欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结

欧洲文化入门听课笔记和重点总结
1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet
三大悲剧家：Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist
喜剧家：Aristophanes Comedy writer
历史学家：Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived
哲学和科学：Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist，one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself，virtue was high worth of life，dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideas
Aristotle Direct observation，theory follow fact，idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand a nd I…ll move the World”
Others Diogenes （the Cynics）Pyrrhon（the Sceptics）Epicurus （the Epicureans）Zeno（the Stoics）
4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander，king of Macedon的领导下，5th century B.C.达到顶峰，146 B.C.被罗马攻克
2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews，3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠，1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及，开始他们的Exodus，他在Sinai 山定了ten commandments in the name of God，40年后Hebrews定居Pelestine，known as Canaan，Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，6th century B.C.，他们在Babylon形成synagogue（忧太集会）来发扬他们的教义。

Jesus Christ生活在第一个罗马帝国Augustus，Emperor Constantine 1于313年宣布基督教合法，Emperor Theodosius于392年宣布基督教为国教。

Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament，旧约包含39本书，写了从1000B.C.——100A.D.的事情，最重要的前五本是Pentateuch，旧约主要由Hebrew写成，the New Testment主要是Greek的形式，包含14本书，最古老的Latin Bible叫Vulgate，在1382年被John Wycliff 翻译成了英语，Greek Bible叫Septuagint
3.中世纪开始于476年西罗马帝国的衰败5-11世纪a period in which classical，Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged 1054，教堂分裂为the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church反击Moslems，开始了Crusades Charles Martel给士兵们estates known as fiefs in 732 St. Thomas Aquinas（Scholasticism）写了Summa Theologica，这本书sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology他认为feudal hierarchy（层次，等级）of society is God…s rule The power of feudal rulers is God‟s will Pope is Christ…s Plenipotentiary Charlemagne and Alfred the Great encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools. They copied various ancient books and translated the Latin works into the venacular Roger Bacon and Experimental Science one of the earliest advocates of scientific research，called for careful observation Dante（但丁）神曲one of the landmarks of world literature Chaucer first modern poet in English literature
4.文艺复兴与宗教改革14th and 17th Century Starting in Florence and Venice Boccaccio the greatest achievement of prose fiction in中世纪Petrarch Sonnet，father of modern poetry
文艺复兴早期的艺术家：Giotto forerunner of renaissance Brunelleschi showed a systematic use of perspective Donatello one of the first artists engaged in anatomy Giorgione made happy use of colour schemes to unify his pictures
意大利文艺复兴全盛时期的四位艺术家：Da Vinci Michelangelo Raphael Known for his Titian Oil color the most prolific of the great Venetian painters of Western World
Pre-Luther Religious Reformers John Wycliffe chief forerunner of the reformation，took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time in 1382 Jan Hus Czech Religious leader
John Calvin 基督教教义one of the most influential theological works Calvinism Rabelais 拉伯雷french writer Ronsard Pleiade七星诗社代表人法国第一个近代抒情诗人Montaigne 蒙田散文集French Writer Cervantes father of modern European novel spain Thomas More British writer Shakespeare 作品包括>点击下载>点击下载>点击下载>> crowned literature of England 代表欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就Copernicus The father of modern astronomy 现代天文学之父Vesalius marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy （解剖学）founder of modern medicine Aldus Manutius foremost printer in Italy Machiavelli Father of political science Vosari 1492，Columbus发现了America 1487，Dias发现了the cape of good hope 1497，da Gama发现了the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope
5. 17世纪Copernicus 天体运行论Although he did not belong to the 17th century he was the forerunner of modern medicine Kepler Kepler…s Law （the three laws of planetary motion）德国the three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton‟s discovery of the laws of gravitation Galileo 意大利acceleration in dynamics，the law of inertia，the law of falling bodies动力加速度，惯性定律，落体定律Newton 英国Leibniz Distinguishes three levels of understanding：self-conscious（自我意识）conscious（意识）unconscious/subconscious （潜意识）他和牛顿都是caculus的创始人Milton Areopagitica，English revolution Bacon Knowledge is power 英国反对deductive method，创立了inductive method 认为哲学应该与神学分开Hobbes 利维坦Materialist （knowledge come from experience）Social Contract 英国认
革命中有两个领袖，Cromwell 和John Milton Cromwell the man of action John Milton the man of thought 在英国文学史上ranks with Shakespear and Chaucer Descartes 笛卡尔Cartesian Doubt I think therefore I am 法国it is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Bacon in England and Descartes in France Corneille 高乃依熙得法国第一部古典主义悲剧，表现责任与爱情的冲突Racine the greatest tragic dramatist of French neoclassical theatre 表现情感和理性的冲突Moliere 达尔杜夫愤世嫉俗吝啬鬼the best representative dramatist of French Classical comedies很多科学器械在被发明：microscope，telescope，thermometer，barometer，pendulum 1689，the Bill of Rights 建立了the Parliament至高无上的权利法国最著名的建筑：Palace of Versailles Garden Front East Front of the Louvre英国最著名建筑：St. Paul…s Cathedral
6.启蒙运动the age of reason 18th century intellectual movement starting from France the most important forerunners of the enlightenment were two 17th century Englishmen John Locke and Issac Newton.Locke…s materialist theory and Newton‟s theory of gravitation Major force of the enlightenment is French Philosophes
18世纪两大著名运动：The American War of Independence（1776）ended British colonial rule over the U.S.独立宣言The French Revolution （1789）ended the French Monarchy and the first French Republic was born in 1792人权宣言
French Philosophy and Literature Montesquieu Separation of powers法国启蒙运动的先驱Voltaire most famous of his novels Rousseau one of the greatest figures of French enlightenment Diderot
English Literature Pope spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason，translation of Homer，good at heroic couplet 擅长英雄双韵体Defoe one of the greatest fiction writer of the 18th century England 鲁滨逊漂流记Swift the foremost satirist in the English language and one of the satiric masters of all time Henry Fielding Father of the English novel
Samuel Richardson The founder of English domestic novel Samuel Johnson editor of 18世纪英国文学最著名的期刊The Tatler 和The Spectator，Addison 和Steele经常在上面写文章
German Literature and Philosophy Lessing German dramastist German classicism Goethe Apprenticeship/Travels> the Greatest German Poets Schiller a founder of modern German literature Kant Waterhead of modern philosophy Propose the nebular hypothesis History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens> reason>
The Musical Enlightenment J.S.Bach Christianity Major musicians of the musical Enlightenment Handel 亨德尔being his crowning masterpiece Bach and Handel showed the world Baroque musical architecture at its imposing best The Baroque period was followed by the Classical Period，roughly between 1750 and 1820 Haydn Classical period Viennese school Mozart Beethoven occupy a Pivotal position，leaning in much of his work towards the Romantic Movement in Music
7. 浪漫主义Romanticism late 18th and early 19th century starting from the ideas of Rouseau in France and from the Storm and Stress Movement in Germany The enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise：the French Revolution and the Industrial revolution New economic ideas were put forward by Adam Smith in his book ，which laid the theoretical groundwork for capitalism.
Romanticism in Germany The Storm and Stress Movement prepared the way for European Romanticism Goethe combined Romanticism with Classicism It was Love and Intrigue that made Schiller the best dramatist for the Storm and Stress The Jena School：Schlegel Brothers，Novalis and Tieck Heine：海涅在1836年发表>，宣告浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束
Romanticism in England Blake：The Lakers：Wordsworth and Coleridge Byron：is considered his masterpiece the fact that the poet died for the Greek causes made him more respected his poem expressed an ardent love of liberty and a fierce hatred of tyranny Shelley noted for his lyrics Keats famous for his sonnets Walter Scott
Romanticism in France Chateaubriand ：Victor Hugo：法国浪漫主义文学的最重要的作家。

他于1827年发表的Cromwell>是法国浪漫主义运动的一篇重要宣言。

他的长篇小说巴黎圣母院悲惨世界宣扬了“爱”与“仁慈”等人道主义精神。

The greatest poet of his day George Sand：法国浪漫主义文学最杰出的女作家
Romanticism in Italy Manzoni：约婚夫妇是意大利文学史上第一部以爱压迫的劳动人民为主人公的小说Leopardi：he was the greatest poet of Italy Romanticism
Romanticism in Russia Russia Romanticism began that way-adapting French plays and translating German and English poetry Pushkin：俄国浪漫主义先锋（van）a Byronic character his masterpiece is 创造了俄国文学中的第一个“多余的人”的典型Lermontov：draws a fine portrait of Pushkin
Romanticism in Poland Adam Mickiewicz：beginning of Polish Romanticism is his masterpiece Art and Architecture Goya Spanish painter and etcher（蚀刻家）欧洲浪漫主义先驱Execution of the Third of May> Children> David French Painter Delacroix 代表着法国浪漫主义绘画的最高成就Gericault French painter Turner English landscape painter Constable English landscape painter Turner and Constable代表了浪漫主义画派的最高成就
Music早期浪漫主义音乐家：Beethoven（贝多芬）German Composer marked the beginning of 19th century programme music Schubert（舒伯特）Austrian composer Chopin（肖邦）Polish composer Schumann（舒曼）German composer Mendelssohn（门德尔松）German composer
后期浪漫主义音乐家：Berlioz（伯辽兹）French composer Liszt（里斯特）Hungarian composer Wagner（瓦格纳）German composer Brahms （伯拉姆斯）German composer Tchaikovsky（柴科夫斯基）Russian composer
8. 马克思主义和达尔文主义Marxism and Darwinism The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism German Classical Philosophy and Marxist Philosophy：Hegelian dialectics黑格尔辩证法Feuerbach…s materialism费尔巴哈唯物论Marxist Philosophy Dialectical materialism马克思主义辩证唯物论Historical materialism 马克思主义历史唯物论English Classical Political Economy and Marxist Political Economy Capital is the most important work by Marx about Marxist economics Surplus value was the source of profit，the source of the wealth of the capitalist class Doctrine of surplus value in Capital is the cornerstone of Marx‟s economic t heory Utopian Socialism and Scientific Socialism Robert Owen：English industrialist and social reformer Henri de Saint-Simon：French social philosopher Charles Fourier：French social philosopher
Darwinism As Newton dominated 17th century science with the discovery of the laws governing the bodies of the universe，Charles Darwin dominated the 19th century science for his discovering of the laws governing the evolution of man himself. In the history of science he takes up a position as important as these occupied by Copernicus，Galileo and Newton. Darwin was not the first man to put forward the theory of evolution Lamarck was the first man whose conclusion on the subject. However，he failed to produce any evidence，French naturalist（自然主义者）Lyell English geologist Karl Marx
Darwin…s works and Theories：On the origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection，or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life The Descent of Man
9. 现实主义Realism arise in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France
Realism in France Stendhal 司汤达红与黑是法国批判现实主义第一部成熟的作品巴马修道院Balzac巴尔扎克Balzac has been called the French Dickens as Dickens has been called the English Balzac Flaubert福楼拜非常重视艺术形式he is often called the first French realist包法利夫人Zora 左拉founder of the naturalist school鲁贡玛－马卡尔家族史Maupassant 莫伯桑
Realism in Russia Gogol果戈里the first master of fiction in Russia Chickikov A character in Shame，and hypocrisy Turgenev屠格涅夫the first Russian author to gain recognition in the West
Dostoyevsky陀思妥耶夫斯基罪与罚卡拉马佐夫兄弟Leo Tolstoy列夫托尔斯泰战争与和平安娜卡列尼娜复活Chekhov契诃夫海欧万尼亚舅舅Sisters>三姐妹樱桃园
Realism in Northern Europe Ibsen a plea for the emancipation of woman His plays are viewed as the fountainhead of much modern drama Strindberg The above three are his autobiographical works His first play is
Realism in England This period occurs at the latter half of the reign of Queen Victoria，这时期意味着大英帝国的顶峰，但太平盛世只是外表，整个国家内乱不断，危机重重Charles Dickens 大卫科波菲尔荒凉山庄艰难时世其小说展现了广阔的社会生活，真实情节与诗意气氛的结合，幽默、风趣与悲剧的结合George Eliot（Mary Ann Evans-PEN NAME）is regarded by some critics as the finest English novel of t he 19th century Thackeray萨克雷名利场他的写作范围多局限于上流社会Thomas Hardy Mayor of Casterbridge> Bernard Shaw萧伯纳won the Nobel Prize in 1925
Realism in the United States Harriet Beecher Stowe：greatest of all anti-slavery manifestoes Walt Whitman：Considered to be the greatest of all American poets Mark Twain：哈克贝里芬历险记a masterpiece of humour，characterization and realism，has been considered the first modern American novel 镀金岁月Henry James出身世家，所以关注上层人物the master beyond all masters贵妇人画像Art Courbet库尔贝French artist 反映生活的真实是创作的最高原则石工奥尔南的葬礼Millet米勒French artist “农民画家”播种者拾穗者Impressionism in Art印象派艺术Manet 草地上的午餐福列斯贝热尔酒吧间Monet 日出印象Post-Impressionism in Art后印象派艺术Paul Cezanne赛尚Van Gogh凡高dutch painter Paul Gauguin高更French painter
10. 现代主义及其它思潮Modernism and other trends also called “the tradition of the new” “dehumanization of art” originating from the end of 19th century Discoveries made at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century：Rontgen：the discovery of X-rays伦琴德国物理学家发明X射线Becquerel：the discovery of radioactive properties of uranium贝克勒尔法国物理学家放射性现象的发现者，肯定了铀元素自发射线的性质Marie Curie the discovery of radium居里夫人法国物理学家和放射学家发现镭Soddy the discovery of isotopes索迪英国放射化学家同位素Rutherford the discovery of the atomic nucleus卢瑟福英国物理学家发现原子核Einstein Special Theory of Relativity General Principles of Relativity
Contemporary Western Literature Eliot Conrad polish novelist Woolf English novelist Lawrence English writer c onsidered one of the “makers” of modern English fiction Love> Yeats Irish writer Joyce Man> Irish writer Pound a leading figure of the Imagist movement American poet Faulkner Hemingway Tolls> Thomas Mann The most influential and representative German author of his time Gide French writer Proust French novelist Albert Camus French novelist Gorky The greatest Russian literary figure of the 20th century Sholokhov soviet author Literature and Philosophy Since 1945 Angry Young Men in England 英国愤怒的青年Amis Osborne
Beat Generation in America美国垮掉的一代Ginsberg Kerouac
The Theatre of the Absurd欧洲的荒诞派Beckett Irish writer Ionesco French writer
Black Humour 美国黑色幽默派Heller
Introduction
1、There are many elements constituting（组成）European Culture.
2、There are two major elements：Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
3、The richness（丰富性）of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.
第一章
1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
2、The economy of Athens rested on（依赖）an immense（无限的）amount of slave labour.
3、Olympus mount，Revived in 1896（当代奥运会）
4、Ancient Greece（古希腊）…s epics was created by Homer.
5、They events of Homer…s own time. （错）
（They are not about events of Homer…s own time，probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.）
6、The Homer…s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.
7、Agamemnon，Hector，Achilles are in Iliad.
8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.
9、Odyssey（对其作品产生影响）—→James Joyoe…s Ulysses（描述一天的生活）。

In the 20th century.
10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.
11、三大悲剧大师
① Aeschylus
《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》
② Sophocles（之首）
《Oedipus the King》—→ Freud…s “the Oedipus complex” （恋母情结）—→ David Herbert Lawrence‟s《Sons and lovers》（劳伦斯）447页
③ Euripides
A.《Trojan Women》
B.He is the first writer of “problem plays”（社会问题剧）在肖伯纳手中达到高潮，属于存在主义戏剧的人物
C.Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”（一个纯粹的人）
D.Realism can be traced back（追溯到）to the Ancient Greece.
To be specific（具体来说），Euripides.
12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes. 18页
Aristophanes writes about nature. —→浪漫主义湖畔派（The lakers）华兹华兹
Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes，The dog too witty and too profane is.”
（新古典主义代表作家《格列夫游记》《大人国小人国》《温和的提议》用讽刺的写作手法）
13、History （Historical writing）史学创作
※ “Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war（between Greeks and Persians）
This war is called Peleponicion wars. 博罗奔泥撒，3
只是陈述史实，并没有得出理论。

※ “The greatest historian that ever lived.” （有史以来最伟大的历史学家）—→ Thucydides —→ war （Sparta，Athens and Syracuse）
14、The Greek historical writing writes mainly about wars.
15、受希腊文化影响的传教士St. Paul. Democritus （Materialism）
16、希腊文化中的哲学被基督教所吸收
17、① Euclid…s Elements解析几何
It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century. （历史地位）
② Archimedes
His work not only in geometry几何学，but also in arithmetic算术，machanics机械，and hydrostatics.流体静力学
选择：Give me a place to stand，and I will move the world.谁的理论（Archimedes）
18、Architecture古希腊建筑三大风格
① The Doric style
is also called masculine style. （宏伟的）
but the Doric style is monotonous and unadorned （单调）
is sturdy （坚强的），powerful，severelooking （庄严肃穆）and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.
② The Ionic style
is also called the feminine style. （阴柔的）
is graceful （优雅的）and elegant （优美的）。

The Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament. （装饰性）
③ The Corinthian style
is known for its ornamental luxury. （奢侈）
19、The famous temples：The Acrpolis at Athens and the Parthenon.
20、The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
21、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. （罗马征服希腊的标志）
22、From 146 B.C.，Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
Greek that of the eastern half.
23、Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
24、The Roman writer Horace said “captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”。

25、The dividing range（分水岭）in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.
26、The year 27 B.C. Divided the Roman history into two periods：republic and empire.
27、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato…s republic.
28、The land area of Roman empire reached its climax in 2 to 3 century.
29、north：Scotland east：Armenia and Mesopotamia
30、In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed（保证）by the Roman legions（罗马军团）
31、In the Roman history，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was known as Pax Romana.（神圣罗马帝国）
32、名解In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed（保证）by the Roman legions，it was known as Pax Romana
33、The Roman Law protected（保护）the rights of plebeians （平民）。

34、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.
35、After 395，the empire was divided into East （the Byzantine Empire）and West.
36、Cicero西赛罗
he legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词
described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的
an enormous influence（巨大影响）on the development of European prose.（散文）
37、Julius Caesar commentaries批评论“I came，I saw，I conquered.”
38、Virgil Aeneid 阿尼德
39、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.
The world…s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所
40、The Colosseum（大理石像）it…s an enormous.露天的环形影剧院
41、Sculpture（雕塑）She-wolf（母狼）
42、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式
43、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly. 古希腊民主的具体形式
论述简答
一、What is the limitatio n of “Democracy” in ancient Greece？（名解简答）
（How do you understand “Democracy” in ancient Greece？What is the difference between “Democracy” in ancient Greece and modern democracy？）
答：
① Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”，bu t in Greece by “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.
二、How did the Greek Culture originate and develop？
答：
① Probably around 1200 B.C.，a war was fought between Greece and troy. This is the war that Homer refers to in his epics.
② Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.
A. The successful repulse of the Persian invasion （入侵）early in the 5th century.
B. The establishment of democracy.
C. The flourishing （蒸蒸日上的）of science，philosophy，literature，art and historical writing in Athens.
③ The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.
④ In the second half of the 4th century B.C.，Greece was conquered by Alexander，king of Macedon. Whenever he went and conquered，whenever Greek culture was found.
⑤ Melting between Greek culture and Roman culture in 146 B.C.，the Romans conquered Greece.
三、How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop？
答：
（1）、Three founders
1、Pythagoras
① All things were numbers.
② Scientific mathematics.
③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论
2、Heracleitue
① Fire is the primary（主要的）elements of the universe.火是万物之源
② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一
3、Democritus
① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者
② materialism.唯物主义
（2）、Three thinkers
1、Socrates
①He hadn…t works. We can know him from Plato‟s dialogues.
②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.
2、Plato
①The Academy is the first school in the world，it was established by Plato.
②He has four works. Dialogues，Apology，Symposium and Republic.
3、Aristotle
①The Lyceum is the second school in the world，it was established by Aristotle.
②Aristotle is a humanist.
（2）、Five contending schools
1、The Sophists诡辩派
①Under the leadership of Protagoras.
②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论
③His doctrine教义is “man is the measure of all things”。

人是衡量一切的标准
2、The Cynics犬儒派
①Under the leadership of Diogenes.
②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.
③He proclaimed宣扬his brotherhood. And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.权利
3、The Sceptics置疑学派
①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.
②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable可获得的，and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.
4、The Epicureans享乐派
①Under the leadership of Epicurus. 选择：根据领导者的名字直接命名
②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual肉欲enjoyment.享乐
Epicurus was a materialist. He believed that the world consisted of atoms.原子
5、The Stoics斯多哥派
①Under the leadership of Zeno.
②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.
One should endure忍受hardship艰难and misfortune不幸with courage.勇气
Developed into Stoics… duty.
He was also a materialist.
四、What philosophy system did Plato established？
（Why do we say Plato…s ph ilosophy system was idealistic？Do you think Plato built up a comprehensive综合的system of philosophy？）答：
1、It dealt with，among other things，the problem of how，in the complex，ever—changing world，men were to attain获得knowledge.
2、The first case and physical自然world should take the secondary case.
3、Idealistic of philosophy.
4、Many of Plato…s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought. （吸收到基督教的思想中）
五、What…s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philoso phical ideas（system）？
答：
1、For one thing，Aristotle emphasized（强调）direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.（理论联系实际）This is different from Plato…s reliance（依赖）on subjective thinking.（万物依赖主观思维）
2、For another，he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete（具体的）individual（个别的）realities. （物质与意识共同构成的客观事实）Here，too，he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world（意识高于物质）
3、Aristotle thought happiness was men…s aim in life. But not happiness in the vulgar庸俗的sense，but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason，goodness and contemplation.（善良和期待）
一句话简答题
What should be man…s aim in life？
Aristotle…s answer was：happiness.
六、What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development？
（What positive influence did the Greek Culture exert运用on the world civilization文化？）
答：
There has been an enduring excitement兴奋about classical经典的Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere别处。

Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital有生命力的part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.
1、Spirit of innovation创新精神
The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy；They first wrote history as opposed反对to mere纯粹的annals历史记载；They speculated思索freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life生命的轮回，without being bound in the fetters束缚of any inherited orthodoxy.继承的习俗
2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就
The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour努力：Philosophy，science，epic poetry，comedy，historical writing，architecture，etc.
3、Lasting effect持续的影响
①Countless无数的writers have quoted举例，borrowed from and otherwise used Homer…s epic s，the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides，Aristophanes‟s comedies，Plato…s Dialogues，ect.
②In the early part of the 19th century，in England alone，three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作：Byron…s Isles of Greece，Shelley‟s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats…s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
③In the 20th century，there are Homeric parallels与…平行in the Irishman爱尔兰James Joyce…s modernist masterpiece代表作Ulysses.
七、What is the similarity and difference between Greek culture and Roman culture？
答：
1、similarity
① Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly.
② Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities（神）to be readily（容易的）identified （一致），and their myths （崇拜的
③ Their languages worked in similar ways，both being members of the Indo-European language family.
2、difference
① The Romans built up a vast （巨大的）empire；the Greek s didn…t，except for the brief （短暂的）moment of Alexander‟s conquests，which soon disintegrated.（瓦解）
② The Romans were confident（自信的）in their own organizational power，their military and administrative capabilities.（管理国家的能力）
八、What is the Rome historical background？
答：
1、The history of Rome divided into two periods：Before the year 27 B.C.，Rome had been a republic；from the year 27 B.C.，Octavius took supreme （最大的）power as emperor with the title of Augustus and Roman Empire began.
2、Two centuries later，the Roman Empire reached its climax，marked by land area…s extension：Encircling （环绕）the Mediterranean.（地中海）
3、Strong military power：the famous Roman legions.
4、In the Roman history ，there came two hundred years of peaceful time，which was guaranteed（保证）by the Roman legions，it was known as Pax Romana.
5、Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.
6、The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.选择
① In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium. Renamed it Constantinople （modern Istanbul）。

② After 395 （分裂时间），the empire was divided into East （The Byzantine Empire）and West
③ In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire.
④ The East Roman Empire collapsed （崩溃）when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453. （英法百年战争结束）
第二章
1、Christianity is by far the most influential in the West. 在西方最具影响力的宗教
2、Judeo-Christian tradition constitutes one of the two major components of European culture：Judaism and Christianity.
3、The Jewish tradition，which gave birth to Christianity. （犹太教是基督教的前身）Both originated in Palestine，which was known as Canaan.
4、The ancestors of the Jews — the Hebrews. 犹太人的祖先是希伯来人
5、They called “Hebrews”，which means “wanderers”。

商旅
6、About 1300 B.C.，the Hebrews came to settle （定居）in Palestine.
7、The Hebrews history was recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible.
8、The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament.
9、The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. 上帝与上帝的教义
10、The New Testament is about the doctrine （教义）of Jesus Christ.
11、The New Testament is，in essence （实质上），the four accounts （四福音书），written by the four disciples.弟子
12、The word “Testament” means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
13、Bible is representative of Christianity and 新旧约
14、The Old Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament” means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
15、The New Testament名词解释
The Bible was divided into two sections：the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine （教义）of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”，the agreement between God and Man.
16、The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch.摩西五经
17、Pentateuch名词解释
The Old Testament consists of 39 books，the oldest and most important of which are the first five books，called Pentateuch. Pentateuch contains five books：Genesis （创世记），Exodus （出埃及记），Leviticus（教义记），Numbers （逃亡记），Deuteronomy （摩西遗言记）。

18、Genesis名词解释
Genesis is one of the five books in Pentateuch，it tells about a religious account （描述）of the origin of the Hebrews people，including the origin of the world and of man，the career （经历）of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.。