Questions for Chapter 1 Introduction
管理学原理题库(英文)
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Management and OrganizationsTrue/False QuestionsThe four contemporary functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.True (easy)Effectiveness refers to the relationship between inputs and outputs.False (moderate)Efficiency is often referred to as "doing things right."True (moderate)When managers meet organizational goals, they are efficient and effective.False (difficult)According to Mintzberg’s management roles, the informational role involves receiving, collecting, and disseminating information.True (moderate)Technical skills become less important as a manager moves into higher levels of management.True (moderate)The systems perspective underscores and emphasizes the fact that organizations are different, face different circumstances, and thus may require different ways of managing.False (moderate)Multiple Choice_____________ are organizational members who integrate and coordinate the work of others.a. Managers (easy)b. Team leadersc. Subordinatesd. Operativese. AgentsTypically, in organizations it is the _____________ who are responsible for making organizational decisions and setting policies and strategies that affect all aspects of the organization.a. team leadersb. middle managersc. first-line managersd. top managers (easy)e. subordinates_____________ distinguishes a managerial position from a nonmanagerial one.a. Manipulating othersb. Concern for the lawc. Increasing efficiencyd. Coordinating and integrating others' work (moderate)e. Defining market shareWhich of the following is NOT an example of a decisional role according to Mintzberg?a.spokesperson (moderate)b.entrepreneurc.disturbance handlerd.resource allocatore.negotiatorWhich of the following skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organization’s work?a.human skillsb.technical skills (easy)c.conceptual skillsd.empirical skillsUnderstanding building codes would be considered a _____________ skill for a building contractor.a. humanb. technical (easy)c. conceptuald. empiricale. functionalWhich of the following phrases is best associated with managerial conceptual skills?a. decision-making (easy)b. communicating with customersc. motivating subordinatesd. product knowledgee. technical skillsAccording to the text, _____________ are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment.a.open systemsb.closed systems (easy)c.flextime systemsd.reverse systemse.forward systemsThe _____________ view of a manager's job implies that decisions and actions taken in one organizational area will impact other areas.a. systems (moderate)b. contingencyc. conceptuald. functionale. environmentalWhich of the following best describes the concept that management is needed in all types and sizes of organizations,at all organizational levels and in all organizational work areas, and in all organizations, no matter what country they’re located in?a.the partiality of managementb.the segmentation of managementc.the universality of management (moderate)d.the cultures of managementScenarios and QuestionsThe Busy Day (Scenario)Don Eskew, plant manager at Control Systems, Inc., sighed as he sipped his first cup of coffee at 5 a.m. and read his agenda for the day. He is giving two company tours in the morning; the first to a newspaper reporter who is writing a story on the new plant expansion and has several questions, and the second to a group of Control Systems, Inc., managers from the east coast. He then has a meeting with unit manager, Phil Johnson, to discuss Phil's recent drop in performance (a task he always hates). Next, he is spending a couple of hours reviewing the trade journals he receives from his high-tech association and writing up a brief synopsis for his presentation next week to the Division President. Finally, in late afternoon, he will be reviewing the new equipment malfunction and deciding whether to bring in extra people to get the equipment running as soon as possible. Whew! Just another day in the glamorous life of a manager. Together, all of these behaviors performed by Don during his busy day correspond to the management roles discovered in the late 1960s by which of the following management scientists?a. Herzbergb. Skinnerc. Mintzberg (easy)d. Fayole. MaslowWhen Don was meeting with Phil to discuss his performance concerns, he was operating in which management role?a. leader (difficult)b. figureheadc. monitord. disturbance handlere. spokesperson114. What role was Don performing when he gave the plant tour to the newspaper reporter?a. monitorb. figureheadc. disseminatord. spokesperson (difficult)e. resource allocator115. When Don was reviewing the new equipment malfunction, what management role was he playing when deciding whether to bring in extra people?a. monitorb. disseminatorc. resource allocator (moderate)d. disturbance handlere. figureheadEssay QuestionsIn a short essay, discuss the difference between efficiency and effectiveness and include a specific example to support each concept.Answera.Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs. Because managers deal withscarce inputs—including resources such as people, money, and equipment—they are concerned with theefficient use of resources. For instance, at the Beiersdorf Inc. factory in Cincinnati, where employees makebody braces and supports, canes, walkers, crutches, and other medical assistance products, efficient manufacturing techniques were implemented by doing things such as cutting inventory levels, decreasingthe amount of time to manufacture products, and lowering product reject rates. From this perspective,that is, not wasting resources.efficiency is often referred to a s “doing things right”—that is, those work activities that will help theb.Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things”—organization reach its goals. For instance, at the Biersdorf factory, goals included open communication between managers and employees, and cutting costs. Through various work programs, these goals werepursued and achieved. Whereas efficiency is concerned with the means of getting things done, effectiveness is concerned with the ends, or attainment of organizational goals.(moderate)In a short essay, list and explain the four basic functions of management.Answera.Planning –involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals, anddeveloping plans to integrate and coordinate activities.anizing – involves the process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how thetasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.c.Leading – when managers motivate subordinates, influence individuals or teams as they work, select themost effective communication channel, or deal in any way with employee behavior issues, they are leading.d.Controlling – to ensure that work is going as it should, managers must monitor and evaluate performance.The process of monitoring, comparing, and correcting is what is meant by the controlling function.(moderate)In a short essay, list and discuss the three essential skills according to Katz that managers need to perform the duties and activities associated with being a manager.Answera.Technical skills – include knowledge of an proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as engineering,computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organizationb.Human skills –involve the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group.Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These skills are equally important at alllevels of management.c.Conceptual skills – these are the skill that managers must have to think and to conceptualize about abstractand complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broaderenvironment. These skills are most important at the top management levels.(moderate)Chapter 2 – Management Yesterday and TodayTrue/FalseAccording to Adam Smith, division of labor was an important concept.True (easy)In the Industrial Revolution, machine power began substituting for human power.True (easy)“Principles of Scientific Management” was written by Frederick Taylor.True (moderate)Frank Gilbreth’s best-known contribution to scientific management concerned selecting the best worker.False (moderate)。
英语论文分析学习 第1节 introduction
What Is an Introduction?
What questions will readers ask when reading an essay: 1. What topic am I going to learn about? 2. Why is that topic important? 3. Do I know the topic already? What do I know already? An introduction aims to answer these 3 questions.
Contents of an introduction
Example:
"Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or complete replacement for fish meal in diets have been conducted using various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983; Murai et al., 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974).
Contents of an introduction
Q: What are the ways to establish a topic? A: Claiming centrality General to specific Previous research Describing of the background Definition of key words
计算机组成与体系结构英文版课后练习题含答案
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Exercise 1.1
What are the three mn functions of a computer?
What is the purpose of the control unit?
Answer:The purpose of the control unit is to control the flow of data and instructions within the CPU.
Exercise 4.2
Chapter 5 - Memory Organization
Exercise 5.1
What is the difference between RAM and ROM?
Answer:RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile memory that can be read from and written to. ROM (Read-Only Memory) is non-volatile memory that can only be read.
What is the difference between a RISC and a CISC processor?
Answer:A RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processor has a simplified instruction set with fewer instructions that are executed more quickly. A CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) processor has a more complex instruction set with more instructions that can perform complex operations in a single instruction.
chapter 1 Introduction (to style)
Mark Twain
And he grew up and married, and raised a large family, and brained them all with an axe one night, and got wealthy by all manner of cheating and rascality; and now he is the infernalist wickedest scoundrel in his native village, and is universally respected, and belongs to the Legislature. So you see there never was a bad James in the Sunday-school books that had such a streak of luck as this sinful Jim with the charmed life. (The Story Of The Bad Little Boy)
Charles Dickens
那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代； 那是智慧的年头，那是愚昧的年头；那是信 仰的时期，那是怀疑的时期；那是光明的季 节，那是黑暗的季节；那是希望的春天，那 是失望的冬天；我们全都在直奔天堂，我们 全都在直奔相反的方向。
Mark Twain
Thus perished the good little boy who did the best he could, but didn't come out according to the books. Every boy who ever did as he did prospered except him. His case is truly remarkable. It will probably never be accounted for. (The Story Of The Good Little Boy)
跨文化交际导论(英文版)(第二版) Chapter 1 Introduction to Intercultural Communication
(1) Intercultural communication (2) Cross-cultural communication (跨文 化传播) (3) International communication (4) Comparative mass communication (比较大众传播)
Core Content of ICC
(Rich and Gudykunst)
Interracial
International
Intercultural Communication
Interethnic
Intracultural
(Gudykunst and Hammer, 1987)
Four Categories of ICC
Question for Discussion:
1. Can you distinguish intercultural and crosscultural communication? Please give specific examples to illustrate international, interethnic, interracial communication. 2. Compare the core content of intercultural communication study as proposed by Rich and Gudykunst. 3. Please try to come up with at least 3 cases in your daily life to illustrate the features of intercultural communication phenomenon.
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论(现代语言学).
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1. What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?1.1 definition 定义Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学是对语言进行科学研究的学科。
Languages in general 针对所有语言而言A scientific study of language is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言进行科学地研究最根本的是要对语言材料进行系统的调查研究,并在语言结构的一般理论指导下进行。
The linguist has to do first is to study language facts, i.e. to see how language is actually used; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure.语言学家首先必须研究语言材料,即要观察一般情况下语言的使用方法,继而对语言的结构具体地提出一些假设。
A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.一套语言学理论是说明语言的本质内容以及这些语言是如何发挥作用的。
1.2 The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.把语言学作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
经济学原理曼昆第五版英文答案Chapter24
经济学原理曼昆第五版英⽂答案Chapter24This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition. This may not beresold, copied, or distributed without the prior consent of the publisher.e. If there is 2% deflation, her purchasing power has risen by about 12%. 3. Definition of nominal interest rate: the interest rate as usually reported without acorrection for the effects of inflation . 4. Definition of real interest rate: the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation . 5. Case Study: Interest Rates in the U.S. Economya. Figure 3 shows real and nominal interest rates from 1965 to the present.b. The nominal interest rate is always greater than the real interest rate in this diagram because there was always inflation during this period.c. Note that in the late 1970s the real interest rate was negative because the inflation rateexceeded the nominal interest rate. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes 1. The consumer price index measures the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer. It is constructed by surveying consumers to determine a basket of goods and services that the typical consumer buys. Prices of these goods and services are used to compute the cost of the basket at different times, and a base year is chosen. To computethe index, we divide the cost of the market basket in the current year by the cost of the market basket in the base year and multiply by 100. 2. Since Henry Ford paid his workers $5 a day in 1914 and the consumer price index was 10 in1914 and 207 in 2007, then the Ford paycheck was worth $5 × 207 / 10 = $103.50 a day in2007 dollars.Questions for Review 1. A 10% increase in the price of chicken has a greater effect on the consumer price index thana 10% increase in the price of caviar because chicken is a bigger part of the average consumer's market basket. 2. The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive; (2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.3. If the price of a Navy submarine rises, there is no effect on the consumer price index,because Navy submarines are not consumer goods. But the GDP price index is affected,because Navy submarines are included in GDP as a part of government purchases.4. Because the overall price level doubled, but the price of the candy bar rose sixfold, the realprice (the price adjusted for inflation) of the candy bar tripled.5. The nominal interest rate is the rate of interest paid on a loan in dollar terms. The realinterest rate is the rate of interest corrected for inflation. The real interest rate is the nominalinterest rate minus the rate of inflation.Problems and Applications1. Many answers are possible.2. a. The percentage change in the price of tennis balls is (2 – 2)/2 × 100% = 0%.The percentage change in the price of golf balls is (6 – 4)/4 × 100% = 50%.The percentage change in the price of Gatorade is (2 – 1)/1 × 100% = 100%.b. The cost of the market basket in 2009 is ($2 × 100) + ($4 × 100) + ($1 × 200) = $200+ $400 + $200 = $800.The cost of the market basket in 2010 is ($2 × 100) + ($6 × 100) + ($2 × 200) = $200+ $600 + $400 = $1,200.The percentage change in the cost of the market basket from 2009 to 2010 is (1,200 –800)/800 × 100% = 50%.c. This would lower my estimation of the inflation rate because the value of a bottle ofGatorade is now greater than before. The comparison should be made on a per-ouncebasis.d. More flavors enhance consumers’ well-being. Thus, this would be considered a change inquality and would also lower my estimate of the inflation rate.3. a. Find the price of each good in each year:Year Cauliflower Broccoli Carrots2008 $2 $1.50 $0.102009 $3 $1.50 $0.20b. If 2008 is the base year, the market basket used to compute the CPI is 100 heads ofcauliflower, 50 bunches of broccoli, and 500 carrots. We must now calculate the cost ofthe market basket in each year:2008: (100 x $2) + (50 x $1.50) + (500 x $.10) = $3252009: (100 x $3) + (50 x $1.50) + (500 x $.20) = $475Then, using 2008 as the base year, we can compute the CPI in each year:2008: $325/$325 x 100 = 1002009: $475/$325 x 100 = 146This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition. This may not beresold, copied, or distributed without the prior consent of the publisher.c. We can use the CPI to compute the inflation rate for 2009: (146 ? 100)/100 x 100% = 46%4. a. The cost of the market basket in 2009 is (1 × $40) + (3 × $10) = $40 + $30 = $70. The cost of the market basket in 2010 is (1 × $60) + (3 × $12) = $60 + $36 = $96. Using 2009 as the base year, we can compute the CPI in each year:2009: $70/$70 x 100 = 100 20109: $96/$70 x 100 = 137.14 We can use the CPI to compute the inflation rate for 2010: (137.14 ? 100)/100 x 100% = 37.14%b. Nominal GDP for 2009 = (10 × $40) + (30 × $10) = $400 + $300 = $700. Nominal GDP for 2010 = (12 × $60) + (50 × $12) = $720 + $600 = $1,320. Real GDP for 2009 = (10 × $40) + (30 × $10) = $400 + $300 = $700.Real GDP for 2010 = (12 × $40) + (50 × $10) = $480 + $500 = $980. The GDP deflator for 2009 = (700/700) × 100 = 100. The GDP deflator for 2010 = (1,320/980) × 100 = 134.69.The rate of inflation for 2010 = (134.69 – 100)/100 × 100% = 34.69%. c. No, it is not the same. The rate of inflation calculated by the CPI holds the basket of goods and services constant, while the GDP deflator allows it to change.5. a. Because the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI. b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worseoff. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost. 6. a. introduction of new goods; b. unmeasured quality change; c. substitution bias; d. unmeasured quality change; e. substitution bias 7. a. ($0.75 ?$0.15)/$0.15 x 100% = 400%.b. ($14.32 ? $3.23)/$3.23 x 100% = 343%.c. In 1970: $0.15/($3.23/60) = 2.8 minutes. In 2000: $0.75/($14.32/60) = 3.1 minutes.d. Workers' purchasing power fell in terms of newspapers.provide the elderly with an improvement in their standard of living each year because the CPI overstates inflation and Social Security payments are tied to the CPI.b. Because the elderly consume more health care than younger people do, and becausehealth care costs have risen faster than overall inflation, it is possible that the elderly are worse off. To investigate this, you would need to put together a market basket for theelderly, which would have a higher weight on health care. You would then compare therise in the cost of the "elderly" basket with that of the general basket for CPI.9. In deciding how much income to save for retirement, workers should consider the realinterest rate, because they care about their purchasing power in the future, not the number of dollars they will have.10. a. When inflation is higher than was expected, the real interest rate is lower than expected.For example, suppose the market equilibrium has an expected real interest rate of 3%and people expect inflation to be 4%, so the nominal interest rate is 7%. If inflationturns out to be 5%, the real interest rate is 7% minus 5% equals 2%, which is less than the 3% that was expected.b. Because the real interest rate is lower than was expected, the lender loses and theborrower gains. The borrower is repaying the loan with dollars that are worth less thanwas expected.c. Homeowners in the 1970s who had fixed-rate mortgages from the 1960s benefited fromthe unexpected inflation, while the banks that made the mortgage loans were harmed.。
Chapter 1 Introduction-文档资料
The uncle responded to his nephew in a letter dated February 6, 1875 in which he told his nephew that he would fulfill his promise. Story I also stated that he would prefer to wait until his nephew was older before actually handing over the (then) extremely large sum of money (according to an online inflation calculator, $5000 in 1890 would be worth approximately $118,000). The elder Story also declared in his letter that the money owed to his nephew would accrue interest while he held it on his nephew's behalf. The younger Story consented to his uncle's wishes and agreed that the money would remain with his uncle until Story II became older.
William E. Story I died on January 29, 1887 without having transferred any of the money owed to his nephew. Story II had meanwhile transferred the $5,000 financial interest to his wife; Story II's wife had later transferred this financial interest to Louisa Hamer on assignment. The elder Story's estate executor refused to grant Hamer the money, believing there was no binding contract due to a lack of consideration. As a result, Hamer sued the estate's executor, Franklin Sidway.
国际经济学英文题库(最全版附答案)
【国际经济学】英文题库Chapter 1: IntroductionMultiple-Choice Questions1. Which of the following products are not produced at all in the United States?*A. Coffee, tea, cocoaB. steel, copper, aluminumC. petroleum, coal, natural gasD. typewriters, computers, airplanes2. International trade is most important to the standard of living of:A. the United States*B. SwitzerlandC. GermanyD. England3. Over time, the economic interdependence of nations has:*A. grownB. diminishedC. remained unchangedD. cannot say4. A rough measure of the degree of economic interdependence of a nation is given by:A. the size of the nations' populationB. the percentage of its population to its GDP*C. the percentage of a nation's imports and exports to its GDPD. all of the above5. Economic interdependence is greater for:*A. small nationsB. large nationsC. developed nationsD. developing nations6. The gravity model of international trade predicts that trade between two nations is largerA. the larger the two nationsB. the closer the nationsC. the more open are the two nations*D. all of the above7. International economics deals with:A. the flow of goods, services, and payments among nationsB. policies directed at regulating the flow of goods, services, and paymentsC. the effects of policies on the welfare of the nation*D. all of the above8. International trade theory refers to:*A. the microeconomic aspects of international tradeB. the macroeconomic aspects of international tradeC. open economy macroeconomics or international financeD. all of the above9. Which of the following is not the subject matter of international finance?A. foreign exchange marketsB. the balance of payments*C. the basis and the gains from tradeD. policies to adjust balance of payments disequilibria10. Economic theory:A. seeks to explain economic eventsB. seeks to predict economic eventsC. abstracts from the many detail that surrounds an economic event*D. all of the above11. Which of the following is not an assumption generally made in the study of inter national economics?A. two nationsB. two commodities*C. perfect international mobility of factorsD. two factors of production12. In the study of international economics:A. international trade policies are examined before the bases for tradeB. adjustment policies are discussed before the balance of paymentsC. the case of many nations is discussed before the two-nations case*D. none of the above13. International trade is similar to interregional trade in that both must overcome: *A. distance and spaceB. trade restrictionsC. differences in currenciesD. differences in monetary systems14. The opening or expansion of international trade usually affects all members of so ciety:A. positivelyB. negatively*C. most positively but some negativelyD. most negatively but some positively15. An increase in the dollar price of a foreign currency usually:A. benefit U.S. importers*B. benefits U.S. exportersC. benefit both U.S. importers and U.S. exportersD. harms both U.S. importers and U.S. exporters16. Which of the following statements with regard to international economics is true?A. It is a relatively new field*B. it is a relatively old fieldC. most of its contributors were not economistsD. none of the above思考题：1.为什么学习国际经济学非常重要？2.列举表达当前国际经济学问题的一些重要事件，它们为什么重要？3.当今世界面临的最重要的国家经济问题是什么？全球化的利弊各是什么？Chapter 2: The Law of Comparative AdvantageMultiple-Choice Questions1. The Mercantilists did not advocate:*A.free tradeB. stimulating the nation's exportsC. restricting the nations' importsD. the accumulation of gold by the nation2. According to Adam Smith, international trade was based on:*A. absolute advantageB. comparative advantageC. both absolute and comparative advantageD. neither absolute nor comparative advantage3. What proportion of international trade is based on absolute advantage?A. AllB. most*C. someD. none4. The commodity in which the nation has the smallest absolute disadvantage is the commodity of its:A. absolute disadvantageB. absolute advantageC. comparative disadvantage*D. comparative advantage5. If in a two-nation (A and B), two-commodity (X and Y) world, it is established tha t nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity X, then nation B must have:A. an absolute advantage in commodity YB. an absolute disadvantage in commodity YC. a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*D. a comparative advantage in commodity Y6. If with one hour of labor time nation A can produce either 3X or 3Y while nationB can produce either 1X or 3Y (and labor is the only input):A. nation A has a comparative disadvantage in commodity XB. nation B has a comparative disadvantage in commodity Y*C. nation A has a comparative advantage in commodity XD. nation A has a comparative advantage in neither commodity7. With reference to the statement in Question 6:A. Px/Py=1 in nation AB. Px/Py=3 in nation BC. Py/Px=1/3 in nation B*D. all of the above8. With reference to the statement in Question 6, if 3X is exchanged for 3Y:A. nation A gains 2X*B. nation B gains 6YC. nation A gains 3YD. nation B gains 3Y9. With reference to the statement of Question 6, the range of mutually beneficial tra de between nation A and B is:A. 3Y < 3X < 5YB. 5Y < 3X < 9Y*C. 3Y < 3X < 9YD. 1Y < 3X < 3Y10. If domestically 3X=3Y in nation A, while 1X=1Y domestically in nation B:A. there will be no trade between the two nationsB. the relative price of X is the same in both nationsC. the relative price of Y is the same in both nations*D. all of the above11. Ricardo explained the law of comparative advantage on the basis of:*A. the labor theory of valueB. the opportunity cost theoryC. the law of diminishing returnsD. all of the above12. Which of the following statements is true?A. The combined demand for each commodity by the two nations is negatively slope dB. the combined supply for each commodity by the two nations is rising stepwiseC. the equilibrium relative commodity price for each commodity with trade is giv en by the intersection of the demand and supply of each commodity by the two nati ons*D. all of the above13. A difference in relative commodity prices between two nations can be based upo n a difference in:A. factor endowmentsB. technologyC. tastes*D. all of the above14. In the trade between a small and a large nation:A. the large nation is likely to receive all of the gains from trade*B. the small nation is likely to receive all of the gains from tradeC. the gains from trade are likely to be equally sharedD. we cannot say15. The Ricardian trade model has been empirically*A. verifiedB. rejectedC. not testedD. tested but the results were inconclusive思考题：比拟优势原理所带来的贸易所得是从何而来的？贸易利益又是如何分配的？现实世界中比拟优势是如何度量的？你认为目前中国具有比拟优势的商品有哪些？这意味着什么？比拟优势会不会发生变化？什么样的原因可能会导致其变化？经济学家是如何验证比拟优势原理的？Chapter 3: The Standard Theory of International TradeMultiple-Choice Questions1. A production frontier that is concave from the origin indicates that the nation incur s increasing opportunity costs in the production of:A. commodity X onlyB. commodity Y only*C. both commoditiesD. neither commodity2. The marginal rate of transformation (MRT) of X for Y refers to:A. the amount of Y that a nation must give up to produce each additional unit of XB. the opportunity cost of XC. the absolute slope of the production frontier at the point of production*D. all of the above3. Which of the following is not a reason for increasing opportunity costs:*A. technology differs among nationsB. factors of production are not homogeneousC. factors of production are not used in the same fixed proportion in the production of all commoditiesD. for the nation to produce more of a commodity, it must use resources that are le ss and less suited in the production of the commodity4. Community indifference curves:A. are negatively slopedB. are convex to the originC. should not cross*D. all of the above5. The marginal rate of substitution (MRS) of X for Y in consumption refers to the:A. amount of X that a nation must give up for one extra unit of Y and still remain o n the same indifference curve*B. amount of Y that a nation must give up for one extra unit of X and still remain on the same indifference curveC. amount of X that a nation must give up for one extra unit of Y to reach a higher indifference curveD. amount of Y that a nation must give up for one extra unit of X to reach a higher indifference curve6. Which of the following statements is true with respect to the MRS of X for Y?A. It is given by the absolute slope of the indifference curveB. declines as the nation moves down an indifference curveC. rises as the nation moves up an indifference curve*D. all of the above7. Which of the following statements about community indifference curves is true?A. They are entirely unrelated to individuals' community indifference curvesB. they cross, they cannot be used in the analysis*C. the problems arising from intersecting community indifference curves can be over come by the application of the compensation principleD. all of the above.8. Which of the following is not true for a nation that is in equilibrium in isolation? *A. It consumes inside its production frontierB. it reaches the highest indifference curve possible with its production frontierC. the indifference curve is tangent to the nation's production frontierD. MRT of X for Y equals MRS of X for Y, and they are equal to Px/Py9. If the internal Px/Py is lower in nation 1 than in nation 2 without trade:A. nation 1 has a comparative advantage in commodity YB. nation 2 has a comparative advantage in commodity X*C. nation 2 has a comparative advantage in commodity YD. none of the above10. Nation 1's share of the gains from trade will be greater:A. the greater is nation 1's demand for nation 2's exports*B. the closer Px/Py with trade settles to nation 2's pretrade Px/PyC. the weaker is nation 2's demand for nation 1's exportsD. the closer Px/Py with trade settles to nation 1's pretrade Px/Py11. If Px/Py exceeds the equilibrium relative Px/Py with tradeA. the nation exporting commodity X will want to export more of X than at equilibr iumB. the nation importing commodity X will want to import less of X than at equilibri umC. Px/Py will fall toward the equilibrium Px/Py*D. all of the above12. With free trade under increasing costs:A. neither nation will specialize completely in productionB. at least one nation will consume above its production frontierC. a small nation will always gain from trade*D. all of the above13. Which of the following statements is false?A.The gains from trade can be broken down into the gains from exchange and the gains from specializationB. gains from exchange result even without specialization*C. gains from specialization result even without exchangeD. none of the above14. The gains from exchange with respect to the gains from specialization are alway s:A. greaterB. smallerC. equal*D. we cannot say without additional information15. Mutually beneficial trade cannot occur if production frontiers are:A. equal but tastes are notB. different but tastes are the sameC. different and tastes are also different*D. the same and tastes are also the same.思考题：国际贸易的标准理论与大卫.李嘉图的比拟优势原理有何异同？两国仅仅由于需求偏好不同可以进行市场分工和狐狸贸易吗？两国仅仅由于要素禀赋不同和/或生产技术不同可以进行分工和贸易吗?Chapter 4: Demand and Supply, Offer Curves, and the Terms of TradeMultiple Choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is correct?A. The demand for imports is given by the excess demand for the commodityB. the supply of exports is given by the excess supply of the commodityC. the supply curve of exports is flatter than the total supply curve of the commodity *D. all of the above2. At a relative commodity price above equilibriumA. the excess demand for a commodity exceeds the excess supply of the commodityB. the quantity demanded of imports exceeds the quantity supplied of exports*C. the commodity price will fallD. all of the above3. The offer curve of a nation shows:A. the supply of a nation's importsB. the demand for a nation's exportsC. the trade partner's demand for imports and supply of exports*D. the nation's demand for imports and supply of exports4. The offer curve of a nation bulges toward the axis measuring the nationsA. import commodity*B. export commodityC. export or import commodityD. nontraded commodity5. Export prices must rise for a nation to increase its exports because the nation:A. incurs increasing opportunity costs in export productionB. faces decreasing opportunity costs in producing import substitutesC. faces decreasing marginal rate of substitution in consumption*D. all of the above6. Which of the following statements regarding partial equilibrium analysis is false?A. It relies on traditional demand and supply curvesB. it isolates for study one market*C. it can be used to determine the equilibrium relative commodity price but not the equilibrium quantity with tradeD. none of the above7. Which of the following statements regarding partial equilibrium analysis is true?A. The demand and supply curve are derived from the nation's production frontier an d indifference mapB. It shows the same basic information as offer curvesC. It shows the same equilibrium relative commodity prices as with offer curves*D. all of the above8. In what way does partial equilibrium analysis differ from general equilibrium analy sis?A. The former but not the latter can be used to determine the equilibrium price withtradeB. the former but not the latter can be used to determine the equilibrium quantity with tradeC. the former but not the latter takes into consideration the interaction among all ma rkets in the economy*D. the former gives only an approximation to the answer sought.9. If the terms of trade of a nation are 1.5 in a two-nation world, those of the trade partner are:A. 3/4*B. 2/3C. 3/2D. 4/310. If the terms of trade increase in a two-nation world, those of the trade partner: *A. deteriorateB. improveC. remain unchangedD. any of the above11. If a nation does not affect world prices by its trading, its offer curve:A. is a straight lineB. bulges toward the axis measuring the import commodity*C. intersects the straight-line segment of the world's offer curveD. intersects the positively-sloped portion of the world's offer curve12. If the nation's tastes for its import commodity increases:A. the nation's offer curve rotates toward the axis measuring its import commodityB. the partner's offer curve rotates toward the axis measuring its import commodit yC. the partner's offer curve rotates toward the axis measuring its export commodity *D. the nation's offer curve rotates toward the axis measuring its export commodity13. If the nation's tastes for its import commodity increases:A. the nation's terms of trade remain unchanged*B. the nation's terms of trade deteriorateC. the partner's terms of trade deteriorateD. any of the above14. If the tastes for a nation import commodity increases, trade volume:*A. increasesB. declinesC. remains unchangedD. any of the above15. A deterioration of a nation's terms of trade causes the nation's welfare to:A. deteriorateB. improveC. remain unchanged*D. any of the above思考题：提供曲线如何推导？有何用途？两国贸易时的均衡商品价格是如何决定的？受哪些因素影响？贸易条件的含义是？贸易条件的改善意味着什么？哪些因素可能导致贸易条件的改善？Chapter 5: Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin TheoryMultiple-Choice Questions1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:A. explaining the basis for comparative advantageB. examining the effect of trade on factor prices*C. both A and BD. neither A nor B2. Which is not an assumption of the H-O model:A. the same technology in both nationsB. constant returns to scale*C. complete specializationD. equal tastes in both nations3. With equal technology nations will have equal K/L in production if:*A. factor prices are the sameB. tastes are the sameC. production functions are the sameD. all of the above4. We say that commodity Y is K-intensive with respect to X when:A. more K is used in the production of Y than XB. less L is used in the production of Y than X*C. a lower L/K ratio is used in the production of Y than XD. a higher K/L is used in the production of X than Y5. When w/r falls, L/KA. falls in the production of both commodities*B. rises in the production of both commoditiesC. can rise or fallD. is not affected6. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:A. greater absolute amount of KB. smaller absolute amount of LC. higher L/K ratio*D. lower r/w7. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a diffe rence in:A. technologyB. factor endowmentsC. tastes*D. all of the above8. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:A. technology*B. factor endowmentsC. economies of scaleD. tastes9. According to the H-O model, trade reduces international differences in:A. relative but not absolute factor pricesB. absolute but not relative factor prices*C. both relative and absolute factor pricesD. neither relative nor absolute factor prices10. According to the H-O model, international trade will:A. reduce international differences in per capita incomesB. increases international differences in per capita incomes*C. may increase or reduce international differences in per capita incomes D. lead to complete specialization11. The H-O model is a general equilibrium model because it deals with:A. production in both nationsB. consumption in both nationsC. trade between the two nations*D. all of the above12. The H-O model is a simplification of the a truly general equilibrium model because it deals with:A. two nationsB. two commoditiesC. two factors of production*D. all of the above13. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.*A. import substitutes are more K-intensive than exportsB. imports are more K-intensive than exportsC. exports are more L-intensive than importsD. exports are more K-intensive than import substitutes14. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:A. must be rejectedB. must be accepted without reservations*C. can be accepted while awaiting further testingD. explains all international trade15. For factor reversal to occur, two commodities must be produced with:*A. sufficiently different elasticity of substitution of factorsB. the same K/L ratioC. technologically-fixed factor proportionsD. equal elasticity of substitution of factors思考题：H-O理论有哪些假设？各假设的含义是什么？为什么要做出这些假设？如何检验H-O理论的正确性？H-O-S定理的假设条件又是什么？他与生产要素国际间的流动有何关系？如何检验H-O-S定理在现实中的可靠性？Chapter 6: Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International T radeMultiple-Choice Questions:1. Relaxing the assumptions on which the Heckscher-Ohlin theory rests:A. leads to rejection of the theoryB. leaves the theory unaffected*C. requires complementary trade theoriesD. any of the above.Which of the following assumptions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, when relaxed, leav ethe theory unaffected?A. Two nations, two commodities, and two factorsB. both nations use the same technologyC. the same commodity is L-intensive in both nations*D. all of the aboveWhich of the following assumptions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, when relaxed, require new trade theories?*A. Economies of scaleB. incomplete specializationC. similar tastes in both nationsD. the existence of transportation costsInternational trade can be based on economies of scale even if both nations have ide ntical:A. factor endowmentsB. tastesC. technology*D. all of the above5. A great deal of international trade:A. is intra-industry tradeB. involves differentiated productsC. is based on monopolistic competition*D. all of the above6. The Heckscher-Ohlin and new trade theories explains most of the trade:A. among industrial countriesB. between developed and developing countriesC. in industrial goods*D. all of the aboveThe theory that a nation exports those products for which a large domestic market e xistswas advanced by:*A. LinderB. VernonC. LeontiefD. Ohlin8. Intra-industry trade takes place:A. because products are homogeneous*B. in order to take advantage of economies of scaleC. because perfect competition is the prevalent form of market organizationD. all of the aboveIf a nation exports twice as much of a differentiated product that it imports, its intra-industry (T) index is equal to:A. 1.00B. 0.75*C. 0.50D. 0.2510. Trade based on technological gaps is closely related to:A. the H-O theory*B. the product-cycle theoryC. Linder's theoryD. all of the above11. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the product-cycle theor y?A. It depends on differences in technological changes over time among countriesB. it depends on the opening and the closing of technological gaps among countriesC. it postulates that industrial countries export more advanced products to less advan ced countries*D. all of the above12. Transport costs:A. increase the price in the importing countryB. reduces the price in the exporting country*C. both of the aboveD. neither A nor B.13. Transport costs can be analyzed:A. with demand and supply curvesB. production frontiersC. offer curves*D. all of the above14. The share of transport costs will fall less heavily on the nation:*A. with the more elastic demand and supply of the traded commodityB. with the less elastic demand and supply of the traded commodityC. exporting agricultural productsD. with the largest domestic market15. A footloose industry is one in which the product:A. gains weight in processingB. loses weight in processingC. both of the above*D. neither A nor B.思考题：本章的贸易理论与基于比拟优势的贸易理论有哪些不同？这两类贸易理论是互相排斥的吗？H-O理论与心贸易理论之间有什么经验关联？运输本钱对H-O定理和H-O-S定理有何影响？不同的环保标准时如何影响产业选址及国际贸易的？2021年底联合国哥本哈根气候大会中的议题与国际贸易有何关系？这对我国经贸开展有何影响？Chapter 7: Economic Growth and International TradeMultiple-Choice Questions1. Dynamic factors in trade theory refer to changes in:A. factor endowmentsB. technologyC. tastes*D. all of the above2. Doubling the amount of L and K under constant returns to scale:A. doubles the output of the L-intensive commodityB. doubles the output of the K-intensive commodityC. leaves the shape of the production frontier unchanged*D. all of the above.3. Doubling only the amount of L available under constant returns to scale:A. less than doubles the output of the L-intensive commodity*B. more than doubles the output of the L-intensive commodityC. doubles the output of the K-intensive commodityD. leaves the output of the K-intensive commodity unchanged4. The Rybczynski theorem postulates that doubling L at constant relative commodity prices:A. doubles the output of the L-intensive commodity*B. reduces the output of the K-intensive commodityC. increases the output of both commoditiesD. any of the above5. Doubling L is likely to:A. increases the relative price of the L-intensive commodityB. reduces the relative price of the K-intensive commodity*C. reduces the relative price of the L-intensive commodityD. any of the aboveTechnical progress that increases the productivity of L proportionately more than the productivity of K is called:*A. capital savingB. labor savingC. neutralD. any of the above7. A 50 percent productivity increase in the production of commodity Y:A. increases the output of commodity Y by 50 percentB. does not affect the output of XC. shifts the production frontier in the Y direction only*D. any of the above8. Doubling L with trade in a small L-abundant nation:*A. reduces the nation's social welfareB. reduces the nation's terms of tradeC. reduces the volume of tradeD. all of the above9. Doubling L with trade in a large L-abundant nation:A. reduces the nation's social welfareB. reduces the nation's terms of tradeC. reduces the volume of trade*D. all of the aboveIf, at unchanged terms of trade, a nation wants to trade more after growth, then the nation's terms of trade can be expected to:*A. deteriorateB. improveC. remain unchangedD. any of the aboveA proportionately greater increase in the nation's supply of labor than of capital is lik elyto result in a deterioration in the nation's terms of trade if the nation exports: A. the K-intensive commodity*B. the L-intensive commodityC. either commodityD. both commodities12. Technical progress in the nation's export commodity:*A. may reduce the nation's welfareB. will reduce the nation's welfareC. will increase the nation's welfareD. leaves the nation's welfare unchanged13. Doubling K with trade in a large L-abundant nation:A. increases the nation's welfareB. improves the nation's terms of tradeC. reduces the volume of trade*D. all of the above14. An increase in tastes for the import commodity in both nations:A. reduces the volume of trade*B. increases the volume of tradeC. leaves the volume of trade unchangedD. any of the above15. An increase in tastes of the import commodity of Nation A and export in B:*A. will reduce the terms of trade of Nation AB. will increase the terms of trade of Nation AC. will reduce the terms of trade of Nation BD. any of the above思考题：要素积累和技术进步如何影响一国的生产可能性曲线的形状和位置？何种类型的经济增长最可恩能够导致国家福利的下降？那种类型的经济增长最可能导致国家福利的改善？Chapter 8: Trade Restrictions: TariffsMultiple-choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?A. An ad valorem tariff is expressed as a percentage of the value of the traded com modityB. A specific tariff is expressed as a fixed sum of the value of the traded commodity.C. Export tariffs are prohibited by the U.S. Constitution*D. The U.S. uses exclusively the specific tariff2. A small nation is one:A. which does not affect world price by its tradingB. which faces an infinitely elastic world supply curve for its import commodityC. whose consumers will pay a price that exceeds the world price by the amount of t he tariff*D. all of the above3. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity, its:A. consumption of the commodity increasesB. production of the commodity decreasesC. imports of the commodity increase*D. none of the aboveThe increase in producer surplus when a small nation imposes a tariff is measured by the area:*A. to the left of the supply curve between the commodity price with and without th e tariffB. under the supply curve between the quantity produced with and without the tariffC. under the demand curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffD. none of the above.。
语言学教案
Chapter1Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims:let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties:design features of language;someimportant distinctions in linguistics Teaching proceduresnguage1.1Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language,we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.1.2What is language?1.2.1different senses of languagewhat a person says(concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g.colloquiallanguagean abstract system1.2.2definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source(sender or speaker)to a goal(receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certainrules.They cannot be arranged at will.e.g.He the table cleaned.(×)bkli(×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic(logic)connection between alinguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects,actions,and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writingsystems are.Writing systems came into being much later thanthe spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also becompetent language users.Human----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains andvocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)1.3Design features of language语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a.arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning.The link betweenthem is a matter of convention.E.g.“house”uchi(Japanese)Mansion(French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning.Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness.Most people,especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature.Other people,however,hold that language is iconic,that is,there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning,such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo;crash)For the majority of animal signals,there does appear to bea clear connection between the conveyed message and thesignal used to convey it,And for them,the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b.duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levelsor layers,namely,the level of sounds and that ofmeaning.the higher level----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless,but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog:woof(but not“w-oo-f”)This duality of levels is,in fact,one of the most economical features of human language,since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations(e.g.words)which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc.Creativity----language is resourceful.It makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals byits users.(novel utterances are continually beingcreated.)non-human signals,on the other hand,appears to have littleflexibility.e.g.an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee,normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source,will fail to do so if the location is really‘new’. In one experiment,a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top.Ten bees were takento the top,shown the food source,and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find.The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food.They flow around in all directions,but couldn’t locate the food.The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals,all of which related to horizontal distance.The bee cannot create a‘new’message indicating vertical distance.d.Displacement----human languages enable their users tosymbolize objects,events and concepts which arenot present at the moment of communication. Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive,it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar.Depending on the typeof dance(round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance,with variable tempo,for further away and how far),The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found.Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However,it must be the most recent food source.e.Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.1.4functions of language2.linguistics2.1What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language.It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society,but the language of all human society,language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematicinvestigation of data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------testedby further observation------theory2.2Main branches(scope)of linguisticsphonetics语音学phonology音系学（音位学）morphology词法学syntax句法学semantics语义学pragmatics语用学ortant distinctions in linguistics2.3ImpImportanta.Descriptive vs.prescriptive“描写式”和“规定式”They represent two different types of linguistic study.If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.b.Synchronic vs.diachronic“共时”和“历时”The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.ngue&parole“语言”和“言语”The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community,and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole,i.e.to discover the regularities governing the actual use oflanguage and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.petence and performance语言能力和语言运用The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late1950’s.Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge inlinguistic communication.e.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsModern linguistics started with the publication of F.de Saussure’’s book“Course in General Linguistics”in the Saussureearly20th century.So Saussure is often described as “father of modern linguistics”.The general approach traditionally formed to the study oflanguage before that is roughly referred to as“traditional grammar.”They differ in several basic ways:Firstly,linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguist is interested in what is said,not in what he thinks ought to be said.He describes language in all its aspects,but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.Secondly,modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the written.Traditional grammarians,on the other hand,tend to emphasize,may be over-emphasize,the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then,modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.To modern linguists,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework,but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12Self-study guideRead“A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English”Chapter1IntroductionChapter2Speech Sounds Teaching aims:let the students have the general idea aboutphonetics and phonology.Focal points:description of consonants and vowels;basicknowledge about phonologyTeaching difficulties:phoneme;allophone;minimal pair;complementary distributionTeaching procedureLanguage is a“system of vocal symbols”.Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented,and even today,in some parts of the world,there are still languages that have no writing systems.Therefore,the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.As we know,there are two branches in linguistics,which deal with speech sounds.They are phonetics(the study of sounds)and phonology(the study sound patterns).In this chapter,we will discuss these two branches.1.Phonetics1.1Speech production and perception3sub-branches of phonetics:Articulatory y phonetics----the study of the production of speech ArticulatorsoundsAcoustic phonetics----the study of the physical properties of thesounds produced in speechAuditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speechsounds1.2Speech organs(vocal organs)refers to the parts of the human body involved in theproduction of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract:the pharynx(pharyngeal cavity),the mouth(oral cavity),and the nose(nasal cavity).The air-stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities,resulting in the production of various sounds.The pharyngeal cavityLarynx::a t the top of the trachea,the front of which is the Adam’s Larynxapple.This is the first place where sound modification might occur.cords)::Vocal cords are two membranes,the vocal folds(vocal cords)positions of which gives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart,the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless.e.g.[p,s,t]●When they are close together,the airstreams causes them tovibrate and produces voiced sounds.e.g.[b,z,d]●When they are totally closed,no air can pass between them,then produce the glottal stop[?]The oral cavityThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue::the most flexibleTongueUvula,the teeth and the lipsHard palate,soft palate(velum)ridge::the rough,bony ridge immediately behind the Alveolar ridgeupper teethVarious obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of various sounder[p][b];[s][z];[k][g]The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth.The soft part of the roof of the mouth,the velum(soft palate)can be draw back to close the passage so that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and mostconsonants.The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and produce nasal consonants[m][n][g]1.3phonetic transcription标音法a method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.1.3.1I PA(International phonetic Alphabet)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in1888on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in1886. The first version of IPA was published in August1888.The latest version was devised in1993and corrected in1996. The basic principle:using a separate letter selected from major European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.1.3.2Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription:transcription with letter-symbols only.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.Narrow transcription:transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.Diacritics:A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a sound value different from that of the same letter without the mark.1.4English speech sounds1.4.1C lassificationConsonants:sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at some place.V owels:sounds produced with no obstruction.pure vowels(monophthong)—vowels where the qualityremains constant throughout the articulation.vowel glides----vowels where there is an audible change ofqualitySemi-vowels(semi-consonants):the sounds produced with little obstruction.(also called glides or transition sounds)e.g.yet wet hotDescriptionC onsonants(P39-44)Three p arameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation:place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation:ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords:voiced VS.voicelessV owels(P45-52)the quality of vowels depend on position of tongue and the shape of lips.Four criteria(parameters)of vowel description:①the height of tongue raising:high,middle,low②the position of highest part of the tongue:front,central,back③the shape of the lips(the degree of lip-rounding):rounded, unrounded④the length or tenseness of the vowel:tense x or long vs. short2.Phonology2.1phonology and phoneticsPhonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds.While both are related to the study of sounds,theydiffer in their approach and focus.Phonetic studies how speech sounds are made,transmitted and received.Phonology,on the other hand,is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds.It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterance,to recognize a foreign accent, to make up new words.2.2phonemes,phones and allophonesphone:the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.It’s a phonetic unit or segment.(in the mouth)Conventionally,phones are placed within square brackets “[][]””(phonetic transcription)Phones do not necessarily distinguish ually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.phoneme:A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme.It’s a basic unit in phonological analysis.It is not any particular sound,but an abstract segment.In actual speech,a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone.(the sound type in the mind)The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.P honemes are placed in slashes“//”(phonemic transcription)e.g.Neither the sound[p]in pit or the sound[b]in bit is aphoneme.They are phones;they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme/p/and/b/.a llophone:when we have a set of phones,all of which areversions of one phoneme,we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme.One phoneme may have several allophones,but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.2.3Minimal pairs and c omplementary distribution Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phoneme,they might form a contrast;e.g. /p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme,then they don’t distinguish meaning,but complement each other in distribution,i.e.they occur in different phonetic context.Strictly speaking,every sound is different from every other sounds.But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.2.3.1Minimal pairs(最小对立体)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment,which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme,occurring in the same position,the two words are described as a minimal pair.Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.Three requirements for a minimal pair:same number of segmentone phonetic difference in the same placedifferent meaninge.g.a minimal pair:lit-lip;phone-tone;pill-billa minimal set:beat,bit,bet,boot,but,biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.3.2Complementary distributionNot all speech sounds occur in the same environment,when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme.They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.2.3.3Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is,the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form,but merely a different pronunciation of the same word,then the two sounds are in free variation.2.4Distinctive featuresThe features that a phoneme possesses,making it different from other phonemes,are its distinctive features.Distinctive features are language-specific.e.g.“ba”(爸)“pa”(怕)In Chinese,these two sounds are distinguished by aspiration, while in English they are distinguished by“voicing”2.5suprasegmental features超音段特征The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentsHomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,2，3,4Self-study guideRead“Modern Linguistics”by He Zhao-xiongChapter2PhonologyChapter3LexiconTeaching aims:let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methodsFocal points:definition and classification of morphemes;major word-formation methodsTeaching procedureLexicon：In its most general sense,lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary.In its technical sense,it deals with theanalysis and creation of words.1.Word1.1What is wordA unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers,whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.word””1.2Three senses of“worda.a physical definable unit:a cluster of sound segments orletters between two pause or blankb.the common factor underlying a set of formsc.a grammatical unite.g.It is kind of you,Miss Hou.Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.1.3Classification of worda.V ariable vs.invariable wordsb.Grammatical words vs.lexical wordsc.Closed-class words vs.open-class words2.The formation of word2.1MorphologyDefinition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics,which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by whichwords are formed.The two fields(p88)Inflectional morphology:the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology:the study of word-formation2.2Morpheme:the minimal unit of meaning2.2.1DefinitionMorpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit.2.2.2Types of morphemesmorpheme free:free rootbound bound root rootaffix inflectionalderivational prefixsuffixFree morphemes:morphemes which may constitute words by themselvesBound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves,but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme:a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense,degree and case.E.g.workers,children;walking,walked;biggest;John’s Derivational morpheme:a kind of bound morphemes,added to existing forms to create new words.There are three kinds according to position:prefix,suffix and infix.prefix:change meaning dis-;un-;mis-suffix:change part of speech-ly;-ness;-tioninfix:some languages also have infixes,affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide theminto two parts.tatawa“a person who will laugh”tumatawa“a person who is laughing”ngitad“dark”ngumitad“to be dark”In this language,the infix–um-is inserted after the first consonant of a noun or adjective.(fikas-“strong”fumikas--“to be strong”)2.2.33morpheme and phoneme(p93-95)3.1allomorph2.2.3.1A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction;it is a concept.It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. Those forms are called morphs.In morphemic transcription,morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces likeAllomorph:A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.The variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs.2.4Lexical change2.4.1Lexical change properMajor ways to create new words:Compounding:a process of combining two or more words intoone lexical unit.blackboard godfather baby-sit cross-cultural Derivation:the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words.e.g.finalize widen hospitalize clockwise(顺时针) Blending:a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.smog(smoke+fog);brunch smaze(smog+haze);telecast(television+broadcast);motel(motor+hotel) Abbreviation::a shortened form of a word or phrase which Abbreviationrepresents the complete form.(television)Dr(doctor)hr(hour)ft(foot or feet)clipping:a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrasese.g.telephone---phone memorandum---memoelectronic mail---e-mail high fidelity---hi-fi Acronym:a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words.e.g.UNESCO APEC Sars CD laser radar(radio detecting and ranging)Initialism:VOA BBC WTOBack-formation:a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.televise(from television)donate(from donation)enthuse(from enthusiasm)Borrowing:the taking over of words from other languages Coinage:the invention of a new word2.4.2Phonological changeChanges in sounds lead to changes in form(1)vowel sound change:Great Vowel Shift in history(2)sound loss(3)sound addition(4)metathesis2.4.3Morpho-syntactical change2.4.4Semantic changeThe change of meaning of a wordBroadeningNarrowingMeaning shift:a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new,sometimes relatedmeaning.Class shift(conversion):Elevation and degradationHomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,2,3,5,13Self-study guideFurther readingAdams,V.1973.An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation.Dai Wei-dong,2002A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English Chapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxTeaching aims:enable the students to understand and describe the internal structures of sentencesFocal points:different treatment of sentence structure by different linguistic schoolsTeaching difficulties:IC analysis,deep structure,surface structure,tree diagramTeaching procedureSyntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language,syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.In this chapter,we introduce some of the representative approaches to syntax.1.The traditional approachThe traditional approach is based on the earlier grammars of Latin or Greek(the traditional grammar is a grammar of prescription).1.1Sentences and categoriesThe traditional view of a sentence:“a series of words in connected speech or writing,forming the grammatically completeexpression of a single thought”.?an apple?John was late,because he overslept.Lexical categories:part of speech.e.g.:n,v,adj,det.etc.Syntactic categories:usually refers to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function.e.g.subject,predicate,object etc.Grammatical category:a class or group of items which fulfil the same or similar functions in a language.e.g.Number,gender,case:for nouns,pronouns.Tense,aspect,voice:for verbs1.2Concord and governmentConcord:agreement.The requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.a book,this book,some books,three booksHe speaks English.They speak EnglishGovernment:is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.It is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain category.She gave him a book;She gave a book to him.1.3One method used in traditional grammar to describesentence structure is parsing.2.The structural approachThe origin:the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure,“father/founder of modern linguistics”The beginning of the20th century,Course in GeneralLinguistics.The structural approach:regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system. Structuralism or structural linguistics is a term used in linguistics referring to any approach to the analysis oflanguage that pays explicit attention to the way in whichlinguistic features can be described in terms of structuresand systems.2.1Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationschildgirlThe boy is smiling.farmerold manSyntagmatic relation(structure,horizontal,chain)组合关系a relation between one item and others in a sequence(thesequential arrangement of words in a language.)There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet.choice)) Paradigmatic relation(system,associative,vertical,choice聚合关系relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.聚合关系和组合关系一起共同确立一个语言单位在语言系统中的特征。
商务英语写作 邀请函与感谢信
Suite 13 of the Howard Building
10
Chapter
Invitations
and
Thank-you
Letters
3. Acceptance and refusal (additional)
Expressions of accepting an invitation:
• We’re very glad/ happy/ pleased/ delighted to accept / come / arrive / attend…
• Mr.xx accepts with pleasure the kind invitation for (some occasion) to be held at (some place) at (time).
10
Chapter
Invitations
and
Thank-you
Letters
II. Sample Analysis
Letter C: An invitation card
President Maureen Hartford invites you to a reception in honor of Dr. Rosalind Reichard
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Chapter
Invitations
and
Thank-you
Letters
1. Invitations
• Invitations are written in the deductive pattern and are relatively short.
科技英语翻译
3. The actuator is very small and light. It can be used for incorporation in the space of the safety device. The small size and light weight of the actuator makes it suitable for incorporation in the space available in the safety device.
(3) The abundant use of Non-finite verb 科技文章要求行文简练，结构紧凑，为此，往往使用分词短 语代替定语从句或状语从句；使用分词独立结构代替状语从句 或并列分句；使用不定式短语代替各种从句；介词十动名词短 语代替定语从句或状语从句。这样可缩短句子，又比较醒目。
2) lexical features of EST and the techniques of translation
3) sentence features of EST and the techniques of translation
4) discourse features of EST and the techniques of translation 课程的重点是科技英语文体的词汇和语篇特征。难点是科技 英语的翻译技巧。
A Practical Course on EST Translation
Questions: 1. What are the features of EST?
2. How to deal with the conflict between fidelity and fluency in EST translation? 3. What are the techniques of EST translation?
语言学教程Chapter 1_introduction(1)
• Without the awareness of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
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Discuss with your neighbors ---• What is language? • What do you know when you claim to know a language?
“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.” --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
3
Some fundamental views about L
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
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Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
生理学英文练习题-第一章-绪论
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONSummaryPhysiology is the study of how living organisms work. It is the science that describe the normal functions and their regular patterns of the living organisms. The vast field of physiology can be divided into viral physiology, bacterial physiology, cellular physiology, plant physiology, human physiology,and many more subdivisions. However, the Human Physiology is very important and basic biomedical course for medical students.The body has three fundamental characteristics of living organism which are metabolism, excitability and reproduction. The metabolism include material metabolism and energy metabolism. The material metabolisms of carbonhydrate, lipid, proteins etc. have mainly been learned in BIOCHMISTRY. The energy metabolism will be learned in the 7th Chapter in PHYSIOLOGY. The excitability is very important physiological term, the property of living organisms that permit them to react to stimuli is defined as excitability.Since the normal functions of organs or organ systems was emphasized, homeostasis is another very important physiological concept. Homeostasis signifies a stable and constant status of the internal enviroment in the body of living organism. It is a dynamic balance of pH, osmostic pressure, temperature, ions concentrations, and so on. Homeostasis is a necessary for the normal functions of cells, organs and organ systems. Therefore, homeostasis is the soul concept of PHYSIOLOGY.The living organism needs to overcome the possible disorder caused by the metabolisms, then homeostasis could be maintained and the normal functions of the living organisms could be gone on. How to maintain the homeostasis? There are mainly three mechanisms to maintain the homeostasis. They are neural regulation, humoral regulation and auto-regulation. Three regulatory patterns exhibit different mechanisms and features.Feedback, a term borrowed from engineering, is a fundamental feature of homeostasis. Feedback regulation anticipates changes in a regulated variable, improves the speed of the body’s homeostatic responses, and minimizes fluctuations in the level of the variable being regulated. In the negative feedback system, a change in the variable being regulated brings about response that tend to push the variable in the direction opposite to the original change. The homeostasis could be maintained after negative feedback regulation. In positive feedback system, an initial disturbance in the system sets off a train of events that increases the disturbance even further. Some special physiological activities in the living organism are carried out by the positive feedback system such as processes of giving birth, blood coagulation, micturition.Definition1.Physiology（生理学）2.Acute experiment（急性实验）3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）4.In vitro（离体）5.In vivo（在体）6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）8.Internal environment（内环境）9.Homeostasis（稳态）10.Excitability（兴奋性）11.Excitation（兴奋）12.Inhibition（抑制）13.Stimulus（刺激）14.Neural regulation（神经调节）15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）16.Reflex arc（反射弧）17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）21.Feedback（反馈）22.Negative feedback（负反馈）23.Positive feedback（正反馈）24.Feedforward（前馈）Choose the ONE best answer, then fill the corresponding letter in the blank.( C ) 1. Which one of the following is a physiological process with negative feedback?A.Blood coagulationB.Process of passing urineC.Sino-aortic baroreceptor reflexD.Na+ influx during action potentialE.Process of parturition( D ) 2. Which one of the following is not the property of regulation by hormone?A.Slow in onsetB.Diffuse in natureC.Longer in durationD.Accurate in actionE.Action in overcorrection( D ) 3. Which of the following is not the fundamental characteristic of living organisms?A.MetabolismB.ExcitabilityC.ReproductionD.Passive diffusionE.Adaption( D ) 4. The concept of homeostasisA.includes the concept of an error signal.B.refers to maintaining physiological functions in a stable condition.C.refers only to the regulation of body temperature.D. A and BE. B and C(A) 5. This term refers to the existence of a stable internal environmentA.HomeostasisB.FeedbackC.AutoregulationD.All the aboveE.None of the above(C) 6. Which one of the following provides long-term regulatory control that results in relatively unchanging internal conditions.A.Positive FeedbackB.DiseaseC.Negative FeedbackD.All the aboveE.None of the above(B) 7. Moving your hand away from a hot stove is an example of a basic function calledA.Positive feedbackB.ResponseC.RegulationD.All the aboveE.None of the above(E) 8. On the objects that Physiology researches and observes, which of the following is correct description ?A.Whole body levelan and organ systems levelsC.Cellular levelD.Molecular levelE.All the above(E) 9. On the methodology applied in Physiology, which of the following is correct?A.Acute experimentB.Chronic experimentC.Experiment in vivoD.Experiment in vitroE.All the above(D) 10. The acceleration of heart beat caused by catecholamine hormones released from adrenal gland after doing exercise, it isA.Neural regulationB.Humoral regulationC.AutoregulationD.Neural-humoral regulationE.None of the aboveQuestions:1.What are the five components of the reflex arc?2.What are fundamental characteristics of living organism?3.Explain the mechanisms of how to maintain the homeostasis in living organism.4.Contrast the properties of the neural regulation, humoral regulation andauto-regulation.5.Describe the category of the humoral regulation.Answers:Definitions:1.Physiology（生理学）: Physiology is the study of how living organisms work, the goal ofphysiology is to study the normal functions and their regular patterns of organs or organ systems of living organism.2.Acute experiment（急性实验）：Experiment performed is to study the physiological activitiesor to observe the reaction to the external interference in short time is called acute experiment.The animals used are oftenly under anesthesia, and the experiments are oftenly destructive and irreversible, even induce the death of animals. The acute experiment include experiment in vivo and in vitro.3.Chronic experiments（慢性实验）: Experiment performed is to study the physiologicalactivities or to observe the reaction to the external interference in long time is called chronic experiment. The Chronic experiments may be performed on conscious subject for a long period of time after recovery from the operation.4.In vitro（离体）：Experiment is performed on an isolated tissue or organ that is taken out fromthe body of the animal.5.In vivo（在体）：Experiment is performed on the whole body of the animal to observe one orsome physiological functions of the organ or organ systems.6.Metabolism（新陈代谢）：Metabolism is the one of basic characteristics of living organism. Itmeans all the chemical reactions in all the cells of the body, and includes all material and energy transformations that occur in the body. The material metabolism includes catabolic and anabolic reactions.7.Interstitial fluid（组织间液）：The spaces between cells are called the interstitutium, the fluidin these spaces is the interstitial fluid.8.Internal environment（内环境）：It is the environment that all cells of the body live in theextracellular fluid, which is called the internal environment of the body.9.Homeostasis（稳态）：The state maintenance of a constancy and balance in one’s internalenvironment. It is the soul of the physiology.10.Excitability（兴奋性）：It is the ability of certain kinds of cells (excitable cell) to makeresponse to the stimulus. Essentially, It is the ability of cells to generate action potential.Excitability is a fundamental property to all tissues and cells.11.Excitation（兴奋）：It signifies a beginning of an activity or increase in physiological activityafter stimulus, such as the acceleration of the heart beat after stimulating the sympathetic nerve.12.Inhibition（抑制）：Inhibition is a stop of an activity or a decrease in physiological activityafter stimulus, such as the slowing of the heart beat after stimulating the vagus nerve.13.Stimulus（刺激）：Any changes from external or internal environmental factors that causes aresponse in a sense organ or an organism are called the stimulus. It includes the physical, chemical and biological stimuli.14.Neural regulation（神经调节）：The functions of organs or organ systems are regulated by thecentral nervous system via the reflexes. The reflex is the regular response of effectors to the stimulus based on the reflex arc.15.Neuro-humoral regulation（神经体液调节）：In many cases, the endocrine system is soclosely related to the nervous system that it can be regarded as an extension of the efferent limb of the reflex arc . In this instance it is called neuro-humoral regulation.16.Reflex arc（反射弧）：Reflex arc is the pathway in a reflex, it is the basic unit of integratedneural activity, consisting of receptor, afferent nerve, nervous center, efferent nerve and effector.17.Unconditioned reflex（非条件反射）：A fixed reflex whose mechanism may be supposed to beinherited as its functioning does not depend on previous experience.18.Conditioned reflex（条件反射）：A learned reflex in which the nervous system is trainedto produce a new and unusual response to a stimulus.19.Humoral regulation（体液调节）：The functions of organs or organ systems areregulated by the special chemicals released by the endocrine glands or cells, or metabolic products released by the living cells.20.Auto-regulation（自身调节）：In certain cases, a tissue or organ can respond directly to theenvironmental change, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called auto-regulation.21.Feedback（反馈）：It is a flow of information along a closed loop. Usually, a constancy ofphysiological variable requires a feedback mechanism that feeds the output information back to the control system so as to modify the nature of control.22.Negative feedback（负反馈）：A regulated variable is sensed, information is sent to acontroller, and action is taken to oppose change from the desire value.23.Positive feedback（正反馈）：With a variable is sensed and action is taken to reinforce changeof the variable, so it promotes a change in one direction.24.Feedforward（前馈）：control mechanisms often sense a disturbance and can therefore takecorrective action that anticipates changes. Conditioned reflexes belong to the feedforward control system.。
5.2 writing an introduction
Writing an Introduction
Frequently asked questions 5. How long should my introduction be? One common mistake is to write an introduction that is too long; the introduction is so detailed that it is
To be continued
10
Writing an Introduction
The content of an introduction
Gap: This element focuses the attention of the
reader on the specific area where (further) research is needed. This element also provides the justification for the study. The above mentioned is brief, relevant background information and/or other contextualising material
Writing an Introduction
Frequently asked questions 4. Should the introduction be detailed? Another common mistake is that the introduction is so detailed that it fails to indicate the topic of the essay in a clear way! The introduction only needs to state the topic, general structure, and thesis of the essay. The longer the essay is supposed to be, the more detailed your topic, structure and thesis-sentences can be.
运营管理Chap001
Chapter 01Introduction to Operations ManagementTrue / False Questions1. Operations managers are responsible for assessing consumer wants and needs and selling and promoting the organization's goods or services.FALSEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge2. Often, the collective success or failure of companies' operations functions will impact the ability of a nation to compete with other nations.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 1Taxonomy: Knowledge3. Companies are either producing goods or delivering services. This means that only one of the two types of operations management strategies are used.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Application4. Operations, marketing, and finance function independently of each other in most organizations.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 2Taxonomy: Knowledge5. The greater the degree of customer involvement, the more challenging the design and management of operations.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 4Taxonomy: Application6. Goods producing organizations are not involved in service activitiesFALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge7. Service operations require additional inventory because of the unpredictability of consumer demand.FALSEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge8. The value of outputs is measured by the prices customers are willing to pay for goods or services.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge9. The use of models will guarantee the best possible decisions.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Synthesis10. People who work in the field of operations should have skills that include both knowledge and people skills.TRUEAACSB: RTDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis11. Assembly lines achieved productivity but at the expense of standard of living.FALSEAACSB: RTDifficulty: HardTLO: 7Taxonomy: Synthesis12. The operations manager has primary responsibility for making operations system design decisions, such as system capacity and location of facilities.FALSEDifficulty: HardTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge13. The word "technology" is used only to refer to 'information technology'.FALSEAACSB: UITDifficulty: EasyTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge14. ‘Value added' by definition is always a positive number since 'added' implies increases. FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis15. Service often requires greater labor content, whereas manufacturing is more capital intensive.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge16. Measurement of productivity in service is more straightforward than in manufacturing since it is not necessary to take into account the cost of materials.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Synthesis17. Special-purpose technology is a common way of offering increased customization in manufacturing or services without taking on additional labor costs.FALSEAACSB: RTDifficulty: HardTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis18. One method of classifying production systems is the degree of standardization.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge19. Most people encounter operations only in profit-making organizations.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge20. Service involves a much higher degree of customer contact than manufacturing.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge21. A systems approach emphasizes interrelationships among subsystems, but its main theme is that the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge22. The Pareto phenomenon is one of the most important and pervasive concepts that can be applied at all levels of management.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge23. Operations managers, who usually use quantitative approaches, are not really concerned with ethical decision-making.FALSEAACSB: EUDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis24. The optimal solutions produced by quantitative techniques should always be evaluated in terms of the larger framework.TRUEAACSB: RTDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Application25. Managers should most often rely on quantitative techniques for important decisions since quantitative approaches result in more accuratedecisions.FALSEDifficulty: HardTLO: 6Taxonomy: Synthesis26. Many operations management decisions can be described as tradeoffs.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge27. A systems approach means that we concentrate on efficiency within a subsystem and thereby assure overall efficiency.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Synthesis28. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, goods were produced primarily by craftsmen or their apprentices using custom made parts.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 7Taxonomy: Knowledge29. Elton Mayo's "Hawthorne Experiment" was the focal point of the Human Relations Movement, which emphasized the importance of the human element in job design.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 7Taxonomy: Knowledge30. Among Ford's many contributions was the introduction of mass production, using the concept of interchangeable parts and division of labor.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 7Taxonomy: Knowledge31. Operations management and marketing are the two functional areas that exist to support activities in other functions such as accounting, finance, IT and human resources.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 2Taxonomy: Synthesis32. Lean production systems incorporate the advantages of both mass production and craft production.TRUEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge33. As an abstraction of reality, a model is a simplified version of a real phenomenon. TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge34. Lean production systems use a highly skilled work force and flexible equipment.TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge35. The lean production philosophy has been slow to be adopted in service industries. FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge36. Operations Management activities will be less important in the future because many firms are becoming service-oriented operations rather than goods producing operations.FALSEDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Synthesis37. A modern firm has two supply chain considerations – external links with suppliers and customers, and an internal network of flows to and between the operations function itself. TRUEDifficulty: EasyTLO: 4Taxonomy: KnowledgeMultiple Choice Questions38. Operations management involves continuous decision-making; hopefully most decisions made will be:A. redundantB. minor in natureC. informedD. quantitativeE. none of the aboveDifficulty: EasyTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge39. A 'product package' consists of:A. the exterior wrappingB. the shipping containerC. a combination of goods and servicesD. goods if a manufacturing organizationE. customer relations if a service organizationAACSB: RTDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge40. Business organizations consist of three major functions which, ideally:A. support one anotherB. are mutually exclusiveC. exist independently of each otherD. function independently of each otherE. do not interface with each otherDifficulty: MediumTLO: 2Taxonomy: Knowledge41. Which of the following is not a type of operations?A. goods productionB. storage/transportationC. entertainmentD. communicationE. all the above involve operationsDifficulty: MediumTLO: 1Taxonomy: Knowledge42. Technology choices seldom affect:A. costs.B. productivity.C. union activity.D. quality.E. flexibility.AACSB: UITDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Application43. Measurements taken at various points in the transformation process for control purposes are called:A. plansB. directionsC. controlsD. feedbackE. budgetsDifficulty: HardTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge44. Budgeting, analysis of investment proposals, and provision of funds are activities associated with the _______ function.A. operationB. marketingC. purchasingD. financeE. internal auditDifficulty: EasyTLO: 2Taxonomy: Knowledge45. Which one of the following would not generally be classified under the heading of transformation?A. assemblingB. teachingC. staffingD. farmingE. consultingDifficulty: HardTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis46. Manufacturing work sent to other countries is called:A. downsizedB. outsourcedC. internationalizationD. vertical integrationE. entrepreneurial shipAACSB: MDDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge47. Product design and process selection are examples of decisions that are:A. financialB. tacticalC. system designD. system operationE. forecastingDifficulty: HardTLO: 5Taxonomy: Knowledge48. The responsibilities of the operations manager are:A. planning, organizing, staffing, procuring, and reviewingB. planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controllingC. forecasting, designing, planning, organizing, and controllingD. forecasting, designing, operating, procuring, and reviewingE. designing and operatingDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge49. Knowledge skills usually don't include:A. process knowledgeB. accounting skillsC. communication skillsD. global knowledgeE. all of the aboveDifficulty: MediumTLO: 4Taxonomy: Synthesis50. Which of the following is not true about systems approach?A. A systems viewpoint is almost always beneficial in decision making.B. A systems approach emphasizes interrelationships among subsystems.C. A systems approach concentrates on efficiency within subsystems.D. A systems approach is essential whenever something is being redesigned or improved.E. All of the above are true.Difficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Synthesis51. What is credited with gains in industrial productivity, increased standards of living and affordable products?A. personal computersB. the internetC. mass transportationD. assembly linesE. multi-level marketingAACSB: EUDifficulty: HardTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge52. Production systems with customized outputs typically have relatively:A. high volumes of outputB. low unit costsC. high amount of specialized equipmentD. fast work movementE. skilled workersDifficulty: HardTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge53. Which is not a significant difference between manufacturing and service operations?A. cost per unitB. uniformity of outputC. labor content of jobsD. customer contactE. measurement of productivityAACSB: ASDifficulty: HardTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge54. Which of the following is not a characteristic of service operations?A. intangible outputB. high customer contactC. high labor contentD. easy measurement of productivityE. low uniformity of outputAACSB: ASDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge55. Which of the following is a recent trend in business?A. pollution controlB. total quality managementC. supply chain managementD. competition from foreign manufacturersE. technological changeDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge56. Farming is an example of:A. an obsolete activityB. a virtual organizationC. non-manufactured goodsD. a growth industryE. customized manufacturingDifficulty: MediumTLO: 3Taxonomy: Knowledge57. Dealing with the fact that certain aspects of any management situation are more important than others is called:A. analysis of tradeoffsB. sensitivity analysisC. recognition of prioritiesD. analysis of varianceE. decision table analysisAACSB: RTDifficulty: HardTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge58. The fact that a few improvements in a few key areas of operations will have more impact than many improvements in many other areas is consistent with the:A. Irwin phenomenonB. Pareto phenomenonC. Stevenson phenomenonD. Tellier phenomenonE. Adam Smith phenomenonAACSB: ASDifficulty: MediumTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge59. The process of comparing outputs to previously established standards to determine if corrective action is needed is called:A. planningB. directingC. controllingD. budgetingE. discipliningDifficulty: HardTLO: 4Taxonomy: Knowledge60. Which of the following does not relate to system design?A. altering the system capacityB. location of facilitiesC. inventory managementD. selection and acquisition of equipmentE. physical arrangement of departmentsDifficulty: MediumTLO: 5Taxonomy: Knowledge61. Taking a systems viewpoint with regard to operations in today's environment increasingly leads decision-makers to consider ______________ in response to the ____________.A. flexibility; pressure to be more efficientB. offshoring; need to promote domestic productionC. sustainability; threat of global warmingD. technology; impact of random variationE. forecasting; stabilization of demandAACSB: EUDifficulty: HardTLO: 6Taxonomy: Knowledge62. Some companies attempt to maximize the revenue they receive from fixed operating capacity by influencing demands through price manipulation. This is an example of_________________:A. Illegal price discriminationB. CollusionC. Volume analysisD. Revenue managementE. OutsourcingAACSB: EUDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge63. Which of the following is not an ongoing trend in manufacturing?A. globalizationB. quality improvementC. flexibility and agilityD. mass production for greater economies of scaleE. technological advancesDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge64. Which of the following is not a benefit of using models in decision making?A. They provide a standardized format for analyzing a problem.B. They serve as a consistent tool for evaluation.C. They are easy to use and less expensive than dealing with the actual situation.D. All of the above are benefits.E. None of the above is a benefit.AACSB: CADifficulty: HardTLO: 6Taxonomy: Synthesis65. Modern firms increasingly rely on other firms to supply goods and services instead of doing these tasks themselves. This increased level of _____________ is leading to increased emphasis on ____________ management.A. outsourcing; supply chainB. offshoring; leanC. downsizing; total qualityD. optimizing; inventoryE. internationalization; interculturalDifficulty: MediumTLO: 8Taxonomy: Knowledge。
Chapter one Introduction
(4)language
is the institution whereby human communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oralauditory arbitrary symbols. Hall, 1968 (5)from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences (finite and infinite), each finite in length and constructed out of a set of elements.---Chomsky, 1957
introduction Three questions related to linguistics
What?
Why? How?
What
is linguistics? morpheme division: linguist (economist, scientist, biologist, zoologist)) -ics(physics, economics, statistics, stylistics): it is a discipline in which some people are involved in the study of languages, and it takes all the language in the world into consideration.
Further
examples of morpheme analysis Such as universe
Linguistics is a branch of science
Chapter 1Introduction 练习题
Chapter One IntroducitonI. Multiple Choices.Directions: In each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question to complete the sentence.1. __________ function constructs a model of experience and logical relations.A. InterpersonalB. TextualC. MetalingualD. Ideational2. Arbitrariness of language was first discussed by ____________,A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. Saussure3. Which function is the major role of Language?A. InformativeB. InterpersonalC. PerformativeD. Emotive4.Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Linguistics?A. SyntaxB. PragmaticsC. PhoneticsD. Anthropology5. The ___________ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. performativeB. phaticC. recreationalD. emotive6. The term __________ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language changes over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative7.__________ examines how meaning is encoded in a language.A. SemanticsB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Morphology8.Saussure distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker as __________.A. paroleB. languageC. systemD. langue9.The fundamental distinction between competence and performance is discussed by _________.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. Austin10. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and lettersB. Sounds and meaningC. Letters and meaningD. Sounds and symbols.11. ___________ studies the sound systems in a certain language.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax12. The founder of modern linguistics is ___________.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Saussure13. Modern linguistics focuses on the present day language, and it will be possible to describe language from a _________ perspective.A. sociologicalB.synchronicC. diachronicD. Psychological14. Which of the following is NOT the function of language?A. Metalingual function.B. Interpersonal function.C. Emotive functionD. Cultural transmission15.We can refer to Chairman Mao. This feature of language is called _________.A.dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement16.The sentence "Don't say X." is ___________.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. obligatoryD. Narrative17.Which of the following functions are NOT the functions put forward by Halliday?A. The Ideational FunctionB. The Interpersonal FunctionC. The Generative FunctionD. The Textual Function20. __________ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. WordsC. Sentence structuresD. Phrase structure rules21. The set of possibility for “doing” is termed _________ from a functional language’s view.A. linguistic potentialB. communicative competenceC. competenceD. langue22. Traditional grammar regards the __________ form of language as primary, not the spoken from.A. oralB. writtenC. writingD. vocal23. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the __________ nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmissionnguage is __________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. productive25.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechII. Complete each of the following statements.1.When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact ratherthan exchanging information or ideas, its function is ____________ function.2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as ___________.3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be___________; it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, it is said to be __________. 4.In modern linguistics, ___________ study seems to enjoy priority over ___________ study.The reason is that successful studies of various sates of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.5.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” This famous quotation from Shakespeareillustrates that language has the design feature of _______________.6.An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are notmutually intelligible, which show that language is culturally ____________.7.The features that define our human languages can be called ____________ features.8.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called ___________.9.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______________ and performance.10.___________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the otherhand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.III. Answer the following questions.1. A distinction can be drawn between competence and performance in the study of language. What do they refer to? Why does Chomsky draw such a distinction?2. Explain the following statements with examples: Our language can be used to talk about itself.3.How do you understand “duality”, a design feature of language?1.phatic2. displacement3. descriptive, prescriptive4. synchronic, diachronic5. arbitrariness6. transmitted7. design8. morphology9. competence 10.Pragmatics。
chapter 1 introduction
经过近80年的研究改进，汽车阻力系数从 0.8降至0.137，阻力减小为原来的1/5 。
3. How can the airplane fly?
Boeing 747 70.7×64.4× 19.41 (m)
An-225 84×88.4×18.1 (m) 600,000kg
395 000kg
机翼升力：来自下部还是上部？ 人们的直观印象是空气从下面冲击着鸟的翅膀 ，把鸟托在空中。19世纪初建立的流体力学环 量理论彻底改变了人们的传统观念。
20世纪30年代起，人们开始运用流体力学原理改进 汽车尾部形状，出现甲壳虫型，阻力系数降至0.6。
20世纪50－60年代改进为船型，阻力系数为0.45。
80年代经过风洞(wind tunnel experiments) 实验 系统研究后，又改进为鱼型，阻力系数为0.3 。
以后进一步改进为楔型，阻力系数为0.2。
MБайду номын сангаасst engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions much larger than this limiting volume.
The elemental volume must be small enough in macroscope
g
Viscosity
Reconsider flow between fixed and moving parallel plates (Couette flow)
Note: u(0)=0 and u(h)=U i.e., satisfies noslip boundary condition
1. 2. 3. 4.
5.
语言学概论第一章
Knowing the meaning of words.
Knowing the sounds and sound patterns in our lg constitutes only one part of our linguistic knowledge. In addition, knowing a lg is knowing that certain sound sequences signify certain concepts or meanings. If you do not know a lg, the words will be mainly incomprehensible, because the relationship between speech sounds and the meanings they represent , for the most part, an arbitrary one.
The proportions in the final score
Performance in class is 10%. Paper on some topic is 10%. Final exam is 80%.
CONTENTS
Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Review (1) Introduction to Linguistics(3) Phonetics (3) Phonology (3) Morphology (4) Syntax (4)
Noam Chomsky, Language and Mind
We use language every day. We live in a world of lg. We talk to our friends, our associates, our wives and husbands, our lovers, our teachers and our parents. We talk to bus drivers and total strangers. we talk face to face and over telephone, and everyone responds with more talk. Hardly any moment passes without someone talking, writing, or reading. Indeed, lg is most essential to mankind. Our lives increasingly depend on fast and successful use of lg. It is the possession of lg that distinguishes humans from animals.To understand our humanity one must understand the nature of lg that makes us human.
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Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts andchecked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isola-tion, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of hislanguage.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions andapplication of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thephenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaninglessindividual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practicalproblems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics. nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______ ____.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above.35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at languagefrom a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared byall the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _____ ____ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations ofthe speaker. This feature is called_________ .A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the nextthrough ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49.Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics 52.Arbitrariness 53 Productivity54. Displacement 55.Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58 Performance59. Langue 60 ParoleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronicstudy?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences? 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Reference KeyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary 25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive 30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics .48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solutionof practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings..56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention. Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well-developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created inthe imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study? The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash, etc. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.。