地质学完美教程【英文版ppt】概论
地质学概述PPT(英文)
Typical components of a volcano include: Volcanic cone 火山锥 Crater/Caldera
火山口/破火山口
Vent 火山通道 Magma chamber 岩浆房
4.3 Special structure
Columnar jointing (柱状节理) is a kind of structure often formed in basaltic (玄武岩的) flows as a result of contraction during cooling of lava.
Long radius: 6378.140km Short radius: 6356.779km Average radius: 6371.012km
Circumference around the equator: 40,075.16km Circumference around the poles: 40,008.00km
5.2 The composition of sedimentary rocks
Parent rock (source rock, 母岩) is the rock from which fragments and other detached pieces have been derived to form a later sedimentary rock. Source area (provenance, 物源区) is a place of origin from which the constituent materials of a sedimentary rock or facies are derived. Concerning the composition of sedimentary rocks, we often refer to chemical and mineral compositions. a. Chemical composition. After long-term external processes different sedimentary rocks have different chemical compositions, such as: Sandstone: SiO2 Shale: SiO2, Al2O3 Limestone: CaCO3 Fe2O3>FeO (FeO>Fe2O3 in igneous rocks), reason: 4Fe3O4+O2=6Fe2O3 K2O>Na2O (Na2O>K2O in igneous rocks), because cation Na+ can be easily dissolves in the sea water and cation K+ remains in the soils. There are more H2O, CO2 and organic matter in sediments.
地质学专业英语
English Reading Material for Geology, Hydrogeology, Engineering geology and Environmental GeologyDepartment of Resources, Environment and Engineering Shijiazhuang University of EconomicsContentUnit One: The Earth通用____________________________________________________1Unit Two: The Atmosphere环________________________________________________4 Unit Three: Oceans通用_____________________________________________________8 Unit Four: Groundwater通用_______________________________________________13 Unit Five: Minerals地_____________________________________________________17 Unit Six: Rocks通用_______________________________________________________21 Unit Seven: Weathering and Erosion通用______________________________________28 Unit Eight: Geological Structures通用________________________________________32 Unit Nine: Earth History通用_______________________________________________37 Unit Ten: Continental drift地_______________________________________________42 Unit Eleven: Plate Tectonics地______________________________________________46 Unit Twelve: Earthquakes and Seismic Waves地_______________________________50 Unit thirteen: Introduction of Igneous Geochemistry地__________________________54Unit Fourteen: Using trace element analysis to determine the tectonic setting of basic volcanic rocks地_________________________________________________________59Unit Fifteen: Geophysical Prospecting地、工___________________________________64 Unit Sixteen: Water水_____________________________________________________68 Unit Seventeen: Character of Groundwater水、环_______________________________71 Unit Eighteen: Parameters of Groundwater Flow水_____________________________76 Unit Nineteen: Hydrogeological Investigations水_______________________________81 Unit Twenty: Soils水、环____________________________________________________84 Unit Twenty-one: Mechanical behavior of rock and soil工________________________88 Unit Twenty-two: Reservoirs水、工___________________________________________92 Unit Twenty-three: Dams工________________________________________________96 Unit Twenty-four: Excavation and Support工_________________________________100 Unit Twenty-five: Slope S tability and Downslope Movement工、环__________________________105Unit One: The Earth通用IntroductionThe Earth is a very large spherical body. The science of geology is concerned with the Earth and the rocks of which it composed, the processes by which they were formed during geological time, and the modeling of the Earth’s surface in the past and at the present day. Earth is not a static body but is constantly subject to changes both at its surface and at deeper levels.Surface changes can be observed by engineers and geologists alike; among them erosion is a dominant process which in time destroys coastal cliffs, reduces the height of continents, and transports the material so removed either to the sea or to inland basins of deposition. Changes that originate below the surface are not so easily observed and their nature can only be postulated. Some are the cause of slow movements of continents across the surface of the globe; others cause the more rapid changes associated with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.The surface of the EarthDimensions and surface reliefThe radius of the Earth at the equator is 6370km and the polar radius is shorter by about 22km; thus the Earth is not quite a perfect sphere. The planet has a surface area of 510´106m2, of which some 29 per cent is land. If to this is added the shallow sea areas of the shelf which surrounds the continents, the total land area is nearly 35 per cent of the whole surface. In other words, nearly two-thirds of the surface is covered by deep ocean.Fig.1 A sketch profile of continental marginSurface relief is very varied (see fig.1); mountains rise to several kilometers above sea level, with a maximum of 8.848km at Everest (珠穆朗玛峰). The average height of land above sea level is 0.875km and the mean depth of the ocean floor is about 3.73km. In places the ocean floor descends to much greater depths in elongated areas or trenches; the Marianas Trench (马里亚纳海沟) in the N.W. Pacific reaches the greatest known depth, 11.034km. The extremes of height and depth are small in comparison with the Earth’s radius, and are found only in limited areas. The oceans, seas, lakes and rivers are collectively referred to as the hydrosphere; and the whole is surrounded by a gaseous envelope, the atmosphere.The interior of the EarthOur knowledge of the Earth’s interior is at present based on those direct investigations that can be made to depths of a few kilometers from the surface, together with extrapolations to lower levels. Studies of heat-flow, geostatic pressure, earthquakes, and estimations of isostatic balance reveal much about the interior of the Earth.It is well known from deep miningoperations that temperature increasesdownwards at an average rate of 30°C perkm. This rate is higher near a source of heatsuch as an active volcanic center, and is alsoaffected by the thermal conductivity of therocks at a particular locality. Assuming forthe moment that the temperature gradientcontinues at the average rate, calculationshows that at a depth of some 30km the temperature would be such that most knownrocks would begin to melt. The high pressure prevailing at that depth and the ability of crustal rocks to conduct heat away to the surface of the Earth result in the rock-material there remaining in a relatively solid condition; but there will be a depth at which it becomes essentially a viscous fluid and this defines the base of the lithosphere(see fig.2).The mean density of the Earth, which is found from its estimated mass and volume, is5.527g/cm 3. This is greater than the density of most rocks found at the surface, which rarely exceeds 3; sedimentary rocks average 2.3, and the abundant igneous rock granite about 2.7. In order to bring the mean density to 5.5 there must therefore be denser material at lower levels within the Earth. Our knowledge of the interior of the Earth has come largely from the study of the elastic waves generated by earthquakes, in particular from research into the way in which earthquake waves are bent (by diffraction at certain boundaries) as they pass through the Earth. This has shown that our planet has a core of heavy material with a density of 8. Two metals, iron and nickel, have densities a little below and above 8 respectively, and the core is believed to be composed mainly of iron. Surrounding this heavy core is the region known as the mantle; and overlying that is the crust, which is itself composite. In continental areas the average thickness of the crust is about 30km; in the oceans it is 10km. The mantle has a range of density intermediate between that of the crust and the core.V ocabularies and Phrases:modeling n 造型postulate vt, vi 假定，推测 erosion n 侵蚀eruption n 喷发，爆发Fig.2 Interior structure of the Earthinland basin 内陆盆地abyssal plain 深海平原continental rise 大陆基lithosphere n 岩石圈continental shelf 大陆架asthenophere n 软流圈relief n 地貌，地形起伏thermal conductivity 热传导率descend vi 下降temperature gradient 温度剃度trench n 海沟prevailing a 占优势的extrapolation n 外推法，推断viscous a 粘性的geostatic pressure 地压力elastic wave 弹性波isostatic balance 地壳均衡diffraction n 衍射Reading materialThe earth and other members of the Solar system are believed to have been formed about 4600 million years ago by condensation from a flattened rotating cloud of gas and dust. This contracted slowly, giving rise to the primitive Sun at its center – a new star – surrounded by a mass of cosmic gases in which local condensations generated the planets. They, and other bodies such as the asteroids and meteorites, all revolve in the same direction in orbits around the Sun. the cold primitive Earth became gradually heated as its interior was compressed by the increasing weight of accumulated matter and by the decay of natural radioactive materials. Heat was produced more quickly than it could escape from the compressed mass, resulting in the melting of some constituents and heavier matter being drawn by gravity towards the Earth’s center. The planet thus gradually acquired a core, surrounded by a mantle of less dense material, and an outer crust.Supplementary ExercisesPart one: Answer following questions in English1.What is the difference between the earth’s crust and its lithosphere?2.The earth’s radius is 6.4´108 cm and its mass is 6.0´1027g. calculate the averagedensity of the earth as a whole and compare it with the average density of crustal rocks,2.7g/cm3. What does this comparison indicate about the composition of the earth’sinterior?Part two: Translations between English and Chinese:1.The Earth consists of a two-part core, a mantle of solid rock, and an outermost thin,rocky crust. The crust and the outer part of the mantle compose the lithosphere, which includes all the rocky material of the Earth’s outer shell, extending from the surface to a depth of about 100 kilometers.2.对于人类来说，地球是我们的大家园，地球给我们提供了生活所必需的丰富的物质资源和优美的生活环境，我们应该注意合理地使用这些矿产资源和保护生活环境。
石油地质学英文课件Chapter 1
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Petroleum Geology
1.2 Chemical properties
(1) Elemental composition
The main elements are Carbon and Hydrogen; The minor elements are Sulfur,Nitrogen and Oxygen (normally less than 3%); Trace elements are heavy metals,such as V and Ni.
1 Crude oils
1.1 Definition 1.2 Chemical properties 1.3 Distillation 1.4 Classification 1.5 The differences between marine and
terrigenous oils 1.6 Physical properties
So nickel porphyrin and vanadium porphyrin are biological markers indicating crude oils derived from organic matters.
• Chlorophyll, the green photosynthetic pigment of plants.
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan
Petroleum Geology
1.1 Definition
• The word petroleum originates from the Latin words petra(“rock and stone”) and oleum(“oil”), just like its Chinese word, 石油 means “石” and “油”.
开发地质培训英文教材
开发地质培训英文教材-标准化文件发布号：（9456-EUATWK-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DDQTY-KIIProduction GeologyTable of Contents1.Introduction2.Non-marine clastic depositional systemsa.Introductionb.Low sinuosity fluvialc.High sinuosity fluviald.Eoliane.Alluvial fan3.Shallow and deep marine systemsa.Deltasb.Shore-zonec.Deep marine4.Sequence Stratigraphya.Introductionb.Fundamental concepts and terminologyc.Systems tractsd.Application5.Reservoir Geophysicsa.Introductionb.Terminology and fundamental conceptsc.Seismic acquisitiond.Seismic processinge.Seismic framework interpretationf.Acoustic impedance, attribute analysis, direct hydrocarbon indicators, and 4Dseismic6.Fractured Reservoirsa.Introductionb.Key conceptsc.Types of fracturesd.Character of the fracture planee.Detecting and quantifying fracturesf.Fracture porosity, permeability, and productivityg.Data gathering and reservoir characterization7.Capillary Pressurea.Introductionb.Buoyancy and capillary forcesc.The capillary pressure equationd.Determining capillary pressuree.Displacement pressure and saturation distributionsf.The Leverett J-functiong.Reservoir sealsh.Hydrostatic versus hydrodynamic reservoirsi.Examples of how capillary pressure controls the location of oil-water contacts8.Reservoir Heterogeneities and the Use of Geostatisticsa.Introductionb.Types of heterogeneitiesc.Steps to identify heterogeneitiesd.Importance of capturing the appropriate heterogeneitiese.Why geostatistics is neededf.How to calculate a variogramg.Variogram modelingh.Kriging versus conditional simulationi.Object modelingj.Sequential Gaussian simulation9.Geocellular Modelinga.Introductionb.Project scopingc.Data import and quality checkingd.Framework constructione.Three-dimensional griddingf.Property modelingg.Volumetrics and net payh.Realization assessmenti.Upscaling and exportj.Numerical simulation and reserves1. IntroductionProduction geology is a geological sub-discipline that focuses on identifying and producing hydrocarbons from known accumulations. The responsibilities of the production geologist are to 1) determine development well locations that target remaining hydrocarbons, 2) help explain the performance of existing wells by understanding the reservoir quality and lateral continuity of producing horizons, 3) determine the volume of hydrocarbons-in-place and the uncertainties associated with this value, and 4) look for additional opportunities including missed pay behind pipe in existing wells, shallower and deeper pay, and step-out wells that expand the existing field or discover new fields.The primary objective of this course is to provide participants with insights and tools to help them become an effective production geologist. Production geologists differ from exploration geologists, who often work with little data and generate broad play concepts that are sharpened into prospects. The production geologist typically has more data, generates more detailed descriptions, and must be prepared to answer many specific questions that exploration geologists do not consider. A comprehensive list of these questions is included in Table 1-1. While this class will not address all of these questions, it will provide participants with fundamental skills and a philosophy of how to conduct their work, so that the goal of answering all of these questions can be reached.A secondary objective of this course is to help participants understand how to build geocellular models, including how to incorporate information from other disciplines, and how long it should take to build these models. Figure 1-1 is generic geocellular modeling workflow, showing different tasks and how they inter-relate. Although this workflow must be modified for each individual project, it nonetheless provides a basic template for carrying-out geocellular modeling work.Geocellular models have become the primary tool used by geologists to capture their data and interpretations. These models also contain information provided by petrophysicists, geophysicists, and reservoir engineers. The models are used for development planning, reservoir visualization, and geosteering wells. In order to construct these models, geologists must be experts in many critical areas including the six listed below:Depositional systems: to understand the likely geometry, lateral continuity and reservoir quality of sandbodies in the reservoirSequence stratigraphy: to understand the nature of key surfaces, how they should be correlated through the reservoir, and their role as baffles and barriers to fluid flowReservoir geophysics: to determine reservoir structure, faulting, and variations in properties in interwell areasGeostatistics: to use appropriate stochastic techniques for distributing petrophysical parameters including facies types, porosity, and permeabilityCapillary pressure: to distribute water saturation in the model and relate this to variations in rock qualityGeocellular modeling: to understand the techniques and workflows used to build models, and how the results are used by reservoir engineers and othersThis course focuses on these six areas, explaining the fundamentals concepts of each and illustrating these concepts with diagrams, photographs, and exercises.2. Non-Marine Clastic Depositional Systems2a. Introduction. Non-marine clastic depositional systems include low-sinuosity fluvial, high-sinuosity fluvial, eolian, and alluvial fan depositional environments (Figure 2a-1). High sinuosity fluvial systems make excellent reservoirs due to their high net-to-gross ratios, coarse grain size, and sheet-like distribution. Low-sinuosity fluvial systems often have lower net-to-gross ratios than high-sinuosity systems and sandbodies of limited size and lateral extent. Eolian reservoirs are excellent reservoirs because of their clean, well-sorted nature. In contrast, alluvial fan reservoirs are relatively rare due to extreme variations in grain size, sorting, and clay content.This chapter explains how sands and shales in each of these environments are deposited and preserved, and how to recognize them from cores and logs. It also discusses the size, shape, and continuity of different sandbody types, and the key heterogeneities contained within them that impact reservoir fluid flow.2b. Low-sinuosity Fluvial Systems. A low-sinuosity fluvial system is a deposit of sand and gravel, generally with lesser amounts of silt and mud, produced by a series of low to moderately sinuous braided rivers traversing a coastal plain. It differs from a high-sinuosity system in that there are multiple river channels, and it differs from an anastamosing system in that there are no permanent islands between the river channels (Figure 2b-1).Sand and gravel deposited in this fluvial system are concentrated in bars including longitudinal, lateral, and transverse bars (Figure 2b-2). Longitudinal bars have their long axis oriented parallel to flow whereas transverse bars are oriented transverse to the flow direction and migrate downstream. Lateral bars form along the channel margins and are submerged during flood events when coarse material is deposited on their surface. In addition to these basic types of bars, many others have been recognized and classified (Figure 2b-3). These bars are not stable, but instead migrate, and can be destroyed or enlarged with time (Figure 2b-4). The upstream portions of the bars accumulate coarser-grained sand and gravel with a blocky log signature whereas the downstream portions accumulate finer-grained sand and silt with a fining-upward log signature (Figure 2b-5).Low-sinuosity fluvial systems are composed primarily of massive-appearing, sheet-like or tabular sandstone bodies of relatively high lateral continuity. These are separated by discontinuous silty sandstone intervals or less commonly by thin and discontinuous shales. The most common classes of shales are floodplain shales, channel-fill shales, and thin shales that drape various bars. The most important of these are floodplain shales which can extend laterally for hundreds of meters. The major control on shale continuity is their subsequent erosion by fluvial processes, resulting in laterally discontinuous permeabilitybaffles instead of permeability barriers. Typical reservoir characteristics of low-sinuosity fluvial systems are summarized in Table 2b-1.A significant portion of the world’s oil reserves are contained within low-sinuosity fluvial sandstone reservoirs. It is estimated that there are at least 30 billion stock tank barrels of remaining proven oil reserves and 40 trillion cubic feet of remaining proven gas reserves. An excellent example of one of these reservoirs is the Prudhoe Bay field on the North Slope of Alaska, which is the largest oilfield in North America (Figure 2b-6). It has 12 billion barrels of recoverable oil reserves and a gas cap containing 47 trillion cubic feet of gas. The lower part of the reservoir contains heterogeneous delta-front and lower delta-plain sandstones whereas the upper part consists of more homogeneous low-sinuosity fluvial sandstones and conglomerates interbedded with floodplain, abandoned channel, and drape shales. An important heterogeneity in addition to shales in this reservoir is open-framework conglomerates. These were deposited as laterally extensive gravel bars and now serve as “thief” zones which receive most of the injected water or gas during secondary recovery operations.2c. High-sinuosity Fluvial Systems. A high-sinuosity fluvial system is one in which the ratio of the channel length to the down-valley distance exceeds . Higher sinuosity is favored by relatively low slopes, a high ratio of suspended to bed load sediment, cohesive bank material, and relatively steady discharge. The lateral distance across the active river channel system is referred to as the channel belt width, and the channel belt itself is contained within a larger floodplain (Figure 2c-1). With time, the channel belt migrates across the floodplain, cutting off portions of the active river channel (Figure 2c-2).The most important reservoir sandbody in a high-sinuosity channel belt is the point bar (Figure 2c-3). Point bars develop on the inner portion of each meander loop where the flow is slower allowing the sand to drop out. The opposite side, where the water flows faster and causes erosion, is referred to as the cut bank. Point bars are characterized by a sharp base, a fining-upward character, and are often overlain by rooted soil horizons (Figure 2c-4). Within the sandbody itself, there is commonly an upward transition from coarse gravel to trough cross-bedded, parallel-laminated, and rippled sandstone (Figure 2c-5).A secondary type of sandbody associated with high-sinuosity fluvial systems is the crevasse splay(Figure 2c-6). A crevasse splay is formed when a river breaks through a levee at floodstage and deposits its material on the floodplain. Crevasse splays typically are formed by the deposition of suspended sediment and are therefore finer-grained and siltier than point bars. The overall shape of a crevasse splay is lobate, such that they appear lenticular in sections normal and oblique to the flow direction, but triangular in sections parallel to the flow direction (Figure 2c-7).In addition to point bars and crevasse splays, other elements of high-sinuosity fluvial systems include levees, swamps, oxbow lakes, and floodplain deposits. Levees are elevated areas adjacent to the river channel containing overbank deposits of siltstone and very fine sand. They grade laterally into finer grained silts and clays of the floodplain and black organic-rich muds characteristic of swamps(Figure 2c-8). Floodplain sediments aredistinguished in core by their red, oxidized nature whereas swamps appear as rooted mudstones or coals. Oxbow lakes are crescent-shaped bodies of standing water in the abandoned channel (oxbow) of a meander loop (Figure 2c-9). Fine-grained silts and clays referred to as abandoned channel-fill eventually fill these lakes.Within a high sinuosity fluvial system, permeabilities are highest in the point bar and channel fill sands (Figure 2c-10). Crevasse splay permeabilities are typically 1-2 orders of magnitude lower, whereas levee and floodplain deposits are considered non-pay. A key element in determining whether these types of reservoirs can be drilled and produced is the degree to which reservoir sandbodies are connected. In a low net-to-gross reservoir, sandbodies may not be connected, or may only be connected in a few places along the length of the channel belt (Figure 2c-11).As the net-to-gross ratio increases, connectivity will increase such that not only will all the sandbodies be in pressure communication, but it will also be possible to effectively sweep them using secondary recovery processes such as waterflooding. The key is for the system to be sufficiently sand-rich and for there to be enough accommodation space so that sandbodies will erode into each other to form amalgamated channel belts across a broad area (Figure 2c-12). These creates more sand-prone areas that can be imaged from seismic and targeted with wells (Figure 2c-13). Most high sinuosity fluvial systems are complex, ranging from amalgamated, areally extensive sandbodies to isolated single sandbodies. A good example of this is the Stratton Field of southeast Texas which contains multiple sandbody types that are being delineated with the help of seismic data. (Figure 2c-14). Table 2c-1 summarizes the typical reservoir characteristics of high-sinuosity fluvial systems and how to recognize them from other depositional systems, including low-sinuosity fluvial systems. It should come as no surprise that low-sinuosity and high-sinuosity systems are end members, and that some fluvial systems show characteristics of each (Figure 2c-15). Only through the integration of sufficient core, log, and seismic data can the true nature of each system be known.2d. Eolian Systems.Eolian sand dunes produce hydrocarbons from the Permian Rotliegendes Formation of the North Sea, Jurassic strata in the Gulf of Mexico, and numerous other locations. Eolian reservoirs are commonly not as thick as those of other depositional systems, but can be of very high quality due to their clean, well-sorted nature. Deserts cover approximately 20% of the earth’s land surface, but eolian dunes (Figure 2d-1) only cover about one-quarter of the deserts while the rest of the area consists of alluvial fans, plays, stony plains, and eroding highlands. These dunes come in many shapes and forms as a function of wind direction and velocity (Figure 2d-2).In eolian systems, sand is transported by three major processes: saltation, suspension and surface creep (Figure 2d-3). By far, the dominant process is saltation which accounts for approximately 90% of sand transport. Saltation is a complex process of downwind grain movement by collision and bouncing. Saltating grains form a relatively dense layer that moves up the shallow-dipping (stoss) side of each sand dune and is deposited on the steeply-dipping (lee) side of the dune. Saltating grains are deposited by four processes:grainfall, wind ripple migration, avalanching, and adhesion (Figure 2d-4). In general, avalanche and wind ripple deposits are the main dune bedding structures that are preserved. Most eolian dune stratification is dominated by large-scale cross bedding (Figure 2d-5). A cross section through a series of migrating dunes (Figure 2d-6) shows that the preserved portion only represents a fraction of the original dune height. Planar surfaces separate the preserved dune bedsets which are generally one to two meters thick. A major control on stratification within dune systems is the level of the water table at the time of deposition (Figure 2d-7). Changes in the height of the water table preserve the dunes and can produce horizontal truncation surfaces of regional extent called supersurfaces. At times when the water table is at or above ground level, fine grained silts, algal mats, and evaporate deposits may accumulate in lakes and other wet portions of interdune areas (Figure 2d-8). Depending upon changes in the height of the water table and the amount of sand, wet eolian systems can become dry or visa-versa (Figure 2d-9)Eolian systems demonstrate contrasts in reservoir properties ranging from the core-plug scale to the entire reservoir. At the core plug scale, variations in grain size and sorting can result in large variations in porosity and permeability. Figure 2d-10shows a permeability value from a core plug compared with mini-permeameter values from the same core. The mini-permeameter values range from less than millidarcies to millidarcies, showing that a single core plug does a poor job of capturing the permeability variation inherent in these types of rocks. At a bedding scale, grain size variations in dune sheets and interdune deposits create both high quality reservoir intervals and permeability baffles (Figure 2d-11). This presence of these baffles creates complex fluid flow patterns within the reservoir (Figure 2d-12). Table 2d-1 summarizes the typical reservoir characteristics of eolian systems and how to recognize them from other depositional systems.2e. Alluvial Fan Systems. Alluvial fans are directional landforms that begin at a point source along a mountain front and spread-out downdip with an accompanying decrease in grain size and an increase in sorting. The most distinctive feature of alluvial fans is their form. Their characteristic shape results from sediment-charged flows exiting the mountain front at a point source and spreading out along a wide arc (Figure 2e-1). Their relatively steep slope (typically 2-12 degrees) produces topographic relief of 300 to 2000+ meters across the fan. Types of fans include fan-deltas which terminate into a standing body of water, terminal fans which form where topographically confined rivers drain into an unconfined lowland (Figure 2e-2), and bajadas which are a series of coalescing alluvial fans along a mountain front. Reservoir quality sand is most commonly located along the margins of these fans, while basin-margin faulting and downdip pinchouts of these sediments provide excellent trapping mechanisms. (Figure 2e-3).Alluvial fans begin to form when steep slopes of bedrock erode to produce loose masses of soil and rock fragments called colluvium. As water from rainfall or snowmelt is added, the masses become unstable and slide downhill. This process mixes the sediment, entraining air and water and transforming the slide into a gravity flow. The flow races down the fan until dewatering and a decrease in slope cause the shear strength of the mixture to exceed thedownhill pull of gravity, inducing deposition. The resulting deposit is poorly-sorted and generally massive or planar-stratified due to rapid deceleration of the flow.Alluvial fans are formed by two major types of gravity flows; debris flows and fluidal flows. Debris flows contain sand to boulder-sized clasts that are supported by a clay + water slurry (Figure 2e-4). Large debris flows can be up to 6 feet thick and may cover the entire fan. Debris flow fans have constant slopes of 5-15 degrees and downlap onto basin floor deposits (Figure 2e-5). Debris flow processes dominate fans in rugged, semi-arid regions containing glacial or volcaniclastic rocks.Fluidal flows contain sand and gravel carried downslope as bedload or suspended sediment that is deposited as sheetfloods or streamflows (Figure 2e-6). Sheetflood fans are characterized by catastrophic, turbulent, unconfined water flows that expand as they move downfan. Steamflow fans contain channel-fill and associated overbank deposits associated with a semi-permanent channel system. These types of fans typically have slopes of 2-8 degrees that decrease downdip. Their distal portion fines into a sandskirt that interfingers with basin floor deposits (Figure 2e-7). Streamflood and streamflow processes dominate fans with year-round discharge from highlands containing resistant rocks.A good example of a modern streamflow alluvial fan is the Scott glacial outwash fan in Alaska which shows a downfan reduction in gradient and an accompanying decrease in grain size as the fan transitions into a low-sinuosity fluvial system (Figure 2e-8). Another good example is the Kosi fan of Nepal and India which shows a downfan progression from gravelly braided, to straight, to slightly sinuous channel geometries (Figure 2e-9).Debris flow deposits are typically clast-supported, massive conglomerates. Sheet flood deposits are commonly interbedded gravel and sand deposited in couplets 10-30 cm thick. Streamflow deposits contain coarse-grained channel fill, longitudinal bars, and accretion bedding. As might be expected, most alluvial fans are not easily classified as “end members” but instead contain facies types that represent various types of deposits (Figure 2e-10). Alluvial fan deposition is characterized by infrequent, catastrophic events separated by long intervals during which secondary processes are active. In a subaerial environment, ponding, rooting, burrowing, and subaerial erosion produce siltstone lenses, soils, bioturbated horizons, and thin lags of winnowed clasts over the surface of the fan. These are preserved if succeeding flows do not completely erode them. Subaqueous fans contain reduced green or black shales, marine trace fossils, and grade distally into turbidites.The best candidates for hydrocarbon reservoirs are fan-deltas that have been reworked by marine processes to improve their reservoir quality. Figure 2e-11 shows a sequence formed from a progradational fan-delta that includes fine-grained shelf sands grading upwards into sand and gravel of the fan-delta plain. A good example of a modern fan delta is the Copper River delta in Alaska (Figures 2e-12 and 2e-13). The margin of this fan has been extensively modified by both tidal current and waves. There are numerous example of fan-delta reservoirs, including the Miocene Potter Sandstone of California (Figure 2e-14). Debris flow and turbidite sands in this reservoir are steamflooded to recover heavy oil. The reservoir also contains numerous baffles and barriers of muddy sandstone and siltstone. Theseformed over the entire surface of the fan-delta during periods when little sand was being supplied, and then were subsequently eroded by channeling and slumping as shown in the depositional model in Figure 2e-14.Table 2e-1summarizes the reservoir characteristics of alluvial fan systems and includes observations regarding their vertical profile, their sandbody geometry and lateral continuity, and their reservoir quality.3. Shallow and Deep Marine Depositional Systems3a. Introduction. Shallow marine depositional systems include deltas and shoreface sands whereas deep marine depositional systems are characterized by submarine fan sandbodies. Deltas are deposits of sediment formed where a river empties into a body of water. They form if the rate of amount of sediment that is supplied exceeds the ability of waves and tides to disperse it. Shoreface systems are primarily derived from the reworking and transport of deltaic sand along the shoreline. Shoreface sands are found in the narrow, high energy environment extending from wave base (water depth of about 10 meters) to the landward limit of marine processes. Deep marine systems consist of sands that have been transported beyond the edge of the continental shelf into deep water by sediment gravity flows.This chapter explains how sands and shales in each of these environments are deposited and preserved, and how to recognize them from cores and logs. It also discusses the size, shape, and continuity of different sandbody types, and the key heterogeneities contained within them that impact reservoir fluid flow.3b. Deltaic Depositional Systems. A delta forms where a fluvial system enters a standing body of water, producing a bulge in the shoreline (Figure 3b-1). Because fluvial systems carry most of the sediment that is deposited in a basin, deltas are very important locations for the accumulation of thick sediments. The facies types within deltas depend upon the influence of the river, waves, and tides. As such, there are river dominated, wave dominated, and tide dominated deltas, as well as combinations of these (Figure 3b-2). The primary locations of sand deposition in a delta are distributary channels, distributary mouth bars, and crevasse splays (Figure 3b-3). Non-pay facies include silts and muds associated with interdistributary bays and abandoned distributary channels.A cross-section through a prograding, river dominated delta (Figure 3b-4) shows that the upper delta plain contains point bar and crevasse splay deposits similar to a high-sinuosity fluvial system. In the lower delta plain, where the river is influenced by marine processes, the system is dominated by channel fill and mouth bar deposits. Mouthbars form due to the rapid decrease in water velocity as the river terminates into a lake or ocean, resulting in the deposition of a broad apron of sand. As the delta builds seaward (progrades), the distributary channel commonly incises its associated mouthbar (Cross-section B-B’, Figure 3b-4).Distributary mouthbars are characterized by a coarsening, thickening upward profile on logs (Figure 3b-5). They are commonly more poorly-sorted than distributary channel sands because the sediment is dumped into the standing body of water. They also can containsignificant amounts of organic material that has been transported down the river. Distributary channel-fill deposits are characterized by a sharp, eroded based and a blocky to fining-upward character on the logs (Figure 3b-6). There is typically an upward transition from trough cross-bedded sands to planar laminated and ripple sands at the top. The sands can be interbedded with thin shales that form during periods of low river discharge. Crevasse splays are similar to those found in high sinuosity fluvial systems (Figure 3b-7). They consist of finer-grained, siltier, and thinner sands than those found in mouthbars or distributary channels. As a result, their permeabilities are 1-2 orders of magnitude less than mouthbar or distributary channel sands. Crevasse splays form when a river breaches its levee, depositing sand in the adjacent interdistributary bay. Because of this, crevasse splays sands are encased by black or gray interdistributary bay fill shales.In a wave or tide dominated delta, distributary channel-fill and mouthbar deposits are transformed into shoreface sands or tidal bars. Whereas fluvial-dominated deltas have a “bird’s foot” geometry, wave-dominated deltas are elongated parallel to the shoreline and tidally-dominated deltas contain sandbars oriented perpendicular to the shoreline. Figure 3b-8is a diagram of the Niger Delta which is influenced by both waves and tides. These processes tend to result in cleaner, better sorted sandstones, but they can also destroy a delta by transporting the sand along the shoreline or seaward into the deep ocean.As a delta progrades, mouthbar sands are deposited on prodelta siltstones and shelf mudstones (Figure 3b-9). This progradation creates a geometry consisting of topset beds, inclined strata, and bottomset beds (Figure 3b-10). This is referred to as a clinoform geometry and is typically of prograding deltas. This demonstrates that deltas do not consist of flat, sheet-like sandstones, but instead consist of sands that thin seaward onto the underlying shelf deposits. Any attempt to correlate these sands should reflect this geometry. A good example is a correlation framework generated for the Romeo interval of the Prudhoe Bay Field in Alaska (Figure 3b-11). It shows that the sands consist of a series of en echelon, off-lapping, fluvially-dominated deltaic wedges.Deltaic depositional systems are recognizable by their lobate shape and the inclusion of distributary channel, mouthbar and crevasse splay sandstones. Most of the sand is contained within mouthbars that shingle in a down-dip direction. Reservoir quality is best where these sands are winnowed by wave or tidal action. Distributary channel belts range from narrow ribbon-like sandbodies formed during rapid progradation (when sediment supply is greater than basin subsidence), to more sheet-like sandbodies that form during aggradation (when sediment supply and basin subsidence are balanced).Distributary channels typically have good lateral continuity along depositional dip, with poorer continuity along depositional strike. However, in areas where distributary channels have incised their associated mouth bars, lateral continuity should be good in both the depositional strike and dip directions. Table 3b-1 summarizes this aspect, and other deltaic reservoir aspects important to the production geologist.3c. Shore-zone Depositional Systems.Shore-zone depositional systems are found in the narrow, high energy environment extending from wave base to the landward limit of marine。
英语单词-地质专业PPT资料优秀版
K年e1r0og月e2n6干日酪C根empeenrmt固eab井ility
渗透率 evolution 演化
isolated with packer
套管完井
viscosity
粘度
evolution of
KCeormogperens干sio酪nt根arnedactopmmerpmeanecattiob压nilit压y裂渗实透作措率用施e的volu演tio变n 演化simulation模拟 stimulate 压裂、刺激
年10月27日
cementing 固井 footprint underbalanced operations 欠平衡钻井
Kerogen 干酪根 permeability 渗透率 evolution 演化
UnconventionwalaOsiltaend Gas Resstoaubrciel非it常y 规油zo气n资a源l trajettory placement BKieorcoigdeenin干h酪ibmi根tora抑g制npei剂rtmucedoanebdiluitcytsi渗vtiti透yff率mpalseasvtoeelsustaeionnntail演lo化gy propagation 传播 vicksburg
Pyrolysis 高温分解 mesothelioma caveat lamination 固井 footprint underbalanced operations 欠平衡钻井 waste
zonal trajettory placement magnitude stiff plate analogy propagation 传播 vicksburg Sweet spots recovery 采收率 QEMScan 电子扫描矿物定量分析 inorganic matter无机物
Unit 3-The Structure of the Earth共19页PPT资料
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth 1 Background(2/3)
大陆地壳
大洋地壳
液体 固体
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth 1 Background(3/3)
岩浆岩
大洋地壳
地壳
整个地壳
岩石 沉积岩
地 球
大陆地壳
岩石圈
上地幔顶部（软流层）
English for Geography
地理专业英语
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth
1
Background
2
Fast reading
3 Words and Expressions
4 Intensive reading
5 Exercises
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth 1 Background(1/3)
plastic
Inner core Outer core
material form solid liquid
density higher lower
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth
3 Words and Expressions(1/4)
1、basalt、granite granite n. 花岗岩；坚如磐石
density
Unit 3 The Structure of the Earth
2 Fast reading(3/3)
Ⅱ. Fill in the blanks in the tables according to the text
thickness elements density
地理专业英语（ppt里面的内容）解读
地理专业英语（ppt里面的内容）解读English for Geography地理专业英语Lesson 1. Longitude and latitude ...........................经度和纬度P1 (1)Lesson 2. Rotation and revolution of the earth...地球的自转和公转P6 (2)Lesson 3. Map projections and map scale ...............地图投影与地图比例尺P10 (5)Lesson 4. The major classes of landforms...............主要地形类型P13 (6)Lesson 5 Delta plains ..........................................三角洲平原P16 (8) Lesson 6 Limestone caverns and karst landscapes石灰岩洞和喀斯特景观P21 (8)Lesson 7 Layers of the Earth .................................地球圈层P31 (8) Lesson 8 The rock cycle ..........................................岩石循环P43 (9) Lesson 9 Soil pedogenesis .......................................成土作用p48 (10)Lesson 10 Global scale circulation of the atmosphere全球大气环流 P62 (11)Lesson 11 The Hydrologic Cycle ..............................水循环P74 (11)Lesson 12 Three Model of Urban Land Use..................三种城市土地利用模式P97 (11)Lesson 13 Air pollution cause and effects...............空气污染原因和影响P168 (12)Lesson 14 Hurricane ...................................................飓风P182 (12) Lesson 1. LONGITUDE AND LATITUDE经度和纬度1、The location of points on the earth’s surface follows a system in which lengths of arc are measured along meridians and parallels；测定地球表面上点的位置是按照沿着子午线（经线）和纬线测量弧长的方法进行的2、that desired point 欲量算的点3、the longitude of a place is the arc, measured in degrees, of a parallel between that place and the prime meridian 经度的定义4、the longitude of a place is the arc, measured in degrees, of a parallel between that place and the prime meridian 某地的经度系该地与本初子午线之间的纬线的弧的度数5、almost universally 几乎一致6、The prime meridian is almost universally accepted as the meridian that passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich人们几乎一致承认以通过格林尼治皇家天文台原址的子午线作为本初子午线7、be referred to as 被称为8、Long. 115。
油气田地下地质学 中英文对照课件
在一定压差下岩石中被油气饱和 的连通孔隙体积与岩石体积之比
第二节 容积法(Volumetric Method)
一、石油储量的计算 （一）公式 Q=F•h • Ф• Soi • ro/Boi
油层体积 油层有效孔隙体积 原油体积 原油的重量 地面原油的重量
Chapter 6 Reserves Calculation
一次采收率 primary recovery efficiency
溶解气驱dissolved gas drive 10- 30%
二次采收率 Secondary recovery efficiency
注水驱water injection drive 25- 60%ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
弹性驱动elastic drive 2-5% 注气驱gas injection drive 30- 50% 气顶驱动gas-cap drive 25- 50% 混相驱miscible displacement 40-60% 水驱water drive 25-50% 热力驱thermal drive 20-50% 重力驱动gravity drive 30-70%
基本涵义：
(1)能量守恒 energy conservation (2)容积守恒volumetric conservation
第三节 物质平衡法 ( material balance method)
建立物质平衡方程的基本原则及前提条件
Basic Principle and Condition
物质平衡方程的建立； 不同驱动类型油藏的物质平衡方程的讨论
第六章 储量计算
Chapter 6 Reserves Calculation 第一节 第二节 第三节 第四节 油气储量分类(Classification) 容积法储量计算(Volumetric Method) 物质平衡法(Material Balance Method) 气藏物质平衡法储量计算－压降法 (Pressure Decline Method)
地质学专业英语
Unit1 Cosmic Beginnings宇宙的起源地球的历史上是何时何地开始的?只有在过去的几十年里,这个问题才有了一个比较科学的回答来解释。
当然存在一个较好的说法是地球的起源时间是当组成地球的物质在宇宙中开始与太空中组成太阳系其它成员的物质分离的时候。
虽然故事很可能开始在这里,许多重要的问题仍悬而未决。
一些有必要提及的物质构成了地,这将推动更偏远的起源问题。
现在我们知道从其他星球上得到的第一手观察的物理条件，这让我们可以尽早寻求合理的答案，为什么地球是不同于早期火星和月球。
为了理解差异和相似之处,我们必须研究包括太阳的整个太阳系。
为了了解恒星太阳所属的类,我们需要知道更多关于银河系的其他天体。
当我们超过银河系的领域到太空中的其他部分来获得能说明的证据就更不容易了。
现在我们知道（太空中）有很多不同种类的星系，也包括很多像我们一样的。
那么这些不同的种类是怎么开始的然后变得不同的呢？这个问题现在是在天文学研究的最前沿而且很明显它是能够真正理解太阳系的关键。
显然，没有太阳就没有其他行星，没有星系就没有太阳，没有宇宙就没有星系，没有空间和物质也就没有宇宙。
[笔者认为这里倒着翻译从大到小更好一些]因此，我们的关于地球物质起源的探究路线，最终也会带领我们去（探究）空间和物质的起源，这是一个很重大的课题，伴随着很多模糊的和未知或不可知的次要领域。
太阳系在太空中是一个巨大的,平坦的，透镜状的区域，行星和大部分的更小的组件沿着一个几乎完整的面绕着太阳转。
这个结构好比与螺旋星系和土星和它的卫星或不明飞行体一样。
虽然太阳系在细节上也不像这些集合体,但是带有平坦的螺旋圈或旋臂仍然是现代起源理论的起点。
早在1644年，伟大的法国哲学家和数学家笛卡尔就提出了太阳系形成于一团松散的，原始的云状物质。
他认为，太阳和行星是这团物质通过旋转、涡流而成的积聚物。
在1755年，康德考虑了牛顿于1687年描述的万有引力定律后发表了一个更为详细的理论。
土力学英语学习版课件chapter7
第7章 土压力（Earth pressure ） 学习要求掌握土压力的基本概念与常用计算方法，初步具备将土压力理论应用于一般工程问题的能力。
1.掌握静止土压力、主动、被动土压力的形成条件； 2.掌握朗肯土压力理论和库仑土压力理论；3.了解有超载、成层土、有地下水情况的土压力计算。
7.1 概述（Outline ）Retaining structures such as retaining walls, basement walls(地下室墙), and bulkheads(防水壁) are commonly encountered in foundation engineering as they support slopes of earth masses. Proper design and construction of these structures require a thorough knowledge of the lateral forces that act between the retaining structures and the soil masses being retained. These lateral forces are caused by earth pressure.7.2 挡土墙侧的土压力（lateral pressure of the retaining wall ）Consider a mass of soil shown in the below figure. The mass is bounded by a frictionless wall of the height H. A soil element located at a depth z is subjected to a vertical effective pressurez γσ=0and a horizontal effective pressure z K h γσ0=. There are no shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes of the soil element.Now, three possible cases may arise concerning the retaining wall and they are described as:Case 1 if the wall is static, that is if it does not move either to the right or to the left of its initial position, the soil mass will be in a state of static equilibrium (平衡). In this case, z K γσ00= is referred to as at-rest earth pressure.Case 2 if the wall rotates sufficiently from its bottom to a position of leaving the soil mass, then a triangular soil mass adjacent to the wall will reach a state of plastic equilibrium (平衡) and will fail sliding down along a plane. At that time, the horizontal effective stress a h σσ= is referred to as active earth pressure . Now,v a a K σσ= where a K = active earth pressure coefficient.Case 3 if the wall rotates sufficiently from its bottom to a position toward the soil mass, then a triangular soil mass adjacent to the wall will reach a state of plastic equilibrium (平衡) and will fail sliding upward along a plane. At that time, the horizontal effective stress phσσ= is referred to aspassive earth pressure. In this case, v p pK σσ= Where p K = passive earth pressure coefficient.The above figure shows the nature of variation of lateral earth pressure with the wall tilt (倾斜).When the wall is static, at a depth zV ertical effective stress is z γσ=0 The earth pressure at rest is z K xγσ0=For a coarse-grained soils, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be estimated by using the empirical relationship (Jaky,1944)ϕ'-=sin 10K ϕ': effective internal friction angle.The total force per unit length of the wall, E 0, is equal to the area of the pressure diagram.20021H K E γ=朗肯土压力理论（Rankin ’s lateral pressure ）The phase of plastic equilibrium in soil refers to the condition where every point in a soil mass is on the verge of failure. Rankin (1857) investigated the stress conditions in soil at a state of plastic equilibrium. Rankin ’s theory include: No frictional vertical wall back, horizontal filling surface and all of the points in the filling soil contacting with the wall back are at the phase of plastic equilibrium.Mohr-coulomb ’s failure criterion)245tan(2)245(tan )245tan(2)245(tan 213231ϕϕσσϕϕσσ---=+++=ooooc c 7.3.1 Active earth pressure aa a ooa K c zK c z 2)245tan(2)245(tan 2-=---=γσϕϕγσThe coefficient of Rankin ’s active pressure of cohesionless soil is )245(tan 2ϕ-=o a KWhen the lateral pressure is zero, aa a K cz K c K z γγ20200==-The depth z 0 is called as critical depth, the tensile(拉长)cracks at the soil-wall interface will occur and the total force per unit length of the wall is γγ222221cK cHK H E a a a +-=For cohesionless soils a oa zK z γϕγσ=-=)245(tan 2a a K H E 221γ=7.3.2 Passive earth pressureRankin ’s passive state can be explained withthe aid of the right figure.As shown in the figure, if the wall is gradually pushed into the soil mass, the effective principal stress h σ will increase. Ultimately the wall will reach a situation where the stress condition for the soil element can be expressed by Mohr ’s circle. At that time, failure of the soil will occur. This situation is referred to as Rankin ’s passive earth pressure. In this case,pppoopK c zKc z 2)245tan(2)245(tan 2+=+++=γσϕϕγσFor sandsppopzKz γσϕγσ=+=)245(tan 2Where the coefficient of Rankin ’s earth pressure )245(tan 2ϕ+=op KThe below figures show the variation of passive pressure with depth.And the force act on the wall can be represented by the following equations. For the clay pp p KcHK H E 2212+=γFor the sand p p K H E 221γ=7.3.3 The earth pressure under overburden pressure Active caseAs shown in the left figure, assume the backfill is supporting a surcharge pressure of q per unit area. The effective active earth pressure at any depth can be given by 0σσa a K =At z=0, q K a a =σAt depth z=H 1 )(1q H K a a +=γσ For a cohesion soil a a a K c q H K p 2)(1-+=γIn the case, the groundwater table is located at a depth H 1 below the ground surface, the part below the groundwater table must be calculated using effective unit weight. The lateral pressure on the wall from the pore water between z=0 and H 1 is zero, and for z>H 1, it increases linearly with depth.7.4 库仑土压力理论（Coulomb ’s lateral pressure ）Coulomb (1776) presented a theory for active and passive earth pressure against retaining walls. In this theory, coulomb assumed that the failure surface is a plane. The wall friction was taken into consideration.7.4.1 Coulomb ’s active pressure Let AB be the back face of a retaining wall supporting a granular soil, the surface of which is constantly sloping at an angle β with the horizontal. BC is a trial failure surface. In the stability consideration of the probable failure wedge ABC, the following forces are involved (per unit length of the wall)(1) W, the weight of the soil wedge. (2) R, the resultant of the shear andnormal forces on the surface of failureBC. This in inclined at an angle of ϕ'to the normal drawn to the plane BC. (3) E a , the active force per unit length of thewall. The direction of E a is inclined at an angle δ, to the normal draw to the surface of the wall, which is an angle of the friction between the soil and the wall.The force triangle for the wedge is shown in the right figure (b), the following equation is obtained from the laws of sines:)sin(cos )cos()cos(2)(180sin[)sin(22βθααθβαγψϕθϕθ---=+---=HW WE)sin()sin(cos )sin()cos()cos(222ψϕθβθαϕθαθβαγ+-----=H EActive earth pressurea a K H E 221γ=222])cos()cos()sin()sin(1)[cos(cos )(cos βαδαβϕδϕδαααϕ-⋅+-⋅+++⋅-=a Ka a a a zK K z dz d dzdE γγσ=⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛==2217.4.2 Passive earth pressurep p K H E 221γ=222])cos()cos()sin()sin(1)[cos(cos )(cos βαδαβϕδϕδαααϕ-⋅-+⋅++-⋅+=p K p p ppzK K z dz d dzdE γγσ=⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛==221 7.4.3 Graphic solution for coulomb ’s active pressureAn expedient method for creating a graphic solution of coulomb ’s earth pressure theory was given by Culmann ’s solution and can be used for any wall friction, regardless of irregularity of backfill andsurcharges.7.1，7.2，7.3，7.4，7.5, (7.6)，7.7，7.9。
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SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
These lime muds lithify to form fine-grained limestone.
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonates Fossiliferous limestone Biomicrite Biosparite
Effect lowland areas
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes Sequence Stratigraphy
Epeiric seas Seas covered continents Produced packages called sequences Led to sequence stratigraphy
Today, dolomite only forms in a few areas of the world where intense evaporation of seawater concentrates the magnesium.
Extensive areas of carbonate rocks of Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic age have been altered to dolomite.
Much lime mud forms from the disintegration of calcareous algae (such as Halimeda and Penicillus).
When the calcareous algae die, their skeletons break down and disintegrate producing aragonite needle muds.
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes
Vail Curve
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes Sequence Stratigraphy
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes Sequence Stratigraphy
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonates Oolitic limestone Oomicrite Oosparite
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonates Dolostone Composed of dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
The Dolomite “Problem”
Dolomite is believed to form when magnesium that has been concentrated in sea water replaces calcium carbonate in a previously deposited limestone.
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THE FOSSIL RECORD
Paleontology Attempts to understand all aspects of the succession
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes Eustatic Sea Level Change
Global change in sea level position
Caused by: Glacial advance and retreat Change in spreading rates
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonates
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonates Origin of carbonate sediments
Clays, Mudrocks and Shales Mudrocks are a very fine-grained Composed of clay and silt-sized particles If the mudrock is fissile it is a -shale Typically form in low energy environments
SEDIMENTARY பைடு நூலகம்RCHIVES
Sea Level Changes Sequence Stratigraphy
SEDIMENTARY ARCHIVES
Sea Level Changes
Sequence Stratigraphy
A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a cycle of deposition and is bounded by unconformities or correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental unit of interpretation in sequence stratigraphy. Sequences comprise systems tracts.