环境保护专业英语第十六章课文翻译

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环境专业英语翻译(中英对照)

Unit one Environmental Engineering环境工程What is this book about？这本书是关于什么的？The objective of this book is to introduce engineering and science students to the interdisciplinary study of environment problems；their cause，why they are of concern，and how we can control them. The book includes: 这本书的目的是使理工科的学生了解跨学科间的研究环境问题;它们的起因，为什么它们受到关注，以及我们怎样控制它们。

这本书包括：●Description of what is meant by environment and environmental systems描述环境和环境系统意味着什么●Information on the basic causes of environmental disturbances关于引起环境干扰基础原因的基本信息●Basic scientific knowledge necessary to understand the nature of environmental problems and to be able toquantify them理解环境问题本质，并能够定量计算它们所必要的基本科学知识●Current state of the technology of environmental control in its application to water，air and pollutionproblems目前适用于水，空气和环境污染问题的环境控制技术的现状●Considerable gaps in our current scientific knowledge of understanding and controlling many of thecomplex interactions between human activities and nature我们目前的科学知识在理解和控制人类活动和自然之间复杂的相互作用的科学知识上存在相当大的缺陷●Many environmental problems which could be eliminated or reduced by the application of currenttechnology，but which are not dealt with because of society’s lack of will to do so，or in many instance because of a lack of resources to do so.许多环境问题可以应用现有技术消除或减少，但没有得到处理是因为社会缺乏这样做的意愿，或者像许多例子那样因为缺乏资源。

环境科学专业英语单词句子翻译

1.在中国，由于鉴别体系及地区的差异，使得危险性固体废物的管理比较混乱。

危险性废物污染相对于常规生活垃圾已经越来越引起人们的重视。

Because of the difference of identification system and region，the management of hazardous solid waste in China are in chaos. Compared to normal live waste, hazardous solid waste has aroused people’s more and more attention..2.目前我国酸雨正在呈现急剧蔓延的趋势，是继欧洲，北美之后世界第三大酸雨区。

The acid rain in China is showing a tendency to spread raptly; China has became the third largest acid rain area next to europe and north america.3.酸雨的危害是多方面的，包括对人体健康，生态系统的和建筑设施都有直接或间接的危害。

The damage of acid rain is multiaspect, including the direct and indirect damage to human health, ecosystem and building facilities.4.酸雨可以使农作物大幅减产，对森林植物危害较大，常使得森林植物树叶枯黄，病虫害加剧，最终导致大面积死亡。

Crop yield can be decreased greatly by acid rain. It also does a great harm to forest plants which often lead leaves scorch and serious pest eventually cause plants die in large area.5.早在2000多年以前，我们的祖先已经提出环境保护的概念，直到1970年，环境保护被纳入我国的基本国策。

环境保护翻译

环境保护翻译Environment ProtectionWith the rapid development of industrialization and agriculture, the issue of environmental protection has gained increasing attention. Protecting the environment is crucial for the sustainable development of our planet.One of the main challenges faced in environmental protection is air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, releases harmful substances into the atmosphere, leading to the deterioration of air quality. This not only harms human health but also contributes to climate change. To mitigate air pollution, governments and individuals need to take measures such as promoting the use of clean energy, improving vehicle emissions standards, and reducing industrial emissions.Water pollution is another significant environmental concern. Industrial activities and the improper disposal of waste have led to the contamination of rivers, lakes, and oceans. This not only harms aquatic ecosystems but also affects human health. To protect water resources, it is essential to adopt strict regulations on industrial waste management, promote the use of environmentally friendly technologies, and raise public awareness about the importance of water conservation.In addition to air and water pollution, deforestation poses a severe threat to the environment. Forests play a vital role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems, regulating the climate, and conserving biodiversity. However, due to logging, agriculture, andurbanization, forests are being destroyed at an alarming rate. To combat deforestation, governments must enforce stricter laws on illegal logging, promote sustainable forestry practices, and support reforestation initiatives.To protect the environment effectively, international cooperation is of utmost importance. Pollution knows no boundaries, and it is essential for countries to work together to address global environmental problems. International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change, provide a framework for countries to collaborate on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Furthermore, sharing technology and knowledge can help developing countries gain access to eco-friendly solutions for environmental protection.Individuals also play a vital role in environmental conservation. Simple actions, such as reducing waste, recycling, and conserving energy, can make a significant difference in reducing our ecological footprint. Moreover, educating ourselves and others about the importance of environmental protection can help create a culture of sustainability.Overall, environmental protection is a pressing issue that requires the collective efforts of governments, organizations, and individuals. By taking concrete actions to mitigate air and water pollution, combat deforestation, promote international cooperation, and raise awareness, we can safeguard our planet for future generations.。

翻译二级口译实务-环境保护(Environmental+Protection)

翻译二级口译实务-环境保护(Environmental Protection)(总分：200.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、{{B}}英译汉{{/B}}(总题数：4，分数：100.00)1.{{B}} Passage 1{{/B}} To me, the most interesting and immediate question is not whether the United States will ratify the Kyoto Protocol, but whether other parties are prepared to work toward that goal. The next few months will determine whether other patties choose an agreement on their terms without the United States, or whether they prefer an agreement that may require some compromise of ideological positions, but will in fact be effective and will include the United States. // I believe the EU and others, for a number of reasons, will conclude that its interests and those of the environment lie in crafting an agreement that the United States can support. The United States accounts for approximately 25% of global industrial emissions. Any agreement that excludes the United States will not control global warming. In addition, European businesses may wonder why they are asked to assume significant new climate change obligations if U.S. competitors are not going to be subject to roughly the same rules. // I might note two additional factors relevant here: first, the idea of emissions trading is growing in popularity in capitals on the continent, and also in London and Brussels. Second, economists are warning that few countries, with the notable exception of the United Kingdom, are on track to meet their Kyoto commitments. I am hopeful that these forces will allow governments at COP-6 to mold the Protocol into a sensible, practical shape, one which the United States can support. // Let me say a word more about developing country's participation because this is an area where the United States is frequently misunderstood. The undeniable fact is that climate change is a global problem that requires a global solution. To be sure, industrialization in the North contributed enormously to increased greenhouse gas concentrations. Developed countries, including the Untied States, must take significant steps immediately. // Acting alone, however, developed countries cannot stabilize global greenhouse gas concentrations. From a scientific standpoint, meaningful participation by key developing countries is a necessity. Several large developing countries will soon become the world's leading emitters. Developing countries already produce 44% of global fossil fuel emissions. In addition, developing countries are responsible for a disproportionate share of deforestation and other land-use practices that have raised carbon concentrations. // Per capita energy intensity ratios in some, not all, developing countries continue to rise briskly, despite the existence of clean technologies that were not invented when developed countries were industrialized. In the immediate future, 80% of new electric power generation projects will occur in developing countries. All of us want those projects to use the latest cutting edge technologies. // I mention these facts not to bicker about past or future responsibility, for that detracts from our common cause of halting global warming, but to highlight the need for all countries to be a part of the solution. // In a very real sense, developing countries have the most to gain from an effective Protocol in which all the industrialized countries participate. For developing countries, unfortunately, have the least capacity to adapt to climate change. The longer we wait, the harder it will be to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at acceptable levels and the harder these countries will be hit. // The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change points the way: each nation should take national and international steps commensurate with its capacity to contribute to the global solution based on the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities". // Many developing countries have taken significant unilateral action already. China, for example, has sought to conserve energy and reduce emissions growth while simultaneously raising living standards dramatically. Without price reforms and energy efficiency gains, China's emissions would be more than 50% higher than they are now. // We recognize, moreover, that some developing countries may lack the capacity to assume and implement legally binding emissionstargets at this time. For these countries, other types of action would be appropriate at present. All developing countries should explore opportunities under the Clean Development Mechanism, adopt sound national policies on energy and land use, and pursue other climate-friendly measures under the Framework Convention. // The negotiating histories of both the Framework Convention and Kyoto Protocol demonstrate general agreement on the need to mitigate climate change while allowing for continued economic growth. The Untied States believes this formula remains the key to securing developing country action. Developing countries are finding in the Kyoto Protocol avenues to pursue their development and environmental goals simultaneously. There is a growing recognition of the potential of the Clean Development Mechanism to direct advanced technology and major capital flows to the developing world. // (Excerpts from "Under Secretary of State Loy on Kyoto Protocol" made by former Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs Frank E. Loy to American Bar Association Conference)（分数：25.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：()解析：对我来说，最关心和最迫切的问题不是美国能否批准《京都议定书》，而是其他参与国是否会朝这个目标努力。

环境保护专业英语第十六章课文翻译

Type and Sources of Air Pollutants空气污染物的类型和来源What is air pollution? Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough co ncentration to harm humans, other animals, vegetation or mate rials. 什么是空气污染？空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。

There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染。

A primary air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。

It can be a natural air component, such as carbon dioxide, that rise above its normal concentration, or something not usually found in the air, such as a lead compound emitted by cars burning leaded gasoline. 这种化学物质可以是一个自然的空气成分，如超过了正常浓度的二氧化碳，，或通常不会在空气中发现的，如汽车燃烧含铅汽油所排放出来的主要尾气。

A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in t he atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air component s.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。

环保英语短文带翻译

环保英语短文带翻译Title: The Importance of Environmental Protection。

Environmental protection has become a pressing issue in today's society. With the rapid development of industry and technology, human activities have caused serious damage to the environment. The earth's resources are being depleted at an alarming rate, and the air, water, and soil are being polluted. The consequences of these actions are numerous and severe, and they affect not only the natural world but also human health and well-being.One of the most significant consequences of environmental degradation is climate change. The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which trap heat in the atmosphere and cause global temperatures to rise. This, in turn, has led to more frequent and severe weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods. These events can cause widespread damage to infrastructure, homes, and crops, andcan even lead to loss of life.Another consequence of environmental degradation is the loss of biodiversity. Human activities such as habitat destruction, overfishing, and hunting have caused many species to become endangered or extinct. This loss of biodiversity not only affects the natural world but also has implications for human health and well-being. Many medicines and other products are derived from natural sources, and the loss of biodiversity could mean the loss of potential cures for diseases.In addition to these consequences, environmental degradation also has a significant impact on human health. Air and water pollution can cause respiratory problems, cancer, and other illnesses. Exposure to toxic chemicals can lead to neurological damage and other health problems. In some cases, these health effects can be severe and even life-threatening.Given the severity of these consequences, it is clear that environmental protection is of utmost importance. Wemust take action to reduce our impact on the environment and protect the earth's resources for future generations. This can be done through a variety of means, including reducing our use of fossil fuels, promoting renewable energy sources, protecting natural habitats, and reducing waste and pollution. It will take a concerted effort from individuals, businesses, and governments to make these changes, but the benefits will be well worth the effort.In conclusion, environmental protection is a critical issue that must be addressed if we are to ensure a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations. The consequences of environmental degradation are severe and far-reaching, and they affect not only the natural world but also human health and well-being. We must take action to reduce our impact on the environment and protect the earth's resources for future generations.。

环境专业英语翻译(中英对照)

保护环境英语作文带翻译-ProtectionoftheEnvironment

★以下是英⽂写作翻译频道为⼤家整理的《保护环境英语作⽂带翻译-Protection of the Environment》，供⼤家参考。

更多内容请看本站频道。

There are still many problems of environmental protection in recent years. One of the most serious problems is the serious pollution of air, water and soil. the polluted air does great harm to people’s health. The polluted water causes diseases and death. What is more, vegetation had been greatly reduced with the rapid growth of modern cities.To protect the environment, governments of many countries have done a lot. Legislative steps have been introduced to control air pollution, to protect the forest and sea resources and to stop any environmental pollution. Therefore, governments are playing the most important role in the environmental protection today.In my opinion, to protect environment, the government must take even more concrete measures. First, it should let people fully realize the importance of environmental protection through education. Second, much more efforts should be made to put the population planning policy into practice, because more people means more people means more pollution. Finally, those who destroy the environment intentionally should be severely punished. We should let them know that destroying environment means destroying mankind themselves.近⼏年环境保护仍存在许多问题。

环境科学与工程专业英语部分课文翻译(3、8、10、15、16、19、23)

Unit 3 What is Waste Reduction/Waste Minimization?什么是废物减量化，废物最少化美国花费了大量的时间在讨论像资源减量化，废物最小化，循环和阻止污染这些术语上，EPA已经提供了以下的定义。

资源减量化：减少在于一个过程中的大量废物的任何行为。

它包括，例如，过程调整，原料调整，提高管理和回收内在循环。

废物最少化：产生的废物最大程度减少，然后处理，存储，或者处置。

它包括了被导致了只要减量化与现在或将来威胁到人类健康和环境的最小化的目标一致的总容量或废物数量的减少或者废物毒性的减少，或者两方面兼备的发生器承担任何资源减量化或循环的活动。

回收：作为一个商业产品的代替品，或作为一个工业过程的原料的利用或再利用。

它包括了废物的有用的小部分或来自允许再用的去除了污染物的废物的在现场或离开现场的回收利用。

污染的防止：污染可能在生产过程之中产生，或者在当一个产品被用作商业用途或被消费者使用的时候产生。

这样可能在三个方式上被阻止：改变投入/减少依赖有毒物或有害的原材料；改变过程/增加效率/提高类似设备修改的维修保养，更好的管理，在过程中闭环循环；或者改变产出/减小对有毒或者有害产品的依赖。

随着1984年危险废物和固体废物修正案资源保护和恢复法的通过，美国国会建立一个国家政策来表明回收或消除危险废物的产生重要性。

美国国会宣称它是一项无论在美国哪里都可行的国家政策，要尽可能迅速地回收或消除危险废物的产生。

然而产生的废物还是应被处理、储存或处置，从而尽量减少现在和将来对人类健康和环境的威胁。

在1990年，美国国会通过污染防治法，建立了一个全国废物管理政策。

表明第一污染应该被预防或回收；;第二，废物应该用一种环保安全的方式进行循环利用；第三，废物应该被处理;最后，废物应该被除去或降解到环境。

在美国，随着这些和其他环境法规的通过，废物最少化成为一种重要的工作理念.废物回收/废物最少化技术同时，对于一些特定的工厂，废物最少化的当然是在具体的工厂或在实地，能用的技术能被分为以下主要几类：●product changes产品改变●process changes过程改变●equipment modifications设备改造●operating practices操作训练●recycling and reuse回收和再利用在实践中，尽量减少废物的机会是有限的，只有被工厂人员的聪明才智所利用. 这种技术已经被运用与大数量的工业和工业化生产过程，同时也被应用于有危险性和非危险性的废物。

保护环境英语作文翻译

保护环境英语作文翻译Title: Protecting the Environment。

As our world becomes more industrialized and populated, the need to protect our environment becomes increasingly urgent. The effects of pollution, deforestation, andclimate change are already being felt around the globe, and if we don't take action now, the consequences could be catastrophic.One of the most pressing environmental issues facing us today is climate change. The burning of fossil fuels suchas coal, oil, and gas releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which trap heat and cause the planet to warm up. This can lead to more extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and hurricanes, as well as rising sea levels that threaten coastal communities.To combat climate change, we need to reduce ourreliance on fossil fuels and transition to cleaner,renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar power. We can also make changes in our daily lives, such asdriving less, eating less meat, and using reusable bags and containers instead of disposable ones.Another major environmental issue is pollution. Whether it's air pollution from factories and cars, water pollution from agricultural runoff and sewage, or plastic pollutionin our oceans, pollution is having a devastating impact on our health and the health of our planet. To address this problem, we need to reduce our use of single-use plastics, implement stricter regulations on industrial andagricultural practices, and invest in cleaner technologies.Deforestation is also a significant environmental concern. Trees play a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and providing habitat for countless species of plants and animals. However, deforestation for agriculture, logging, and other purposes is destroying these vital ecosystems at an alarming rate. To protect our forests, we need to support sustainable forestry practices, promote reforestation efforts, andreduce our consumption of products that contribute to deforestation, such as palm oil and beef.In addition to these issues, there are many other ways in which we can protect the environment. We can conserve water by taking shorter showers and fixing leaky faucets, recycle as much as possible, and support environmentally friendly businesses and policies.Ultimately, protecting the environment requires a collective effort from individuals, businesses, and governments around the world. By taking action now, we can help ensure a healthy and sustainable future for ourselves and future generations.。

环境工程专业英语翻译Unit16methodsofwastedisposal

Unit 16 methods of waste disposalIt is inevitable that as there are different types of waste ,there will be varying methods of waste disposal. Briefly most solid wastes are deposited on land as tips or spoil heaps ,or as land infill to quarries and mine shafts ,or as dumps containing a large range of materials .In addition ,small quantities of waste are dumped into the sea. The methods of disposal are summarized in Figure 4-1.The diagram shows that there are various stages to the process. Waste is produced continually so there is often a need for some sort of storage facility. In the case of some mineral extractive industries such as deep mined coal ,china clay and ironstone, there is storage on the working site as spoil heaps ,but this is waste deposition rather than disposal .In order industries the stored waste often has to be transported to disposal areas and tipped or dumped .Alternatively ,the stored waste may be treated in various ways before disposal .The treatment may reduce the bulk ,or make disposal easier ,or extract materials that can be reused or recycled back into manufacturing processes .In respect of environmental pollution the quantity ,the treatment ,and disposal methods of waste are of prime importance.Methods used by local authoritiesThe Public Health Act 1936 enable Local Authorities to collect ,treat ,and dispose of all refuse from the domestic sector and such industrial and trade waste as requested .In 1973 ,Local Authorities in England dealt with 19.5 M tones of waste by various methods.(see Table 4-4).About 15 M tones of the tipped waste is household refuse consisting of cinders ash ,dust ,vegetable and waste food matter ,paper ,board ,metals ,rags ,glass, and plastics whilst the remaining 4.5 M tones is from trade sources. About 86% of this waste is now retreated and is disposed of by land tipping .One quarter of this waste is just dumped in an uncontrolled or non systematic manner .The other 75% is dealt with by controlled tipping .This means the waste is deposited spread ,and compacted into shallow layers ,and covered with soil to assist decomposition and sealing .This method should ensure that loose litter does not blow about ,there is no unpleasant odour ,and flies and vermin do not breed to produce a health hazard .An alternative to tipping is the use of waste for land in filling .Disused quarries ,or land which is derelict by virtue of being low lying and badly drained ,or derelict as a result of spoil tips can be reclaimed by refuse in fillingThe storage of suitable land for tipping purposes has caused some Local Authorities to consider alternative methods of waste disposal .Controlled tipping is usually cheap in repect of capital and labour costs but it can become costly if highly priced land has to be purchased for future tipping .A way of avoiding this ,and assisting land conservation ,is to reduce the bulk quantity of the waste before tipping .This allows existing tips to be used for a longer time reduces the need for new ones ,and reduces labor costs for tipping operations .Waste can be pretreated by pulverizing, or mechanically breaking it down into smaller particle sizes ,which can reduce the bulk b up to 33%by volume .Whist the cost of a pulverizing plant is high ,the savaging of materials ofr recycling ,and less waste to deposit can help to off set the initial capital cost .Another pretreatment wast。

环保措施的短文英语翻译

Environmental Protection MeasuresThe issue of environmental protection has become an increasingly important topic in today’s society. With the rapid development of modern industry and technology, the environment has been put under tremendous pressure and is experiencing severe problems such as global warming, climate change, air pollution, and waste disposal.In order to solve these problems and maintain a healthy environment, various measures have been put in place. Here are some of the most effective environmental protection measures:1.Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: This is one of the simplest and mostefficient ways of protecting the environment. By reducing the amount of waste we create, reusing items, and recycling materials, we can significantly reduce the amount of waste that is sent to landfills and reduce the damage that waste causes to our environment.2.Energy Conservation: Energy conservation is also an importantmeasure for environmental protection. We can save energy by reducing ourconsumption of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and by using more energy-efficient appliances.3.Renewable Energy: Renewable energy is a key part of the fight againstclimate change. By using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal power instead of traditional fossil fuels, we can significantly reduce our carbon footprint and help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.4.Green Transportation: Green transportation is another importantmeasure for environmental protection. By using public transportation, biking, walking, or carpooling, we can reduce our carbon emissions and save on fuel costs.5.Conservation of Natural Resources: Conserving natural resourcessuch as water and land is also important for environmental protection. We can save water by using efficient irrigation systems and using rainwater harvesting techniques.These are just a few examples of the many environmental protection measures that are available to us. By implementing these measures and taking responsibility for protecting the environment, we can help to ensure a healthier and cleaner future for ourselves and for generations to come.。

建环专业英语课后翻译（汉译英）

10.翻译：翻译：1. V apor compression compression refrigeration refrigeration refrigeration system system system is is is composed composed composed by by by compressor compressor ，condenser ，expansion expansion valve valve valve and and evaporator ，connected with pipe line to form an enclosed system. Refrigerant changes heat with substance to be be cooled cooled cooled in in in evaporator. evaporator. Refrigerator Refrigerator absorbs absorbs absorbs heat heat heat from from from substance substance substance to to to be be be cooled cooled cooled and and and evaporated. evaporated. evaporated. The The compressor draws the low pressure vapor in its suction side and then compressed it to high pressure before discharge. 2. During During the the the cycle, cycle, cycle, compressor, compressor, compressor, which which which is is is heart heart heart of of of the the the system, system, system, plays plays plays a a a part part part in in in compressing compressing compressing and and and transporting transporting refrigerant vapor and causing low pressure in evaporator and high pressure in condenser. Flow control valve throttles throttles refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant flow flow flow to to to reduce reduce reduce its its its pressure pressure pressure and and and regulates regulates regulates refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant flow flow flow rate rate rate of of of entering entering entering evaporator. evaporator. Evaporator, which is an equipment of refrigerating effect output, refrigerant absorbs heat form substance to be cooled to realize refrigerating. Condenser, which is an equipment of heat output, coolant in it takes away heat from refrigerant and heat from the work consumed by compressor. 3. In liquid evaporating refrigerating systems, refrigerant is required to evaporate at low temperature. It absorbs heat heat from from from objects objects objects to to to be be be cooled. cooled. cooled. Then Then Then condenses condenses condenses at at at higher higher higher temperature temperature temperature and and and discharges discharges discharges heat heat heat to to to environment environment meanwhile. Therefore, only those evaporate and condense within range of working temperature can be used as refrigerants. Most refrigerants are in gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. 4. Mixed Mixed refrigerant refrigerant refrigerant is is is composed composed composed by by by two two two kinds kinds kinds or or or more more more pure pure pure refrigerants. refrigerants. refrigerants. Due Due Due to to to limitation limitation limitation to to to type type type and and performance of pure refrigerants, mixture of refrigerant offers more freedom to modulate performance and amplify choice of refrigerant. 9翻译翻译1. 1. Boiler Boiler Boiler is is is a a a kind kind kind of of of heat heat heat exchange exchange exchange device device device which which which turns turns turns chemical chemical chemical energy energy energy and and and excess excess excess heat heat heat from from from industrial industrial production process or other heat source into steam or hot water with certain temperature and pressure. 2. 2. According According According to to to heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer features features features of of of boiler, boiler, boiler, industrial industrial industrial boiler boiler boiler heat heat heat surface surface surface can can can be be be divided divided divided into into into radiant radiant radiant heat heat surface and convection heat surface. Radiant heat surface is that portion of surface of being located in combustion chamber and receive radiant heat. Manly means water cooled wall. Convection heat surface, located in boiler flue, is that portion of surface swashed directly by high temperature flue gas to transfer heat by convection. 3. 3. Boiler Boiler Boiler heat heat heat efficiency efficiency efficiency is is is an an an important important important technique technique technique index index index of of of boiler. boiler. boiler. Boiler Boiler Boiler heat heat heat efficiency efficiency efficiency means means means when when when boiler boiler operating with rating load, how many percent of the heat from fully burning of fuel sent into boiler per hour to produce steam or hot water. 4. Boiler has broad applications and various types. Some common criteria used in classifying them are: structure of boiler, application of boiler, fuel or energy used by boiler, type of combusting, ventilation mode, circulation mode and arrangement of boiler drum 8 翻译翻译1. 1. HV HV AC AC means means means to to to realize realize realize regulating regulating regulating and and and controlling controlling controlling of of of temperature, temperature, temperature, humidity, humidity, humidity, cleanliness cleanliness cleanliness and and and air air air velocity velocity velocity for for certain certain room room room or or or space, space, space, providing providing providing adequate adequate adequate fresh fresh fresh air air air meantime. meantime. meantime. HV HV AC AC is is is called called called Air Air Air conditioning conditioning conditioning for for for short. short. short. Air Air conditioning can realize overall controlling to heat and humidity environment and air quality in buildings, or to say it contains partial function of heating and ventilation. 2. 2. All All All -air -air -air system system system is is a a system system system that that that cooling cooling cooling or or or heating heating heating load load load in in in room room room is is is undertaken completely undertaken completely by by air. air. air. An An all-air system supplies sensible heat cooling capacity and latent heat cooling capacity by delivering cold air into room. Processes Processes of of of cooling cooling cooling down down down and and and dehumidification dehumidification dehumidification of of of air air air are are are accomplished accomplished accomplished by by by air air air handling handling handling unit unit unit which which which locates locates completely completely in in in air air air conditioning conditioning conditioning machine machine machine room. room. room. Supplemental Supplemental Supplemental cooling cooling cooling in in in room room room is is is no no no more more more required, required, required, yet yet yet heat heat heat of of supply air can be achieved either in air conditioning machine room or in individual room. Air treatment for all-air system is mainly centralized in air conditioning machine room, so it is commonly called central air conditioning system. 3. Air -water system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken by both air and water. Besides supplying treated fresh air to room, terminal unit with circulation media of water installed in room heats and cools indoor air. 7 翻译翻译1. Ventilation is main approach to ensure indoor air quality. That is, displacing indoor air of higher contaminant concentration concentration with with with outdoor outdoor outdoor air air air of of of much much much lower lower lower contaminant contaminant contaminant concentration. concentration. concentration. V V entilation rate rate needed needed needed should should should be be determined determined by by by principle principle principle of of of diluting diluting diluting indoor indoor indoor contaminant contaminant contaminant to to to reach reach reach concentration concentration concentration specified specified specified by by by standard. standard. standard. Main Main contaminant contaminant source source source is is is people people people in in in people people people occupied occupied occupied buildings. buildings. buildings. So So So the the the requisite requisite requisite ventilation ventilation ventilation rate rate rate ––fresh fresh air air air rate rate rate is is ascertained by people. That is, fresh air rate is ascertained by diluting carbon dioxide released by people. In order to to take take take into into into account account account diluting diluting diluting other other other contaminant contaminant contaminant and and and odor odor odor aroused aroused aroused by by by people people people’’s s activity activity activity at at at the the the same same same time, time, time, many many countries control carbon dioxide at 0.1%, while suggestion value of WHO is 0.25%. 2. Air condition buildings are commonly well airtight. If no reasonable exists, indoor air quality in it is not better than than common common common building building building with with with well well well ventilating. ventilating. ventilating. V entilation V entilation issues issues issues are are are accomplished accomplished accomplished by by by air air air conditioning conditioning conditioning system system except special treatment for hazardous gases released by technique process in air conditioning buildings. Special fresh air system is installed in air-water system to supply fresh air to individual room to fulfill task of ventilation and improve air quality. Outdoor fresh air should be introduced into all-air system and mixed with return air, and then the mixture is delivered to room to dilute indoor contaminant after been treated. 3. Local air exhaust is a kind of local ventilation which removes contaminant directly from contaminant source. When When contaminant contaminant contaminant occurs occurs occurs centrally centrally centrally in in in somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, local local local air air air exhaust exhaust exhaust is is the the most most most effective effective effective way way way to to to treat treat treat harm harm harm of of contaminant to environment. If overall ventilation is adopted in such situation, contaminant may spread in rooms. When contaminant occurs in large amount, ventilation volume needed to dilute it can be too much to realize in practice. Local air exhaust system consists of exhaust hood 、fan 、air cleaner 、air ducts 、exhaust outlet. 4. 4. Nature Nature Nature ventilation ventilation ventilation caused caused caused by by by heat heat heat pressure pressure pressure or or or wind wind wind pressure pressure pressure is is is widely widely widely used used used ventilation. ventilation. ventilation. Common Common Common residential residential building, office building, industrial workshop depend on nature ventilation to ensure indoor air quality. Otherwise, natural ventilation is a kind of ventilation which is difficult to be controlled effectively. Only by understanding its basic principle and taking certain measure can we get nature ventilation going on according to out preset mode. 5. Ventilation rate is always self-balanced practically when a room is ventilated. Air balance we referred to here means designing balance in the light of willing of designer or occupier. If balance designed has not performed, ventilation requirements may not be satisfied when system practically operates in balanced state. For example, a set of local exhaust system is installed to eliminate contaminant emitted by contaminant source in room. But the system doesn ’t work well when operating and ventilation rate does n’n’t reach the need. The problem lies in that the t reach the need. The problem lies in that the room is in basement and has good air permeability performance. Meanwhile, absence of air intake system and passage gives rise to higher negative pressure and reduces ventilation rate of air exhaust system. 6 翻译翻译1. nature gas is generally divided into four kinds: gas exploited from gas well of gas field is called pure natural gas or gas of gas well; gas exploited accompanying with petroleum is called petroleum gas or petroleum accompanied gas; gas which has light fraction of petroleum is called condensate gas of gas field; gas drawn from coal bed of coal well is called coal mine well gas. 2. Density variation should be taken into account when computing gas flow in pipes. Density of gas reduces with declining of pressure along the pipe line. Only in low pressure pipes the change in density of gas can be omitted. 3. 3. For For For the the the sake sake sake of of of making making making distribution distribution distribution system system system with with with very very very high high high economical economical economical index, index, index, optimal optimal optimal gas gas gas pipeline pipeline pipeline route route route is is selected and number of gas pressure regulating room and distribution center is determined besides correct choice of of pipe pipe pipe diameter. diameter. diameter. There There There are are are generally generally generally many many many kinds kinds kinds of of of design design design schemes schemes schemes to to to be be be encountered encountered encountered during during during the the the process process process of of designing, therefore an optimal scheme should be picked out from them. 5 翻译翻译1. 1. Heating Heating Heating by by by convection convection convection which which which is is is major major major type type type of of of heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer is is is called called called convection convection convection heating. heating. Heat Heat emitting emitting equipment in the system is radiator, so this kind of system is also called radiator heating system. It supplies heat to room room by by by heat heat heat convection. convection. convection. Radiant Radiant Radiant heating heating heating is is a a kind kind kind of heating of heating type type mainly mainly mainly by by by radiant radiant heat heat transfer. transfer. transfer. Main Main Main heat heat emitting equipment of radiant heating system is metal radiant panel or part of ceiling 、floor 、wall of building as radiant surface. 2. C irculating system can be divided into gravity circulating system and forced circulating system according to circulating power. System System circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. System circulating by mechanical force is called gravity circulating system. The force of gravity heating system depends on change of water temperature of the loop 3. 3. There There There are are are many many many factors factors factors influence influence influence heat heat heat transfer transfer transfer coefficient coefficient coefficient of of of radiator: radiator: radiator: manufacture manufacture manufacture condition condition condition of of of radiator radiator (material, geometric dimension, structure form, spray coating of surface etc.) and application condition of radiator (media, temperature, flow rate, indoor air temperature and velocity, fitting type and combined piece etc.). They all synthetically influence heat emitting performance of radiator. 4 翻译翻译1．Main issue of fluid dynamics is space distribution of velocity and pressure, velocity is more important between the two, inertia force and viscous force have close relationship with velocity. In the two forces, inertia force occurs with with velocity velocity velocity variation variation variation of of of mass mass mass point point point itself itself itself while while while viscous viscous viscous force force force is is is caused caused caused by by by velocity velocity velocity difference difference difference between between between flow flow layers and mass points. 2. Law of variation of viscosity coefficient with temperature is different between water and air. Viscosity of water reduces with increasing of temperature while increases for air. This is because viscosity is result of attractive force between articles and irregular thermal motion to arouse momentum exchange of articles. When temperature rises, attractive attractive force force force between between between articles articles articles decreases decreases decreases and and and momentum momentum momentum increases. increases. increases. Conversely, Conversely, Conversely, when when when temperature temperature temperature decreases, decreases, attractive force between articles increases and momentum decreases. 3. Heat transfer caused by density difference and gravity is called natural convection. Heat transfer coefficient of natural convection is generally lower than that of forced convection, therefore, when computing total heat gain or heat loss, the main point is radiant heat should not be ignored. Radiant heat transfer and natural convection may have have the the the same same same order order order of of of magnitude magnitude magnitude even even even under under under indoor indoor indoor temperature temperature temperature conditions, conditions, conditions, because because because indoor indoor indoor wall wall wall temperature temperature affects comfortable sensation of human body. 3 翻译翻译1. Heat conduction is thought as heat transfers from high temperature zone to low temperature zone in object by gradually energy exchange with particles of substance. During the conduction, there is no specific displacement of articles. But for mental, motion of free electrons is greatly helpful to heat conduction. 2. Fluid directly connected with the surface is heated and becomes less-dense by heat conduction and moves upwards due to density difference with adjacent fluid. This motion is hindered by viscosity of fluid. The heat transmission is affected by the following factors ：（1）gravity caused by heat expansion ；（2）viscosity （3）heat diffusion This heat transmission is regard as depending on acceleration of gravity 、coefficient of thermal expansion 、coefficient of motion viscosity and coefficient of thermal conductivity. 3. As for surface with different geometric shape, radiant characteristic and direction, when heat transfer rate is evaluated, assumptions are: (1) all surfaces are gray or black; (2) radiation or reflective diffuse reflection; (3) the whole surface parameters are homogeneous . (4) emissivity is equal to absorptivity and has no relationship with temperature of project source. (5) objects between two radiant surfaces neither emit nor absorb radiation. These assumptions assumptions are are are used used used due due due to to to providing providing providing simplification simplification simplification to to large large content, content, content, although although although the the the results results results are are are only only only thought thought thought as as approximate. 2 翻译翻译1. Energy transfers between system and environment under temperature difference is called heat. Heat transfer of system and environment stops when system and environment are in thermal equilibrium. Once heat enters system through boundary, it turns into a part of system storage energy, that is, internal energy. It is obvious that heat is process factor relevant to process, while internal energy is state factor depending on thermodynamic state. 2. T he Carnot cycle and Carnot theorem have important theoretical and impractical meaning in the research of thermodynamics. It provides upper limits on efficiency of heat engine and theoretically proposes the approach to increase efficiency. The efficiency of other impractical cycle is always less than the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating between the same two reservoirs. 3. The meaning of the increase of entropy principle：(1) estimate the direction of a process by the increase of entropy principle of an isolated system；（2）the increase of entropy principle can serve as judgment of system equilibrium-when entropy of an isolated system reaches maximum value，system is under equilibrium state. （3）the increase of entropy principle has close relationship with the irreversibility of a process. The more irreversible，the more increase of entropy. So it is used to evaluate perfect of thermodynamical performance of a process 。

环境保护英文作文翻译

环境保护英文作文翻译英文：Environmental protection is an important issue that we should all pay attention to. As individuals, we can take small steps to reduce our carbon footprint, such as using reusable bags and water bottles, turning off lights when we leave a room, and using public transportation or carpooling instead of driving alone. However, the responsibility of protecting the environment also falls on governments and corporations.Governments can implement policies and regulations that promote environmental protection, such as investing in renewable energy sources and imposing penalties on companies that pollute. Corporations can also take steps to reduce their environmental impact, such as implementing sustainable practices in their operations and using eco-friendly materials in their products.One example of a company that has made significant strides in environmental protection is Patagonia. They have implemented sustainable practices in their operations, such as using renewable energy sources and reducing waste, and they also use eco-friendly materials in their products. In addition, they donate a portion of their profits to environmental causes.中文：环境保护是一个我们都应该关注的重要问题。

环境专业英语翻译

cropland residue
n.农田，植作物之农地 n.残余，滤渣，剩余物
In croplands and forests，such protection is due mainly to the cover of plants and their residues. 在农田和森林中，土壤保护主要是以植物覆盖和他们的残留来实现的。
soil that add up to serious soil erosion problems. 建筑物、道路和其他工程项目的限建场地裸露
的分散在各个区域，加重了土壤侵蚀的问题。
phase
v.按计划进行，使配合
Control of sediment from constrain sites requires carefully phase land clearing, along with vegetative and artificial soil covers, and installation of various barriers and sediment-holding ponds.
还有一些控制污染来源的措施比如减少使用杀虫剂和肥料控制工业废水和污水的排放等措mainmethodspollutedsoilphysicalmeasureecologicalmeasurechemicalmeasureinstancedeeptillageorganismabsorptionusinginhibitororganicfertilizers改善受污染土壤质量的主要方法是物理措施生态措施和化学措施例如深耕作生物吸收使用抑制剂和有机肥料等
terrace
n.梯田，梯田的一层
Engineering measures are using terraces,or some other buildings to sustain soil;ecological measures mainly use plants to sustain soil and improve soil quality. 工程方法是使用梯田或其它建筑物来保持土壤; 生态方法主要是运用植物来保持土壤和改善土壤质量。

环境工程专业英语翻译Unit 10-16 (A4)

Unit 10 水污染与治理1854年英国伦敦爆发了大规模的流行性霍乱。

此事明确地证实了污水和疾病之间的关系。

当初以公共健康为目的所采取的污染控制，依然是许多地区的主要目的。

然而，水资源的保持，产鱼区的防护，以及娱乐活动用水的维持在今天也成为关注的焦点。

紧随第二次世界大战之后所产生的城市人口密度突增和工业化进程的加剧，都使得水污染问题越见明显。

致使对于水污染的关注程度在70年代中期达到了顶峰。

水污染是一个不准确的术语，它并未指出污染物的种类和来源。

而我们处理废水问题的方式往往取决于以下几个方面：污染物是否需要氧气，是否助长藻类，是否有传染性，是否有毒，或者仅仅是否好看。

水源的污染可能直接来自生活污水的排放或工厂污水排放（点源），也可能间接地由空气污染、农业排水或城市排水（非点源）所引发。

化学上所谓的纯水仅仅是水分子的集合。

无论在野外的河流或湖泊、云层或雨水中，还是在下雪期间，极地的冰帽地区，这种物质在自然界均不能找到。

然而在实验室中可以制备非常纯净的水，但是存在一定的困难。

因为水极易接受和容纳外来物质。

城市污水，也被称作生活污水，是一种复杂的混合物。

它包含水（通常超过99％）以及悬浮或溶解的有机和无机污染物。

这些污染物的浓度通常很低并且以mg/L来表示，也就是说，每升混合物含有多少毫克污染物。

重量与体积比也常用来表示在水、废水、工业废水和其它稀释溶液中的污染物浓度。

微生物任何地方只要存在适合的食物，充足的湿度和适当的温度，微生物即可大量繁殖。

而生活污水为各种各样的微生物提供了一个理想的环境。

这些微生物主要是细菌，某些病毒和原生动物。

废水中的大多数微生物是无害的，并且可借助生化过程，将有机物转化为稳定的最终产物。

但是当一些人患有可通过有毒废水传播的传染性疾病时，其排泄物所携带的致病病原体，极有可能成为污水的组成部分。

虽然在发达国家，类似于水传播的细菌性疾病，例如霍乱、伤寒和肺结核，病毒性疾病例如传染性的肝炎和原生虫引起的痢疾，已经不再是问题，但是在那些经过适当处理过的污水不能被公共利用的地区仍然存在着很大威胁。

建环专业英语课后翻译(汉译英)

10.翻译：1.Vapor compression refrigeration system is composed by compressor，condenser，expansion valve andevaporator，connected with pipe line to form an enclosed system. Refrigerant changes heat with substance to be cooled in evaporator. Refrigerator absorbs heat from substance to be cooled and evaporated. The compressor draws the low pressure vapor in its suction side and then compressed it to high pressure before discharge.2.During the cycle, compressor, which is heart of the system, plays a part in compressing and transportingrefrigerant vapor and causing low pressure in evaporator and high pressure in condenser. Flow control valve throttles refrigerant flow to reduce its pressure and regulates refrigerant flow rate of entering evaporator.Evaporator, which is an equipment of refrigerating effect output, refrigerant absorbs heat form substance to be cooled to realize refrigerating. Condenser, which is an equipment of heat output, coolant in it takes away heat from refrigerant and heat from the work consumed by compressor.3.In liquid evaporating refrigerating systems, refrigerant is required to evaporate at low temperature. It absorbsheat from objects to be cooled. Then condenses at higher temperature and discharges heat to environment meanwhile. Therefore, only those evaporate and condense within range of working temperature can be used as refrigerants. Most refrigerants are in gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure.4.Mixed refrigerant is composed by two kinds or more pure refrigerants. Due to limitation to type andperformance of pure refrigerants, mixture of refrigerant offers more freedom to modulate performance and amplify choice of refrigerant.9翻译1. Boiler is a kind of heat exchange device which turns chemical energy and excess heat from industrial production process or other heat source into steam or hot water with certain temperature and pressure.2. According to heat transfer features of boiler, industrial boiler heat surface can be divided into radiant heat surface and convection heat surface. Radiant heat surface is that portion of surface of being located in combustion chamber and receive radiant heat. Manly means water cooled wall. Convection heat surface, located in boiler flue, is that portion of surface swashed directly by high temperature flue gas to transfer heat by convection.3. Boiler heat efficiency is an important technique index of boiler. Boiler heat efficiency means when boiler operating with rating load, how many percent of the heat from fully burning of fuel sent into boiler per hour to produce steam or hot water.4. Boiler has broad applications and various types. Some common criteria used in classifying them are: structure of boiler, application of boiler, fuel or energy used by boiler, type of combusting, ventilation mode, circulation mode and arrangement of boiler drum8 翻译1. HV AC means to realize regulating and controlling of temperature, humidity, cleanliness and air velocity for certain room or space, providing adequate fresh air meantime. HV AC is called Air conditioning for short. Air conditioning can realize overall controlling to heat and humidity environment and air quality in buildings, or to say it contains partial function of heating and ventilation.2. All -air system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken completely by air. An all-air system supplies sensible heat cooling capacity and latent heat cooling capacity by delivering cold air into room. Processes of cooling down and dehumidification of air are accomplished by air handling unit which locates completely in air conditioning machine room. Supplemental cooling in room is no more required, yet heat of supply air can be achieved either in air conditioning machine room or in individual room. Air treatment for all-air system is mainly centralized in air conditioning machine room, so it is commonly called central air conditioning system.3. Air -water system is a system that cooling or heating load in room is undertaken by both air and water. Besides supplying treated fresh air to room, terminal unit with circulation media of water installed in room heats and cools indoor air.7 翻译1. Ventilation is main approach to ensure indoor air quality. That is, displacing indoor air of higher contaminant concentration with outdoor air of much lower contaminant concentration. Ventilation rate needed should be determined by principle of diluting indoor contaminant to reach concentration specified by standard. Main contaminant source is people in people occupied buildings. So the requisite ventilation rate –fresh air rate is ascertained by people. That is, fresh air rate is ascertained by diluting carbon dioxide released by people. In order to take into account diluting other contaminant and odor aroused by people’s activity at the same time, many countries control carbon dioxide at 0.1%, while suggestion value of WHO is 0.25%.2. Air condition buildings are commonly well airtight. If no reasonable exists, indoor air quality in it is not better than common building with well ventilating. Ventilation issues are accomplished by air conditioning system except special treatment for hazardous gases released by technique process in air conditioning buildings. Special fresh air system is installed in air-water system to supply fresh air to individual room to fulfill task of ventilation and improve air quality. Outdoor fresh air should be introduced into all-air system and mixed with return air, and then the mixture is delivered to room to dilute indoor contaminant after been treated.3. Local air exhaust is a kind of local ventilation which removes contaminant directly from contaminant source. When contaminant occurs centrally in somewhere, local air exhaust is the most effective way to treat harm of contaminant to environment. If overall ventilation is adopted in such situation, contaminant may spread in rooms. When contaminant occurs in large amount, ventilation volume needed to dilute it can be too much to realize in practice. Local air exhaust system consists of exhaust hood、fan、air cleaner、air ducts、exhaust outlet.4. Nature ventilation caused by heat pressure or wind pressure is widely used ventilation. Common residential building, office building, industrial workshop depend on nature ventilation to ensure indoor air quality. Otherwise,natural ventilation is a kind of ventilation which is difficult to be controlled effectively. Only by understanding its basic principle and taking certain measure can we get nature ventilation going on according to out preset mode.5. Ventilation rate is always self-balanced practically when a room is ventilated. Air balance we referred to here means designing balance in the light of willing of designer or occupier. If balance designed has not performed, ventilation requirements may not be satisfied when system practically operates in balanced state. For example, a set of local exhaust system is installed to eliminate contaminant emitted by contaminant source in room. But the system doesn’t work well when operating and ventilation rate does n’t reach the need. The problem lies in that the room is in basement and has good air permeability performance. Meanwhile, absence of air intake system and passage gives rise to higher negative pressure and reduces ventilation rate of air exhaust system.6 翻译1. nature gas is generally divided into four kinds: gas exploited from gas well of gas field is called pure natural gas or gas of gas well; gas exploited accompanying with petroleum is called petroleum gas or petroleum accompanied gas; gas which has light fraction of petroleum is called condensate gas of gas field; gas drawn from coal bed of coal well is called coal mine well gas.2. Density variation should be taken into account when computing gas flow in pipes. Density of gas reduces with declining of pressure along the pipe line. Only in low pressure pipes the change in density of gas can be omitted.3. For the sake of making distribution system with very high economical index, optimal gas pipeline route is selected and number of gas pressure regulating room and distribution center is determined besides correct choice of pipe diameter. There are generally many kinds of design schemes to be encountered during the process of designing, therefore an optimal scheme should be picked out from them.5 翻译1. Heating by convection which is major type of heat transfer is called convection heating. Heat emitting equipment in the system is radiator, so this kind of system is also called radiator heating system. It supplies heat to room by heat convection. Radiant heating is a kind of heating type mainly by radiant heat transfer. Main heat emitting equipment of radiant heating system is metal radiant panel or part of ceiling、floor、wall of building as radiant surface.2. C irculating system can be divided into gravity circulating system and forced circulating system according to circulating power. System circulating by water density difference is called gravity circulating system. System circulating by mechanical force is called gravity circulating system. The force of gravity heating system depends on change of water temperature of the loop3. There are many factors influence heat transfer coefficient of radiator: manufacture condition of radiator (material, geometric dimension, structure form, spray coating of surface etc.) and application condition of radiator (media, temperature, flow rate, indoor air temperature and velocity, fitting type and combined piece etc.). They all synthetically influence heat emitting performance of radiator.4翻译1．Main issue of fluid dynamics is space distribution of velocity and pressure, velocity is more important between the two, inertia force and viscous force have close relationship with velocity. In the two forces, inertia force occurs with velocity variation of mass point itself while viscous force is caused by velocity difference between flow layers and mass points.2. Law of variation of viscosity coefficient with temperature is different between water and air. Viscosity of water reduces with increasing of temperature while increases for air. This is because viscosity is result of attractive force between articles and irregular thermal motion to arouse momentum exchange of articles. When temperature rises, attractive force between articles decreases and momentum increases. Conversely, when temperature decreases, attractive force between articles increases and momentum decreases.3. Heat transfer caused by density difference and gravity is called natural convection. Heat transfer coefficient of natural convection is generally lower than that of forced convection, therefore, when computing total heat gain or heat loss, the main point is radiant heat should not be ignored. Radiant heat transfer and natural convection may have the same order of magnitude even under indoor temperature conditions, because indoor wall temperature affects comfortable sensation of human body.3翻译1. Heat conduction is thought as heat transfers from high temperature zone to low temperature zone in object by gradually energy exchange with particles of substance. During the conduction, there is no specific displacement of articles. But for mental, motion of free electrons is greatly helpful to heat conduction.2. Fluid directly connected with the surface is heated and becomes less-dense by heat conduction and moves upwards due to density difference with adjacent fluid. This motion is hindered by viscosity of fluid. The heat transmission is affected by the following factors：（1）gravity caused by heat expansion；（2）viscosity （3）heat diffusionThis heat transmission is regard as depending on acceleration of gravity、coefficient of thermal expansion、coefficient of motion viscosity and coefficient of thermal conductivity.3. As for surface with different geometric shape, radiant characteristic and direction, when heat transfer rate is evaluated, assumptions are: (1) all surfaces are gray or black; (2) radiation or reflective diffuse reflection; (3) the whole surface parameters are homogeneous. (4) emissivity is equal to absorptivity and has no relationship with temperature of project source. (5) objects between two radiant surfaces neither emit nor absorb radiation. These assumptions are used due to providing simplification to large content, although the results are only thought as approximate.2 翻译1. Energy transfers between system and environment under temperature difference is called heat. Heat transfer of system and environment stops when system and environment are in thermal equilibrium. Once heat enters system through boundary, it turns into a part of system storage energy, that is, internal energy. It is obvious that heat is process factor relevant to process, while internal energy is state factor depending on thermodynamic state.2. T he Carnot cycle and Carnot theorem have important theoretical and impractical meaning in the research of thermodynamics. It provides upper limits on efficiency of heat engine and theoretically proposes the approach to increase efficiency. The efficiency of other impractical cycle is always less than the efficiency of the Carnot cycle operating between the same two reservoirs.3. The meaning of the increase of entropy principle：(1) estimate the direction of a process by the increase of entropy principle of an isolated system；（2）the increase of entropy principle can serve as judgment of system equilibrium-when entropy of an isolated system reaches maximum value，system is under equilibrium state. （3）the increase of entropy principle has close relationship with the irreversibility of a process. The more irreversible，the more increase of entropy. So it is used to evaluate perfect of thermodynamical performance of a process。