国际贸易的古典模型(英文版)
国际贸易模型及分析(以华为为例)英文
Content1.0 Introduction (1)2.0 Global Expansion Strategy (3)2.1 Joint V enture (4)2.2 Export Entering Model (5)2.3 Contractual Entering Model (5)3.0 Nature of International Strategy (6)4.0 International Operation (8)5.0 Challenge Faced & Solution (11)6.0 Conclusion (15)Reference (16)Page 0 / 19International Business of HuaweiIndividual Assignment1.0 IntroductionThe growth of Chinese economy in the past 20 years heavily depends on the producing labor-intensive and low-value-added goods. Today Chinese competitiveness is no longer confined to lower-end production. In fact, Chinese policymakers encourage firms going to global to build internationally recognizable brands commensurate with China’s growing global clout. Now plenty of Chinese companies emerged to challenge traditionally dominate international firms such as Huawei-Chinese tech giant.Huawei is leading global ICT solutions provider in China its business and products offering in 140 countries and severing one third world population, which found in 1988 as distributor for phone switches and now the company becomes a comprehensive telecommunications company with network equipment, mobile broadband devices, handsets, and convergence devices. In addition to de veloping products, the company has moved into offering customer solution (Huawei, 2014).Page 1 / 19Huawei followed Mao Zedong’s strategy of surrounding the cities with the countryside, for the international business strategy the company modified version of this strategy using the developing countries instead of countryside and developed countries take place of cities.From developing country perspective, in 1996, Hutchison Telecommunications was the first international customer which purchased switches and related equipment for fixed-line network in Hong Kong. In the following year, Huawei formed a joint venture with Beto Corporation to produce switching equipment in Russia, aim to penetrate in the market. After entering Russia, Huawei’s products sold in Thailand, Signore, Malaysia, Brazil and South Africa with more competitive price that often 30 percent lower over its rivals (Wu and Zhao, 2007).From developed country perspectives, in 2001 Huawei entered US and Europe market with advanced feature products at low price via upgrading software rather than hardware. German, France, Spain and UK purchased optical network products, at the mean while Huawei sale to the United Arab Emirates it also is the first Arab state with 3G. In 2004, Huawei build business relationship with Danish company for building the 3G network in Netherlands. Huawei wasPage 2 / 19involved in 14 out of 19 3G networks globally. In 2010, in alliance with Google, it launched its own IDEOS smartphone (Barfield, 2011).2.0 Global Expansion StrategyDriscoll (1995) mentioned three typically models for companies entering a foreign market: Export entry model, Contractual entry model, Investments model, the objective of internationalization have been achieved by three factors (firm factors, environmental factors and moderators) into account and then choose appropriate entry modes. According to abundant of literatures, which indicated Huawei desired entry model was mostly depends on host market environment condition and firm factors, while the industry characteristics play a crucial role in foreign market entering model choice.Today, the internationalization strategy of Huawei has been gaining a huge successful. This success steps actually depends on the appropriate choice of entering model for new market and employing market strategies. Huawei utilized different market entering model for different new markets. Huawei also employs different entry models flexibly to different products. In traditional advantaged products, switching network, telecommunication power, Huawei always utilize join-venture and export. In the products without advantages, 2G mobile networks, Huawei choose to cooperatePage 3 / 19with industry expertise of this area. For the products with technological advantage and without market resource, the company acts as joint venture, franchising or co-research.2.1 Joint VentureIn 1996, the first international business of Huawei started at Russia the company entered Russia market via joint venture with Beto Corporation and Russia Telecom act as of Beto-Huawei. As a new player in international market, Huawei’s development in Russian market is not easy at that period. Huawei using four years to wait and learn until they obtained the first order. At the first place of internationaliz ation, Huawei’s market selecting strategy is seeking which the markets have weak infrastructure of telecommunication but with the great potential opportunity to explore. Based on the features of telecommunication products, the host market’s social and cultural conditions were considered. First, due to the network effect and telecommunication products related to information security, Huawei first chose those host markets which have good relationship with home country. Then, based on its own advantages of technological research and development (R&D), Huawei chose the joint venture as the first foreign market model (Ahrens, 2013).Page 4 / 192.2 Export Entering ModelHuawei started to enter Asia, Mid-east and North Africa market, where Huawei use exporting method to entry those markets. Huawei sent out many of sales and service engineers from home country to setup branches and service centers in these countries. The selection is based upon the characteristic of export entry mode: High flexibility, low resource commitment and low dissemination risk.2.3 Contractual Entering ModelAfter 2001, Huawei’s products start to be sold in West Europe and North America. In these developed countries, Huawei applied variable contractual models to penetrate these markets via franchising, co-research, co-production and Co-sales the company emphasizes win-win strategy. For example, in European market, Huawei co-operate with Marconi in product development and marketing. Marconi helps Huawei to sell products in Europe using their channels. At the meanwhile, Huawei helps selling Marconi’s product in China and Asia markets. In 2002, Huawei has cooperated with Motorola in Mobile network infrastructure area by co-production method to develop the market of data communication in North American and other international markets, which joint venture with 3 com act as Huawei-3Com, the main player in data communication market. In this strategic movement, Huawei took advantages fromPage 5 / 193Com’s international market resource. Texas instruments, NEC, Motorola, Qualcomm, and a number of other MNCs have also cooperated with Huawei (Gao, 2008).3.0 Nature of International StrategyIn the history of Huawei, the management philosophy of Huawei based upon two sources (Ahrens, 2013): Mao Zedong’strategy of surrounding the cities with the countryside; Louis Gerstner, the former CEO of IBM Huawei’s Customer-centric approach is based on Gerstner’s ideas.Furthermore, strategy of Huawei shifts from product orientation to market orientation that Internationalization process and entry strategy have been changed from 1988 till now. According to Anderson (2000), in the product orientation, the most important is products and production development. Internationalization isnot the main interest but the new product can be known through the international network a request from abroad can lead to exports or licensing agreement. These international activities do not acquire fully owned subsidiaries and the industry structure for markets with new products is mainly emergent or growing. The markets are entered depends on which countries are making the inquiries. In the market orientation, this found a need in the market and has ideas of how to fillthis demand. Companies considered the market channels and brands are morePage 6 / 19important than the products. Firm is proactive in internationalization process and willing to develop new international ventures and choose establishment model, such such as Greenfield establishment which need a lot of resources. These establishment models make it possible to penetrate markets more quickly. Marketing choose are depending on the personal preference and network is important.Previously, Huawei invest in developing new technical and set up R&D research center in Beijing and focus on production compare with brand. Huawei corporate with some famous company in foreigner market which has a good brand, the company offers low price and high quality production to other company and gained brand advantage from other company to gain production contracts. Huawei’s internationalization process is depended on which markets inquire for their production (Gao, 2008). For example, Huawei set up a joint venture of Beto-Huawei with Russian Beto Konzern and Russia Telecom to develop Russian market in 1997. After 4 years, they got first production contract.But in the later, Huawei joined series of marketing activities such as some exhibitions in its new market developed. The company changed its pull internationalization strategy to push internationalization and in terms of brand building aim to gain advantage through brand and production in international market. Moreover, Huawei has chosen a positive strategy to push internationalization. ForPage 7 / 19example, in 2007, Huawei planned acquire the Americans firm: 3com, but failedfor some security reasons. Because of telecommunication equipment are belonged to army field, the laws are so stringent. At the time, Huawei already has ability to restructure the internationalization.Since 2010, Huawei has followed ABC strategy of growing average revenue per user (ARPU), increasing bandwidth and reducing cost. One way Huawei is working toward its ARPU goals is expanding from a product-driven company to an end-to-end service company, a salient strategic shift that will be the focus of much of the company’s energy over the next several years. This means that Huawei now looks to provide operation and maintenance to its customers in addition to hardware and software. Huawei is keenly aware of emerging technology trends like device computing, cloud computing, video, and information and communication technology convergence, all of which consume bandwidth at a high rate(Ahrens, 2013) .4.0 International OperationAccording to abundant of literatures, the major root causes Huawei rapid development which relay on the Research and Development function. Huawei stands out among the high-technology companies that is not depends on technology from West or joint venture with others. However Huawei’s strategic choice is to cooperate and buildPage 8 / 19relationship with advanced firms in management and guidance, supplier agreement and technology partnership.Huawei has over 70,000 product and solution R&D employees, comprising more than 45% of its total workforce worldwide. The company has set up 16 R&D centers around the world being embedded in the collaboration with suppliers, customers, universities, and leading players. Huawei invested heavily in R & D. Averagely each year at least 10 % of annual sales were put into R&D for developing absorptive capacity (Huawei, 2014).Although wary of importing foreign technology, Huawei has actively sought out technological alliances with foreign firms are classified into three groups: with Japanese, American, and European enterprises, which has also set up 28 joint innovation centers with leading carriers, for instance, Huawei consulted with the Hay Group on improving human resources management and with KPMG and with IBM on financial management. Accenture and PWC have provided Huawei with customer relationship management and financial advice.Therefore, Huawei in the United States, India, Sweden, Russia and China, and other places set up 12 research institutes, R & D center in each of the different research focus and direction. Using the global synchronization of the internationalPage 9 / 19research system to gather the world’s technology, experience and conduct product research and development to remain leading the world’s technology. Huawei also up 28 overseas regional training centers for employee learning the local culture, vigorously promote the localization of staff. Within the scope of the localization of global operations, not only strengthen their understanding of the local market, but also made contributions to the socio and economic development for the host countries and regions (Ahrens, 2013).Besides cooperation with leading players, Huawei never stopped research alliances with universities. Huawei has been building advanced research labs with more than 20 Chinese domestic research institutes and universities such as Beijing University since Nov. 2005. Moreover, Huawei extended investment on technological alliances to a number of foreign universities such as INATEL University, Brazil in 2003 and Shrif University, Iran in 2009 Huawei treated universities and institutes as its knowledge incubator, which enable Huawei much more benefits than expected that indicated Huawei becomes the ‘Knowledge Hub’ of ICT network in China (Zhang, 2009).Moreover, strategic alliances are the priority strategy that Huawei used to absorb external knowledge. The universities-involved network facilitated Huawei to obtain human capital preemptively and efficiently digest frontier technology asPage 10 / 19well. Due to the number of top Chinese universities have cooperation with foreign universities, Huawei benefits a lot in term of knowledge diffusion.The assistance and influence provided by foreign companies with distinctive know-how or rich globalization experiences have inevitably sped up Huawei’s globalization process. Partnerships with large foreign multinationals also bring legitimacy to both companies’ product quality and international leverage(Jiang, 2005).Huawei’s cooperation with foreign companies is aimed at creating win-win situations for both parties. On the one hand, Huawei can benefit from the best practices and know-how introduced by the experienced foreign multinationals; in the meanwhile these foreign companies can better penetrate the mainland Chinese market where Huawei is the dominant player with rich experiences.5.0 Challenge Faced & SolutionGlobalization has reduced trading barriers between both countries and multinational corporations, particularly in IT industry, there are few barriers around the world. However, globalization has also created a collision of diverse interests in the world of technology by the political and economic, which two factors result in barriers keeparising especially in three major parties: India, Australia, and U.S.Page 11 / 19Many Indians argue that China gives huge export subsidies that constitute unfair trade where China gives excessive subsidies, Indian businessmen are quick to demand anti-dumping duties, and the government is quick to oblige. India has imposed more anti-dumping duties than any other country. Additional curbs have been placed on Chinese telecom equipment on security grounds. The trade deficit however continues, suggesting that dumping is not the key issue. Rather, the deficit represents the gap in productivity between the two countries, especially in manufacturing (Nathan & Aiyar, 2013). Yet despite trade and investment ballooning in the past decade, levels are not in keeping with the countries' scales. Business people on both sides complain about barriers to financial progress. Chinese are especially critical of Indian red tape, visa problems and unfriendly politics.Australia's trade relationship with China based on free trade deals that deserve their name entail much more than simply lowering tariffs. In relation to China, panoply of non-tariff barriers relating to consumer standards, intellectual property rights and government subsidies would need to be unravelled and harmonized (The Australia, 2013).Protectionism pushing an information security concerned, those interests collided dramatically in 2006. In 2007, an even more dramatic confrontation ledPage 12 / 19to the largest Chinese telecommunications equipment manufacturers Huawei being warned of national security and individual privacy, intellectual property issues by congressional panel in US. While the House Intelligence report stopped short of calling for a boycott of the firms' mobile phone products, it was highly critical of the company (BBC News, 2012). In 2007, Huawei planned acquire the Americans firm: 3com, but failed for some security reasons. Because of telecommunication equipment are belonged to army field, the laws are so stringent.According to the economic and political issues, recently national security becomes a form of non-tariff barrier pressures given by protectionism such as Cisco U.S, Telstra Australia. Due to the barrier of Western market increased Chinese government and policy marker turn to more support Huawei in variety ways like celebrity endorsement, funding local society, and investment in other areas. In recent, Huawei prefer to seek the new markets and join the world advanced product and solution exhibitions.On February 4, 2014, Huawei has officially entered into Nepal's market by strategic alliance with Nepal Telecom, the country's State-owned telecommunication service provider. Due to the Mobile penetration reached 72.58 percent in the country. Similarly, internet penetration in Nepal increased from 19.92 percent to 27.92 percent in the first quarter of the current fiscal year and the 7.3 million internet subscribers inPage 13 / 19the country 6.9 million surf the net on their mobile phones (China Daily, 2014). Nepal as the basic point enables Huawei building the networks that continue target Himalaya area and Pakistan to expand its business.On February 23, 2014, Huawei unveiled five new 4G LTE devices at the Mobile World Congress 2014 trade show in Barcelona. The company, which now claims to have ranked third in terms of worldwide smartphone shipments in 2013, is trying to make waves with its new products. These products include two small tablets, a new smartphone, the "world's fastest" MiFi, and a new Net-connected watch/fitness tracker (Reardon, 2014). This show mostly enhanced the worldwide brand image and the reputation of Huawei. However, this movement is not just as simple as seen as a brand promotion. Actually it’s a strategy enable Huawei reentry the U.S market. Huawei took early steps in the US to create a better relationship with US mobile operators and transact directly with consumers through online shops. Huawei has acknowledged that the US is indeed a competitive and tough market to penetrate, and recently there have been changes in the US that provided new opportunity for other players such as Huawei to come in the US market using a different distribution strategy.Page 14 / 196.0 ConclusionIn the international competitive landscape, the ability to create a global organizational capability is the key factor that can help the firm adapt to the changes in the dynamic environment. In the history of Huawei, the company is from product focus turn to market orientation via the different stages adoption different entry models.From the original strategy perspective, the company in developing countries, home countries’ technological level and reputation influence the firms’internationalization significantly. To avoid this negative influence, Huawei had to enter the developing countries’ market first before it enters developed countries’ market. As a strategy, many high-tech firms choose to set up the R&D department or register subsidiary companies in developed countries to develop an international market share.Globalization result in the reduction of trading barriers but international protectionism against the low cost carrier Huawei in the area of economic and political issues. Eventually, intellectual property is the biggest barrier the firm with the choice of an effective global strategy that takes into consideration its strengths and weaknesses in the face of the opportunities and threats in the environment, will survive.Page 15 / 19ReferenceAhrens. N (2013), China’s Competitiveness Myth, Reality, and Lessons for the united States and Japan, Case Study of Huawei.Center for Strategic & International Studies, February 2013.Alan. B (2006.), Going global Prospect and Challenges for Chinese Companies on the World Stage.IBM Business Consulting Services, IBM Global Services Route 100 Somers, NY 10589 U.S.A.Andersen, O (1993), On the internationalization process of firms: A critical analysis. Journal of International Business Studies, vol. 24, no. 2, p. 209.Barfield. C (2011), Telecoms and the Huawei Conundrum Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in the United States. AEI Economic Studies November 2011, American Enterprise Institute.BBC News (2012), Huawei and ZTE pose security threat, warns US panel. 8 October 2012, Online available at: /news/business-19867399China Daily (2014), Chinese tech giant Huawei enters Nepal's market.5 February 2014, Online available at: /business/2014-02/05/content_17268637.htmConnor N. C. O (2013), The Long-Term U.S Strategic Implications of Huawei’s Penetration in Latin America.March 2013, Thesis of Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California.Driscoll, A (1995), Foreign market entry metods: a mode choice framework. in SJ Paliwoda & JK Ryans (eds), International marketing reader, Routledge, London ; New Y ork.Gao D. W (2008), Internationalization and Entry Strategy of Enterprises: aCase Study of Chinese Firm: Huawei. Dissertation in International Marketing, University of Halmstad School of Business and Engineering Master programme in international marketing.Hagen. C (2010), Beating Low-Cost Rivals. October 2010.Page 16 / 19Huawei (2014), Huawei Shares Its Vision of Mobile Changes the World at Mobile World Congress 2014. 24. February 2014. Online available at: /en/news/hw-327769-ictmwc.htmHuawei (2014), Introduction to Huawei Enterprise. Online available at: /en/about/about-intro/index.htmJiang W. B (2005), Globalization Strategies of Chinese Companies a Study o f China’s Largest Telecommunications Equipment Companies.Master’s thesis School of Business Stockholm University.Nathan and Aiyar (2013), Big trade deficit with China? Excellent. Second June 2013, Online available at: /2013-06-02/news/39691103_1_trade-deficit-balanced-trade-trade-gapSasin. J (2014), HuaweI Uses Different Strategy to Penetrate US Market. 25 February 2014. Online available at: /2014/02/25/huawei-uses-different-strategy-to-p enetrate-us-market/South China Morning Post (2014), China and India must pull down the trade barriers.1 March 2014. Online available at: /comment/insight-opinion/article/1419470/china-and-india-m ust-pull-down-trade-barriersThe Australia (2013), Harmonising trade with China. 9 October, Online available at: .au/opinion/editorials/harmonising-trade-with-china/st ory-e6frg71x-1226735014313Twarowska. K and Kąkol. M (2013), International Business Strategy - Reasons and Forms of Expansion into Foreign Markets. Knowledge Management & Innovation Knowledge and Learning 19-21 June 2013, Zadar, Croatia International Conference 2013.Wu and Zhao (2007), Entry Modes For International Markets: Case Study OfHuawei, A Chinese Technology Enterprise.International Review of Business Research Papers V ol.3 No.1. March 2007, pp.183 – 196.Page 17 / 19Zhang. Y (2009), Alliance-based Network View on Chinese Firms’ Catching-up: Case Study of Huawei Technologies Co.Ltd. Working Paper Series, United Nations University - Maastricht Economic and social Research and training centre on Innovation and Technology, Keizer Karelplein 19, 6211 TC Maastricht, The Netherlands.Page 18 / 19。
国际贸易学课件--International Trade Theory
代表人物：托马斯·孟（Thomas Mun, 1571－
1641）
2020/9/30
Copyright by 钱学锋
博弈论（Game theory）
一、田忌赛马、斗地主与《美丽心灵》
来，斗两把！
二、博弈模型的构成 ►博弈方（Players） ►策略（Strategies） ► 次序（Orders） ► 得益（Payoffs）
假设两个国家是“中国”和“美国”。两国 都生产“大米”和“小麦”，但生产技术不同。 劳动是唯一的生产要素，两国有相同的劳动力资 源，都是100 人。
2020/9/30
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表2-1：中国和美国的生产可能性
表2-2：中国和美国的劳动生产率
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Chapter 2： International Trade Theory
一、古典贸易理论（Classical Trade Theory） 二、新古典贸易理论（Neo-Classical Trade Theory ） 三、新贸易理论（New Trade Theory） 四、新新贸易理论（New New Trade Theory）
“劳动生产力上最大的增进、以及运用劳动时所 表现的更大的熟练、技巧和判断力、似乎都是分 工的结果。”
2020/9/30
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分工的好处：
1、劳动者的技巧因业专而日进； 2、可以免除因工作转换而损失的时间； 3、有利于机械的发明。
男女搭配， 工作不累！
2020/9/30
Copyright by 钱学锋
绝对优势理论的意义和局限性
国际贸易双语教程英文版
国际贸易双语教程英文版IntroductionInternational trade is an essential part of the global economy. It involves the exchange of goods and services between countries. In this bilingual tutorial, we will provide an overview of international trade and explore its various aspects. This tutorial aims to help readers gain a thorough understanding of international trade concepts and terminology in English.1. Understanding International TradeInternational trade refers to the exchange of goods and services across international borders. It allows countries to specialize in producing goods and services that they can produce efficiently, ensuring maximum productivity and resource utilization. This leads to increased economic growth and welfare for participating nations.2. Benefits of International TradeInternational trade offers several advantages to participating countries. These benefits include:•Improved Efficiency: Countries can focus on producing goods and services that they can produce efficiently, increasing overall productivity.•Access to a Wider Range of Goods: Countries can import goods not produced domestically, allowing consumers access to a broader selection of products.•Expanding Markets: With international trade, businesses can reach new markets abroad, enabling them to grow and expand.•Economic Growth: International trade stimulates economic growth by promoting investment, job creation, and innovation.•Lower Costs: Countries can import goods at a lower cost than producing them domestically, leading to cost savings for consumers andbusinesses.3. Trade BarriersDespite the benefits of international trade, various barriers can hinder smooth trade operations. These barriers include:•Tariffs: Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods, increasing their prices and reducing demand.•Quotas: Quotas limit the quantity of goods that can be imported, restricting access to foreign markets.•Regulatory Barriers: These include regulations, standards, and certifications that goods must meet to enter a country, creating additional costs and hurdles for exporters.•Currency Barriers: Fluctuations in exchange rates can affect the competitiveness of goods in international markets.•Trade Restrictions: Embargoes, trade sanctions, and trade wars can further hinder international trade.4. International Trade AgreementsTo promote and regulate international trade, countries often engage in the negotiation and formation of trade agreements. These agreements aim to reduce trade barriers and create a more favorable trade environment. Some prominent international trade agreements include:•World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO is a global organization that promotes free trade and resolves trade disputes amongmember countries.•Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): FTAs are agreements between countries that eliminate or reduce trade barriers among participating nations.•Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs): RTAs are trade agreements between countries within a specific geographic region.•Bilateral Agreements: Bilateral agreements are trade agreements between two countries, focusing on addressing trade barriers and promoting trade.•Multilateral Agreements: Multilateral agreements involve multiple countries negotiating and establishing trade rules and regulations.5. Trade DocumentationInternational trade involves significant documentation to ensure smooth and legal transactions between parties. Some essential trade documents include: •Commercial Invoice: An invoice that provides detailed information about the goods being sold, including quantity, price, and delivery terms.•Bill of Lading: It is a document issued by a carrier that acknowledges the receipt of goods for shipment.•Packing List: A detailed list of the contents and quantities of a shipment.•Certificate of Origin: It certifies the origin of the goods and is needed to claim preferential treatment under trade agreements.•Insurance Certificate: A document that confirms that goods are insured against loss or damage during transportation.•Customs Declaration: A document that provides information about the goods being imported or exported and helps calculate applicable customs duties and taxes.ConclusionInternational trade plays a crucial role in the global economy, enabling countries to benefit from specialization, economic growth, and improved welfare. This bilingual tutorial aimed to provide an overview of international trade in English, covering its various aspects from understanding the basics to trade barriers, agreements, and documentation. By understanding these concepts, readers can engage in international trade activities more effectively and confidently.。
国际贸易 名词解释中英文 自己整理
国际贸易名词解释中英文自己整理成本差异的原因是：不同的国家有不同的要素禀赋；生产不同的商品需要不同的要素密度。
因此，不同国家在不同商品的生产上才会有相对的优势。
结论：一个国家应该出口那些密集地使用其供应充裕和价格低廉的要素生产的商品，进口那些密集地使用其供应稀缺和价格昂贵的要素生产的商品，才能从贸易中获利。
古典贸易理论：机会成本（opportunity cost）：生产某种产品而必须放弃的能够生产除此以外最大可获收益的产品的代价。
The amount of another item must be given up in order to release sufficient resources to produce one more unit of a given item.机会成本不变的存在需要两个条件：第一，两种产品生产中所使用的要素比例固定不变，并且可以相互替代；第二，所有产品中使用的同一要素都是同质的。
国际分工(International Division of Labor)：指世界上各国（地区）之间的劳动分工，是各国生产者通过世界市场形成的劳动联系，是国际贸易和各国（地区）经济联系的基础。
Division of labor or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labor in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase the productivity of labor.完全分工Complete Specialization: The utilization of all of a nation’s resources in the production of only one commodity with trade. This usually occurs under constant costs. 不完全分工Incomplete Specialization: The continued production of both commodities in both nations with increasing costs.绝对优势（absolute advantage）各国间存在的生产技术上的差别，以及由此造成的劳动生产率和生产成本的绝对差别，是国际分工和国际贸易的基础。
国际贸易基本模型
禀赋理论中要素禀赋的差异很容易解释。
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
一、基本概念
在建立要素禀赋理论的基本模型之前，先引入几个 重要概念： • 要素禀赋 • 要素丰裕度 • 要素密集度
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
1.要素禀赋（factor endowments） 是指一国所拥有的并能用于生产的各种生 产要素的数量，这些经济资源包括自然资源
第三章 要素禀赋理论
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
内容提要
本章介绍新古典国际贸易理论的代表理论——要素 禀赋理论。要素禀赋理论又被称为H-O理论，是由瑞典 经济学家赫克歇尔（Heckscher）和俄林（Ohlin）提出 的。20世纪50年代初，美国经济学家里昂惕夫(Leontief) 对要素禀赋的理论提出了质疑，被后人称为“里昂惕夫 之谜”，并引发了人们对传统国际贸易理论的长期争论。 本章主要介绍要素禀赋理论的相关内容、“里昂惕夫之 谜”及其解释。
要素禀赋论是当代著名的瑞典经济学家赫克歇尔 和俄林提出的国际贸易理论。 赫克歇尔于1919年提出了要素禀赋论的基本论 点。俄林在 1933 年出版的《区际贸易和国际贸易》 一书中继承并发展了赫克歇尔的论点，创立了要素
禀赋理论,所以要素禀赋理论又被称为赫-俄理论,即
H-O理论。
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
结论：美英两国的两种商品价格比例不同是由两国生 产要素价格比例不同决定的。
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
（四）要素价格比例不同是由要素供给 比例不同决定的
各种生产要素在不同国家中的丰缺程度是很不相 同的。供给丰富的生产要素价格便宜，相反，供给稀 缺的生产要素价格就昂贵。
比如，澳大利亚地广人稀、资本较少，因此地租 较便宜而资本和劳动力的价格较贵。所以说要素价格 比例不同是由要素供给比例不同决定的。
国际经济学第6章,标准贸易模型The Standard Trade Model
二、经济增长：RS曲线的移动
• 经济增长所产生的影响：
1、其他国家经济增长对本国有利还是有害？ 2、当一国经济增长时，参与国际贸易是否能提 高增长的利益？
二、经济增长：RS曲线的移动
1、经济增长和生产可能性边界
QC
平衡性增长 balanced growth
QC
QC
QC
二、经济增长：RS曲线的移动
• 外国对本国进口的产品进行补贴对本国有利， 对本国出口的产品进行补贴对本国不利；外国 对本国出口的产品征收关税对本国不利，对本 国进口的产品征收关税对本国有利。
四、关税和出口补贴:RS和RD曲线同时移动
• 贸易条件的收入分配效应
↑ PM/PX ↓
相关问题
1989年间，政治变动席卷东欧。这场变动的一个 结果是西欧贷款的方向发生了变动。西欧国家尤 其是德国，80年代曾向美国大量贷款，如今开始 将钱借给邻近的东欧国家。利用收入转移问题的 分析考虑：上述情况会怎样影响西欧产品对美国 和日本产品的相对价格？
四、关税和出口补贴:RS和RD曲线同时移动
二、经济增长：RS曲线的移动
• 经济增长的国际性影响 – 福利恶化型增长（悲惨的增长） immiserizing growth
经济增长（福利↑）+ 贸易条件恶化（福利↓）= 福利↓
相关问题
A国和B国有两种生产要素：资本和劳动，用于 生产两种产品X和Y。两国的技术水平一样，X 是资本密集产品，A国是资本充裕的国家。分析 下列情形中，两国贸易条件和福利的变化： a. A国的资本存量增加。 b. A国的劳动供给增加。 c. B国的资本存量增加。 d. B国的劳动供给增加。
收入转入（福利↑）+ 贸易条件恶化（福利↓）= 福利↓
国际贸易英文版教材
作者、书名、出版社、出版年份、目录Thomas A．Pugel. International Economics(15th). Renmin University of China p ress. 2012-12CONTENTSChapter 1 International Economics Is DifferentFour ControversiesEconomics and the Nation-StateThe Scheme of This BookPART ONE THE THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEChapter 2 The Basic Theory Using Demand and SupplyFour Questions about TradeA Look AheadDemand and SupplyCase Study Trade Is ImportantGlobal Crisis The Trade Mini-Collapse of 2009Two National Markets and the Opening of TradeChapter 3 Why Everybody Trades: Comparative Advantage 33Adam Smith’s Theory of Absolute AdvantageCase Study Mercantilism: Older Than Smith—and Alive TodayRicardo’s Theory of Comparative AdvantageRicardo’s Constant Costs and the Producti on-Possibility CurveFocus on Labor Absolute Advantage Does MatterExtension What If Trade Doesn’t Balance?Chapter 4 Trade: Factor Availability and Factor Proportions Are KeyProduction with Increasing Marginal CostsCommunity Indifference CurvesProduction and Consumption TogetherFocus on China The Opening of Trade and China’s Shift Out of AgricultureThe Gains from TradeTrade Affects Production and ConsumptionWhat Determines the Trade Pattern?The Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) TheoryChapter 5 Who Gains and Who Loses from Trade?Who Gains and Who Loses within a CountryThree Implications of the H–O TheoryExtension A Factor-Ratio ParadoxDoes Heckscher–Ohlin Explain Actual Trade Patterns?Case Study The Leontief ParadoxWhat Are the Export-Oriented and Import-Competing Factors?Focus on China China’s Exports and ImportsDo Factor Prices Equalize Internationally?Focus on Labor U.S. Jobs and Foreign Trade 86Chapter 6 Scale Economies, Imperfect Competition, and TradeScale EconomiesIntra-Industry TradeMonopolistic Competition and TradeExtension The Individual Firm in MonopolisticOligopoly and TradeExtension The Gravity Model of TradeChapter 7 Growth and TradeBalanced versus Biased GrowthGrowth in Only One FactorChanges in the Country’s Willingness to TradeCase Study The Dutch Disease and DeindustrializationEffects on the Country’s Terms of TradeTechnology and TradeFocus on Labor Trade, Technology, and U.S. WagesPART TWO TRADE POLICYChapter 8 Analysis of a TariffGlobal Governance WTO and GATT: Tariff SuccessA Preview of ConclusionsThe Effect of a Tariff on Domestic ProducersThe Effect of a Tariff on Domestic ConsumersThe Tariff as Government RevenueThe Net National Loss from a TariffExtension The Effective Rate of ProtectionCase Study They Tax Exports, TooThe Terms-of-Trade Effect and a Nationally Optimal TariffChapter 9 Nontariff Barriers to ImportsTypes of Nontariff Barriers to ImportsThe Import QuotaGlobal Governance The WTO: Beyond TariffsGlobal Crisis Dodging ProtectionismExtension A Domestic Monopoly Prefers a QuotaVoluntary Export Restraints (VERs)Other Nontariff BarriersCase Study VERs: Two ExamplesCase Study Carrots Are Fruit, Snails Are Fish, and X-Men Are Not HumansHow Big Are the Costs of Protection?International Trade DisputesFocus on China China’s First Decade in the WTOChapter 10 Arguments for and against ProtectionThe Ideal World of First BestThe Realistic World of Second BestPromoting Domestic Production or EmploymentThe Infant Industry ArgumentFocus on Labor How Much Does It Cost to Protect a Job?The Dying Industry Argument and Adjustment AssistanceThe Developing Government (Public Revenue) ArgumentOther Arguments for Protection: Non=economic ObjectivesThe Politics of Protection The Basic Elements of the Political-Economic Analysis Case Study How Sweet It Is (or Isn’t)Chapter 11 Pushing ExportsDumpingReacting to Dumping: What Should a Dumpee Think?Actual Antidumping Policies: What Is Unfair?Case Study Antidumping in ActionProposals for ReformExport SubsidiesWTO Rules on SubsidiesShould the Importing Country Impose Countervailing Duties?Case Study Agriculture Is AmazingStrategic Export Subsidies Could Be GoodGlobal Governance Dogfight at the WTOChapter 12 Trade Blocs and Trade BlocksTypes of Economic BlocsIs Trade Discrimination Good or Bad?The Basic Theory of Trade Blocs: Trade Creation and Trade DiversionOther Possible Gains from a Trade BlocThe EU ExperienceCase Study Postwar Trade Integration in EuropeNorth America Becomes a BlocTrade Blocs among Developing CountriesTrade EmbargoesChapter 13 Trade and the EnvironmentIs Free Trade Anti-Environment?Is the WTO Anti-Environment?Global Governance Dolphins, Turtles, and the WTOThe Specificity Rule AgainA Preview of Policy PrescriptionsTrade and Domestic PollutionTrans-border PollutionGlobal Environmental ChallengesChapter 14 Trade Policies for Developing CountriesWhich Trade Policy for Developing Countries?Are the Long-Run Price Trends against Primary Producers?Case Study Special Challenges of TransitionInternational Cartels to Raise Primary-Product PricesImport-Substituting Industrialization (ISI)Exports of Manufactures to Industrial CountriesChapter 15 Multinationals and Migration: International Factor MovementsForeign Direct InvestmentMultinational EnterprisesFDI: History and Current PatternsWhy Do Multinational Enterprises Exist?Taxation of Mul tinational Enterprises’ProfitsCase Study CEMEX: A Model Multinational from an Unusual PlaceMNEs and International TradeShould the Home Country Restrict FDI Outflows?Should the Host Country Restrict FDI Inflows?Focus on China China as a Host CountryMigrationHow Migration Affects Labor MarketsShould the Sending Country Restrict Emigration?Should the Receiving Country Restrict Immigration?Case Study Are Immigrants a Fiscal Burden?APPENDIXESA The Web and the Library: International Numbers and Other InformationB Deriving Production-Possibility CurvesC Offer CurvesD The Nationally Optimal Tariff周瑞琪. International Trade Practice. University of International Business and Economics press. 2011.9CONTENTSChapter One General Introduction（第一章导论）1.1 Reasons for International Trade （国际间贸易的起因）1.2 Differences between International Trade and Domestic Trade （国际贸易与国内贸易的差异）1.3 Classification of International Trade（国际贸易的分类）1.4 Export and Import Procedures（进出口贸易的程序）1.5 Overview of This Book （本书的基本内容）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Specimens（单证样本）Chapter Two International Trade Terms（第二章国际贸易术语）2.1 Three Sets of Rules （三种贸易术语的解释规则）2.2 Basics of Incoterms 2010 （2010年国际贸易术语解释通则基本概念）2.3 Application Issues（贸易术语在使用中应注意的问题）2.4 Determinants of Choice of Trade Terms （贸易术语选用的决定因素）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Chapter Three Export Price（第三章出口商品的价格）3.1 Expression of Export Price（出口价格的表达）3.2 Pricing Considerations（影响定价的因素）3.3 Calculation of Price（价格的计算）3.4 Understanding the Price（价格的评估）3.5 Communication of Price（价格的沟通）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Chapter Four Terms of Commodity（第四章商品条款）4.1 Name of Commodity （商品的名称）4.2 Specifying Quality（商品的品质）4.3 Measuring Quantity（商品的数量）4.4 Packing and Marking（商品的包装及标志）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Chapter Five Cargo Transportation（第五章国际货物运输）5.1 Ocean Transportation （海洋运输）5.2 Other Modes of Transportation （其他运输方式）5.3 Transportation Documents（运输单据）5.4 Shipment Clause in the Sales Contract（销售合同中的装运条款）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Specimens（单证样本）Chapter Six Cargo Transportation Insurance（第六章货物运输保险）6.1 Fundamental Principles of Cargo Insurance（货物保险的基本原则）6.2 Marine Risks and Losses（海上风险和损失）6.3 Coverage of Marine Cargo Insurance of CIC（我国海上货物保险范围）6.4 Coverage of Marine Cargo Insurance of ICC（协会货物保险范围）6.5 Other Types of Cargo Insurance（其他货物保险的种类）6.6 Procedures of Cargo Insurance（货物保险程序）6.7 Insurance Terms in the Sales Contract（销售合同中的保险条款）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Specimens（单证样本）Chapter Seven International Payments（第七章国际货款支付）7.1 Issues in Concern（影响支付条件的因素）7.2 Paying Instruments（支付工具）7.3 Remittance（汇付）7.4 Collection（托收）7.5 Basics of Letter of Credit（信用证基础知识）7.6 Types of Documentary Credit（跟单信用证的种类）7.7 Letter of Guarantee（L/G）（保函）7.8 Export Financing（出口融资）7.9 Payment Problems（支付中出现的问题）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Specimens（单证样本）Chapter Eight Export Documentation（第八章出口单证）8.1 Significance of Documentation（单证的重要性）8.2 Basic Requirements for Documentation（单证的基本要求）8.3 Prerequisites of Documentation（制单的依据）8.4 Export Documents（出口单证的种类）8.5 Clause Concerning Documents in the Sales Contract（销售合同中有关单证的条款）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Specimens（单证样本）Chapter Nine Inspection, Claim, Force Majeure and Arbitration（第九章商检、索赔、不可抗力和仲裁）9.1 Commodity Inspection（商品检验）9.2 Disputes and Claims（争议和索赔）9.3 Force Majeure（不可抗力）9.4 Arbitration（仲裁）Summary（总结）Key Terms（主要术语）Abbreviations（缩略语）Exercises（练习）Key to Exercises（练习答案）Glossary（词汇表）Appendix 1INCOTERMS 2010 （FOB, CFR, CIF）（附录12010年国际贸易术语解释通则（FOB，CFR，CIF））Appendix 2CISG 1980 （Part II）（附录2联合国国际货物销售合同公约1980（第二部分）) References （参考书目）帅建林. International Trade Practice. University of International Business and Economics press. 2007.9CONTENTSPart 1 OverviewChapter 1 Introduction to International TradeChapter 2 International Trade PolicyChapter 3 Trade Bloc and Trade BlockChapter 4 WTO :A Navigation GuidePart 2 Terms of International TradeChapter 5 International Trade TermsChapter Terms of CommodityChapter International Cargo TransportChapter 8 Cargo InsuranceChapter 9 Terms of PriceChapter 10 International Payment and SettlementChapter 11 Claims, Force Majeure and ArbitrationPart 3 International Trade ProcedureChapter 12 Launching a Profitable TransactionChapter 13 Business Negotiation and Establishment of ContractChapter 14 Exporting ElementsChapter 15 Importing ElementsChapter 16 DocumentationPart 4 Trade FormsChapter 17 Agency, Distribution and ConsignmentChapter 18 TendersChapter 19 Counter TradeChapter 20 Futures TradingChapter 21 E-CommerceAppendix Glossary of International Trade Terms with English-Chinese InterpretationsBibliographyPaul R.Krugman & Maurice Obstfeld. International Economics:Theory andPolicy,8E. Tsinghua University press. 2011-11Contents前言第1章绪论第1部分国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易：概览第3章劳动生产率和比较优势：李嘉图模型第4章资源、比较优势和收入分配第5章标准贸易模型第6章规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易第7章国际要素流动第2部分国际贸易政策第8章贸易政策工具第9章贸易政策中的政治经济学第10章发展中国家的贸易政策第11章贸易政策中的争论数学附录第4章附录要素比例模型第5章附录贸易下的世界经济第6章附录垄断竞争模模型张素芳，International trade: theory and practice. University of International Business & Economics Press, Beijing, 2010contentsSection I. International Trade Theory and PolicyCHAPTER 1.INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE1.The Reasons for International Trade1.1. Resources reasons1.2. Economic reasons1.3. Other reasons2. The Differences between International Trade and Domestic Trade'.'2.1. More plex context2.2. More difficult and risky2.3. Higher skills required3.Basic Concepts Relating to International Trade3.1. Visible trade and invisible trade3.2. Favorable balance of trade and unfavorable balance oft rade3.3. General trade system and special trade system3.4. Volume of international trade and quantum of international trade3.5. Commodity position of international trade3.6. Geographical position of international trade3.7. Degree of dependence on foreign tradeCHAPTER 2.CLASSICAL TRADE THEORIES1.Mercantilism1.1. The development of mercantilist thought1.2. The mercantilist economic system1.3. Economic policies pursued by the mercantilists1.4. Discussions2.David Hume's Challenge to Mercantilism2.1. Assumptions of price-specie=flow mechanism2.2. The price-specie-flow mechanism3.Adam Smith's Theory of Absolute Advantage3.1. Assumptions of Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage3.2. Challenge to Mercantilism3.3. Example4.David Ricardo's Theory of Comparative Advantage4.1. The concept of parative advantage4.2. Example4.3. Analysis of the theory of parative advantage by using modemtools. CHAPTER 3.NEOCLASSICAL TRADE THEORIES.1.Gains from Trade in Neoclassical Trade Theory1.1. Increasing opportunity costs on the PPF1.2. General equilibrium and gains in autarky1.3. General equilibrium and gains after the introduction of international trade ...2.Reciprocal Demand Theory2.1. A country's offer curve2.2. Trading equilibrium2.3. Measurement of terms of trade3.Factor Endowment Theory3.1. Factor intensity in production3.2. Factor endowments, factor prices, and parative advantage3.3. Assumptions of the factor proportions theory.,3.4. The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem.:3.5. An example to illustrate H-O theorem.3.6. The factor price equalization theorem:3.7. The Stolper-Samuelson theorem4.The Leontief Paradox——An Empirical Test of the Factor Proportions Theory 4.1. The Leontief paradox.-4.2. Suggested explanations for the Leontief Paradox and related theories CHAPTER 4.POST-HECKSHER-OHLIN THEORIES OF TRADE1.The Product Cycle Theory1.1. The imitation lag hypothesis1.2. The product cycle theory2.The Linder Theory2.1. Assumptions of the Linder theory2.2. Trade es in the overlapping ranges of products ophistication.:3.Intra-Industry Trade Theory3.1. Explanations of intra-industry trade3.2. Measurement of intra-industry tradeCHAPTER 5.IMPORT PROTECTION POLICY: TARIFFS1.Types of Import Tariffs1.1. In terms of the means of collection1.2. In terms of the different tariff rates applied1.3. In terms of special purposes for collection2.The Effects of Import Tariffs2.1. Concepts of consumer surplus and producer surplus2.2. The welfare effects of import tariffs3.Measurement of Import Tariffs3.1. The 'height' of import tariffs3.2. Nominal versus effective tariff ratesCHAPTER 6.IMPORT PROTECTION POLICY: NON-TARIFF BARRIERS''1.Forms of Non-tariff Barriers.1.1. Quantity control measures1.2. Price control measures1.3. Para-tariff measures1.4. Finance measures1.5. Anti-petitive measures.,.1.6. Miscellaneous measures2.Effects of Non-tariff Barriers2.1. The effects of an import quota2.2. The effects of a subsidy to an import-peting industryCHAPTER 7.EXPORT PROMOTION AND OTHER POLICIES1.Export Subsidy and Production Subsidy1.1. Export subsidy and its effects1.2. Production subsidy and its effects.2.Other Export Promotion Policies2.1. Devaluation of home currency.2.2. Commodity dumping2.3. Bonded warehouse2.4. Special trade zone2.5. Export promotion programs3.Export Restrictions and Import Promotion Policies3.1. Export restrictions policies3.2. Import promotion policies4.Trade Sanctions4.1. Introduction to trade sanctions4.2. Effectiveness of trade sanctionsCHAPTER 8.ARGUMENTS AGAINST FREE TRADE1.Traditional Arguments against Free Trade1.1. Infant industry argument.1.2. Terms of trade argument1.3. Balance of trade argument1.4. Tariff to reduce aggregate unemployment argument1.5. Fair petition argument1.6. National security argument2.New Protectionism2.1. Tariff to extract foreign monopoly profit2.2. Export subsidy in duopoly3.The Political Economy of Trade Policy3.1. Median voter model3.2. Collective action theory.3.3. Contribution in political campaignsCHAPTER 9.REGIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATIONof Regional Economic Integration1.1. Preferential tariff arrangement1.2. Free trade area1.3. Customs union1.4. Common market.1.5. Economic union2.The Static and Dynamic Effects of Regional Economic Integration2.1. Static effects of regional economic integration2.2. Dynamic effects of regional economic integration3.Economic Integration in Europe, North America and Asia3.1. Economic integration in Europe……………………………………Chapter 10 International Cargo Transportation InsuranceChapter 11 International Trade PaymentChapter 12 Inspection,Claim,Force Majeure and ArbitrationChapter 13 Trade Negotiation and Formation of the ContractChapter 14 Implementation of the Contract丹尼斯·R·阿普尔亚德 & 小艾尔弗雷德·J·菲尔德 & 史蒂文·L·科布.国际贸易.中国人民大学出版社. 2012-7第1章国际经济学的世界第一部分古典贸易理论第2章早期的国际贸易理论：由重商主义向大卫·李嘉图的古典贸易理论的演进第3章大卫·李嘉图的古典贸易理论和比较优势第4章对古典贸易模型的扩充及验证第二部分新贸易理论第5章新古典贸易理论——基本分析工具的介绍第6章新古典贸易理论中的贸易利得第7章贸易提供曲线和贸易条件第8章贸易的基础：要素禀赋理论和赫克歇尔俄林模型第9章要素禀赋理论的实证分析第三部分贸易理论的扩展第10章后赫克歇尔俄林贸易理论与产业内贸易第11章经济增长与国际贸易第12章国际要素流动第四部分贸易政策第13章贸易政策工具第14章贸易政策的影响第15章对干涉主义贸易政策的争论第16章经济的政治因素与美国的对外贸易政策第17章经济一体化第18章国际贸易与发展中国家参考文献当我被上帝造出来时，上帝问我想在人间当一个怎样的人，我不假思索的说，我要做一个伟大的世人皆知的人。
国际贸易的古典模型.pptx
• 13、志不立，天下无可成之事。20.7.1020.7.1013:54:2913:54:29July 10, 2020
• 14、Thank you very much for taking me with you on that splendid outing to London. It was the first time that I had seen the Tower or any of the other famous sights. If I'd gone alone, I couldn't have seen nearly as much, because I wouldn't have known my way about.
Figure A3.1 Country A’s trading equilibrium
Husted/Melvin, © 2001, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure A3.2 Country A’s price-consumption curve
Husted/Melvin, © 2001, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 3.02 Pretrade equilibriums: (a) country A; (b) country B
Husted/Melvin, © 2001, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 3 The Classical Model of
International Trade
国际贸易英文版
国际贸易英文版International TradeThe global economy has become increasingly interconnected, with countries around the world engaging in a complex web of trade and investment. International trade has become a fundamental driver of economic growth and development, providing access to new markets, resources, and technologies. However, the landscape of international trade is constantly evolving, presenting both opportunities and challenges for countries and businesses alike.At the heart of international trade lies the exchange of goods and services across national borders. Through this exchange, countries can leverage their comparative advantages, specializing in the production of goods and services that they can produce more efficiently, and trading for those that they cannot. This allows for greater economic efficiency and a higher standard of living for all involved.One of the primary benefits of international trade is the ability to access a wider range of products and services. Consumers in one country can enjoy goods and services produced in other countries,often at lower prices or with higher quality than what is available domestically. This increases the variety of choices available to consumers and allows them to satisfy their needs and preferences more effectively.Moreover, international trade enables countries to benefit from economies of scale. By expanding their production and distribution to global markets, businesses can achieve greater efficiencies, reduce costs, and offer their products at more competitive prices. This, in turn, can lead to increased profits and investment, driving further economic growth.International trade also fosters the diffusion of technology and knowledge across borders. As countries engage in trade, they are exposed to new ideas, processes, and innovations developed elsewhere. This cross-pollination of ideas can lead to increased productivity, improved products and services, and the development of new industries.However, the benefits of international trade are not without their challenges. One of the key issues is the potential for job displacement and economic disruption, as industries and workers adjust to the changing competitive landscape. Countries and communities may struggle to adapt to the shifting demands of the global marketplace, leading to concerns about job security, incomeinequality, and social stability.Additionally, international trade can sometimes be a source of political tension and conflict. Disputes over tariffs, subsidies, trade agreements, and other policy measures can lead to trade wars and retaliatory actions, which can have far-reaching consequences for the global economy.To address these challenges, countries have increasingly turned to multilateral institutions and trade agreements to establish rules and frameworks for governing international trade. Organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade agreements like the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) play a crucial role in promoting free and fair trade, resolving disputes, and ensuring a level playing field for all participants.In conclusion, international trade is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has profoundly shaped the global economy. While it has brought significant benefits in terms of economic growth, consumer choice, and technological advancement, it also presents challenges that require careful policy coordination and effective regulation. As the world continues to evolve, the importance of international trade will only grow, and it will be up to policymakers, businesses, and citizens to navigate this dynamic landscape andensure that the benefits of trade are equitably distributed and the risks are effectively managed.。
国际贸易英文版资料
Indirect Service:
Freight forwarders offer a range of service covering the physical transportation of goods for export and their expertise means that they represent a reliable and comprehensive means of dealing with this area.
Charter:
Refer to “Shipping Service” earlier in this chapter.
Non-vessel-operating-common carrier:
A non-vessel-operating-common carrier(NVOOC)is essentially a ship`s agent and conducts business for the ship but does not operate the vessel. This service is a combination of shipping company/agent and freight forwarder . It can consolidate several exporters` cargo to be shipped to the same destination. NVOOC operators issue House Bills of Lading as contracts between themselves and exporters.
charpter 1
• Tonnage Measurement • Type of Vessels • Commercial aspects of shipping • shipping conference
国际贸易术语(英文版)
On the other hand, as a matter of practical reality, the seller would frequently assist the buyer in loading the goods on the latter's collecting vehicle.
If the buyer wants the seller to do more, this should he made clear in the contract of sale.
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Introduction FOB FAS FCA
The "F" - term require the seller to deliver the goods for carriage as instructed by the buyer.
The risk of loss or damage to the goods is transferred from seller to buyer at that time and not at the ship's rrier" means any person by whom or in whose name a contract of carriage by road, rail, air, sea, or a combination of modes has been made. When a seller has been furnished a bill of lading, way bill or carrier's receipt, the seller duly fulfills its obligation by presenting such a document issued by a carrier.
国际经济学-第3章 新古典贸易理论
3) They all use the same technology.1 H-O Theory
4. Theoretical Concept 理论观点 A country will export products that use
在两个国家、两种商品、两种生产要素模型中，产品市场、要素市场 及各国市场同时实现均衡。
Introduction
第6页
＊Among the important results are that international trade can improve economic efficiency but that trade will also cause a redistribution of income between different factors of production. In other words, some will gain from trade, some will lose, but the net effects are still likely to be positive.
特别是，该理论强调了国家资源禀赋作为比较优势的关键决定因素的作用。
3.1 H-O Theory
第 17 页
＊Example Brazil exports coffee because it has an abundance of the soil and
climatic conditions required for coffee’s production; India and China are huge exporters of shoes and garments because they are heavily endowed with labor.
国际贸易概括英文版
Faculty of Business & Finance
Exports 2021
Australia's exports were down 10 per cent to $250 billion—about 20 per cent of the country's gross domestic product. The biggest export sectors were minerals and fuels, followed by the services, manufactures and rural sectors.
Faculty of Business & Finance
Trade
This course concentrates on the trade in goods. (and some services ….those that directly relate to the trade in those goods such as regulatory compliance, transport and insurance.)
For Governments
Potential for economic growth Increased world prosperity
Faculty of Business & Finance
The Trade/GDP ratio
In 1990 the international trade in goods and services was 39% of the world’s GDP. (source 06 World Development Indicators The World Bank Group)
国际贸易经典文献模型推导（七）——Melitz（2003）（上）
国际贸易经典文献模型推导（七）——Melitz（2003）
（上）
The impact trade on intra-industry reallocations
and aggrate industry productivity
BY MARC J. MELITZ1（2003）
贸易对产业内再分配和产业生产率的影响
摘要
本文运用一个发展后的差异企业的动态行业模型来分析产业内贸易对国际贸易的影响。
该模型显示了贸易的自发力量如何使得只有较高生产率的企业才进入出口市场（而生产率稍低的企业仍旧留在国内市场），同时还会使得生产率最低的企业退出市场。
该模型还显示了随着该行业贸易进一步增加，企业间的再分配将向更高生产率的企业转移。
本文还显示了由再分配得到的总行业的生产率的提高对获得福利的贡献。
如此，就用理论解释了之前一直未解释的——从贸易中获得福利。
本论文采用了Aopeheyn动态行业模型加以一般均衡下的垄断竞争，这就是对克鲁格曼1980年的贸易模型做了一个拓展，使其拓展到不同生产率的企业间的产业内贸易。
之所以一个行业内会同时存在不同生产率的企业是因为每家企业以不可逆性投资进入某一行业前生产率是不确定的。
进入出口市场的代价是高昂的，但是企业会在获知其自身的生产率的前提再做出进入出口市场的决定。
模型的建立
企业的进出
封闭经济中的均衡
开放经济假设的观点。
第2章：古典贸易模型
Table 2-5 comparative advantage from productivity comparisons
U.S. Wheat(bushel per labor hour) Cloth (yard per labor hour) 6 10 U.K. 3 8
Notes ： From table 2 — 5, we can see the labor productivity of wheat in the U.S. is twice as much as that of the U.K. while America’s labor productivity of cloth is just 1.25 times that of the UK.，so America has a comparative advantage over the UK in wheat production, while the UK has a comparative advantage over the US in the production of cloth.
2.2.3 斯密绝对优势模型分工与贸易 利益的实证分析
分工前的产量 分工后的产量 贸易前后贸易参与国的福利比较
表 2-1
绝对优势的内涵
美国 英国 3 8 6 4
小麦（蒲式耳/劳动小时） 布匹（码/劳动小时）
分析：美国单位时间的小麦产量为英国的 2 倍， 而英国单位时间的布匹产量为美国的 2 倍。 所以美国在 小麦生产上有绝对优势， 而英国在布匹生产上拥有绝对 优势。换句话说，单位小麦产量美国的成本为英国的 1/2，而单位布匹产量英国的成本为美国的 1/2，所以， 绝对优势也称绝对成本优势。
2.3.1 比较优势原理的基本内涵