克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案Word版

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克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch05

Chapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations? International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD CurveThe Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradePresumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium with Offer CurvesDeriving a Country’s Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumChapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 17Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model which admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter. The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country which experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the standard trade model is the effect of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donor’s ter ms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to consume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries’ terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at the end of the 1990s.18 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.Answers to Textbook Problems1.Note how welfare in both countries increases as the two countries move from productionpatterns governed by domestic prices (dashed line) to production patterns governed by worldprices (straight line).2.3. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production pointis the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 19 4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increasesthe world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of t rade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of tr ade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts o ut. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures.This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the worldRS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.20 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition7. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of Good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of Good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports Good X to Country B and imports Good Y from Country B.The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. A’s terms of trade worsen, A’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfareincreases.b. A’s terms of trade improve, A’s welfare increases and B’s welfare decreases.c. B’s terms of trade improve, B’s welfare increases and A’s welfare decreases.d. B’s terms of trade worsen, B’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfareincreases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening should be good for the U.S. if it reduces the relative price of goods that China sends tothe U.S. and hence increases the relative price of goods that the U.S. exports. Obviously, any sector in the U.S. hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the U.S. wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question #6. Here we are assuming India exports products the U.S. currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their pricerelative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actuallyworsens the welfare of the recipient.11. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand schedules shiftsuch that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The firstcountry is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortionsintroduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the firstcountry’s export su bsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy, then this would offset the initial improvement in the terms of trade; the“retaliatory” export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts th e second.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第9章贸易政策中的政治经济学)【圣才出品】

第9章贸易政策中的政治经济学一、概念题1．约束（binding）答：在国际贸易中，约束一般是指税率的约束，即“约束”关税的税率。

约束税率是指经过谈判达成协议而固定下来的关税税率。

按关贸总协定规定，缔约各国应该在互惠互利的基础上通过有选择的产品对产品的方式，或者为有关缔约国所接受的多边的程序进行谈判，谈判结果固定下来的各国税则商品的税率为约束税率，汇总起来形成减让表，作为总协定的一个附属部分付诸实施。

按关贸总协定规定，关税减让谈判有四种减让形式来约束关税的税率：①降低关税并约束在降低了的关税水平；②约束现行关税税率；③约束在现行关税水平以上的某个关税水平；④约束免税待遇。

2．支持自由贸易的政治依据（political argument for free trade）答：支持自由贸易的政治依据是指，尽管理论上可能还有比自由贸易更好的政策，但从政治上认可和支持自由贸易的原则更重要。

现实中的贸易政策经常会由具有特殊利益关系的集团所左右，而不考虑国家的成本与收益。

虽然从理论上可以证明某些选择性的关税和出口补贴政策能够增进整体社会福利，但现实中，任何一个政府机构在制定一套干预贸易的详细计划时都有可能被利益集团所控制，从而成为在有政治影响的部门中进行收入再分配的工具。

如果上述观点正确的话，那么倡导自由贸易无疑是最好的选择。

3．集体行动（collective action）答：集体行动是指关于经济活动中个人理性并不必然导致集体理性。

如果某项活动或者福利的获得需要两个或者两个以上的人的共同努力才能完成，集体行动问题就出现了，即决策集体的每个成员必须单方面决定是否参与提供某种集体产品。

因为集体产品具有非排他性和非竞争性的特征，所以使得不为集体产品的提供付出成本的集团成员也可以获得集体产品。

集团越大，分享收益的人越多，个人的行动对集团利益的影响越小，集团内的成员“搭便车”的动机就越强烈。

这就意味着仅仅依靠个人的自愿，集体产品的供给将是不足的，集体产品不可能依靠个人的自愿提供来解决。

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案

Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第4章资源、比较优势与收入分配)【圣才出品】

第4章资源、比较优势与收入分配一、概念题1．充裕要素（abundant factor）答：充裕要素是“稀缺要素”的对称，是指一国相对充裕的生产要素。

充裕要素的“充裕”是相对的，指的并不是一国所拥有的该生产要素的绝对数量的充裕，而是该生产要素相对于其他生产要素的相对充裕。

充裕要素是以资源禀赋解释国际贸易的赫克歇尔-俄林定理中的重要概念。

根据赫克歇尔-俄林定理，各国倾向于生产并出口国内充裕要素密集型的产品，一国充裕要素的所有者能够从国际贸易中获利。

2．要素价格（factor prices）答：要素价格即生产要素的价格，是指每一单位的生产要素在一定时期内给所有者带来的收入。

生产要素主要有四种：劳动力、土地、资本和企业家才能。

相应地，其价格分别称为工资、地租、利息和利润。

生产要素价格同产品的价格一样，主要是由生产要素市场上供求的相互作用决定的。

在市场经济中，工资主要由劳动力市场上的供求关系决定；地租主要由土地市场上的供求关系决定；利息主要由资本市场上的供求关系决定；利润作为企业家收入，主要由企业家市场上的供求关系决定。

3．生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张（biased expansion of production possibilities）答：生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张是指生产可能性边界在一个方向上扩张的幅度大于在另一方向上扩张的幅度，如图4-1所示。

图4-1（a）说明了生产可能性曲线偏向于X的扩张，图4-1（b）则说明了生产可能性曲线偏向Y的扩张。

图中的生产可能性边界都从1TT移到了2TT。

图4-1 生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张4．要素比例理论（factor-proportions theory）答：要素比例理论又称“赫克歇尔-俄林理论”、“生产要素禀赋理论”，是指从资源禀赋角度对国际贸易中生产成本和价格的差异做出解释的国际贸易理论。

要素比例理论的主要内容是：国际贸易源于不同国家之间商品的价格存在差异，而价格差异的原因在于不同国家生产成本有高有低，生产成本的高低又是因为各国生产要素价格有差别，生产要素价格的差别又与各国生产要素丰裕程度密切相关。

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案-7

Chapter 7International Factor Movements⏹Chapter OrganizationInternational Labor MobilityA One-Good Model without Factor MobilityInternational Labor MovementExtending the AnalysisCase Study: Wage Convergence in the Age of Mass MigrationCase Study: Immigration and the U.S. EconomyInternational Borrowing and LendingIntertemporal Production Possibilities and TradeThe Real Interest RateIntertemporal Comparative AdvantageBox: Does Capital Movement to Developing Countries Hurt Workers in High-Wage Countries? Direct Foreign Investment and Multinational FirmsThe Theory of Multinational EnterpriseMultinational Firms in PracticeCase Study: Foreign Direct Investment in the United StatesBox: Taken for a RideSummaryAppendix I: Finding Total Output from the Marginal Product CurveAppendix II: More on Intertemporal Trade⏹Chapter OverviewThis chapter introduces an additional aspect of economic integration, international factor movements. Most notably, this refers to labor and financial capital mobility across countries. An important point emphasized in Chapter 7 is that many of the same forces which trigger international trade in goods between countries will, if permitted, trigger international flows of labor and finances. Students may find this analysis especially interesting in that it sheds light on issues which may involve them personally, such as motives for the 19th and early 20th century waves of emigration to land-abundant but labor-scarce America from land-scarce and labor-abundant Europe and China. Other, more current examples of international factor mobility include the international capital flows associated with the debt crisis of the 1980s, and intertemporal substitution motives behind United States borrowing and foreign direct investment inflows and outflows in the 1980s and 1990s.The chapter proceeds in three main sections. First, a simple model of international labor mobility is presented. Next, intertemporal production and consumption decisions are analyzed in the context of international borrowing and lending. Finally, the role of multinational corporations is discussed. To demonstrate the forces behind international labor mobility, the chapter begins with a model which is quite similar to that presented in Chapter 3. In each country of the world, the real return to labor equals its marginal product in perfectly competitive markets in each of two countries which produce one good using two factors of production. Labor relocates until the marginal products are equal across countries. While the redistribution of labor increases world output and provides overall gains, it also has important income distribution effects. Workers in the originally high wage country are made worse off since wages fall with the inflow of additional workers, and workers in the originally low wage country are made better off. One case study in the text helps illustrate the effects on both source and destination countries and another focuses on the American experience with immigration. It would be interesting for an instructor to discuss the resistance of groups within the United States to migrant farm workers from Mexico and immigration from other low wage countries such as Haiti. The case study notes that while immigration into the U.S. is a highly contentious political issue, on purely economic grounds, the aggregate impact on the U.S. economy is probably relatively small.An analysis of international capital movements involves the consideration of intertemporal trade. The important point here is that the real rate of interest differs across countries, and international factor movements provide gains to both borrowers and lenders. The analysis presented here is analogous to that in Chapter 5; instead of choosing between consumption of goods at any point in time, the analysis focuses on a one good world where the choice at a point in time is between future and present consumption. An intertemporal production possibilities frontier replaces the PPF and the intertemporal price line replaces the relative price line. Analysis of the gains from intertemporal trade, the size of borrowing and lending, and the effects of taxes on capital transfers follow. The appendix presents this model in greater detail. The final issue addressed in this chapter concerns direct foreign investment and multinational firms. Direct foreign investment differs from other capital transfers in that it involves the acquisition of control of a company. The theory of multinational firms is not well developed. Important points of existing theory are that decisions concerning multinationals are based upon concerns involving location and internalization. Location decisions are based upon barriers to trade and transportation costs. Internalization decisions focus on vertical integration and technology transfers. Multinationals facilitate shifts such that factor prices move in the direction which free trade would cause. The income distribution effects of direct foreign investment are politically charged and in other chapters are discussed in further detail.The political dimension of international factor movements differs from that of international trade. Class discussion on these distinctions could focus on who wins and who loses from each and, more specifically, issues such as the role of multinationals or the responsibility of host countries to guest workers. For example, one interesting topic for discussion is the effect of labor mobility as a component of integration within the European Union. (This topic is developed further in Chapter 20.)Answers to Textbook Problems1. The marginal product of labor in Home is 10 and in Foreign is 18. Wages are higher in Foreign, soworkers migrate there to the point where the marginal product in both Home and Foreign is equated.This occurs when there are 7 workers in each country, and the marginal product of labor in each country is 14.2. If immigration is limited, migration will still be from Home to Foreign, but now, instead of fourworkers moving, only two will be allowed to do so. Workers originally in Foreign do worse after the immigration since wages fall as the marginal product of labor falls due to the increase in the number of workers (though wages do not fall as much as they would have with unfettered immigration).Foreign landowners are better off as they have more workers at lower wages with the inflow ofimmigrants, though they are not as well off as they would have been with unfettered immigration.Home landowners see the opposite effect, fewer and more expensive workers; again, this effect is stronger with the movement of four workers rather than just two. Finally, workers who stayhome see their marginal product go up from 10 to 12, and hence their wages rise. Workers who move see their marginal product move from 10 to 16, suggesting an even larger increase in wages than the workers who stay (the two workers that move also do better than if four workers hadmoved as in Question 1). Part b suggests that workers who move are big winners in Mexico—U.S.immigration. That is consistent with the answer here. The workers moving from Home to Foreign see the largest impact on their wages since immigration is limited. If immigration were opened,following the logic of this question, wages in the U.S. would fall more. Thus, there would be a bigger (negative) impact on U.S. workers and a less positive impact on workers that move, but a morepositive impact on workers that stay behind in Mexico as the larger immigration flow from Mexico will cause the marginal product of labor of those left behind to rise more than when immigration is restricted.3. Direct foreign investment should reduce labor flows from Mexico into the United States becausedirect foreign investment causes a relative increase in the marginal productivity of labor in Mexico, which in turn causes an increase in Mexican wages and reduces the incentive for emigration to the United States.4. There is no incentive to migrate when there is factor price equalization. This occurs when bothcountries produce both goods and when there are no barriers to trade (the problem assumestechnology is the same in the two countries). A tariff by Country A increases the relative price of the protected good in that country and lowers its relative price in the Country B. If the protected good uses labor relatively intensively, the demand for labor in Country A rises, as does the return to labor, and the return to labor in the Country B falls. These results follow from the Stolper-Samuelsontheory, which states that an increase in the price of a good raises the return to the factor usedintensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase. These international wage differentials induce migration from Country B to Country A.5.a. From the diagram we see that the number of workers in Guatarica declines and the number ofworkers in Costamala increases.b. Wages in Guatarica and Costamala both increase.c. GDP increases in Costamala but decreases in Guatarica.d. Capital rents decline in Guatarica, but the change is ambiguous in Costamala.6. The analysis of intertemporal trade follows directly the analysis of trade of two goods. Substitute“future consumption” and “present consumption” for “cloth” and “food.” The relevant relativeprice is the cost of future consumption compared to present consumption, which is the inverse of the real interest rate. Countries in which present consumption is relatively cheap (which havelow real interest rates) will “export” present consumption (i.e., lend) to countries in which prese nt consumption is relatively dear (which have high real interest rates). The equilibrium real interest rate after borrowing and lending occur lies between that found in each country before borrowing and lending take place. Gains from borrowing and lending are analogous to gains from trade—there is greater efficiency in the production of goods intertemporally.7. Foregoing current consumption allows one to obtain future consumption. There will be a biastowards future consumption if the amount of future consumption which can be obtained by foregoing current consumption is high. In terms of the analysis presented in this chapter, there is a bias towards future consumption if the real interest rate in the economy is higher in the absence of international borrowing or lending than the world real interest rate.a. The large inflow of immigrants means that the marginal product of capital will rise as moreworkers enter the country. The real interest rate will be high, and there will be a bias towardsfuture consumption.b. The marginal product of capital is low, and thus, there is a bias towards current consumption.c. The direction of the bias depends upon the comparison of the increase in the price of oil andthe world real interest rate. Leaving the oil in the ground provides a return of the increase in the price of oil whereas the world real interest rate may be higher or lower than this increase.d. Foregoing current consumption allows exploitation of resources, and higher future consumption.Thus, there is a bias towards future consumption.e. The return to capital is higher than in the rest of the world (since the country’s rate of growthexceeds that of the rest of the world), and there is a bias toward future consumption.8. a. $10 million is not a controlling interest in IBM, so this does not qualify as direct foreigninvestment. It is international portfolio diversification.b. This is direct foreign investment if one considers the apartment building a business which paysreturns in terms of rents.c. Unless particular U.S. shareholders will not have control over the new French company, this willnot be direct foreign investment.d. This is not direct foreign investment since the Italian company is an “employee,” but not theones who ultimately control, the company.9. A company might prefer to set up its own plant as opposed to license it for a number of reasons,many of which relate to the discussion of location and internalization discussed in the chapter. In many cases it might be less expensive to carry out transactions within a firm than between twoindependent firms. Often, if proprietary technology is involved or if the quality reputation of a firm is particularly crucial, a firm may prefer to keep control over production rather than outsource.10. In terms of location, the Karma company has avoided Brazilian import restrictions. In terms ofinternalization, the firm has retained its control over the technology by not divulging its patents.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第7章国际要素流动）【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第7章国际要素流动）【圣才出品】第7章国际要素流动⼀、概念题1．外国直接投资（direct foreign investment）答：外国直接投资⼜称“海外直接投资”，是指⼀个国家或地区的投资者对另⼀国家或地区所进⾏的、以控制或参与经营管理为特征的跨国投资⾏为，是国际资本流动的⼀种重要形式。

跨国公司是最主要的直接投资主体之⼀。

外国直接投资有多种具体形式，常见的有直接在国外投资设⽴⼦公司或分公司、购买国外某公司全部或⼀定⽐例的股份并获得⼀定的控制权、通过与东道国企业签订各种合约或合同取得对该企业的某种控制权等。

2．跨国公司的分布及内部化动机（location and internalization motives of multinationals）答：内部化是指在企业内部建⽴市场，以企业的内部市场代替外部市场，从⽽解决由于市场不完全⽽带来的不能保证供需交换正常进⾏的问题的⾏为过程。

内部化理论认为，由于市场存在不完全性和交易成本上升，因此企业通过外部市场的买卖关系不能保证企业获利，并导致许多附加成本。

因此，建⽴企业内部市场即通过跨国公司内部形成的公司内市场，就能克服外部市场和市场不完全所造成的风险和损失，给技术转移和垂直⼀体化带来好处。

3．要素流动（factor movements）答：要素流动是指⽣产要素在不同国家之间的流动。

具体包括劳动⼒流动、国际借贷和证券投资等形式的短期资本流动，以及跨国公司进⾏的长期投资等。

就经济本⾝⽽⾔，⽣产要素的国际流动和商品的国际流动（国际贸易）没有本质的不同，⼆者在⼀定程度上是可以相互替代的；但在现实⽣活中，由于社会、政治和⽂化传统等⽅⾯的差异，⽣产要素的国际流动远⽐商品的国际流动困难和复杂。

如今，商品的国际流动越来越便捷，但⽣产要素的国际流动还有很多限制：⼤多数国家仍对移民做出严格的限制，东道国对国际资本短期流动的投机性和冲击⼒提⾼了警惕，⼤多数国家对跨国公司进⾏直接投资的领域和股权⽐例做出了限制性规定等。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第3章劳动生产率和比较优势：李嘉图模型)【圣才出品】

第3章劳动生产率和比较优势：李嘉图模型一、概念题1．绝对优势（absolute advantage）答：绝对优势论是指由英国古典经济学的奠基人亚当·斯密提出的贸易理论，即各国以生产成本的绝对差异为基础、发挥各自的优势进行国际分工，并通过自由贸易增进共同利益的国际贸易理论斯密认为，国际贸易和国际分工的原因及基础是各国间存在的劳动生产率和生产成本的绝对差别。

一国如果在某种产品上具有比别国高的劳动生产率，就称该国在这一产品上就具有绝对优势。

2．贫民劳动论（pauper labor argument）答：贫民劳动论是指在国际贸易中，如果来自外国的竞争是建立在低工资的基础上，那么这种竞争是不公平的，而且会损害其他参与竞争国家的利益。

因此，贫民劳动论认为，为了保护本国利益，国内产业没有必要与低效率低工资的外国产业展开贸易。

但是，克鲁格曼却认为，贫民劳动论是对李嘉图比较优势的误解，因为本国决定进行贸易还是自己生产，关键是用本国自己的劳动力来衡量，与外国的低工资率并没有多大关系。

3．比较优势（comparative advantage）答：比较优势理论认为，国际贸易的基础并不限于劳动生产率上的绝对差别。

只要各国之间存在着劳动生产率上的相对差别，就会出现生产成本和产品价格的相对差别，从而使各国在不同的产品上具有比较优势，使国际分工和国际贸易成为可能。

根据李嘉图的比较优势贸易理论，每个国家都应集中生产并出口其具有“比较优势”的产品，进口其具有“比较劣势”的产品。

4．生产可能性边界（production possibility frontier）答：生产可能性边界又称“生产可能性曲线”或“产品转换曲线”，是指在技术不变和资源充分利用的情况下，社会或单个厂商把全部资源充分地和有效率地用于生产商品所能获得的最大产量的各种组合的曲线。

生产可能性边界用于说明减少一种商品的产出量可以增加另一种商品的产出量的可能性。

在曲线之外的任何点都是不可能得到的，资源不可能实现这种配置，曲线内的点都可以得到，资源容易实现这种配置，只有曲线上的点代表资源充分利用下的最优效率。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(贸易政策中的政治经济学)【圣才出品】

图 9-3 支持征收关税的国内市场失灵论图 9-3（a）是对小国关税情形的传统成本收益分析（没有考虑贸易条件的效益）；图 9-3（b）显示的是不包括生产者剩余中的边际社会收益。该图表明，关税会使国内市场由价格从 PW 升至 PW t ，产量从 S1 上升到 S 2 ，并出现生产扭曲损失，用面积 a 表示；消费则会从 D1 下滑至 D2 ，导致相当于面积 b 的消费扭曲损失。如果只考虑生产者剩余与消费者剩余，关税带来的成本超过了收益。但是，如图 9-3（b）所示，上述计算忽略了选择关税而非自由贸易所带来的额外收益。产量的增加会产生出一块如边际社会收益曲线下方从 S1 至
（2）反对自由贸易的观点 ①贸易条件改善论对一个能够影响国际价格的大国而言，关税可以降低进口产品的价格从而使贸易条件得到改善，但这一收益必须抵补剔除关税带来的成本。所以，贸易条件改善的收益可能会超过其成本。当关税到达某个程度才有可能改善一国福利，这里存在最优关税问题。 a．最优关税。由于不断提高关税税率改善贸易条件而提高福利的速度与减少贸易量而降低福利水平的速度不一致，在理论上存在一个最优关税，在这种最优关税下，该国的福利水平达到最高。如图 9-2 所示，在曲线上对应于关税率 t0 的点 1，社会福利达到最大。
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圣才电子书十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

失为一种次优的增进社会福利的做法。利用次优理论的最有代表性的论点是国内市场失灵论。
a．国内市场失灵论。国内市场失灵论建立在反对生产者剩余和消费者剩余理论的基础上。国内市场失灵论认为，国内市场失灵即国内市场没有发挥应有功能，导致生产者剩余没有正确衡量成本和收益。图 9-3 阐释了反对自由贸易的国内市场失灵论。
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圣才电子书十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解-第十五章至第十九章【圣才出品】

第15章长期价格水平和汇率一、概念题1．费雪效应（Fisher effect）答：费雪效应是指通货膨胀率和利率在长期中同比例变化的关系。

美国经济学家费雪在其《利息理论》一书中阐述了这一关系。

这一关系假定，在长期中通货膨胀率等于预期通货膨胀率。

在其他条件不变的情况下，如果一国的预期通货膨胀率上升，最终会导致该国货币存款利率的同比例上升；反之，如果预期通货膨胀率下降，最终会导致货币存款利率的同比例下降。

从国际资本流动来看，费雪效应体现了通货膨胀率、利率和汇率变化的关系。

当其他条件不变时，若一国的预期通货膨胀率上升，在外汇市场上将导致该种货币的贬值；根据利率平价理论，这最终将导致该国货币存款利率的上升。

这一关系还可以用相对购买力平价理论和利率平价理论的结合来说明。

相对购买力平价表明，在一定时期内两国货币汇率变动的百分比等于两国通货膨胀率之差。

利率平价表明，两国货币汇率预期变动的百分比等于两国货币存款的预期收益率之差，即两国货币存款未来的利率之差。

在长期中，两国货币的汇率变动即为两国货币汇率的预期变动。

这样，两国货币存款未来利率之差就等于两国通货膨胀率之差，用公式表示：G F G FR R ππ-=-G R 和F R 分别代表两国货币存款的利率，G π和F π分别代表两国的通货膨胀率。

该公式表明，在其他条件不变时，一国通货膨胀率的上升最终将导致该国货币存款利率同比例上升。

2．购买力平价（purchasing power parity，PPP）答：购买力平价是指不同国家商品和服务的价格水平的比率。

一国的价格水平以一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”的价格来表示，它反映该国货币的国内购买力。

对购买同一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”来说，在本国以本国货币支付的价格与其在外国以外国货币支付的价格之比，便是购买力平价。

具体计算方法为：在两国（或多国）选择同质的“一篮子”商品和服务，收集价格、数量和支出额资料，分别核算各组、各类商品和服务价格的比率，最终获得一个综合的价格比率。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(最优货币区和欧洲的经验)【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验20.1复习笔记1．欧洲单一货币的演变（1）1969～1978年欧洲货币改革的原因欧盟国家从20世纪60年代末开始努力寻求货币政策的一致性和汇率的更大稳定性，其主要有三个原因：一是影响世界经济的政策形势发生了变化；二是人们希望欧盟能发挥更大的作用；三是汇率的变动给欧盟带来了不少管理上的问题。

具体原因有两个：①为了提高欧洲在世界货币体系中的地位。

1969年的货币危机使得欧洲对美国将其国际货币职责放在其国家利益之前的可靠性失去信心。

面对美国越来越自私的政策，欧盟国家为了更加有效地维护自己的经济利益，决定在货币问题上采取一致行动。

②为了把欧盟变成一个真正的统一市场。

欧盟的长远目标就是要消除所有障碍，把欧盟变成一个巨大的统一的市场。

欧洲的政府官员认为，汇率的不确定性，是减少欧盟内部贸易的主要原因之一，只有在欧洲国家之间建立起固定的相互汇率，才能形成一个真正的统一欧洲市场。

（2）1979～1998年的欧洲货币体系（EMS）欧洲货币体系是欧洲共同体国家为实现经济一体化而于1979年3月13日建立的区域性金融体系。

当时参加的国家有联邦德国、法国、意大利、荷兰、比利时、卢森堡、丹麦和爱尔兰。

1984年9月希腊加入，1987年5月12日西班牙加入，1987年11月10日葡萄牙加入，1995年1月1日奥地利、芬兰和瑞典加入。

欧洲货币体系的主要内容包括三个方面：①创建欧洲货币单位。

欧洲货币单位是欧洲货币体系的中心内容。

在结构上，欧洲货币单位与欧洲记账单位相同，都是由成员国的一定量的货币组成，是一个货币“篮子”。

与欧洲记账单位的本质区别是，欧洲货币单位不仅可以作为价值尺度给资产和负债标价，而且还是一种支付手段，在许多方面发挥着货币的功能。

所以，欧洲货币单位既是一个货币“篮子”，也是一种“篮子货币”。

②建立双重的中心汇率制，以保证成员国汇率的稳定。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(发展中国家：增长、危机和改革)【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第22章发展中国家：增长、危机和改革22.1复习笔记1．发展中国家的结构特征（1）四种收入类型的国家根据人均年收入水平，世界各国可分为四种主要类型：低收入国家、中低收入国家、中高收入国家和高收入国家。

前三类国家相对于发达国家而言处于一个落后的发展阶段。

（2）发展中国家的结构特征①存在政府对经济进行广泛和直接控制的历史，包括对国际贸易的限制、政府对大型工业企业的所有权或控制权、政府对国际金融交易的直接控制，以及政府消费占GNP的高比例。

②存在高通货膨胀的历史。

在许多国家，政府无法仅仅通过税收来支付其沉重的支出和国有企业的亏损，逃税行为盛行，许多经济活动转入地下，所以最简单的办法就是印制钞票。

当政府连续扩大货币供应以提取较高水平的铸币税时，发展中国家就会发生通货膨胀甚至恶性通货膨胀。

③在国内金融市场自由化的国家，信贷机构往往比较脆弱。

银行会频繁地把借入的资金贷给不良的或者有很大风险的项目。

贷款的发放可能是建立在私人关系而不是未来收益的基础上，政府防范金融风险的措施，往往由于不能胜任、没有经验和直接的欺诈而失效。

④一般倾向于实行钉住汇率，或者至少是在政府大量干预下的管理浮动。

政府限制汇率波动的措施不仅体现了政府控制通货膨胀的愿望，也体现了政府对于浮动汇率可能会使得发展中国家的货币汇率在相对脆弱的市场上发生大幅度波动的担忧。

⑤自然资源或农业产品是许多发展中国家出口的重要组成部分。

⑥规避政府控制、税收和管制的动因会使得行贿和勒索等腐败行为在许多发展中国家盛行。

在某些情况下，地下经济活动的发展可以通过恢复一定程度上基于市场的资源配置而有助于提高经济效率，但是数据表明腐败和贫困是交织在一起的。

（3）发展中国家五种主要的外部融资渠道①债券融资。

发展中国家有时会通过向外国居民个人出售债券来为其赤字融资。

②银行融资。

20世纪70年代初到80年代末，发展中国家从发达国家的商业银行直接借入了大量资金。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(标准贸易模型)【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第5章标准贸易模型5.1复习笔记1．开放经济的标准模型标准贸易模型建立在四个重要关系的基础之上：生产可能性边界和相对供给曲线之间的关系；相对价格和相对需求之间的关系；贸易条件（一个国家出口产品的价格除以进口产品的价格）对国家福利的影响；确定世界均衡的世界相对供给与相对需求之间的关系。

以下将逐一进行介绍。

（1）生产可能性边界和相对供给如图5-1所示，曲线TT 为一国的生产可能性边界。

点Q 是生产点，位于生产可能性边界所能接触到的最高的一条等价值线上。

图5-1产品相对价格确定社会产出可以在图5-1上用一系列等价值线来表示市场的产出价值，离原点越远的等价值线对应的产出价值就越高。

假定/C F P P 上升，则等价值线会变陡。

如图5-2所示，当棉布的相对价格从()1/C F P P 上升到()2/C F P P （从1VV 移动到2VV ）时，等价值线变陡。

这时，社会将生产更多的棉布和更少的粮食，均衡产出点将从点1Q 移动到点2Q 。

图5-2棉布相对价格的上升如何影响相对供给（2）相对价格和相对需求如图5-3所示，点Q 是生产点，点D 是消费点。

该国生产的棉布比消费的棉布多，因而出口棉布；相应的，消费的粮食比生产的粮食多，因而进口粮食。

图5-3标准模型中的生产、消费和贸易图5-4说明了相对价格/C F P P 上升所产生的影响。

当相对价格/C F P P 上升时，所有的等价值曲线变得更陡，最大价值线会从1VV 移到2VV ；生产点会从点1Q 移动到点2Q ；消费点会从点1D 移动到点2D 。

图5-4棉布相对价格上升产生的影响从点1D 到点2D 的移动反映了/C F P P 上升所产生的两个影响：①消费移动到了一条更高的无差异曲线上，社会福利改善了——收入效应。

②相对价格的变动会使得消费点随无差异曲线向靠近粮食、背离棉布的方向移动——替代效应。

（3）贸易条件改变对福利的影响贸易条件对国家福利的影响可以在图5-4中得到说明。

国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章

第一章练习与答案1 . 为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2. 仿效图1—6和图1—乙试推导出丫商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3. 在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4. 如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示:5. 如果改用丫商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A 国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1 —13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

6. 说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

7. 如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

& 根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国9* .为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？答案提示：第二章答案1.根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第5章标准贸易模型)【圣才出品】

第5章标准贸易模型一、概念题1．偏向型增长（biased growth）答：偏向型增长是指生产可能性边界在一个方向上扩张的幅度大于在另一方向上扩张的幅度的一种经济增长方式。

经济发生偏向型增长的原因有：某个生产部门技术的进步；某种生产要素供给的增加或国家利用资源效率的提高等等。

在其他条件不变时，偏向型增长的直接影响是导致偏向扩张的产品的世界相对供给增加。

例如，图5-1（a）说明了偏向于X产品的经济增长，图5-1（b）说明了偏向于Y产品的经济增长。

图5-1 偏向型增长2．内部价格（internal price）答：内部价格是“外部价格”的对称，是指在国际贸易中相对于国际市场价格的产品的国内市场价格。

在各国的贸易活动中，政府经常借助于各种关税或补贴等政策措施来实现有利于本国经济的目标。

这些贸易政策会导致同种产品在国内市场和国际市场上具有不同的价格，其中产品在国内市场上的价格称为“内部价格”，而相对于国内市场价格的国际市场价格称为“外部价格”。

3．出口偏向型增长（export-biased growth）答：出口偏向型增长是指一国的经济增长主要源于出口产品生产能力提高的增长方式，表现在生产可能性边界上就是使生产可能性边界扩张偏向于出口产品。

一国的经济增长意味着该国生产能力的提高，从而使该国能够生产更多的产品。

对于不同产品而言，其生产能力的提高幅度可能是不相同的。

如果一国出口产品生产能力的提高幅度超过了其他类产品，那么这种经济增长方式就是出口偏向型增长。

4．等价值线（iso value lines）答：等价值线是描述市场产出价值的曲线，同一条等价值线的产出价值相等且不变。

例如，如图5-2所示，有两种产品A和B，价格分别是A P和B P，产量是A Q和B Q，那么等价值线是由等式A A B B+=所确定的。

V越大，等价值线的位置离原点越远，对应的产P Q P Q V出价值就越高。

图5-2 等价值线5．出口补贴（export subsidy）答：出口补贴是指国家为了降低出口商品的价格，提高其在国际市场上的竞争能力，对出口商品给予的现金补贴或财政上的优惠待遇。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第22章发展中国家：增长、危机和改革)【圣才出品】

第22章发展中国家：增长、危机和改革一、概念题1．传染（contagion）答：传染是指一国宏观经济或金融市场运行的不稳定性可能会通过国际贸易或资本纽带，而引发其他国家发生经济或金融危机的现象。

典型的传染现象是东南亚经济危机，由泰国引发的金融危机冲击了整个东亚地区的国家。

2．拖欠（default）答：拖欠是指借款人在未经贷款人允许的情况下不按照贷款合约如期支付的行为。

一般而言，在国际经济中，许多发展中国家的社会和政治动荡，以及公共财政和金融机构往往比较脆弱，因此，许多发展中国家都存在债务拖欠问题。

3．收敛（convergence）答：收敛是指随着时间的推移，一个国家或地区的人均产出逐步接近其稳态人均收入水平的过程。

根据索洛经济增长模型，随着时间的推移，一国经济都会向着其稳定状态趋近，人均资本存量和人均收入水平都会收敛到稳态水平。

在本章中，收敛是指世界范围内各国家间人均收入趋于相等的趋势。

认为存在这种收敛趋势的理论基础在于：如果贸易是自由的、资本可以流向提供更高回报的国家、知识本身可以跨越政治边界使得各国总可以获得最先进的生产技术，那么国际收入差异将无法持久存在。

但是现实表明，世界范围内并没有出现明显的人均收入收敛的趋势，不同国家间的长期增长率存在巨大差异。

4．美元化（dollarization）答：美元化作为一种事实，它是指美元在世界各地已经扮演了重要的角色；作为一种过程，它是指美元在美国境外的货币金融活动中无论是深度还是广度均将发挥越来越重要的作用；作为一种政策，它是指一国或一经济体的政府让美元逐步取代自己的货币并最终自动放弃货币或金融主权的行动。

美元化的上述三种含义简单地称之为事实美元化、过程美元化和政策美元化。

5．私有化（privatization）答：私有化又称非国有化，是指政府将国有企业或由国家控制的企业全部或部分出售和承包给私人，从而限制和缩小国有企业的作用，扩大私有企业和市场的作用，同时改进其余未私有化的国有企业的经营。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。

第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。

通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。

衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。

一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。

比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。

2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。

20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。

从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。

3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。

、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。

引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。

把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。

另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。

4>(第三世界(third world)答:第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate(第三阶级)。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(国民收入核算与国际收支平衡)【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1．国民收入账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值（GNP），它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。

GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段，由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。

GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。

根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私人消费的数额）、投资（私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使用的数额）和经常项目余额（对外净出口的商品和服务的数额）。

（2）国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移支付，再减去间接商业税。

即：国民收入＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移支付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立，必须对GNP的定义作一定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。

这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。

为了计算一定时期的国民收入，必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。

GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值（NNP）。

②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移支付。

单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。

净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分，但不是一国产出的一部分，因此，净单边转移支付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。

③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。

但是，这两组价格并不是完全一致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入，导致GNP被高估，超过了国民收入。

这部分税收被称为间接商业税。

在计算国民收入时，这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验)【圣才出品】

第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验一、概念题1．欧洲货币体系的信誉理论（credibility theory of the EMS）答：任何汇率导向的稳定政策成功的一个重要因素是汇率政策信誉，政府希望公众相信政府的汇率政策承诺并以此决定本币的持有量。

政策的外部强制性承诺能够保持政策信誉，如通过把本国货币名义汇率钉住低通货膨胀国家的货币来引进政策信誉，这样会使预期通货膨胀率比没有实行钉住汇率时下降得更快，且将其调整到低均衡通货膨胀率的成本会更少。

在欧洲货币体系下，通过固定与德国马克的汇率，欧洲其他成员国相当于引进了德国中央银行的信誉作为防止通货膨胀的屏障，从而减轻了国内通货膨胀的压力。

欧洲货币体系的信誉理论认为，违背国际汇率协定而可能付出的政治代价约束了政府的某些货币行为，即通过使得本国货币贬值来获得短期的利益，而实际付出的代价却是长期高通货膨胀带来的经济崩溃。

2．《马斯特里赫特条约》（Maastricht Treaty）答：马斯特里赫特条约，简称“马约”，是指1991年12月欧洲共同体12国政府首脑在荷兰的马斯特里赫特城召开会议，并于1992年2月签署的《欧洲经济与货币联盟条约》和《政治联盟条约》，合称《欧洲联盟条约》。

《马约》于1993年正式生效，欧洲共同体成为欧盟。

《马约》的主要内容是为建立欧洲经济与货币联盟确定了时间表和步骤。

《马约》规定：1990年7月1日至1993年12月31日为第一阶段，要求各成员国取消外汇管制，实现资本的自由流动，加强财政、货币、金融政策的协调一致；第二阶段从1994年1月1日开始，主要是建立欧洲中央银行的雏形——欧洲货币局；第三阶段最早于1997年1月开始，最晚于1999年1月1日开始，逐步建立一种“真正”的单一货币和独立的欧洲中央银行。

为了建立统一的货币体系，《马约》规定了经济趋同条款，主要内容是：①各国财政赤字占其国内生产总值的比率在3%以下；②各国政府债务总额占其国内生产总值的比率低于60%；③各国消费价格上涨率不得超出三个最低国的平均上涨率1.5个百分点；④各国长期利率不得超出三个物价最平稳的成员国的平均利率2个百分点；⑤各国货币在过去两年内处于欧洲外汇汇率机制的正常变动范围内。