GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(语言与社会变体)【圣才出品】
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(语言模式)【圣才出品】
第4章语言模式Study questions1. What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone?Key: (1) Substituting one phoneme for another changes both pronunciation and meaning.(2) Substituting one allophone for another only changes its pronunciation.2. What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would normally be pronounced with one: kill, pool, skill, spool, stop, top?Key: An aspirated sound is one pronounced with a stronger puff of air. Words containing aspirated consonants in initial position are kill, pool and top.3. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?ban, fat, pit, bell, tape, heat, meal, more, pat, tap, pen, chain, vote, bet, far, bun, goat, heel, sane, tale, vetKey: ban–bun, fat–pat, fat–far, pit–pat, bell–bet, tape–tale, heat–heel, meal–heel, chain–sane, vote–goat4. What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?Key: The phonotactis of a language are the permitted arrangements of soundsthat obey constraints on the sequence and ordering of phonemes in that language.5. What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?Key: (1) An open syllable ends with a vowel (as nucleus)(2) A closed syllable ends with a consonant (as coda)6. Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most likely to be affected by elision?(i) government;(ii) postman;(iii) pumpkin;(iv) sandwich;(v) victoryKey: (i) /n/;(ii) /t/;(iii) /p/;(iv) /d/TasksA. What are diacritics and which ones were used in this chapter to identify sounds? Key: A diacritic is a mark placed above, through or below a letter, in order to indicate a sound different from that indicated by the letter without the diacritic.D. Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals? Key: The term suprasegmental refers to properties of an utterance that apply to groups of segments, rather than to individual segments. For example, stress is generally assigned to a syllable rather than to an individual sound. The three main suprasegmental features are stress, intonation, and tone.(1) Stress: Emphasis, conveyed through differences in pitch, loudness, or duration that distinguishes a stress-bearing union (often a syllable) from neighboring units. In some languages (not English), stress is contrastive (i.e. stress alone can distinguish between two otherwise identical words). An English word with initial stress is escapade. An English word with final stress is understand.(2) Intonation—The pattern of rising and falling pitch over an utterance. In English, rising pitch is often used to indicate a question (‘Mary likes John?’), while falling pitch is usual ly characteristic of a declarative sentence (‘Mary likes John.’).(3) Tone—The use of pitch on a sequence of sounds to convey lexical information. In English, tone is not contrastive, but it many languages it is. For example, in Mandarin Chinese, the same syllable ma has four different meanings, depending on which tone is used.E. The English words lesson and little are typically pronounced with syllabic consonants.(i) What exactly is a syllabic consonant and how would it appear in a phonetic transcription?Key: (1) A syllabic consonant is a consonant that can form an entire syllable on its own, without any vowels.(2) When transcribing speech phonetically, syllabic consonants appear quiteoften. Even discounting onomatopoeia, we have three or four of them that commonly appear in English.T here is a way to indicate that an ‘m’, ‘n’, ‘l’, ‘r’, or any other consonant is acting as a syllabic consonant — simply place a small, short vertical line underneath the letter in question. In practice this usually ends up being a small dot.(ii) Which of these words would most likely be pronounced with a syllabic consonant:bottle, bottom, button, castle, copper, cotton, paddle, schism, wooden?Key: bottle, bottom, button, castle, copper, cotton, paddle, schism, wooden?F. A general distinction can be made among languages depending on their basic rhythm, whether they have syllable-timing or stress-timing. How are these two types of rhythm distinguished and which type characterizes the pronunciation of English, French and Spanish?Key: In a syllable-timing language, all syllables are of approximately equal length;In a stress-timing language, there are approximately equal intervals of time between stressed syllables.English and Spanish are stress-timed; French is syllable-timed.。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【章节题库】(动物与人类语言)【圣才出品】
第2章动物与人类语言I. Fill in the blanks.1. In Sau ssure’s view, the relationship between signifier(sound image) and signified (concept) is ______.（北二外2005研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
3. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ______.（北二外2007研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
4. Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ______ interpersonal and textual functions.（中山大学2008研）【答案】ideational【解析】韩理德将儿童的语言功能范围逐渐缩小，简化成为一套高度符号化和抽象化的功能：概念、人际、语篇功能。
5. Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the ______ function of language.（中山大学2005研）【答案】metalingual【解析】语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(第二语言习得)【圣才出品】
第14章第二语言习得Study questions1. What do yo u think “the Joseph Conrad phenomenon” refers to?Key: It refers to the ability of an adult L2 learner to master aspects of the written language, but to speak with a distinct L1 accent, as exemplified by the writer Joseph Conrad.2. Why do we say that mathematics is learned, not acquired?Key: Mathematics is learned through a conscious process of accumulating knowledge, typically in an institutional setting. It is not acquired, because ability doesn’t gradually develop without consci ous effort, as in the development of an L1 by young children.3. What are four typical barriers to acquiring an L2 as an adult compared to L1 acquisition as a child?Key: Choose four of these:(1) Insufficient time is devoted to the process (a few hours each week rather than the constant interaction experienced as a child);(2) Insufficient focus on the process (adults have a lot of other things to do and think about, unlike very young children);(3) Insufficient incentive (adults already know a language and can use it for their communicative needs);(4) The ‘critical period’ for language acquisition has passed;(5) Affective factors, such as self-consciousness, create more inhibitions for an adult than a young child.4. What is the difference between positive and negative transfer?Key: (1) Positive transfer is when the learner tries to use knowledge about a feature of the L1 that is similar to the L2.(2) Negative transfer is when the learner tries to use an L1 feature that is really different from the L2.5. What happens when an interlanguage fossilizes?Key: An interlanguage fossilizes when it contains many forms that do not match the target language and no further progress is being made.6. What are the three components of communicative competence?Key: Grammatical, sociolinguistic and strategic competenceTasksA. What is the difference between “input” and “intake” in L2 learning?Key: Input is the language that a learner is exposed to while intake is the inputthat is internalized by the learner. Only comprehensible input (which, as defined by Krashen, is the bit of language that is slightly ahead of a learner’s current knowledge of the L2 grammar) has the potential to become intake.Not all input in a language learning session or in a naturally occurring conversation is understandable. Whatever can be understandable and slightly ahead of the learner’s language level is what Krashen refers to as comprehensible input and what Corder refers to as intake is what the learner has added in his language tools for immediate or future use. Intake is thus a better term since not all “comprehensible input” can be taken in. Depending on the difficult level of the new concept , a language learner may need to hear the concept ones or several times before internalizing it. Although comprehensible, the new concept may not be 1 to the learner’s language acquisition process. Comprehensible input and intake are therefore two different perspectives regarding input in language acquisition.B. What arguments are presented in support of “the output hypothesis” in L2 studies?Key: The Output Hypothesis proposed by Swain argued that language output may trigger the learners to pay attention to the target linguistic form in order to express their intended meaning. The noticing function of the Output Hypothesis posits that learners may notice the gap in their IL knowledge in an attempt to produce the target language to prompt them to solve their linguistic deficiencyin ways that are appropriate in a given context.Recent research implies that attention does work in SLA. For example, Schmidt stated that a connection exists between learning and attention. He further explains that noticing, which requires learner focus, is an important part of the learning process.C. What is meant by a “stylistic continuum” in the study of interlanguage? Key: The stylistic continuum is the product of differing degrees of attention reflected in a variety of performance tasks.。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【章节题库】(书写文字)【圣才出品】
第16章书写文字I. Fill in the blanks.1. Much of the evidence used in the reconstruction of ancient writing systems comes from _____ on stone or tablets found in the rubble of ruined cities.【答案】inscriptions2. A modern writing system which is based, to a certain extent, on the use of logograms can be found in _____【答案】China3. A/An _____ is essentially a set of written symbols which each represent a single type of sound.【答案】alphabet4. The modified version, called _____ is the basis of the writing system used in Russia today.【答案】the Cyrillic alphabetII. Explain the following terms.1. PictogramsKey: When some of the ‘pictures’ came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.2. IdeogramsKey: The picture might take on a more fixed symbolic form and come to be used for ‘heat’ and ‘daytime’, as well as for ‘sun’. This type of symbol is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideograms.3. Rebus writingKey: One way of using existing symbols to represent the sounds of language is via a process known as Rebus writing. In this process, the symbol for one entity is taken over as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity. That symbol then comes to be used whenever that sound occurs in any words.4. Syllabic writingKey: When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing. There are no purely syllabic writing systems in use today, but modern Japanese can be written with a set of single symbols which represent spoken syllables and is consequently often described as having a (partially) syllabic writing system, or a syllabary.III. Briefly explain or answer the following questions.1. What are the disadvantages of a logographic writing system?Key: An extremely large number of separate symbols are involved, so there are problems in learning all the symbols and also in remembering them.2. What is the process known as Rebus writing?Key: Rebus writing involves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.IV. Essay questions.1. Is English a language that uses a phonetic alphabet system? Explain briefly why or why not with examples.（北外2004研）Key: The Phonetic Alphabet is a system of letters and symbols that are used to represent the individual sounds of a language. English is a language that uses a phonetic alphabet system because it is a phonographic language by nature.There are mainly three types of language concerning its writing system: ideographic language which uses symbols (ideograms) to represent whole words or concepts (ideas), with Chinese as an example; syllabic language which word or concepts are represented by syllable, with Japanese syllabic system as an example; phonographic language which uses special alphabetic or other typographical characters to express the sounds of an actual spoken utterance inwriting, with many European languages as examples. English uses alphabetic script to represent certain single type sound. For example, the sound which is written sh in English can be expressed by symbols of （ʃ）ship; and the sound that is written in c can be expressed by the symbol of（k）cup.2. How much does our language influence the way we think? How deeply do language and culture interpenetrate and influence one another? These questions about language have fascinated thinkers throughout the ages. For example, Johann Gottfried Herder and Wilhelm yon Humboldt in the German Romantic tradition regarded language as a prisma or grid spread over things in the world so that each language reflects a different worldview. Write a short essay to explain your position on this view. (北外2004研)Key: Humans have a unique linguistic system for communication that serves as the primary vehicle for expressing thoughts. Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles that develop along two different routes but overlap in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other. But language is not the only means of expressing thought. As for the relationship between language and the thought, we think that language does not determine the way we think but influence the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks. That is, language may be used to provide new ideas, bring about a change in beliefs and values, solve problems, and keep track of things in memory. For example, awell-developed vocabulary may well assist us in learning the concepts the lexis covers. We recall things more easily when they correspond to readily available words or phrases. It is certainly easier for us to make a conceptual distinction if it neatly corresponds to a particular lexical item available in our language. When we label our experience with linguistic symbols, our language will influence how we remember and think about those experiences; otherwise the relationship between language and perception, memory or thinking will be greatly reduced.In terms of relationship between language and culture, we can infer that a language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events that represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, and etc. Language expresses cultural reality. On the other hand, as people’s language uses express their culture represented by its social conventions, norms and social appropriateness, the culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically. Sharing a same community culture, people have acquired common ways of viewing the world through their speech interactions with other members of the same group. Although language and culture are inextricably intertwined, culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem. The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people. Language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.As for the relationship between language and world views, the language system does not necessarily provide specifics of one’s world view. All humans share a general conceptualizing capacity; Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences according to their respectively different linguistic coding systems for the same objective world. On the one hand, people speaking the same language may have different world views, including political, social, religious, scientific and philosophical views. On the other hand, people speaking different languages may share similar world views on above aspects. Moreover, one language can describe many different worldviews, as is evident in the case of successful translation.According to the theories shown above, we can infer that Johann Gottfried Herder and Wilhelm yon Humboldt’s view has both merits and limitations. First, they see clearly that there exists a relationship between language and thoughts. Second, they assume that language influences so much the way people think that people who think in different ways will have different world views. Based on the theoretical views above we think this view is not rational in this aspect.3. Identify pictograms and ideograms.Key: The distinction between pictograms and ideograms is essentially a difference in the relationship between the symbol and the entity it represents. The more ‘picture-like’ forms are pictograms, the more abstract, derived forms are ideograms. A key property of both pictograms and ideograms is that they do。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(书写文字)【圣才出品】
第16章书写文字Study questions1. In the study of language, how is writing defined?Key: Writing is the symbolic representation of language through the use of graphic signs.2. What is the basic difference between a logographic writing system and a phonographic writing system?Key: In a logographic system, the symbols represent words and;In a phonographic system, the symbols represent sounds.3. What happens in the process known as rebus writing?Key: In rebus writing, the symbol for one entity comes to be used as the symbol for the sound of the spoken word used to refer to that entity. That symbol is then used whenever that sound occurs in any words.4. Is the text message ‘cu@9’ an example of logographic or alphabetic writing? Key: Logographic writing5. What is the name given to the writing system used for Russian?Key: The Cyrillic alphabet6. Where will you find the writing system with the longest history of continuous use?Key: ChinaTasksA. What is boustrophedon writing and during which period was it used?Key: Boustrophedon is a writing- style that alternate lines in opposite directions, one line from left to right and the next from right to left. Some Etruscan texts are written in boustrophedon style, as are some Greek ones of about the 6th century B.C. The word is from the Greek boustrophēdon, meaning literally “to turn like oxen” (in plowing).Boustrophedon is a Greek word meaning "like an ox while plowing" and was actually used in Greece and surrounding countries between 600 and 800 B.C.B. What kind of writing systems are known as abjads and abugidas and what is the basic difference between them?Key: An abjad is an alphabetic writing system where there is one symbol per consonant. Abjads differ from other alphabets in that they have characters only for consonantal sounds. Vowels are not usually marked in abjads.An abugida is an alphabetic writing system whose basic signs denoteconsonants with an inherent vowel and where consistent modifications of the basic sign indicate other following vowels than the inherent one.The contrast with "true syllabaries" is that the latter have one distinct symbol per possible syllable, and the signs for each syllable have no systematic graphic similarity. The graphic similarity of most abugidas comes from the fact that they are derived from abjads, and the consonants make up the symbols with the inherent vowel and the new vowel symbols are markings added on to the base symbol.C. What kind of writing system is Hangul, where is it used and how are forms written on the page?Key: The Korean alphabet, or Hangul is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443, and is now the official script of both North Korea and South Korea, and co-official in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of the Jilin Province in the People's Republic of China. In South Korea, Hangul is augmented by Chinese characters, called hanja.Hangul is a true alphabet of 24 consonant and vowel letters. However, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한han may look like a single character, it is composed of three letters: ㅎh, ㅏa, and ㄴn. Each syllabic block consists of two to five letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocksare then arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. The number of mathematically possible blocks is 11,172, though there are far fewer possible syllables allowed by Korean phonotactics, and not all phonotactically-possible syllables occur in actual Korean words. For a phonological description, see Korean phonology.。
George Yule《语言研究》(第4版)课后习题详解(第4章 语言模式)【圣才出品】
第4章语言模式Study questions1.What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone?Key:(1)Substituting one phoneme for another changes both pronunciation and meaning.(2)Substituting one allophone for another only changes its pronunciation.2.What is an aspirated sound and which of the following words would normally be pronounced with one:kill,pool,skill,spool,stop,top?Key:An aspirated sound is one pronounced with a stronger puff of air.Words containing aspirated consonants in initial position are kill,pool and top.3.Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs?ban,fat,pit,bell,tape,heat,meal,more,pat,tap,pen,chain,vote,bet,far,bun, goat,heel,sane,tale,vetKey:ban–bun,fat–pat,fat–far,pit–pat,bell–bet,tape–tale,heat–heel,meal–heel, chain–sane,vote–goat4.What is meant by the phonotactics of a language?Key:The phonotactics of a language are the permitted arrangements of sounds that obey constraints on the sequence and ordering of phonemes in thatlanguage.5.What is the difference between an open and a closed syllable?Key:(1)An open syllable ends with a vowel(as nucleus)(2)A closed syllable ends with a consonant(as coda)6.Which segments in the pronunciation of the following words are most likely to be affected by elision?(i)government(ii)postman(iii)pumpkin(iv)sandwich(v)victoryKey:(i)/n/;(ii)/t/;(iii)/p/;(iv)/d/TasksA.What are diacritics and which ones were used in this chapter to identify sounds? Key:A diacritic is a mark placed above,through or below a letter,in order to indicate a sound different from that indicated by the letter without the diacritic.D.Individual sounds are described as segments.What are suprasegmentals?Key:The term suprasegmental refers to properties of an utterance that apply to groups of segments,rather than to individual segments.For example,stress is generally assigned to a syllable rather than to an individual sound.The three main suprasegmental features are stress,intonation,and tone.(1)Stress:Emphasis,conveyed through differences in pitch,loudness,or duration that distinguishes a stress-bearing union(often a syllable)from neighboring units.In some languages(not English),stress is contrastive(i.e. stress alone can distinguish between two otherwise identical words).An English word with initial stress is escapade.An English word with final stress is understood.(2)Intonation—The pattern of rising and falling pitch over an utterance.In English,rising pitch is often used to indicate a question(‘Mary likes John?’), while falling pitch is usually characteristic of a declarative sentence(‘Mary likes John.’).(3)Tone—The use of pitch on a sequence of sounds to convey lexical information.In English,tone is not contrastive,but it many languages it is.For example,in Mandarin Chinese,the same syllable ma has four different meanings, depending on which tone is used.E.The English words lesson and little are typically pronounced with syllabic consonants.(i)What exactly is a syllabic consonant and how would it appear in a phonetictranscription?Key:(1)A syllabic consonant is a consonant that can form an entire syllable on its own,without any vowels.(2)When transcribing speech phonetically,syllabic consonants appear quite often.Even discounting onomatopoeia,we have three or four of them that commonly appear in English.There is a way to indicate that an‘m’,‘n’,‘l’,‘r’,or any other consonant is acting as a syllabic consonant—simply place a small,short vertical line underneath the letter in question.In practice this usually ends up being a small dot.(ii)Which of these words would most likely be pronounced with a syllabic consonant:bottle,bottom,button,castle,copper,cotton,paddle,schism,wooden?Key:bott l e,botto m,butto n,cast l e,coppe r,cotto n,padd l e,schis m,woode n?F.A general distinction can be made among languages depending on their basic rhythm,whether they have syllable-timing or stress-timing.How are these two types of rhythm distinguished and which type characterizes the pronunciation of English,French and Spanish?Key:In a syllable-timing language,all syllables are of approximately equal length;In a stress-timing language,there are approximately equal intervals of time between stressed syllables.English and Spanish are stress-timed;French is syllable-timed.。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(语用学)【圣才出品】
第10章语用学Study questions1. What kinds of deictic expressions are used in this utterance (e.g. I= person deixis)?I’m busy now so you can’t stay here. Come back later.Key: Person deixis (I, you);spatial deixis (here, come back);temporal deixis (now, later)2. What are the anaphoric expressions in this sentence?Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she advised him to take the pills three times a day until the pain went away. Key: he, her, his, she, him, the pills, the pain3. What kind of inference is involved in interpreting each of these utterances?(a) Teacher: You can borrow my Shakespeare.(b) Waiter: The ham sandwich left without paying.(c) Nurse: The hernia in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor.(d) Dentist: My eleven-thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.Key: (a) If X is the name of a writer of a book, then X can be used to identify acopy of a book by that writer (in an educational setting)(b) If X is the name of a meal, then X can be used to refer to the person who orders the meal (in a restaurant setting)(c) If X is the name of a medical condition, then X can be used to refer to the person with that medical condition (in a medical setting)(d) If X is the time of an appointment, X can be used to refer to the person with that appointment (in a business office setting)4. What is one obvious presupposition of a speaker who says:(a) Your clock isn’t working.(b) Where did he find the money?(c) We regret buying that car.(d) The king of France is bald.Key: (a) You have a clock.(b) He found the money.(c) We bought the car.(d) France has a king.5. Someone stands between you and the TV set you’re watching, so you decide to say one of the following. Identify which would be direct or indirect speech acts.(a) Move!(b) You’re in the way.(c) Could you please sit down?(d) Please get out of the way.Key: (a) direct(b) indirect(c) indirect(d) direct6. In these examples, is the speaker appealing to positive or negative face?(a) If you’re free, there’s going to be a party at Yuri’s place on Saturday.(b) Let’s go to the party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. Everyone’s invited. Key: (a) negative (‘If you’re free’)(b) positive (‘Let’s go’)TasksA. What do you think is meant by the statement: “A context is a psychological construct” (Sperber and Wilson, 1995)?Key: "A context is a psychological construct, a subset of the hearer’s assumptions about the world. It is these assumptions, of course, rather than the actual state of the world, that affect the interpretation of an utterance. A context in this sense is not limited to information about the immediate physical environment or the immediately preceding utterances: expectations about the future, scientific hypotheses or religious beliefs, anecdotal memories, generalcultural assumptions, beliefs about the mental state of the speaker, may all play a role." (Sperber and Wilson, 1995: 15-16)From this perspective, context is something that is created (“a construct”) in the mind (“psychological”) of hearers as they try to interpret what is said or written. The “immediate physical environment” is only part of what hearers may treat as contextually relevant for interpretation. Many other factors, particularly beliefs and assumptions in the mind of each hearer, are part of context in this analysis. As Henry Widdowson succinctly put it: “Context is not an external set of 41 circumstances, but a selection of them internally represented in the mind” (Widdowson, 2007: 20).C. Which of these utterances contain “performative verbs” and how did you decide?(1) I apologize.(2) He said he was sorry.(3) I bet you $20.(4) She won the bet.(5) I drive a Mercedes.(6) You must have a lot of money.Key: Sentences 1 and 3 contain performative verbs.F. The following phrases were all on signs advertising sales. What is being sold ineach case and (if you know) what other words would you add to the description to make it clearer? What is the underlying structure of each phrase? For example, Furniture Sale might have the structure: “someone is selling furniture.” Would the same structure be appropriate for Garage Sale and the others?Back-to-School Sale Dollar Sale One Cent SaleBake Sale Foundation Sale Plant SaleBig Screen Sale Furniture Sale Sidewalk SaleClearance Sale Garage Sale Spring SaleClose-out Sale Labor Day Sale Tent SaleColorful White Sale Liquidation Sale Yard SaleKey: Some possible categories and (additional) descriptions.‘X’ Sale = Someone is selling ‘X’Bake (d) items SaleBig Screen (TV) SaleColorful White (= sheets, pillowcases, etc) SaleFoundation (undergarments) SaleFurniture SalePlant Sale‘Y’ Sale = Someone is selling items on or near time of year’Y’Back-to-School (= items to use or wear in school) SaleLabor Day SaleSpring Sale‘Z’ Sale = Someone is selling items in or on location ‘Z’Garage (next to house) SaleSidewalk (outside store) SaleTent (outside store) SaleYard (outside house) Sale‘W’Sale = Someone is selling items in a way (‘W’) that gets rid of them quicklyClearance SaleClose-out SaleLiquidation Sale‘V’ Sale = Someone is selling items at a special (‘V’) priceDollar SaleOne Cent Sale。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【章节题库】(语音模式)【圣才出品】
第4章语音模式I. Fill in the blanks.1. _____ transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades.（北二外2004研）【答案】Narrow【解析】当我们用复杂的符号精确地标记语音所有可能的细小变化时，我们称之为“严式转写”。
2. _____ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.（中山大学2005研）【答案】Assimilation【解析】同化指一个音具有了邻近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化、齿化、鄂化。
3. Stress refers to the degree of _____ used in producing a syllable.（中山大学2006研）【答案】force【解析】重音指在音节发音时所用的力度。
4. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning, are _____.（北二外2009研）【答案】allophones【解析】同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。
因为变体是互补分布的，而且发音相似。
5. In English, the two words cut and gut differ only in their initial sounds and the two sounds are two different _____ and the two words are a _____ pair. （北二外2010研）【答案】phonemes; minimal【解析】/k/、/g/在cut 和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词，除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了一个最小的对立体。
George Yule《语言研究》章节题库-第9~12章【圣才出品】
第9章语义学I. Fill in the blanks.1. According to G Leech ____ meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. (北二外2006研)【答案】Connotative【解析】利奇认为内涵意义是指通过语言所指传达的意义，是位于纯粹的概念意义之上的。
2. According to G Leech ____ meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content. (北二外2005研)【答案】Conceptual【解析】利奇认为概念意义是指逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。
3. According to G. Leech _____ meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker／writer. (北二外2007研)【答案】Affective【解析】利奇认为感情意义是指所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。
4. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the _____ theory. (中山大学2008研)【答案】Referential【解析】把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论。
5. _____ is the technical name for the sameness relation. (北二外2007研)【答案】Synonymy【解析】同义关系是相同关系的专业术语，完全的同义关系是很少的。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【章节题库】(语 音)【圣才出品】
第3章语音I. Fill in the blanks.1. The sound /p/can be described with “______ bilabial, stop”.（北二外2007研）【答案】voiceless【解析】/p/是双唇音，爆破音，清音。
2. The sound /b/can be described with “______ bilabial, stop”.（北二外2004研）【答案】voiced【解析】/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。
3. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of ______ and manner of articulation.（北二外2004研，北二外2008研）【答案】place【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
4. ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.（中山大学2006研）【答案】Consonants【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。
5. The present system of the ______ derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967), and his colleagues at University of London.（中山大学2008研）【答案】cardinal vowels【解析】基本元音是指一系列约定俗成、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(语言的历史与变迁)【圣才出品】
第17章语言的历史与变迁Study questions1. What are cognates?Key: Cognates are words in different languages that are similar in form and meaning.2. How would you group the following languages into pairs which are closely related from a historical point of view: Bengali, Breton, Czech, English, French, Kurdish, Pashto, Portuguese, Swedish, Ukrainian, Urdu, Welsh?Key: Bengali and Hindi; English and Norwegian; Farsi and Pashto; Gaelic and Welsh; Italian and Portuguese; Polish and Ukrainian3. On the basis of the following data, what are the most likely proto-forms?Key: Most likely proto-forms: cosa, capo, capra (initial [k],voiceless [p]→voiced [b])4. Which of the following words are likely to be from Old English and which fromFrench: bacon, beef, calf, deer, ox, pig, veal, venison?Key: From Old English: calf, deer, ox, pig.From French: bacon, beef, veal, venison5. What types of sound changes are illustrated by the following pairs?(a) thridda → third(b) scribere → escribir(c) glimsian → glimpse(d) hring → ring(e) slummer → slumber(f) beorht → brightKey:(a) metathesis,(b) prothesis,(c) epenthesis(d) prothesis,(e) metathesis,(f) epenthesis6. The Old English verb steorfan (“to die, from any cause”) is the source of the Modern English verb starve (“to die, from lack of food”). What is the technical term used to describe this type of meaning change?Key: Narrowing of meaningTasksE. Describe what happened in any documented case of “language death.”Key: Language death occurs in unstable bilingual or multilingual speech communities as a result of language shift from a regressive minority language to a dominant majority language.Every 14 days a language dies. By 2100, more than half of the more than 7,000 languages spoken on Earth--many of them not yet recorded--may disappear, taking with them a wealth of knowledge about history, culture, the natural environment, and the human brain.。
George Yule《语言研究》章节题库-第1~4章【圣才出品】
第1章语言的起源I. Fill in the blanks.1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.【答案】verbal【解析】语言是一种口头交流的手段。
2. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _____.【答案】productivity【解析】用有限表现无限就是能产性。
3. Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.【答案】language【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。
4. Modern linguistic is _____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.【答案】descriptive【解析】发现语言的规律而不是规定就是描述性。
5. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _____ over writing. 【答案】speech【解析】语言学研究是以口头为基础而不是书面。
6. Theory that primitive manmade involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the _____ theory.【答案】yo-he-ho【解析】语言的起源有“汪汪”理论，“噗噗”理论和“哟嘿吼”理论。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【课后练习】(句法学)【圣才出品】
第8章句法学Study questions1. What is the “all and only” criterion?Key: The ‘all and only’ criterion means that the grammar must generate all the grammatical sentences and only the grammatical sentences.2. Do phrase structure rules represent deep structure or surface structure?Key: Deep structure3. In what ways are these expressions structurally ambiguous?(a) The parents of the bride and groom were waiting outside.(b) We met an English history teacher.(c) Flying planes can be dangerous.(d)The students complained to everyone that they couldn’t understand. Key: (a) The parents of the bride and (the parents of the) groom or The parents of the bride and (the) groom (without his parents)(b) A teacher of English history or a person from England who teaches history(c) Planes that are flying or being the person who flies a plane(d) The students complained that they couldn’t understand to everyone orthe students complained to everyone whom they couldn’t understand4. Which of the following expressions would be generated by this phrase structure rule: NP→{Art (Adj.) N, Pro, PN}?(a) a lady(b) the little girl(c) her(d) Annie(e) the widow(f) she’s an old womanKey: (a) (b) (e) (f)5. Which of these sentences would result from applying the rule: NP Aux VP⇒Aux NP VP?(a) John will follow Mary.(b) You knew that Cathy helped the boy.(c) Can George see the dog?(d) Should you believe that Mary saw it?Key: (c) and (d)TasksA. What is t he distinction made between “competence” and “performance” inthe study of syntax?Key: Competence is our knowledge of language, and performance is the mechanisms by which our knowledge of language is put to use.B. What is meant by the expression “an embedded structure”? Were there any examples in this chapter?Key: Embedded Structure seems to cover a variety of things. Anything that is structured to perform a given task or function, and has a secondary function embedded in it.Examples from this chapter: Cathy knew that Mary helped George.John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.I shot an elephant while I was in my pajamas.I shot an elephant which was in my pajamas.It was Charlie who broke the window.。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（第11章语义学）【圣
GeorgeYule《语⾔研究》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（第11章语义学）【圣第11章语义学11.1复习笔记语义学主要研究词、短语和句⼦的意义。
语义学也可简单定义为对意义的研究。
哲学家、⼼理学家和语⾔学家都语义学感兴趣。
哲学家想了解语⾔形式与它们所指的客观世界的种种现象的关系(如“真假值”问题)。
⼼理学家想通过语⾔来了解⼈脑或⼼理活动。
语⾔学家研究它，是因为⼈们运⽤语⾔形式时⼤多要表达⼀定的意义。
本章要点：1.Definition of semantics语义学的定义2.Conceptual versus associative meaning概念意义和联想意义3.Semantic features and Semantic roles语义⾓⾊和语义特征4.Lexical relations词汇关系5.Homophony,homonymy and polysemy同⾳异义关系、同⾳(或同形)异义关系、⼀词多义关系6.Metonymy转喻7.Collocation搭配本章考点：语义学的定义；概念意义和联想意义；语义特征；施动者，受动者，⼯具，经历者、⽅位、来源、⽬标等语义⾓⾊；同义、反义、上下义等语义关系；同⾳异义关系、同⾳(或同形)异义关系、⼀词多义关系；转喻；搭配。
本章内容索引：I.Conceptual versus associative meaning1.Conceptual meaning2.Associative meaningII.Semantic featuresIII.Semantic roles1.Agent,theme,instrument2.Experiencer,location,source,goalIV.Lexical relations1.Synonymy2.Antonymy3.Hyponymy4.PrototypesV.Homophony,homonymy and polysemyVI.MetonymyVII.CollocationI.Conceptual versus associative meaning（概念意义和联想意义的对⽐）【考点】概念意义和联想意义的定义以及具体事例1.Conceptual meaning（概念意义）Conceptual meaning covers those basic,essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word.It is the meaning given in the dictionary.概念意义涵盖词语最基本、最本质的字⾯意义。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》配套题库【章节题库】(语用学)【圣才出品】
第10章语用学I. Fill in the blanks.1. There has been a maxim in _____ which claims that “You are what you say”. (中山大学2008研)【答案】quantity【解析】格莱斯的数量准则指1.使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分；2.不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
即说你该说的。
2. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.【答案】Performatives【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。
3. In Austin’s How to Do Things with word, he first distinguishes performatives and _____ later on Austin made a flesh start to distinguish _____ _____ and perlocutionary act.【答案】constatives，locutionary act，illocutionary act【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中，首先区分了施为句和叙事句，之后他又建立了另一种模式来解释如何通过语言实施行为。
根据这种新的模式，说话人说话时可以完成三种行为：发话行为，行事行为和取效行为。
4. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the ______ of, or the ______ the utterance. （人大2004研）【答案】consequence, change brought about by【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。
GeorgeYule《语言研究》（第4版）课后习题详解（第9章语义学）【圣才出品】
GeorgeYule《语言研究》（第4版）课后习题详解（第9章语义学）【圣才出品】第9章语义学Study questions1.How is the term“prototype”used in semantics?Key:The prototype is the characteristic instance of a category,as in the case of ‘robin’being the clearest example,or prototype,of the category‘bird’for many American English speakers.ing semantic features,how would you explain the oddness of these sentences?(a)The television drank my water.(b)His dog writes poetry.Key:(a)The verb drink requires a subject with the feature[+animate]and the noun television has the feature[?animate].(b)The verb write requires a subject with the feature[+human]and the noun dog has the feature[?human].3.Identify the semantic roles of the seven noun phrases in this sentence.With her new golf club,Anne Marshall whacked the ball from the woods to the grassy area near the hole and she suddenly felt invincible.Key:Instrument(her new golf club);Agent(Anne Marshall);Theme(the ball);Source(the woods);Goal(the grassy area);Location(the hole);Experiencer(she)4.What is the basic lexical relation between each pair of words listed here?(a)damp/moist(b)deep/shallow(c)furniture/table(d)married/single(e)move/run(f)peace/pieceKey:(a)synonymy(b)antonymy(c)hyponymy(d)antonymy(e)hyponymy(f)homophony(or homophones)5.Which of the following opposites are gradable,non-gradable,or reversive?(a)absent/present(b)appear/disappear(c)fail/pass(d)fair/unfair(e)fill it/empty it(f)high/lowKey:(a)non-gradable(b)reversive(c)non-gradable(d)gradable(e)reversive(f)gradable6Are these underlined words best described as examples of polysemy or metonymy?(a)The pen is mightier than the sword.(b)I had to park on the shoulder of the road.(c)Yes,I love those.I ate a whole box on Sunday!(d)The bookstore has some new titles in linguistics.(e)Computer chips created an important new technology.(f)I’m going to sue your ass!Key:(a)metonymy(b)polysemy(c)metonymy(d)metonymy(e)polysemy(f)metonymyTasksA.What is the connection between an English doctor called Peter Mark Roget and the study of lexical relations?Key:Roget’s dictionary,has gained famous reputation as was it published but it also has some defects.In his dictionary,Roget grouped lexical items according to ideas.Lexical items,senses are grouped according to proximity of meaning.It is organized as a hierarchy of concepts,and at the lowest level,there are sets of words called synonyms.B.In this chapter,we discussed metonymy,but not metaphor.What is the difference between these two ways ofusing words?Key:(1)A metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in terms of another concept,where there is some similarity or correlation between the two.For example,we use the phrase“a blanket of snow”to describe a snowfall that covers the ground evenly,as if the snow were a fabric.(2)Metonymy is a figure of speech involving the substitution of a word or phrase with another closely associated with it,as in“The Crown is against a hitching post in the courtyard,”when referring to a king or queen.D.Which of these pairs of words are converses(also known as reciprocal antonyms)?above/below,asleep/awake,brother/sister,buy/sell,doctor/pa tient,dry/wet,enter/exit,follow/precede,husband/wife,older/younger,true/ falseKey:Examples of reciprocal antonymy are:above/below,brother/sister,buy/sell,doctor/patient,follow/precede,husband/wife.。
GeorgeYule语言研究第4版配套题库课后练习章节题库含名校考研真题模拟试题
GeorgeYule语言研究第4版配套内容简介第一部分是课后习题。
以George Yule《语言研究》（第4版）为主，并参考大量英语语言文化相关资料对George Yule《语言研究》（第4版）的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答。
第二部分是章节第三部分是模拟试题及详解，根据名校历年考研真题的命题规律，精选教材中的重要考点，精心编写了两套模拟试题，并进行了详细的解答。
第一部分课后练习第1章语言的起源Study questions1. Why is it difficult to agree with Psammetichus that Phrygian must have been the original human language?Key: Psammetichus left the infant to grow up among goats. This action caused the infant to imitate the sounds the goats were making. Psammetichus interpreted this sound as an actual word which was in reality just a “be”.2. What is the basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory of language origin?Key: The basic idea behind the “bow-wow” theory is the natural sounds. Primitive words could have been imitations of natural sounds which men and women heard around them.3. Why are interjections such as Ouch considered to be unlikely sources of human speech sounds?Key: Interjections contain sounds that are not otherwise used in ordinary speech production. They are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath, which is the opposite of ordinary talk, produced on exhaled breath.4. Where is the pharynx and how did it become an important part of human sound production?Key: The pharynx is above the vocal cords (or voice box) which acts a resonator for sound produced via larynx.5. Why do you think that young deaf children who become fluent in sign language would be cited in support of the innateness hypothesis?Key: If all children, including born deaf can acquire language at about the same time they must be born with special capacity to do so. The conclusion is that it must be innate is to say genetically determined.6. With which of the four “sources” would you associate this quotation?Chewing, licking and sucking are extremely widespread mammalian activities, which, in terms of casual observation, have obvious similarities with speech.Key: a) The divine source: Language came from Saravasti wife of Brahma.b) The natural sound: language came from imitations of heard sounds.c) The physical adaptation source: language came from physical aspects distinct from other creatures.d) The genetic source: language came from innateness hypothesis. Babies are sign language users or gestural. Human are born with a special capacity for language.TasksA. What is the connection between the Heimlich maneuver and the development of human speech?Key: The connection between the Heimlich maneuver and the development of human speech is that both movements try to push air out through the lungs. The former is a mechanical procedure to dislodge any obstruction in the air passage while the latter is avoluntary process of vocalization required for speech involving the vocal chords, the oral cavity, the tongue etc. for speech output.B. What exactly happened at Babel and why is it used in explanations of language origins?Key: The Bible says that: “... the whole earth was of one language and of one speech...” after the flood. Communication among men was good. Men could freely express their ideas, designs, plans and notions with one another... and invent ways to implement them.The indication of scripture is that God has put man on a 6000 year time schedule. One reason is to let man learn that he is incapable of governing himself apart from the laws of God. Recent history shows how, with the language barrier less of a problem today than in centuries past, the communication between peoples, nations and cultures is “bringing the world back to the time when the whole earth was of one speech”.C. What are the arguments for and against a teleological explanation of the origins of human language?Key: We look at evidence that language is an innate ability of the human brain, an idea linked to NoamChomsky. But many linguists and psychologists see language as one facet of cognition rather than as a separate ability. Since Chomsky and Gould have made a number of assertions that language (the communication system unique to human beings), could not have evolved through natural selection, and natural selection has long been the prevailing theory in evolutionary biology, the challenge presented by Pinker and Bloom was to develop a theory of language origin that was compatible with the mainstream theory of evolution, the theory of natural selection.D. The idea that “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” was first proposed by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 and is still frequently used in discussions of language origins. Can you find a simpler or less technical way to express this idea?Key: Ontogeny is the course of development of an organism from fertilized egg to adult; phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. The phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" means that as an embryo of an advanced organism grows, it will pass through stages that look very much like the adult phase of less-advanced organisms.E. In his analysis of the beginnings of human language, William Foley comes to the conclusion that “language as we understand it was born about 200,000 years ago” (1997: 73). This is substantially earlier than the dates (between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago) that other scholars have proposed. What kinds of evidence and arguments are typically presented in order to choose a particular date “when language was born”?Key: There is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of the origin of language in the human species. Scholars wishing to study the origins of language must draw inferences from other kinds of evidence such as the fossil record or from archaeological evidence, from contemporary language diversity, from studies of language acquisition, and from comparisons between human language and systems of communication existing among other animals, particularly other primates. It is generally agreed that the origins of language are closely tied to the origins of modern human behavior, but there is little agreement about the implications and directionality of this connection.F. What is the connection between the innateness hypotheses, as described in this chapter, and the idea of a Universal Grammar?Key: Universal grammar is a topic that has been researched in linguistics since the mid-20th century. The basic, fundamental structure of all human languages is very similar, in spite of the obvious differences in vocabulary and sound. This basic structure is called Universal Grammar. The innateness hypothesis is the idea that this Universal Grammar is present in all healthy human minds as a result of biological inheritance (in other words, grammar is innate).。
George Yule《语言研究》(第2版)-课后练习第一章至第二十一章(圣才出品)
第一部分课后练习第1章语言的起源1.What is the basic idea behind the“yo-heave-ho”theory?Key:The sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort(grunts), especially when co-operating with other humans,may be the origins of speech sounds(“yo-heave-ho”).2.What specific type of claim is made by the“oral-gesture”theory?Key:The patterns of movement in articulation(of tongue,lips)would be the same as gestural movement(of hands);hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.3.What specific features of human teeth and lips make them useful in the production of speech sounds?Key:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height;human lips are very flexible because of their intricate muscle interlacing.4.What exactly happened with the larynx and why was it a disadvantage?Key:The larynx moved lower,making it easier for the human(unlike a monkey)to choke on pieces of food.5.What are the two major functions of language,and how do they deferrer? Key:They are“interactional”,which is mainly a social function of language,and “transactional”,which is mainly a function involving the communication of knowledge and information.第2章书写文字的形成1.Where will you find the writing system with the longest history of continuous use?Key:China2.What is the name given to the writing system used for Russian?Key:The Cyrillic alphabet3.Which modern language uses a partially syllabic writing system?Key:Japanese4.What are the disadvantages of a logographic writing system?Key:An extremely large number of separate symbols are involved,so there are problems in learning all the symbols and also in remembering them.5.What is the process known as Rebus writing?Key:Rebus writing involves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.第3章语言的属性1.Can you briefly explain what the term‘arbitrariness’means as it is used to describe a property of human language?Key:Linguistic forms are described as arbitrary because there is generally no natural connection between the form and its meaning.2.Which term is used to describe the ability of human language-users to discuss topics which are remote in space and time?Key:Displacement3.Is the fact that linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as feeding,a good reason to consider this a unique property of human language?Key:No,because many animal communication systems use the vocal-auditory channel for signaling and for no other purpose.4.What is the term used to describe the fact that,in a language,we can have different meanings for the three words tack,act and cat,yet,in each case,use the same basic set of sounds?Key:Duality5.What kind of evidence supports the idea that language is culturally transmitted? Key:For example,a child with genetic features from its natural parents(e.g. Korean)will learn the language of the culture of its adopting parents(e.g. English).第4章动物与人类语言1.Has any chimpanzees ever been taught to produce human speech sounds? What’s been the problem?Key:It’s unlikely.Viki produced versions of three English words,but it is not clear that she actually produced human speech sounds;the problem is that no other creature is physiologically equipped to produce human speech sounds.2.In Sarah’s vocabulary,the color‘red’was represented by a grey plastic shape. If Sarah could use this plastic shape to convey the meaning‘red’,which property does her language have?Key:Arbitrariness.3.What was the basis of Terrace’s conclusion that the chimpanzee’s use of sign language is not true language?Key:After careful examination of the filmed record,Terrace concluded that chimpanzees were performing tricks to get food rewards.4.How did the Gardeners try to show that Washoe was not necessarily repeating signs made by interacting humans?Key:They designed an experiment in which no humans could provide cues and Washoe still produced correct signs.。
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第19章语言与社会变体Study questions1. How would you define a “speech community”?Key: A speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.2. What is the difference between an idiolect and a sociolect?Key: An idiolect is a language spoken by one person with their own private meanings, hence the term idiosyncrasy. It may seem odd to others.A sociolect on the other hand is a dialect spoken within a group of people that others may not fully understand. Think of the different dialects of say, German. Most understand the core words but only a small group understands the dialect.3. Why did Labov try to elicit answers with the expression fourth floor?Key: The expression fourth floor contains two opportunities for the pronunciation (or not) of postvocalic /r/, which Labov was investigating as a linguistic variable.4. In what way can the pronunciation of -ing be a social marker?Key: The pronunciation of -ing with [n] rather than [ŋ] at the end of a word such as sitting is a social marker associated with working-class speech.5. What is meant by a “register”?Key: A register is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a specific situation, occupation or in discussing a particular topic. An example is the legal register, with its special jargon, used among lawyers.6. In AAVE, what is communicated by the use of be in He don’t be smokin now? Key: T he use of be communicates ‘habitual action’, so He don’t be smokin now means that smoking is not a habitual action for him now, or that he has stopped smoking.TasksA. How does “micro-sociolinguistics” differ from “macro-sociolinguistics”? Key: (1) Micro-sociolinguistics explores the ways in which society influences a speaker's idiolect —meaning the specific language of a person —and how people communicate with one another in line with different social variables/factors.(2) On the other hand, macro-sociolinguistics focuses more on society as a whole, in relation to language.(3)So with micro-sociolinguistics the emphasis is on language; withmacro-sociolinguistics the emphasis is on society.B. In the study of social dialects, what is “the observer’s paradox” and how can it be overcome?Key: The expression "the observer's paradox" was used by Labov(1972:209) to describe an inherent problem in using face-to-face interviews to collect representative speech samples from informants. This is how he expressed the paradox:The aim of linguistic research in the community must be to find out how people talk when they are not being systematically observed; yet we can only obtain these data by systematic observation.The sociolinguist usually wants to record normal casual spoken language as used by individuals in everyday situations, but the presence of the interviewer and the recorder has an effect on most speakers, making them pay more attention to how they are speaking and more concerned not to use what they might think are "incorrect" forms, for example. So, the observer, or interviewer, has an effect on the data elicited, making it potentially very difficult to get genuinely representative speech samples.One way that Labov suggested as a partial solution was to ask informants questions that distracted them from thinking about how they were speaking because they became more involved emotionally in what they were talking about. One example was the question: "Have you ever been in a situation whereyou thought you were going to be killed?" Another solution is to have another individual "chat" with the informant (while being recorded) before or after the actual interview in order to allow the informant to use a more relaxed or casual speech style.C. What is the difference between style-shifting and code-switching?Key: The term "style-shifting" describes a change from a formal (and careful) way of speaking to one that is informal (and casual), or vice versa, as discussed in this chapter. The term "code-switching" describes the use of two or more languages in the same utterance or interaction.Code-switching way may occur "inside" a sentence, as in the following example from Poplack (1980:596), quoted in Winford (2003), where a Spanish prepositional phrase (="with the/my fists") is used as a constituent in an English sentence.D. What is the origin of the term “Ebonics” and how has its meaning changed? Key: Ebonics (a blend of the words ebony and phonics) is a term that was originally intended to refer to the language of all people descended from enslaved Black Africans, particularly in West Africa, the Caribbean, and North America. Since the 1996 controversy over its use by the Oakland School Board, the term Ebonics has primarily been used to refer to African American Vernacular English (AAVE), a dialect distinctively different from Standard American English.。