures.where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual”standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psfi.e., two or three times, the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic flat systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But itis possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capability for making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩0.50 to ﹩0.70 per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩0.50 per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and weldingsuch as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design can go to ﹩0.70 per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs say, exceeding 20 stories,there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steelbars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩300.Since, in a developed country, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.5.SummaryThe estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知,建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程,其中既包含处理很多物质因素,又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素.如果建筑物的结构形式对空间组织和美化环境的设计起这句举足轻重的影响,那么它就是一个相当重要的物理因素,就应当采用分阶段的设计方法.对建筑物的经济考虑是一个主要的非物质因素,在最终的设计中应予以重视.对一个具有创造性的设计而言,经济考虑从某方面来说往往是一种制约,但这也并非是绝对的.如果事先清楚结构设计及施工组织方案与实现他们的造价之间的关系,那么创造性是同样可以实现的.调查表明,大多具有创造性的设计是在有竞争性的投标中获得成功的,而不是因为业主非常富有.尽管后者被大肆炒作,却很少使人信服.因此也可以说,真正具有创造性的设计因该具有很强的经济性.特别是今天,人们应该逐渐认识到,高雅和经济其实是一个可以统一的概念.因此,本文列举一些造价分析参数的简单解释,以及设计人员在他们的结构设计中考虑经济因素是经常采用的一些设计中考虑经济因素是经常采用的一些设计手法.结构造价本身是通过其在建筑物总造价中所占的百分比来衡量的.或者说,由于工程只是一个项目总造价的一部分,因此还要考虑附加费用如地价10%~20%、筹资利息100%~200%、税金及维修费20%左右.不过上面这些因素都不在本文的讨论范围之内,文章将重点介绍工程造价.平均来说,单纯的结构造价大约占建筑物总造价25%.按照惯例,建筑无的结构造价和所谓的建筑造价是分开的.一般说来,所谓的建筑造价,往往是指那些与建筑的结构强度和物理完整性无关的因素.“基本服务设施费”组成了第三类工程费用,主要是指机械供给、电器设备以及其他一些服务体系等费用.一般说来,这部分费用大概占建筑物总费用的15%~30%,这主要取决于建筑无的类型.机械和电气费用,主要是指空调系统费用以及其他诸如管道系统、通讯、照明及动力设备等其他服务设施.在这一造价分类中非常显着的一点是,一个典型的建筑物设计方案的总体费用,应该有45%~60%分配给建筑因素.但现在这种状况正在迅速改变,因为高利率以及资金的缺乏,现在大多业主更倾向于节约型设计.因此,设计者应该考虑两条途径,他们可以直接影响建筑无的工程造价.第一个节约开支的途径可以这样来考虑,即凡是那些建筑问题和结构问题能够同时解决的地方往往有着很强的经济潜力.由于目前大多设计都不愿将建筑物费用一大部分用于纯粹建筑设计,这种方法就显得尤为重要,也会节省一部分非结构预算,这一经费可用于一些本会被削减掉的建筑需求.第二种节约开支的途径,则是设计人员在设计过程中综合考虑服务设施和结构体系,尽力提出一个能够解决房屋设计和施工难题的总建筑方案.承包商通常回用不同的方式做出工程项目的最终报价.他们往往将其分为场地材料费、每一个施工过程中的劳动力资源费、工程所需购买、租借的装备费、经营管理费以及利润.建筑师以及工程师很少考虑的像上面所述的那么精确,但是头脑中应该有一个清楚的概念,那就是一项结构工程的实际造价最终使用什么方法定价以及承包商又是怎样标价的.显然,上面讲到的百分比平均数有些粗略,但是它足以说明总体造价的组成情况了.下面的几部分将讨论这些平均数的范围,并进一步阐述在对建筑无的造价进行粗略、近似估计时用到的平方英尺以及单位体积造价.2.百分比估价建筑物的类型将决定结构费用以及其他费用所占的白分比范围.正如所希望的,装饰性或者标志性较强的建筑物的结构造价在总体造价中所占的比重相对较低.一般而言,结构造价所占的百分比可低至工程总造价的10%~15%,这是因为更多的钱被用到那些非结构费用上了.这又一次说明“装饰”部分是与基本的结构要求无关的.然而对于一些诸如教堂类的综合性标志建筑物,对其结构体系的造价相对较高,其百分比可达到15%~20%或者更高.与之相对的是一些诸如仓库或者车库之类简易的和非象征性的工业建筑物,对于这种建筑,由于内部隔墙、天花板、管道设备系统以及装修部分要求较低,其结构造价在工程总体造价中所占的比例往往能达到60%~70%,有时甚至可达80%.对于一些中等高度5~10层得多层办公楼或住宅楼,其结构造价在总体造价中所占的比例,大约维持在25%这一中间值;而对于一些低矮且跨据短的商业用房和住宅,大约3~4层高且跨度为20~30英尺以及简单的竖向要求,其结构造价将占总造价15%~20%.而一些特殊用途的建筑,如实验室和医院,则另当别论.他们需要较大的跨度以及不一般要求高的机械装备.这就导致总体造价得以大部分将被用于服务费用大约30%~50%,而单纯的结构造价约占20%.对于15层或者以上的高层办公楼以及大跨度约50~60英尺建筑物,其结构造价在总体造价中将占较高的百分比约30%~35%,而服务费用约占30%~40%.在任何情况下这些百分比数据都是具有典型性的,并可作为衡量建筑物设计平均效益的尺度.例如,如果一个较低的小跨度且不具备纪念价值的建筑物,仅仅结构造价投标就为30%的话,那么可以肯定这个结构设计是相当不经济的.另一方面,建筑师应该注意到的一个容易混淆的事实就是,经济投标往往取决于设计者和承包人的理解设计及施工要求的实际能力,能力强就能提供一个较低的投标.创造性设计受限往往是因为设计者或承包商在经验、想象力际交流方面的匮乏.如果承包者没有把握,那么它就会加大投资,以防可能遇到的意外风险.因此要使有创造性的设计在投标时具有竞争力,作为一名建筑师它应能够洞察工程潜力所在.至少建筑是应该尽可能地与想象力丰富的结构工程师、承包商甚至制造商惊醒密切配合.相反,即使对于最为普通的建筑设计,如果仅仅靠设计手册,是很难取得经济效益的.效率离不开专业知识,而最为重要的是想象力,这一点在面对一个不太熟悉的项目是尤为重要.如果建筑物结构设计至少具有中等或标准的效益时,前面所提到的百分比就对建筑物总造价估算有着很大的帮助.例如,如果一座办公楼总体造价500万美元,其中有25%时结构造价的标准,那么这一工程结构体系造价就不能超过125万美元.若设计很合理,比如时按上述的中等效益设计估算造价的80%时,那么就有25万美元,也就是5%的总体建筑费用被省下来.如果这500万资金已经到位,那么节省下的25万美元就可用于其他的经济开支.上面所有阐述表明,结构设计和建筑整体设计机械和电器的创造性结合的概念,将有助于减少单纯的结构造价,或在相同造价下提供更多的建筑费用.这样,设计成功的程度将取决于设计者的专业知识、灵活性以及设计者和承包人之间有洞察力的合作,上面讨论仅仅是提供一种建筑总体造价的全面视图,下面的部分将提供对建筑的结构造价进行估价的方法.有两种可供选择的方法将用来进行结构造价的近似估价:其一是根据单位平方英尺建筑面积,另一种则是根据所用的结构材料体积进行估价.参考上面所提到的有效设计的结构造价标准,最后的结构估价有助于对建筑的总体造价惊醒大概的了解.当然,这样得到的只是一个粗略的估价,但却会使设计负责人员对实际设计中经常要面对的经济问题有所了解.至少,这些将有助于对可供选择的结构体系的相对成本效益进行对比.3.平方英尺估算如前所述,在一个特定的时期和地区,是可以根据相似工程的平均造价,来经验地确定准平方英尺造价系数.设计者和承包人有效的利用材料和劳动力的能力不同,会导致不同平均水平的经济效率设计的.对于“标准”的结构体系而言,每平方英尺的造价为10~16美元,例如,典型的办公楼平均水平在12~16美元之间,而住宅型建筑的范围则是10~14美元.对以上两种情况,下限适用于短跨低矮的建筑,而上限则是用于较大跨度及中等高度的建筑.如同典型的住宅性建筑,普通工业建筑结构简单,通常每平方英尺的造价为10~14美元.尽管工业建筑的跨度很大,且荷载较重,但他们的布局简单,在内墙、隔墙以及天花板方面的要求较少,且一般不高.换句话说,设计和安装的简单化,可以弥补工业建筑因大跨度和重载所造成的额外造价.当然也存在着不同于平均水平的情况.变化的限度取决于体系的复杂程度、跨度超长的程度、特殊的荷载级地震条件等.例如,由于结构造价相当高,位于旧金山的Crown Zellerbach 银行和办公楼旧称得上是个例外.60英尺跨度的钢架以及底部用来承受地震荷载的自由支撑的柱子,连同旧金山糟糕的土壤状况,都造成了较高的造价.在那个时期,这样的设计是非同寻常的,正是因为其特殊的用途及标志性,它才被允许以建筑物个方面都高出同类建筑物的平均水平的造价进行建造.因此,其结构造价在总体造价中的比重接近也普通建筑物.现在将进一步叙述超长跨度的影响.正常跨度的范围规定为:住宅楼16~25英尺;办公楼20~30英尺;工业建筑为25~30英尺,且每平方英尺承重200~300磅;车库建筑为50~60英尺,且相对较轻.如果跨度增加一倍,结构造价将会提高大约20~30%.工业建筑中较大的荷载也无形中提高了建筑物的结构造价.如果一个工业建筑的荷载增加到每平方米500磅大约2~3倍的话,其结构造价也将提高20~30%.上面所述都是针对楼层系统而言的,对采用有效正交各向异性体系的公寓屋顶,不管是钢还是预应力混凝土的,其现代经济设计者的限值都是150英尺.尽管钢结构空间框架常大于150英尺,其制造费用也将大大增加.无论如何,长跨度体系都有其特殊性,它可能较多,也可能较少的影响总体建筑造价时,对于特殊的建筑物,其结构造价将随着设计的不同而明显地改变 .结构形式越特殊,由设计知识、设计的创造性以及施工技术所决定的造价节俭潜力就越大.4.体积度量估算初看起来,一个建筑师不善于精确地估计建筑过程中所用到的材料体积,并如果要得到更高的精度,可以通过工程中所用到的材料体积来估计造价.且进展会非常缓慢,但通过努力学习后,是可以实现这一估计的.体积量度估价,是通过制定结构系统中需要的以磅或吨记得钢材、立方体的钢筋或预应力混凝土的现场价格来实现的.对于这样一个初步估计,没有必要去详究它的详细造价.例如,混凝土的现浇造价将包括模板、脚手架、钢筋、劳动力等费用和间接费用.钢结构则包括构件制作及安装的费用.以重量计的建筑钢材的现场价格,从每磅0.50美元到0.70美元不等.对于低层建筑,可采用现成的宽翼缘型钢构件,只需要极少的加工,因而成本可降低至每磅0.50美元.而复杂的结构体系需要较多的切割和焊接如复杂的钢桁架或空间框架设计,因而其钢材现场价格可达0.7美元甚至更高.对于标准的高层建筑设计,每平方米大概将由20~30磅钢材,这是设计人员不希望超过的量值.而每平方米低于20磅的设计,则需要很强的创造力以及建筑物设计和结构设计上完美的结合,其可称得上是一个真正的成就.混凝土的价格是以体积计量的,其范围从简易的每立方码150美元的现浇钢筋混凝土工程,到非常昂贵的每立方码300美元的小批量所谓预制和预应力工程不等.出现如此大的价格范围.是因为影响因素较复杂,包括预制构件的形状、安装的难易其生产总量.模板通常是现场浇制混凝土构件的决定性因素,因此,为得到每立方码150美元的价格,需要采用最简单的体系方可,例如需要很少的模板加工量并可多次使用平板.一旦梁存在,就需要专门的模板,由于混凝土和钢筋的放置上的困难,价格范围每立方码180美元上升到每立方码300美元.在发达国家,由于较高的劳动力费用,导致较高的模板造价,这就迫使人们采用最简单的和大批量可重复使用的结构构件来实现造价的削减.但现场浇制价格开始接近每立方码240美元时,就应该考虑大批量生产的预制和预应力构件的使用,这样将会减少造价和缩短工期.后者将会因为时公开支费用的降低,是承包商快速赢利.总的来说,每平方码现场浇筑混凝土的标准价格将从150美元~250美元不等,其下限适用于简单混凝土工程,而上限则适用于中等复杂程度的后张预应力工程.这样一个价格范围相对较大,任何忽略了上述影响因素的估价,都将是不准确的.5.结论建筑物的成本估计及节约设计,是一项重要而又必须的工作,每一个建筑师和结构师及相关的建筑业者.都应给予充分的重视.这一工作做得越好,你得到的回报越多。
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译
工程造价论文中英文资料对照外文翻译Risk Analysis of the International Construction ProjectABSTRACTThis analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawyers requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely tobe sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a firm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This wi ll increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require amulti-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare (CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction. I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appearjustified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .This risk analysis was able to facilitate, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. This work also served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. They do not want surprises, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.国际建设工程风险分析摘要此次分析用实例研究方法分析津巴布韦标准协会总部(SAZ)的屋顶部分坍塌的问题。
工程造价外文及翻译
The Cost of Building Structure1. IntroductionThe art of architectural design was characterized as one of dealing comprehensively with a complex set of physical and nonphysical design determinants. Structural considerations were cast as important physical determinants that should be dealt with in a hierarchical fashion if they are to have a significant impact on spatial organization and environmental control design thinking.The economical aspect of building represents a nonphysical structural consideration that, in final analysis, must also be considered important. Cost considerations are in certain ways a constraint to creative design. But this need not be so. If something is known of the relationship between structural and constructive design options and their cost of implementation, it is reasonable to believe that creativity can be enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most enhanced. This has been confirmed by the authors’observation that most creative design innovations succeed under competitive bidding and not because of unusual owner affluence as the few publicized cases of extravagance might lead one to believe. One could even say that a designer who is truly creative will produce architectural excellence within the constraints of economy. Especially today, we find that there is a need to recognize that elegance and economy can become synonymous concepts.Therefore, in this chapter we will set forth a brief explanation of the parameters of cost analysis and the means by which designers may evaluate the overall economic implications of their structural and architectural design thinking.The cost of structure alone can be measured relative to the total cost of building construction. Or, since the total construction cost is but a part of a total project cost, one could include additional consideration for land(10~20percent),finance and interest(100~200 percent),taxesand maintenance costs (on the order of20 percent).But a discussion of these so-called architectural costs is beyond the scope of this book, and we will focus on the cost of construction only.On the average, purely structural costs account for about 25 percent of total construction costs, This is so because it has been traditional to discriminate between purely structural and other so-called architectural costs of construction. Thus, in tradition we find that architectural costs have been taken to be those that are not necessary for the structural strength and physical integrity of a building design.“Essential services” forms a third construction cost category and refers to the provision of mechanical and electrical equipment and other service systems. On the average, these service costs account for some 15 to 30 percent of the total construction cost, depending on the type of building. Mechanical and electrical refers to the cost of providing for air-conditioning equipment and he means on air distribution as well as other services, such as plumbing, communications, and electrical light and power.The salient point is that this breakdown of costs suggests that, up to now, an average of about 45 to 60 percent of the total cost of constructing a typical design solution could be considered as architectural. But this picture is rapidly changing. With high interest costs and a scarcity of capital, client groups are demanding leaner designs. Therefore, one may conclude that there are two approaches the designer may take towards influencing the construction cost of building.The first approach to cost efficiency is to consider that wherever architectural and structural solutions can be achieved simultaneously, a potential for economy is evident. Since current trends indicate a reluctance to allocate large portions of a construction budget to purely architectural costs, this approach seems a logical necessity. But, even where money is available, any use of structure to play a basic architectural role will allow the nonstructural budget to be applied to fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be appliedto fulfill other architectural needs that might normally have to be cut back. The second approach achieves economy through an integration of service and structural subsystems to round out one’s effort to produce a total architectural solution to a building design problem.The final pricing of a project by the constructor or contractor usually takes a different form. The costs are broken down into (1) cost of materials brought to the site, (2)cost of labor involved in every phase of the construction process, (3)cost of equipment purchased or rented for the project, (4)cost of management and overhead, and(5) profit. The architect or engineer seldom follows such an accurate path but should perhaps keep in mind how the actual cost of a structure is finally priced and made up.Thus, the percent averages stated above are obviously crude, but they can suffice to introduce the nature of the cost picture. The following sections will discuss the range of these averages and then proceed to a discussion of square footage costs and volume-based estimates for use in rough approximation of the cost of building a structural system.2. Percentage EstimatesThe type of building project may indicate the range of percentages that can be allocated to structural and other costs. As might be expected, highly decorative or symbolic buildings would normally demand the lowest percentage of structural costs as compared to total construction cost. In this case the structural costs might drop to 10~15percent of the total building cost because more money is allocated to the so-called architectural costs. Once again this implies that the symbolic components are conceived independent of basic structural requirements. However, where structure and symbolism are more-or-less synthesized, as with a church or Cathedral, the structural system cost can be expected to be somewhat higher, say, 15and20 percent (or more).At the other end of the cost scale are the very simple and nonsymbolic industrial buildings, such as warehouses and garages. In these cases, the nonstructural systems, such as interior partition walls and ceilings, aswill as mechanical systems, are normally minimal, as is decoration, and therefore the structural costs can account for60 to 70 percent, even 80 percent of the total cost of construction.Buildings such as medium-rise office and apartment buildings(5~10 stories)occupy the median position on a cost scale at about 25 percent for structure. Low and short-span buildings for commerce and housing, say, of three or four stories and with spans of some 20 or 30 ft and simple erection requirements, will yield structural costs of 15~20 percent of total building cost.Special-performance buildings, such as laboratories and hospitals, represent another category. They can require long spans and a more than average portion of the total costs will be allocated to services ., 30~50 percent), with about 20 percent going for the purely structural costs. Tall office building (15 stories or more) and/or long-span buildings (say, 50 to 60 ft) can require a higher percentage for structural costs (about 30to 35percent of the total construction costs),with about 30 to 40 percent allocated to services.In my case, these percentages are typical and can be considered as a measure of average efficiency in design of buildings. For example, if a low, short-span and nonmonumental building were to be bid at 30 percent for the structure alone, one could assume that the structural design may be comparatively uneconomical. On the other hand, the architect should be aware of the confusing fact that economical bids depend on the practical ability of both the designer and the contractor to interpret the design and construction requirements so that a low bid will ensue. Progress in structural design is often limited more by the designer’s or contractor’slack of experience, imagination, and absence of communication than by the idea of the design. If a contractor is uncertain, he will add costs to hedge the risk he will be taking. It is for this reason that both the architect and the engineer should be well-versed in the area of construction potentials if innovative designs ate to be competitively bid. At the least the architect must be capable of working closely with imaginative structural engineers, contractors and even fabricatorswherever possible even if the architecture is very ordinary. Efficiency always requires knowledge and above all imagination, and these are essential when designs are unfamiliar.The foregoing percentages can be helpful in approximating total construction costs if the assumption is made that structural design is at least of average (of typical) efficiency. For example, if a total office building construction cost budget is ﹩5,000,000,and 25 percent is the “standard” to be used for structure, a projected structural system should cost no more than ﹩1,250, a very efficient design were realized, say, at 80 percent of what would be given by the “average” efficient design estimate stated above the savings,(20 percent),would then be﹩250,000 or 5 percent of total construction costs ﹩5,000, the ﹩5,000,000 figure is committed, then the savings of ﹩250,000 could be applied to expand the budget for “other” costs.All this suggests that creative integration of structural (and mechanical and electrical) design with the total architectural design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction design concept can result in either a reduction in purely construction costs or more architecture for the same cost. Thus, the degree of success possible depends on knowledge, cleverness, and insightful collaboration of the designers and contractors.The above discussion is only meant to give the reader an overall perspective on total construction costs. The following sections will now furnish the means for estimating the cost of structure alone. Two alternative means will be provided for making an approximate structural cost estimate: one on a square foot of building basis, and another on volumes of structural materials used. Such costs can then be used to get a rough idea of total cost by referring to the “standards”for efficient design given above. At best, this will be a crude measure, but it is hoped that the reader will find that it makes him somewhat familiar with the type of real economic problems that responsible designers must deal with. At the least, this capability will be useful in comparing alternative systems for the purpose of determining their relative cost efficiency.3. Square-foot EstimatingAs before, it is possible to empirically determine a “standard”per-square-foot cost factor based on the average of costs for similar construction at a given place and time. more-or-less efficient designs are possible, depending on the ability of the designer and contractor to use materials and labor efficiently, and vary from the average.The range of square-foot costs for “normal” structural systems is ﹩10 to ﹩16 psf. For example, typical office buildings average between ﹩12 and ﹩16 psf, and apartment-type structures range from ﹩10 to ﹩each case, the lower part of the range refers to short spans and low buildings, whereas the upper portion refers to longer spans and moderately tall buildings.Ordinary industrial structures are simple and normally produce square-foot costs ranging from ﹩10 to ﹩14,as with the more typical apartment building. Although the spans for industrial structures are generally longer than those for apartment buildings, and the loads heavier, they commonly have fewer complexities as well as fewer interior walls, partitions, ceiling requirements, and they are not tall. In other words, simplicity of design and erection can offset the additional cost for longer span lengths and heavier loads in industrial buildings.Of course there are exceptions to these averages. The limits of variation depend on a system’s complexity, span length over “normal”and special loading or foundation conditions. For example, the Crown Zellerbach high-rise bank and office building in San Francisco is an exception, since its structural costs were unusually high. However, in this case, the use of 60 ft steel spans and free-standing columns at the bottom, which carry the considerable earthquake loading, as well as the special foundation associated with the poor San Francisco soil conditions, contributed to the exceptionally high costs. The design was also unusual for its time and a decision had been made to allow higher than normal costs for all aspects of the building to achieve open spaces and for both function and symbolic reasons. Hence the proportion ofstructural to total cost probably remained similar to ordinary buildings.The effect of spans longer than normal can be further illustrated. The “usual” floor span range is as follows: for apartment buildings,16 to 25 ft; for office buildings,20 to 30 ft; for industrial buildings,25 to 30 ft loaded heavily at 200 to 300 psf; and garage-type structures span,50 to 60 ft, carrying relatively light(50~75 psf) loads., similar to those for apartment and office structures).where these spans are doubled, the structural costs can be expected to rise about 20 to 30 percent.To increased loading in the case of industrial buildings offers another insight into the dependency of cost estimates on “usual”standards. If the loading in an industrial building were to be increased to 500psf., two or three times), the additional structural cost would be on the order of another 20 to 30 percent.The reference in the above cases is for floor systems. For roofs using efficient orthotropic (flat) systems, contemporary limits for economical design appear to be on the order of 150 ft, whether of steel or prestressed concrete. Although space- frames are often used for steel or prestressed concrete. Although space-frames are often used for steel spans over 150 ft the fabrication costs begin to raise considerably.At any rate, it should be recognized that very long-span subsystems are special cases and can in themselves have a great or small effect on is added, structural costs for special buildings can vary greatly from design to design. The more special the form, themore that design knowledge and creativity, as well as construction skill, will determine the potential for achieving cost efficiency.4. Volume-Based EstimatesWhen more accuracy is desired, estimates of costs can be based on the volume of materials used to do a job. At first glance it might seem that the architect would be ill equipped to estimate the volume of material required in construction with any accuracy, and much less speed. But it is possible, with a moderate learning effort, to achieve some capabilityfor making such estimates.Volume-based estimates are given by assigning in-place value to the pounds or tons of steel, or the cubic yards of reinforced or prestressed concrete required to build a structural system. For such a preliminary estimate, one does not need to itemize detailed costs. For example, in-place concrete costs include the cost of forming, falsework, reinforcing steel, labor, and overhead. Steel includes fabrication and erection of components.Costs of structural steel as measured by weight range from ﹩ to ﹩per pound in place for building construction. For low-rise buildings, one can use stock wide-flange structural members that require minimum fabrication, and the cost could be as bow as ﹩per pound. More complicated systems requiring much cutting and welding(such as a complicated steel truss or space-frame design) can go to ﹩ per pound and beyond. For standard tall building designs (say, exceeding 20 stories),there would typically be about 20 to 30 pounds of steel/psf, which one should wish not to exceed. A design calling for under 20 psf would require a great deal of ingenuity and the careful integration of structural and architectural components and would be a real accomplishment.Concrete costs are volumetric and should range from an in-place low of ﹩150 per cu yd for very simple reinforced concrete work to ﹩300 per cu yd for expensive small quantity precast and prestressed work. This large range is due to the fact that the contributing variables are more complicated, depending upon the shape of the precise components, the erection problems, and the total quantity produced.Form work is generally the controlling factor for any cast-in-place concrete work. Therefore, to achieve a cost of ﹩150 per cu yd, only the simplest of systems can be used, such as flat slabs that require little cutting and much reuse of forms. Where any beams are introduced that require special forms and difficulty in placement of concrete and steel bars, the range begins at ﹩180 per cu yd and goes up to ﹩, in a developedcountry, high labor costs account for high forming costs, this results in pressure to use the simplest and most repetitive of systems to keep costs down. It become rewarding to consider the possibility of mass-produced precast and prestressed components, which may bring a saving in costs and\or construction completion time. The latter results in savings due to lower construction financing costs for the contractor plus quicker earnings for the owner.To summarize, the range of cost per cubic yard of standard types of poured-in-place concrete work will average from $150 to $250, the minimum being for simple reinforced work and the maximum for moderately complicated post tensioned work. This range is large and any estimate that ignores the effect of variables above will be commensurately inaccurate.The estimate and economical design of structure building are important and essential work, which should be valued by all architects and engineers and others. Better you do it, more profit you will receive from it!建筑结构的成本1.前言众所周知,建筑物的结构设计是一个相当复杂的过程,其中既包含处理很多物质因素,又考虑诸多非物质方面的因素。
工程造价专业毕业外文文献、中英对照
本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目China’s Pathway to Low—carbon Development文献、资料来源: Journal of Knowledge-basedInnovation in China文献、资料发表(出版)日期:V ol。
2 No。
3, 2010院(部):管理工程学院专业:工程造价外文文献China’s Pathway to Low—carbon DevelopmentAbstractPurpose–The purpose of this paper is to explore China's current policy and policy options regarding the shift to a low-carbon (LC)development.Design/methodology/approach – The paper uses both a literature review and empirical systems analysis of the trends of socio-economic conditions, carbon emissions and development of innovation capacities in China.Findings – The analysis shows that a holistic solution and co—benefit approach are needed for China's transition to a green and LC economy,and that, especially for developing countries,it is not enough to have only goals regarding mitigation and adaptation。
工程造价工程预算中英文对照外文翻译文献
工程造价工程预算中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)在斯里兰卡建筑承包商中建立的估算数据流当一个预算员在编写工程量清单时,为了计算建设项目的成本他会收集大量的数据。
收集的数据可用于承包商的后续管理,承包商在投标后的管理中使用这些数据时应格外注意。
本文从斯里兰卡建筑承包商的十个案例研究组织中得到的信息确定了承包商的管理部门、管理任务和管理团队,而且还明确了估算数据流在各管理部门之间和管理部门内部的功能。
这些数据流强调了在投标后进行修正数据的必要性。
人们认为当前估计数据的形式和描述数据的主要原因是为了在斯里兰卡的重新使用。
然而,人们发现任何传统格式的革命性变革都不会受行业的欢迎。
任何新的提议在可接受性的限制下的传统做法内被制定。
单位价格由材料消耗量、劳动力消耗量和机械设备消耗量组成,单位价格各组成量可以提供所有的数据供直接使用,因此减少了一些重复工作。
进一步的研究应该着手于单位价格的最佳格式和结构的组成。
关键词:工程量清单、案例研究、数据管理、评估、斯里兰卡。
简介在过去的四十年里,许多研究人员调查了工程量清单在承包商投标后的管理中的应用。
已经出现的可供参考的工程量清单格式:操作清单(教育部和科学部,1957),地方性贸易清单(Nott,1963),工程量清单-操作格式-(Skoyes,1968),BPF系统-活动日程-(英国房地产联合会,1983)和建造者的数量(Pasquire and McCaffer,1968)。
然而使用了标准的测量方法(皇家特许测量协会。
1968)的工程量清单在传统的实践准备过程中仍然被广泛用于标准的工程量清单的准备。
(Kodikarq,1990)。
这并不意味着在承包商投标后的合同管理中使用工程量清单是有效的(Skinner,1981)。
工程量清单是投标人在所获取的主要文件,本文是对在1989年的一项调查承包商评估数据所作的报告。
这项工作的目的是观察在斯里兰卡建筑承包商组织中的估计数量流,并确定承包商的数据管理效率低下的原因。
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外文文献:Project Cost Control: The Way it WorksBy R. Max WidemanIn a recent consulting assignment we realized that there was some lack of understanding of thewholesystem of project cost control, how it is setup and applied. So we decided to write up adescription ofhow it works. Project cost control is not that difficult to follow in theory.First you establish a set of reference baselines. Then, as work progresses, you monitor the work, analyzethe findings, forecast the end results and compare those with the reference baselines. If the end resultsare not satisfactory then you make adjustments as necessary to the work in progress, and repeat the cycleat suitable intervals. If the end results get really out of line with the baseline plan, you may have tochange the plan. More likely, there will be (or have been) scope changes that change the referencebaselines which means that every time that happens you have to change the baseline plan anyway.But project cost control is a lot more difficult to do in practice, as is evidenced by the number of projectsthat fail to contain costs. It also involves a significant amount of work, as we shall see, and we might aswell start at the beginning. So let us follow the thread of project cost control through the entire projectlife span.And, while we are at it, we will take the opportunity to point out the proper places for several significantdocuments. These include the Business Case, the Request for (a capital) Appropriation (for execution),Work Packages and the Work Breakdown Structure, the Project Charter (or Brief), the Project Budget orCost Plan, Earned Value and the Cost Baseline. All of these contribute to the organization's ability toeffectively control project costs.FootnoteI am indebted to my friend Quentin Fleming, the guru of Earned Value, for checking and correcting mywork on this topic.The Business Case and Application for (execution) FundingIt is important to note that project cost control is most effective when the executive managementresponsible has a good understanding of how projects should unfold through the project life span. Thismeans that they exercise their responsibilities at the key decision pointsbetween the major phases. Theymust also recognize the importance of project risk management for identifying and planning to head offat least the most obvious potential risk events.In the project's Concept Phase• Every project starts with someone identifying an opportunity or need. That is usually someone ofimportance or influence, if the project is to proceed, and that person often becomes the project'ssponsor.• To determine the suitability of the potential project, most organizations call for the preparation ofa "Business Case" and its "Order of Magnitude" cost to justify the value of the project so that it can be compared with all the other competing projects. This effort is conducted in the ConceptPhase of the project and is done as a part of the organization's management of the entire projectportfolio.• The cost of the work of preparing the Business Case is usually covered by corporatemanagement overhead, but it may be carried forward as an accounting cost to the eventualproject. No doubt because this will provide a tax benefit to the organization. The problem is, howdo you then account for all the projects that are not so carried forward?• If the Business case has sufficient merit, approval will be given to proceed to a Development andDefinition phase.In the project's Development or Definition Phase• The objective of the Development Phase is to establish a good understanding of the workinvolved to produce the required product, estimate the cost and seek capital funding for theactual execution of the project.• In a formalized setting, especially where big projects are involved, this application for funding isoften referred to as a Request for (a capital) Appropriation (RFA) or Capital AppropriationRequest (CAR).• This requires the collection of more detailed requirements and d ata to establish what work needs to be done to produce the required product or "deliverable". From this information, a plan isprepared in sufficient detail to give adequate confidence in a dollar figure to be included in therequest.• In a less formalized setting, everyone just tries to muddle through.Work Packages and the WBSThe Project Management Plan, Project Brief or Project Charter• If the deliverable consists of a number of different elements, these are identified and assembledinto Work Packages (WPs) and presented in the form of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).• Each WP involves a set of activities, the "work" that is planned and scheduled as a part of theProject Management Plan. Note, however, that the planning will still be at a relatively high level,and more detailed planning will be necessary during execution if the project is given the goahead. • This Project Management Plan, by the way, should become the "bible" for the execution phase ofthe project and is sometimes referred to as the "Project Brief" or the "Project Charter".• The cost of doing the various activities is then estimated and these estimated costs are aggregatedto determine the estimated cost of the WP. This approach is known as "detailed estimating" or"bottom up estimating". There are other approaches to estimating that we'll come to in a minute.Either way, the result is an estimated cost of the total work of the project.Note: that project risk management planning is an important part of this exercise. This should examinethe project's assumptions and environmental conditions to identify any weaknesses in the plan thus far,and identify those potential risk events that warrant attention for mitigation. This might take the form ofspecific contingency planning, and/or the setting aside of prudent funding reserves.Request for capitalConverting the estimate• However, an estimate of the work alone is not sufficient for a capital request. To arrive at acapital request some conversion is necessary, for example, by adding prudent allowances such asoverheads, a contingency allowance to cover normal project risks and management reserves tocover unknowns and possible scope changes.• In addition, it may be necessary to convert the estimating data into a financial accounting format that satisfies the corporate or sponsor's format for purposes of comparison with other projectsand consequent funding approval.• In practice all the data for the type of "bottom up" approach just described may not be available.In this case alternative estimating approaches are adopted that provide various degrees ofreliability in a "top down" fashion. For example:Order of Magnitude estimate – a "ball park" estimate, usually reserved for the conceptphase onlyAnalogous estimate – an estimate based on previous similar projectsParametric estimate – an estimate based on statistical relationships in historical data• Whichever approach is adopted, hopefully the sum thus arrived at will be approved in full andproves to be satisfactory! This is the trigger to start the Execution Phase of the project Note: Some managements will approve some lesser sum in the mistaken belief that this will helpeveryone to "sharpen their pencils" and "work smarter" for the benefit of the organization. This is amistaken belief because management has failed to understand the nature of uncertainty and risk inproject work. Consequently, the effect is more likely to result in "corner cutting" with an adverse effecton product quality, or reduced product scope or functionality.This often leads to a "game" in which estimates are inflated so that management can adjust themdownwards. But to be fair, management is also well aware that if money is over allocated, it will getspent anyway. The smart thing for managements to do is to set aside contingent reserve funds, varyingwith the riskiness of the project, and keep that money under careful control.Ownership of approved capital• If senior management approves the RFA as presented, the sum in question becomes theresponsibility of the designated project sponsor. However, if the approved capital requestincludes allowances such as a "Management Reserve", this may or may not be passed on to theproject's sponsor, depending on the policies of the organization.• For the approved RFA, the project sponsor will, in turn, further delegate expenditure authority tothe project's project manager and will likely not include any of the allowances. An exceptionmight be the contingency allowances to cover the normal variations in work performance.• The net sum thus arri ved at constitutes the project manager's Approved Project Budget. Note: If management does not approve the RFA, you should not consider this a project failure. Eitherthe goals, objectives, justification and planning need rethinking to increase the value of the project'sdeliverables, or senior management simply has higher priorities elsewhere for theavailable resourcesand funding.The Project's Execution PhaseThe project manager's Project Budget responsibility• Once this Approved Project Budget is release d to the project manager, a reverse process musttake place to convert it into a working control document. That is, the money available must bedivided amongst the various WBS WPs that, by the way, have probably by now been upgraded!This results in a project execution Control Budget or Project Baseline Budget, or simply, theProject Budget. In some areas of project management application it is referred to as a ProjectCost Plan.• On a large project where different corporate production divisions are involved, t here may be afurther intermediate step of creating "Control Accounts" for the separate divisions, so that eachdivision subdivides their allocated money into their own WBS WPs.• Observe that, since the total Project Budget received formal approval from ExecutiveManagement, you, as project manager, must likewise seek and obtain from ExecutiveManagement, via the project's sponsor, formal approval for any changes to the total projectbudget. Often this is only justified and accepted on the basis of a requested Product ScopeChange.• In such a case the project's sponsor will either draw down on the management reserve in his orher possession, or submit a supplementary RFA to upper management.• Now that we have the Project Budget money allocated to Work Packages w e can furtherdistribute it amongst the various activities of each WP so that we know how much money wehave as a "Baseline" cost for each activity.• This provides us with the base of reference for the cost control function. Of course, depending onthe circumstances the same thing may be done at the WP level but the ability to control is then ata higher and coarser level.Use of the Earned Value technique• If we have the necessary details another control tool that we can adopt for monitoring ongoingwork is the "Earned Value" (EV) technique. This is a considerable art and science that you mustlearn about from texts dedicated to the subject.• But essentially, you take the costs of the schedule activities and plot them as a cumulativetotalon the appropriate time base. Again you can do this at the activity level, WP level or the wholeproject level. The lower the level the more control information you have available but the morework you get involved in.The Cost Baseline• This planned reference S-curve is sometimes referred to as the "Cost Baseline", typically in EV parlance. That is, it is the "Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled" (BCWS), or more simply the"Planned Value" (PV).• Observe that you need to modify this Cost Baseline every time there is an approved scopechange that has cost and/or schedule implications and consequently changes the project'sApproved Project Budget.• Now, as the work progresses, you can plot the "Actual Cost of Work Performed" (ACWP orsimply "Actual Cost" - AC).• You can plot other thing s as well, see diagram referred to above, and if you don't like what yousee then you need to take "Corrective Action".CommentaryThis whole process is a cyclic, situational operation and is probably the source of the term "cycle" in thepopularly misnamed "project life cycle".As an aside, the Earned Value pundits offer various other techniques within the EV process designed toaid in forecasting the final result, that is, the "Estimate At Completion" (EAC). EAC is what you shouldreally be interested in because it is the only constant in a moving project. Therefore, these extended EV techniques must be considered in thesame realm of accuracy as top-down estimating. They are useful, but only if you recognize thelimitations and know what you are doing!But, as we said at the beginning, it is a lot more difficult to do in practice – and involves a significantamount of work. But, let's face it, that's what project managers are hired for, right?中文译文:项目成本控制:它的工作方式R.马克斯怀德曼我们在最近的咨询任务中意识到,对于整个项目成本控制体系是如何设置和应用的这个问题,我们仍有一些缺乏了解。