The innatist perspective
二语习得第四章总结
Chapter 4 Explaining second language learning● The behaviourist perspective✓L2 Applications:∙Audiolingual instruction: A dominant approach to foreign language teaching from the 1940s to the 1960s, especially in North America.∙Activities emphasized mimicry and memorization.∙contrastive analysis.✓Limitations:∙Researchers found that many learner errors are not predictableon the basis of first language.∙when the translation equivalent would be correct)● The innatist perspective✓Opinions∙Chomsky’s critique of behaviourism∙Chomsky viewed L1 as based on child’s innate language-specific module of the mind.∙Innate knowledge of certain principles of Universal Grammar permits all children to acquire the language of their environment during a criticalperiod of their development∙Primary focus of UG-based SLA research is on competence notperformance.✓About L2 learning∙Chomsky made no specific claims about the implications of his theory for L2 learning.∙However, other linguists with an interest in SLA have discussed this and have not entirely agreed.∙There is still ‘the logic problem’ of L2 acquisition (learners eventually know more about the language than they could reasonably learned if theyhad to depend entirely on the input they are exposed to)----knowledge ofUG must be available to L2 learners as well as L1 learnersBut whether the nature and availability are same or has been altered by theacquisition of other languages∙How do instruction and corrective feedback contribute to SLA?instruction and corrective feedback change only superficial aspects oflanguage performance and do not affect the underlying systematicknowledge.L2 learners need explicit information about what is not grammaticalsometimes.∙Usually interested in the language competence of advanced learners ---- involve grammatical judgement✓L2 applications: Krashen’s Monitor Model∙Five hypotheses of Monitor Model• Acquisition(unconscious) versus learning(conscious attention to form andrule learning) ----- far more language is acquired than learned• Monitor hypothesis: Learned knowledge used only as a monitor/editor tomake minor changes and polish what the acquired system has produced• Natural Order Hypothesis: L2 Acquisition follows a ‘natural order’ andunfolds in predicable sequences.• Comprehensible input hypothesis: Acquisition is based on access tocomprehensible input containing (i+1).• Affective filter hypothesis: Stress and negative affect interfere withacquisition.∙Challenged by other researchers and theorists, but still influential.• as not testable in empirical research•Nonetheless, his ideas have had a major influence on the movement fromstructure-based to communicative approaches to language teaching (e.g.content-based, immersion, and task-based instruction).• Classroom research explaining L2 learning confirms that students canmake considerable progress through exposure to comprehensible input butquestions remain about whether it is sufficient.● The cognitive perspective✓Opinions∙The study of cognition––how humans acquire, process, store, and retrieve information∙Emphasize the role of general human abilities to process and learn information—including language on the basis of experience∙In contrast to innatists, cognitive psychologists argue that there is no mental module devoted to language acquisition. Rather, all learning andthinking are based on the same cognitive processes.∙Learning a first or a second language draws on the same learning processes (perception, memory, categorization and generatlization); what’s differentare the circumstances of learning and how learners’ prior knowledge oflanguage shapes their perception of a new language.✓Information processing∙Language acquisition is the building up of knowledge that can eventually be used automatically for speaking and understanding.∙New information must be noticed before it can be learned.∙There is a limit to how much information a learner can pay attention to.∙Through experience and practice, information that was new becomes easierto process. In turn, it gradullay become automatic∙Choosing words, pronouncing them and stringing them together with the appropriate grammatical markers is automatic. (formulaic)∙The retrieval of word meanings is automatic∙Skill learning:1. New information may first be internalized as declarative knowledge––learner is aware of the information and can report noticing it.2. Through practice, declarative knowledge is proceduralized, and thelearner acquires the ability to use the information appropriately.3. With further practice, the information can be accessed automatically. Soautomatically, in fact, that the learner forgets having learned it.4. Restructuring: Not all knowledge seems to follow the declarative-procedural-automatic path: bursts of progress/apparentbacksliding(overgeneralization errors)∙Transfer-appropriate processing:1. When we learn something, we also internalize the conditions underwhich it was learned and the cognitive processes involved in the learning.2. Thus, we recall our knowledge of something more easily when thecontext and processes for recall are similar to those in which we originallylearned it.✓Usage-based learning∙An approach to understanding learning that sees learning as the creation of links (connections) between bits of information∙Unlike innatists, connectionists do not assume that there is a neurological module specifically designed for SLA. All learning is based on the sameprocesses.∙Unlike skill theorists, connectionists do not assume that new knowledge must first be declarative.∙The frequency with which information is encountered is a strong predictor of how easily it will be learned.∙Neurological connections are made between language and a particular meaning or a situation (e.g. people usually say Hello when they answer thephone) and between elements of language itself (e.g. noticing that sayalways occurs with I or we/you/they and that says always occurs withhe/she/it).✓The competition model∙Proposed to account for both L1 and L2 learning∙Through exposure learners come to understand how to use the ‘cues’ that language uses to signal specific functions (e.g. word order; animacy).∙English speakers tend to use word order; Italian speakers use animacy witha sentence like:Il giocattolo guarda il bambino. (The toy – is looking at – the child.) ∙Require learners to learn the relative importance of the different cues appropriate In the language they are learning✓Language and the brain∙An approach to understanding learning that sees learning as the creation of links (connections) between bits of information∙Unlike innatists, connectionists do not assume that there is a neurological module specifically designed for SLA. All learning is based on the sameprocesses.∙Unlike skill theorists, connectionists do not assume that new knowledge must first be declarative.✓L2 applications: Interacting, noticing, processing and practicing ∙Interaction hypothesis1. conversational interaction is an essential condition for L2 acquisition2. How does input become comprehensible? Modified interaction (throughnegotiation for meaning)3. Modified interaction∙Comprehension checks∙Clarification requests∙Self-repetition or paraphrase4.4. Revised version of interaction hypothesis∙More emphasis on corrective feedback∙‘negotiation for meaning’--- language development (comprehensible output hypothesis.∙The noticing hypothesis1. Nothing is learned unless it is noticed.Importance of awareness and attention in L2 learning2. whether learners must be aware that they are ‘noticing’ sth. in the input isthe object of considerable debate∙Input processing• Learners have difficulty focusing on form and meaning at the same time.∙Processability theory• German L2 acquisition– Developmental sequences in syntax and morphology are affected by howeasy they were to process.–Ease of processing was found to depend to a large extend on the positionof those features.• Developmental and variational feature• learners have to develop certain level of processing capacity before theycan use their L1 knowledge∙The role of practice• Practice that characterized audiolingual instruction often failed to makeconnections between language forms and their meanings.• From a cognitive perspective, practice is not mechanical and notrestricted to production––it is also relevant for comprehension.• Practice should be interactive, meaningful, and focus on task-essentialforms.● The sociocultural perspective✓Opinions (Vygotsky)∙Cognitive development arises as a result of social interaction.Interaction is important because the cognitive processes begin as anexternal socially mediated activity and eventually become internalized ∙Learning occurs through interaction.∙Speaking (and writing) mediates thinking.∙Difference between ZPD and i+1ZPD: a metaphorical location or ‘site’ in which learners co-constructknowledge in collaboration with an interlocutor.Emphasis is on development and how learners co-construct knowledgebased on their interaction with their interlocutor or in private speechI+1: the emphasis is on the comprehensibility of input that includeslanguage structures that are just beyond the learner’s currentdevelopmental level∙Interaction versus sociocultural perspectivesInteraction hypothesis: the emphasis is on the internal cognitive processesin the mind of the learners.Interaction is important because interaction facilitates those cognitiveprocesses by giving learners access to the input they need to activateinternal processes, it provides learners with the raw material that isinterpreted and analyzed through internal cognitive processes.sociocultural perspectives：importance on conversation themselves, withlearning occurring through the social interaction. People gain control ofand recognize their cognitive processes during mediation as knowledge isinternalized during social activity.Interaction is important because the cognitive processes begin as anexternal socially mediated activity and eventually become internalized✓L2 applications:∙Learning by talking• Traditionally, ZPD was restricted to a novice and an expert; the term hasbeen broadened to include novice–novice interaction.• Swain’s comprehensible output hypothesis: learners have to pay moreattention to how meaning is expressed through language when producinglanguage• Research investigating how learners co-construct knowledge whileengaged in collaborative dialogue that focuses on form and meaning atthe same time.。
4-Explaining-SLL
The Innatist Perspective (Cont.)
• Is UG available for SLA? • If available, how does it work?
• The natural order hypothesis: Language is learned in a predictable order (based on the morpheme order studies)（see P47）
14
Krashen’s Monitor Model (Cont.)
• L1 influence is not simply a matter of habits but a more complex process.
• Rejection of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis • Rejection of behaviourism
2. The Innatist Perspective （先天论）
• The comprehensible input hypothesis: If there is a natural order of acquisition, how is it that learners move from one point to another? Answer: by receiving comprehensible input or i + 1.
– Same as for L1? Differently from L1?
Language Learning in Early Childhood - uni-bielefeldde
Universal Grammar ( UG)
Human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language Assumption that all languages have a common structural basis
The critical period hypothesis
Still not enough prove for CPH Research with deaf children who are born to hearing parents → late access to language 5 – 10% of deaf children are born to deaf parents 1990: Elissa Ndeaf children
Language Learning in Early Childhood
Explaining first language acquisition
Overview
The behaviourist perspective
The innatist perspective
The
critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Interactionist/developmental perspective
The behaviourist perspective
The behaviourist perspective → Say what I say
1940s and 1950s Behaviourism: imitating and practising → importance to the environment
第二讲first language acqusition
By the time they are 1 year old, most babies understand many frequently used words and they may be able to say a few. By the age of two, most children know at least 50 words, and many know a lot more. At this age, they start putting words together into two or three word sentences.
Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with rising intonation
(“Mommy book?” “Where‟s Daddy?”)
Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (“You like this?” “Why you catch it?”)
Definition of “first language” (L1):
For children, acquiring a language is an effortless achievement that occurs: - without explicit teaching, - on the basis of positive evidence (i.e., what they hear), - under varying circumstances, and in a limited amount of time, - in identical ways across different languages
耐人寻味的戏剧作文英语
The world of theater is a fascinating realm where art meets life,and emotions are amplified through the power of performance.The drama that unfolds on stage is not just a form of entertainment but a reflection of the human experience,offering a glimpse into the depths of our collective soul. One such drama that left a profound impact on me was The Curious Incident of the Dog in the NightTime,a play that resonated deeply with my understanding of empathy,growth,and the complexities of human relationships.The play,adapted from Mark Haddons novel of the same name,tells the story of Christopher Boone,a15yearold boy with an extraordinary brain but who is challenged by the world around him due to his autism. Christophers journey to solve the mystery of who killed his neighbors dog is not just a quest for truth but also a voyage of selfdiscovery and acceptance.As the curtain rises,we are introduced to Christophers meticulously organized world,a stark contrast to the chaos that lies beyond his control. His unique perspective on life is brought to life through the innovative set design,where a grid of light bulbs illuminates the stage,representing the complex web of thoughts and emotions that constantly occupy his mind. This visual metaphor is a testament to the plays ability to convey the inner workings of a characters psyche in a way that is both accessible and thoughtprovoking.Christophers character is portrayed with remarkable sensitivity and authenticity.His interactions with the world are a poignant reminder of thestruggles faced by those who perceive life differently.His literal interpretation of metaphors,his aversion to physical contact,and his reliance on logic over emotion are not just symptoms of his condition but also a challenge to the audiences preconceived notions of what it means to be normal.The supporting characters in the play,including Christophers parents and his teacher,Siobhan,serve to highlight the importance of empathy and understanding.Their relationships with Christopher are complex and multifaceted,reflecting the reality that no two interactions are the same. The play does not shy away from depicting the frustration and heartache that can accompany such relationships,but it also shows the love and support that can emerge from them.One of the most striking aspects of The Curious Incident of the Dog in the NightTime is its exploration of the theme of growth.Christophers journey is not just about solving a mystery but also about learning to navigate the world in his own way.His initial reluctance to leave his familiar surroundings and his eventual triumph in overcoming his fears are a powerful reminder of the courage it takes to step out of ones comfort zone.The play also delves into the complexities of truth and perception.As Christopher uncovers the truth about the dogs death,he also uncovers uncomfortable truths about his own family.The play challenges the audience to question their own assumptions and to consider the multiple perspectives that contribute to our understanding of the world.The production values of the play are exceptional,with seamless transitions between scenes and a clever use of lighting and sound to create a sense of movement and space.The minimalist set design allows the focus to remain on the characters and their interactions,while the use of projections and sound effects adds depth and texture to the narrative.In conclusion,The Curious Incident of the Dog in the NightTime is a deeply moving and thoughtprovoking play that offers a unique perspective on life, relationships,and the human condition.It is a testament to the power of theater to challenge our perceptions,evoke empathy,and inspire growth. The plays ability to resonate with audiences of all ages and backgrounds is a testament to the universality of its themes and the skill with which they are presented.It is a drama that will stay with me for a long time,serving as a reminder of the richness of human experience and the importance of understanding and accepting those who may be different from us.。
Chapter 8 Theories of second language acquisition
John Schumann’s model
• Schumann 提出“文化适应是学习 者与目的语社团的社会和心理结 合。”文化适应是二语习得理论 中的重要概念，因为“二语习得 是文化适应的一个方面，学习者 对目的语社团文化的适应程度将 制约第二语言水平。”
• 语言习得系统，即潜意识语言知 识，才是真正的语言能力。而语
言学得系统，即有意识的语言知
识，只是在第二语言运用时起监 控作用。
Three conditions for the use of monitor
• (1) the speaker must have sufficient time to monitor his productions.
• 影响文化适应的两个因素
• （1）社会距离:指学习者被目的语社团容纳 并与之接触的程度。社会距离由体现学习者 社团与目的语社团关系的一系列社会因素决 定。Schumann 认为，学习者与目的语社团 之间的社会距离是制约文化适应程度和第二 语言习得水平的主要原因。因为决定社会距 离的社会因素可以影响学习者的动机，其中 包括对目的语及社团的态度，目的语输入的 品质和数量及总体学习环境的优劣。
Factors Determining Acculturation
• Acculturation, and hence SLA, is determined by the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target language culture.
《语言习得与外语教学》-课程教学大纲
《语言习得与外语教学》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：16064402课程名称：语言习得与外语教学英文名称：Second Language Acquisition and TEFL课程类别：专业课学时：32学分：2适用对象：英语语言文学专业考核方式：考查先修课程：基础英语I-III、英语语音、英语语法、英语听力、英语口语、英语泛读、英语写作二、课程简介《语言习得与外语教学》是为英语语言文学专业二年级学生开设的专业选修课。
本课程旨在为英语语言文学专业的学生系统概括介绍第二语言习得研究的不同视角与理论，具体包括母语习得与二语习得的关联、对比分析与偏误分析、习得顺序研究、克拉申的语言监控模式、普遍语法与第二语言习得、第二语言学习者个体差异因素、第二语言习得的认知模式、社会文化理论、语言输入与互动等。
由于第二语言习得发展与第二语言教学密不可分，本课程还将概述主要的外语教学法流派，并利用案例分析，探讨课堂环境下的第二语言学习中存在的问题与对策，帮助学生思考自己在外语学习中遇到的问题。
Second Language Acquisition and TEFL is an optional course for sophomores majoring in English Language. It is intended to introduce the students to some most important theories in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), including the association between first language acquisition and second language acquisition, contrastive analysis and error analysis, developmental sequence, Krashen’s Monitor Model, UG approach to SLA, individual differences in SLA, cognitive approach to SLA, sociocultural theories, the role of language input and interaction in SLA, etc.. In addition to outlining basic ideas and claims about second language acquisition from different perspectives, this course will also deal with some most popular approaches and methods in second language teaching, thus helping students to better understand their own problems in L2 learning.三、课程性质与教学目的本课程全面介绍第二语言习得研究的内容、性质、所涵盖的子领域，以及相关的经典理论及研究成果。
二语习得必学书目---语言学习机制,全书重难点问题
Discussion Questions of SLAChapter 1: Learning a first language1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’ sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to thos e in the adult language? How are they different?2. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?3. What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s l anguage in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?8. How are Piaget’s and V ygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?9. What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Chapter 2: Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learningThe behaviourist perspective10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain?The innatist perspective12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature andavailability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place?What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?14. What ar e the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think that Krashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?Intelligence20. Language learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and• extroversion• inhibitionMotivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.Learner beliefs25. How did Carlos Yorio (1986) reveal that it is important for teachers to consider the beliefs their students hold about language instruction? How might this change their approach to teaching a particular group of students?Age of acquisition26. Which language features were studied in Patkowski’s (1980) study to examine L2 development of immigrants? Does his study support the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)? How?27. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle carried out a comprehensive study in which they assessed language development of L2 speakers on a variety of measures. Describe the development of the child, adolescent, and adult L2 learners in relation to each other. In your own words, explain why the results may not be relevant for assessing the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).Chapter 4: Learner LanguageLearner Language28. A language learner begins making errors with a feature of the language that was previously used correctly. What does this suggest about the way in which the feature was previously learned? Why might one be justified in concluding that the learner has actually made progress? Illustrate with examples.29. What was an important difference between the error analysis approach to understanding L2 learner language and the contrastive analysis approach?30. What phenomenon did Larry Selinker describe when he coined the term interlanguage? What does it mean to say that interlanguages are both systematic and dynamic?31. There are various kinds of errors made by learners, such as developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, transfer (or interference errors), and avoidance. Give an example of each to explain.Developmental Sequences32. An L2 learner, in speaking about his brother, tells you ‘he don’t eat meat’. What stage of negation would he be at: Stage 2 or Stage 3? What evidence would you need to have confidence in your assessment?33. The description of developmental stages suggests that a learner’s L1 interacts with developmental sequences in the L2 acquisition of negation, questions, relative clauses, and past tense. Give an example of each, using either the information in the text or from your knowledge of how learners from other L1 backgrounds develop these language features.34. The car that mine is similar to is over there. According to the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses in English, which clause type is this? If we find evidence that an L2 learner is capable of producing this sentence, what other relative clause types can this learner probably also produce?35. Which of the following verbs would beginner level learners most likely mark with past tense? Which would they be least likely to use past with? Explain your response by discussing how the verbs are different from each other.need a haircutmake lasagnawin a prizelike action moviesfeel nervousbreak a glassFirst language influence36. In addition to influencing how learners pass through developmental sequences, what other ways has a learner’s knowledge of L1 been observed to influence L2 acquisition? You should be able to identify at least four ways.Chapter 5: Observing second language teaching37. Make use of the table on P93 and try to explain the characteristics of natural acquisition, traditional instruction and communicative instruction.38. When conducting classroom-based SLA studies, what might be some advantages of using observation schemes such as the COLT? What disadvantages might there be?39. Based on the classroom transcripts reproduced on pages 97–100, what do you consider to be the most important differences between structure-based and communicative L2 instruction where teacher–student interaction is concerned?40. In Lyster and Ranta’s study, what type of corrective feedback was used most frequently? Which type resulted in the most uptake? What kind(s) resulted in the least uptake? Can you speculate on some reasons for this?41. Describe the difference between display questions and referential questions. What is the difference between open and closed questions? What kinds of responses do the different question types elicit from students? How is the type of question related to the ‘wait time’ a teacher allows?42. What is scaffolding? How might display questions help teachers scaffold? Why is this useful?43. Analyze the characteristics of Transcript 1 on PP107-109 in terms of overall focus of instruction, input and feedback.44. Analyze the characteristics of Transcript 2 on PP109-110 in terms of overall focus of instruction, input and feedback.45. Analyze the characteristics of Transcript 3 on PP110-113 in terms of overall focus of instruction, input and feedback.Chapter 6: Second language learning in the classroom46. Describe and explain with examples the first proposal Get it right from the beginning. Have you experienced any of them as a student?47. Describe and explain with examples the second proposal Say what you mean and mean what you say. Have you experienced any of them as a student?48. Describe and explain with examples the third proposal Just listen…and read. Have you experienced any of them as a student?49. Describe and explain with examples the fourth proposal Teach what is teachable. Have you experienced any of them as a student?50. Describe and explain with examples the fifth proposal Get it right in the end. Have you experienced any of them as a student?51. How did the programme described in Example 8 and Study 10 respond to the challenge of teaching English as a second language in an area where there were few teachers who felt that they had adequate language proficiency or preparation for language teaching? What did the researchers conclude about the effectiveness of this programme?52. When students engage in group work in communicative and task-based language learning, they may not always have the language resources to be able to provide each other with correct language models or corrective feedback. Nevertheless, the benefits of peer interaction outweigh the limitations. What are those benefits?53. Sum up the findings of Study 12 and Study 15. Provide some possible explanations for the findings.54. Among the studies from Study 20 to Study 26, choose three and sum up the findings. Provide some possible explanations for the findings.Chapter 7: Popular ideas about language learning: Facts and opinions55. What is your position on the statement that Languages are learned mainly through imitation? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.56. What is your position on the statement that Parents usually correct young children when theymake grammatical errors? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.57. What is your position on the statement that People with high IQs are good language learners? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.58. What is your position on the statement that The most important factor in second language acquisition success is motivation? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.59. What is your position on the statement that The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success in learning? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.60. What is your position on the statement that Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to interference from their first language? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.61. What is your position on the statement that Teachers should present grammatical rules one ata time, and learners should practice examples of each one before going on to another? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.62. What is your position on the statement that Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.63. What is your position on the statement that Learners’ err ors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.64. What is your position on the statement that Teachers should use materials that expose students only to those language structures which they have already been taught? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.65. What is your position on the statement that When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example in group or pair activities), they learn each others’ mistakes? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.66. What is your position on the statement that Students learn what they are taught? Review the information in the book that has supported, strengthened or led you to change your opinion.。
perspective
perspectivePerspective: Expanding Our View of the WorldIntroductionPerspective is a concept that shapes our understanding of the world. It refers to the way in which we interpret and make sense of our surroundings. Perspective influences our thoughts, judgments, and actions, allowing us to navigate the world and make informed decisions. In this document, we will delve deeper into the concept of perspective, exploring its importance, its impact on our lives, and how we can expand our perspectives to gain a broader understanding of the world.Understanding PerspectivePerspective can be defined as a particular attitude or point of view from which we observe and interpret the world. It is shaped by our individual experiences, beliefs, values, and cultural background. Each person's perspective is unique and can significantly influence their perception of reality. Perspective is not limited to individual perception; it alsoextends to collective perspective, such as that of a community, a nation, or even a specific profession.Importance of PerspectivePerspective plays a crucial role in our everyday lives. It is the lens through which we interpret events, make decisions, and interact with others. Our perspective influences how we perceive and respond to challenges, conflicts, and opportunities. It affects our relationships, our career choices, and our personal growth. By understanding and broadening our perspectives, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the world and make more informed decisions.Impacts of PerspectiveOur perspective shapes our thoughts and beliefs, which in turn influence our actions and behaviors. Our perspective can create biases and prejudices, leading to misunderstandings and conflict. For example, cultural differences can create barriers in communication and understanding between individuals from different backgrounds. However, perspective can also be a tool for empathy and understanding. By actively seeking diverse perspectives, we can break down barriers andbridge gaps between communities, fostering a more inclusive and harmonious society.Expanding PerspectivesExpanding our perspectives is essential for personal growth, intellectual development, and building a more interconnected world. Here are some strategies to consider:1. Embrace diversity: Engage with people from various cultural, socioeconomic, and professional backgrounds. Listen actively and seek to understand their perspectives. Embracing diversity broadens our understanding and challenges preconceived notions.2. Travel and explore: Expose yourself to different cultures, traditions, and ways of life. Traveling allows us to experience firsthand the richness and diversity of the world, broadening our perspectives and breaking down stereotypes.3. Read widely: Explore different literary genres, including fiction, non-fiction, and historical accounts. Reading exposes us to different ideas, perspectives, and cultures, expanding our knowledge and understanding of the world.4. Foster curiosity: Maintain a curious attitude towards the world. Ask questions, seek answers, and challenge assumptions. Curiosity fuels intellectual growth and broadens our perspectives.5. Practice active listening: When engaging in conversations, practice active listening, seeking to understand rather than to respond. Actively listening to others' perspectives helps us cultivate empathy and gain new insights.ConclusionPerspective is a fundamental element that shapes our understanding of the world. By recognizing the importance of perspective and actively seeking to expand our own, we can break down barriers, build bridges, and foster a more inclusive and interconnected society. Embracing diverse perspectives allows us to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the world, leading to personal growth and collective progress. Let us continue to challenge ourselves, explore new ideas, and embrace the beauty of different perspectives.。
深思熟虑绽新图的英语作文
Contemplation often leads to new insights and perspectives,a concept that can be beautifully illustrated through the metaphor of a flower blooming.Just as a flower takes time to absorb nutrients and sunlight before it blossoms,deep thought allows for the blossoming of new ideas and visions.In the realm of art,for instance,a painter may spend hours,days,or even weeks pondering over a canvas,considering the composition,colors,and themes.This period of contemplation is crucial,as it is during these quiet moments that the artists mind can explore the depths of creativity,leading to a masterpiece that is both profound and unique.Similarly,in the field of science,researchers and scientists often engage in deep thought to solve complex problems or to develop new theories.The process of hypothesis formulation and experimentation is a testament to the power of contemplation.It is through this methodical thinking that groundbreaking discoveries are made,propelling humanity forward.In personal growth and selfimprovement,contemplation is equally important.Reflecting on ones actions,decisions,and experiences can lead to selfawareness and personal development.It is through introspection that individuals can identify their strengths and weaknesses,learn from their mistakes,and set goals for the future.Moreover,contemplation is a key component in the decisionmaking process.Whether it is a business strategy,a political decision,or a simple everyday choice,taking the time to weigh the pros and cons,consider the consequences,and envision the outcomes can lead to more informed and effective decisions.In conclusion,the act of deep thought is a catalyst for growth and innovation in various aspects of life.It is the quiet moments of contemplation that give birth to new ideas, perspectives,and solutions,much like a flower that blooms after a period of nurturing and patience.Embracing the power of contemplation can lead to a richer,more fulfilling life,and a world that is constantly evolving and improving.。
与观点共璀璨林有关的英语作文
In the realm of literature and art,the concept of brilliance often intertwines with the expression of ideas and perspectives.The phrase with the brilliance of viewpoints suggests a scenario where the radiance of ones thoughts and opinions shines through, illuminating the discourse and adding a layer of depth and insight to the conversation or creation at hand.When we delve into the world of essays,the brilliance of viewpoints can manifest in various ways.Here are some aspects to consider when crafting an essay that not only captures the readers attention but also showcases the brilliance of your viewpoints:1.Originality:The uniqueness of your perspective is what sets your essay apart.Strive to offer a fresh take on a topic,one that hasnt been overexplored or that challenges conventional wisdom.2.Clarity:While your viewpoint may be brilliant,it must also be clear and e concise language and wellstructured sentences to convey your thoughts effectively.3.Evidence:Support your viewpoints with solid evidence.This could be in the form of research data,expert opinions,historical facts,or logical reasoning.4.Relevance:Ensure that your viewpoints are relevant to the topic at hand.Irrespective of how brilliant an idea may be,if it does not pertain to the subject,it will not contribute to the overall effectiveness of your essay.5.Depth:Dive deep into your subject matter.A brilliant viewpoint is often one that explores the nuances and complexities of a topic,offering a multifaceted analysis.6.Engagement:Engage with opposing viewpoints and consider counterarguments.This not only demonstrates the robustness of your own perspective but also enriches the discourse.7.Creativity:Use creative expressions and analogies to illustrate your points.This can make complex ideas more accessible and memorable.8.Emotion:While essays are typically analytical,incorporating an emotional element can make your viewpoints more compelling and relatable.9.Cultural Sensitivity:Be aware of cultural contexts and sensitivities when expressing your viewpoints.This ensures your brilliance is not marred by insensitivity or ignorance.10.Contribution:Aim to contribute something meaningful to the discourse.A brilliant viewpoint should advance the conversation or provoke thought,rather than merely stating the obvious.In conclusion,the brilliance of viewpoints in an essay is a multifaceted attribute that encompasses originality,clarity,depth,and relevance.By focusing on these elements, you can craft an essay that not only stands out for its intellectual rigor but also for its ability to engage and inspire readers.。
刻板印象的英语高级作文
刻板印象的英语高级作文The Perils of Stereotyping.In the intricate tapestry of human interactions, stereotypes often serve as shortcuts, simplifying complex individuals and groups into manageable, yet often misleading, categories. These preconceived ideas, often rooted in misinformation or outdated beliefs, can have profound impacts on our understanding of others, leading to misjudgments, unfair treatment, and even conflict.The genesis of stereotypes lies in the human brain's natural tendency to categorize and generalize. It is a survival mechanism that allows us to quickly assess potential threats or allies in new environments. However, when these categories are formed based on limited or biased information, they can lead to significant distortions of reality. For instance, the media often perpetuates negative stereotypes about certain groups, painting them in broad strokes that overlook their diverse range of experiencesand perspectives.One of the most significant consequences of stereotyping is the creation of barriers to understanding and empathy. When we view others through the lens of a stereotype, it becomes difficult to see them as individuals with unique stories and perspectives. This can lead to misjudgments that can have profound impacts on people's lives. For example, a student may be overlooked for a promotion based on a stereotype about their gender orracial background, rather than their actual abilities and achievements.Moreover, stereotypes can foster a culture of discrimination and exclusion. When groups are labeled as inferior or threatening based on generalized characteristics, it can lead to a breakdown of trust and increased tension. This can manifest in various forms, such as workplace discrimination, social exclusion, or even violent conflict. The tragic reality is that many of these conflicts could be avoided if we were willing to overcome our stereotypical biases and seek to understand others on adeeper level.The antidote to stereotyping is education and exposure. By seeking to understand the diverse experiences and perspectives of others, we can break down the barriers that divide us. This requires a conscious effort to overcome our natural biases and embrace a mindset of curiosity and openness. It means being willing to question our own assumptions and challenge the narratives that limit our understanding.In conclusion, stereotypes are a powerful force thatcan shape our views and interactions with others. However, they are also fragile constructs that can be overcome with education, exposure, and a willingness to embrace diversity. By dismantling these barriers to understanding and empathy, we can create a more inclusive and harmonious world where everyone is seen and treated as an individual with unique value and contributions to make.。
八下英语u3作文不认为角度的
八下英语u3作文不认为角度的The Unique Perspective of Creativity.In the world of infinite possibilities, creativity stands as a beacon of uniqueness and individuality. It is the engine that drives innovation, sparking ideas and bringing them to life in new and unexpected ways. However, the concept of creativity is often misunderstood, with many believing that it is solely based on a single,狭隘 angle of perception. I firmly disagree with this notion, believing that creativity is a multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be limited to a single perspective.Firstly, creativity is inherently subjective. It is shaped by our unique experiences, backgrounds, and perspectives. What one person deems creative might not resonate with another, as our individual lenses through which we view the world are inherently different. This subjectivity is what gives creativity its richness and diversity, allowing it to exist in a wide array of formsand expressions.Moreover, creativity thrives in a diverse environment. When we expose ourselves to different perspectives, cultures, and ways of thinking, we open ourselves up to a world of possibilities that we might have never considered before. This diversity刺激s our minds, encouraging us to think outside the box and to create in ways that are truly original and innovative.Additionally, limiting creativity to a single angle can stunt its growth and development. When we constrain ourselves to a narrow perspective, we limit the potential of our imaginations. We miss out on the opportunities to create something truly unique and groundbreaking, as we are restricted by the limitations of our own perspectives. By embracing a multifaceted approach to creativity, we allow ourselves to explore and express our ideas in ways that are truly authentic and meaningful.In conclusion, creativity is a multifaceted phenomenon that cannot be limited to a single angle of perception. Itis shaped by our unique perspectives and experiences, and thrives in a diverse environment. By embracing this multifaceted nature of creativity, we open ourselves up to a world of limitless possibilities, allowing our imaginations to run free and to create in ways that are truly original and innovative.Furthermore, the notion that creativity can only exist within a narrow framework ignores the dynamic nature of the creative process. Creativity is not a static entity; it evolves and transforms as we grow and learn. Our perspectives change as we encounter new experiences and knowledge, and this evolution is reflected in our creative outputs. By allowing creativity to flourish in a multifaceted manner, we enable it to adapt and evolve, keeping it vibrant and relevant in today's rapidly changing world.Moreover, a multifaceted approach to creativity fosters collaboration and cooperation. In a world where we increasingly rely on collective intelligence and cross-disciplinary collaboration, it is crucial that we cultivatean environment that encourages diverse perspectives. By embracing the unique contributions of each individual, we can create something greater than what any one person could achieve alone. This collective creativity is not limited by a single angle but is enhanced by the synergy of diverse ideas and perspectives.In conclusion, the belief that creativity can be confined to a single angle is a myopic view that underestimates the power and potential of the creative process. Creativity is a multifaceted, subjective, andever-evolving phenomenon that thrives in a diverse environment. By embracing this multifaceted nature of creativity, we open ourselves up to a world of limitless possibilities, fostering innovation and collaboration in ways that are truly transformative and impactful.。
叙事视角分析 英文作文
叙事视角分析英文作文英文：Narrative perspective is an essential element in storytelling. It refers to the point of view from which the story is told. There are three main types of narrative perspective: first-person, second-person, and third-person.First-person perspective is when the story is told from the point of view of one of the characters in the story. This type of perspective allows the reader to get inside the head of the character and experience the story from their perspective. For example, in "The Catcher in the Rye," the story is told from the perspective of Holden Caulfield, and the reader experiences the story through his eyes.Second-person perspective is when the story is told from the perspective of the reader. This type of perspective is not commonly used in literature but can befound in choose-your-own-adventure books. For example, in "You Are a Shark," the reader is placed in the role of the shark and must make decisions that affect the outcome of the story.Third-person perspective is when the story is told from the perspective of an outside narrator. This type of perspective allows the reader to see the story frommultiple angles and can provide a more objective view of the events in the story. For example, in "Pride and Prejudice," the story is told from the perspective of an outside narrator, and the reader is able to see the story from the perspectives of multiple characters.In conclusion, narrative perspective is an essential element in storytelling that can greatly impact thereader's experience. By understanding the different types of narrative perspective and how they are used, writers can create more engaging and immersive stories.中文：叙事视角是故事叙述中的一个重要元素，它指的是故事叙述的角度。
新意频添活力添光彩的英语作文
In the realm of English composition,the infusion of novelty and vibrancy is essential to captivate readers and elevate the quality of writing.Here are several strategies to add freshness and vitality to your English essays:1.Original Ideas:Start with a unique perspective or a fresh take on a common topic.This can make your essay stand out and engage the reader from the very beginning.2.Creative Introductions:Begin your essay with a hook that draws the reader in.This could be a thoughtprovoking question,a surprising fact,or a vivid description that sets the tone for the rest of the essay.3.Vivid Language:Use descriptive and sensory language to paint a picture in the readers mind.Avoid clichés and overused phrases,and instead opt for more colorful and expressive words.4.Dynamic Sentence Structures:Vary your sentence length and structure to maintain the readers bine short,punchy sentences with longer,more complex ones to create a rhythmic flow.5.Incorporate Anecdotes and Examples:Reallife stories and specific examples can make your points more relatable and memorable.They can also provide concrete evidence to support your arguments.e of Metaphors and Similes:These literary devices can add depth and richness to your writing.They help readers understand complex ideas by relating them to familiar concepts.7.Engage with Counterarguments:Acknowledging and addressing potential counterarguments can strengthen your essay by demonstrating a comprehensive understanding of the topic.8.Conclusive Endings:End your essay with a strong conclusion that reinforces your main points and leaves a lasting impression on the reader.This could be a call to action,a thoughtprovoking statement,or a summary of your key arguments.9.Edit and Revise:The process of editing is crucial for refining your essay.Look for areas where you can improve clarity,remove redundancy,and enhance the overall flow of your writing.10.Incorporate Cultural References:Adding references to literature,history,or popularculture can make your essay more engaging and demonstrate your broad knowledge base.e of Quotes:Wellchosen quotes from experts or famous figures can add authority to your essay and provide a different voice to support your arguments.12.Personal Reflection:Including personal reflections or experiences can make your essay more authentic and relatable,allowing readers to connect with you on a deeper level.By implementing these strategies,you can ensure that your English compositions are not only informative and wellstructured but also engaging and memorable,leaving a lasting impact on your readers.。
两种写作视角的作文
两种写作视角的作文英文回答：In terms of writing perspectives, there are two primary options: first-person and third-person. Each perspective offers unique advantages and drawbacks, and the choice between them depends on the specific requirements of the writing task.First-person perspective is characterized by the use of the pronouns "I," "me," and "my." This perspective allows the writer to convey a sense of immediacy and personal experience, making it well-suited for narratives, memoirs, and personal essays. However, first-person perspective can also create a sense of bias, as the writer's experiences and opinions are presented as the only valid ones.Third-person perspective, on the other hand, uses pronouns such as "he," "she," "they," and "their." This perspective allows the writer to maintain a more objectiveand impartial tone, making it well-suited for academic writing, news articles, and technical reports. However,third-person perspective can also create a sense ofdistance between the writer and the subject matter, which may make it less engaging for readers.When choosing between first-person and third-person perspective, consider the following factors:Objective: Are you trying to convey a personal experience or an objective analysis?Audience: Who are you writing for? Will they be more receptive to a personal or objective tone?Style: Do you prefer a more conversational or formal style of writing?Ultimately, the best perspective to choose will depend on the specific writing task and the desired tone and style.中文回答：在写作时，有两种主要的视角可供选择，第一人称和第三人称。
转变思维方式风景这边独好作文
转变思维方式风景这边独好作文英文回答：A shift in perspective can unveil a paradigm of unprecedented splendor, revealing landscapes that transcend the ordinary. It is in embracing new vantage points that we unlock the hidden gems that lie within our surroundings.When we challenge our preconceived notions and open ourselves to alternative viewpoints, we liberate our minds from the constraints of familiarity. This newfound freedom empowers us to perceive the world with a clarity that was once obscured by the veil of complacency.In the realm of art, a shift in perspective can transform a mundane subject into a masterpiece. An artist who defies traditional boundaries and approaches theircraft with fresh eyes can create works that challenge perceptions and evoke a profound emotional response.In the field of science, a shift in perspective canlead to groundbreaking discoveries. Scientists who dare to question established theories and explore uncharted territories often stumble upon insights that revolutionize our understanding of the universe.In the tapestry of human experience, a shift in perspective can foster empathy, compassion, and a deep appreciation for the interconnectedness of all living beings. When we step outside of our own limited experiences and immerse ourselves in the perspectives of others, wegain a newfound understanding of the world and our place within it.A shift in perspective is not without its challenges.It requires a willingness to let go of preconceived notions, to embrace uncertainty, and to venture into the unknown. However, the rewards of such an endeavor are immeasurable, as it opens us up to a world of infinite possibilities and transformative experiences.中文回答：转换视角，风景独好。
视野的英文作文模板高中
视野的英文作文模板高中1. The concept of "perspective" is an interesting one. It's like looking at the world through a different lens, and realizing that there are so many ways to see things.2. When you change your perspective, you can see things from a new angle. It's like turning a kaleidoscope and watching the patterns shift and change before your eyes.3. Sometimes, our perspective is shaped by our experiences and the people around us. It's like we're wearing a pair of glasses that color everything we see.4. But if we can step back and try to see things from someone else's perspective, it can open our eyes to a whole new way of understanding the world.5. Our perspective can also be influenced by the media and the messages we receive from society. It's like we're being fed a certain narrative, and it can be hard to breakfree from that and see things for ourselves.6. I think it's important to remember that everyone has their own perspective, and it's okay if it's different from ours. It's what makes the world such an interesting and diverse place.7. So, let's try to keep an open mind and be willing to see things from different perspectives. It can help us grow and learn, and maybe even bring us closer to understanding each other.。
perspective是什么意思
perspective是什么意思1. N-COUNT （尤指受到某种思想、经验影响的）思考方法，态度，观点，角度A particular perspective is a particular way of thinking about something, especially one that is influenced by your beliefs or experiences.•He says the death of his father 18 months ago has given him a new perspective on life...他说18个月前父亲的去世让他对人生有了新的认识。
•...two different perspectives on the nature of adolescent development...对青少年成长发育特点的两种不同观点•Most literature on the subject of immigrants in France has been written from the perspective of the French themselves...大多数有关法国外来移民的文学作品都是从法国人的视角写的。
2. PHRASE 正确/不正确地看待（或判断） If you get something in perspective or into perspective, you judge its real importance by considering it in relation to everything else. If you get something out of perspective, you fail to judge its real importance in relation to everything else.•Remember to keep things in perspective...记住要客观看待事物。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
• Animals, including humans, are genetically programmed to acquired certain kinds of knowledge and skill at specific times in life.
Elisse Newport and his colleges: deaf children It support the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first language acquisition, whether language or gesture.
(2)a specific innate ability the underlying language system rules based on the samples of the exposed natural language
(3)the innate mechanism used exclusively for language acquisition (4) successfully acquire native language or more than one language (5)the ability to use the pattern of the language or languages spoken to them
Native signers exposed to ASL from birth Early signers exposedd to ASL from 4 to 6 Later signers learned ASL after 12
No difference between insome aspect in using ASL. But， grammatical makers consistency: native group > early group >later group
Two of the most famous cases
Victor
Wild child about 12 years old having had no contact with humans. A doctor devoted five years to trying to teach him language, but there was little progress.
VS
acquisition.
a book by Lydia White(1989) English sentences contains 'himself' profoundly deaf - sign language with limited cognitive ability complex language systm caring,attentive parents VS. abusive or rejecting patents
The innatist perspective
Noam Chomsky
The innatist perspective: All human languages are based on some innate universal principles.
(1)biologically programmed for language.
Victor and Genie appear to provide evidence in support of the CPH
but it is difficult to argue that the hypothesis is confirmed on this basis evidence from such unusual cases.
Genie
had been isolated for13 years After she was discovered, she was educated for 5 years Genie’s language was not like that of a typical fiveyear old.