Some Usage of Pragmatics in Daily Speech
Pragmatics
美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H,P.Grice)1975提出的 会话含义理论(conversational implicature )以 及合作原则(cooperative principle)等等，为语 用学的创立提供了基本的理论基础。 语用学作为一个独立的学科门类有三个标志： A、1977年在荷兰创刊的《语用学杂志》 (Pragmatics) B、1985年在意大利召开的第一次国际语 用学大会 C、1986年正式建立的国际语用学会。(IPrA)
英国哲学家奥斯汀( John Langshaw Austin) 于 1955 年在哈佛大学作题为《 论言有所为》 ( How To Do Thing with Words) 的系列演讲中提 出言语行为理论 ( Theory of Speech Act ) , 反对 逻辑实证主义的凡不能验证其真或假的陈述都是 伪陈述, 就是无意义的实证观点, 向当时的逻辑实 证主义发起挑战。 美国语言哲学家赛尔( John R. Searle) 1969 年出 版《言语行为》( Speech Act s) , 1975 年出版 《间接言语行为 》( Indirect Speech Acts ) ,继承 发展了由奥斯汀提出的言语行为理论, 使之进一 步系统化、完善化。至此, 言语行为理论成为语 用学研究的重要内容之一。
1982 年, 胡附、文炼在《 中国语文》杂志第三期上首先发 表了《 句子分析漫谈》一文, 倡导三个平面( 句法, 语义, 语 用) 语法观, 明确提出语序所表达的有的属于语义,有的属于 语法, 有的属于语用, 开始把语用纳入汉语语法的研究范围。 自1989 年, 中国社会科学院语言研究所设立了汉语运用的 语用原则课题组以来, 语用学的研究一直被限制在研究语用 法和语法( 句法) 的关系这一规定的范围内。 1997 年, 钱冠林的《汉语文化语用学》问世。此书是国内 外第一部以汉语文化为背景的语用学专著。它的构建体系 和以英语文化为背景的语用学同中有异。
What is Pragmatics修改
What is Pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of context to make inferences about meaning.Pragmatics is a study of language comprehension and application. It deals with the way of how to use language tactfully and understand it appropriately.Linguistic correctness alone doesn’t help much in successful interaction. What is more important is appropriateness and tactfulness.As a relatively new branch of linguistics, pragmatics is undergoing rapid development. There are two trends towards the scope of pragmatics: micro-pragmatics and macro-pragmatics.Micro-pragmatics is the Anglo-American interpretation, which is the more restrictive one and the one more closely associated with the traditional linguistic concern with sentence structure and grammar.Macro-pragmatics is the Continental interpretation, which is much broader and includes discourse analysis, the ethnography of communication, some aspects of psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics.According to the Continental tradition, pragmatics is treated as a perspective on language; it exists in various levels of language, dealing not only with the theory of language itself, but also with other aspects having to do with its uses.Broadly speaking, pragmatics is made up of cross-cultural pragmatics, inter-language pragmatics, societal pragmatics, cognitive pragmatics, etc.Pragmatics has been defined variously by different pragmaticians, each taking a different perspective from others. Here we understand Pragmatics as the study of how language is used, i.e., how speakers use language appropriately and effectively in accordance with a given context.Course Description: In this course we will discuss language use in context with the purposes of providing a better understanding of how language is used to do things in real situations and language users interpret the interlocutors’ utterances and of applying the theories to the students’ particular research fields. Specifically we will discuss and evaluate some important topics and theories in the field of pragmatics, such as deixis, reference, anaphora, ambiguity, speech acts, pragmatic inference/non-logical inference (particularly conversational implicature and newest development), relevance and utterance interpretation, linguistic politeness, pragmatic competence, conversation analysis and discourse analysis, and their application to the studies on cross-cultural linguistic communication, translation, language and literature, language teaching and learning, and language use in society.Topics to be covered in this course：Part I Introduction1. Basic Issues in Pragmatics: Definition, history, topics in Pragmatics, aims and practical use2. Distinction between Semantics and Pragmatics3. New Horizons in PragmaticsPart II Micropragmatics4. Deixis5. Reference and Anaphora6. Speech Acts7. Pragmatic Inference (1): Grice’s Conversational Implicature8. Pragmatic Inference (2): Levinson & Horn’s Conversational Implicature (Neo-Griceanism)9. Pragmatic Inference (3): Presupposition10. Relevance Theory and Pragmatic Inference11. Linguistic Politeness: Brown & Levinson and Leech12. Conversation Analysis13. Discourse AnalysisPart III Macropragmatics14. Cross-cultural Pragmatics Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Failure:15. Literary Pragmatics16. Societal Pragmatics17. Pragmatics and Translation18. Pragmatics and Foreign Language Learning19. Pragmatics and Foreign Language Teaching20. Pragmatics as Linguistic Adaptation: the Pragmatic PerspectiveLinguistic Pragmatics: A SurveyHe Ziran Wu YaxinAbstract:This paper traces the development of pragmatics and generalizes the two schools and main research dimensions in pragmatics. It also presents a categorization of the current definitions of pragmatics and anelucidation of its research objectives. In addition, the disciplinary foundations of pragmatics and its relationship with other disciplines are further explored. Furthermore, this paper summarizes the different research objects and research methodologies of various branches within the field of pragmatics.Key words: pragmatics; linguistic pragmatics; cross-cultural pragmatics; societal pragmatics; cognitive pragmatics摘要：本文追溯了语用学的发展过程，概括了语用学的两大流派和主要的研究面，并对现有的语用学定义进行分类，阐明语用学的研究宗旨。
语言学Pragmatics语用学
Fresh salad refers to the customer who ordered fresh salad.
Teacher: You can borrow my Shakespeare. Waiter: the ham sandwich left without paying. Nurse: The hernia（疝气）in room 5 wants to talk to the
A: Can I look at your Chomsky?
B: Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.
Chomsky refers to the book written by Chomsky. Waiter 1: Where’s the fresh salad sitting?
Person
Person
deixis
deixis
• You’ll have to bring
it
back
tomorrow Temporal deixis
because she isn’t Person deixis
Spatial deixis
Temporal deixis
here today.
All the deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind. We make a broad distinction between what is marked as close to the speaker(this, here, now) and what is distant(that, there, then), we can also indicate whether movement is away from the speaker’s location(go) or toward the speakers location(come).
the scope of pragmatics
（2）研究听话人的理解：
• • • Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. (Yule.1996:3) Pragmatics is the study of understanding intentional human action. (Green, 1996:2) Pragmatics, as a topic in linguistics, is the study of the use of context to make inferences about meaning. (Fasold, 1993)
（1）研究说话人的意义：
• a)Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.(Yule.1996:3) • b)Pragmatics is a theory which seeks to characterize how speaker use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication. (Kempson, 1975:84) • c) Pragmatics is the study of the ability of language users to pair sentences with the contexts in which they would be appropriate. (Levinson,1983:24)
句法学 语义学 语用学
Pragmatics is a young science: 40y
1) 1938——1983 A waste –paper basket stage: in the guise of “ragbag” taking overflow from semantics 杂物箱、废纸篓时期 2) 1983——现在 语言学意义上的语用学
语言学资料Pragmatics解析
analyzing the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication
users.
Some Basic Notions in Pragmatics
Pragmatics, Semantics
Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).
E.g. It is cold in here. You have left the door wide open. Morning !
*** the most important part = the illocutionary acts
E.g. ---- (the telephone rings) ----H: That’s the phone. (a) ----W: I’m in the bathroom. (b) ----H: Okay. (c)
Austin’s New Model of Speech Acts
a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:
Locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (conveying the literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology).
Pragmatics语用学
摘要：本篇论文旨在探讨中国人讲英语的礼貌问题。
尽管中国人学英语时已经掌握了很多语法知识，但是在实际交际中，在表达的礼貌方面还有很大欠缺。
中国式英语被很多外国人认为很粗鲁。
但是在国内，很多英语学习者和英语教师还没有认识到这个问题。
在同外国人用英语交流时，礼貌问题也影响了中国人在外国的形象。
本文在总结生活实例的基础上，对中英文转化过程中的礼貌问题做出了详细的解释。
本论文对日常言语行为中的礼貌语用失误进行了描述和简单地分析，例如对招呼语，称赞语，告别语，拒绝语，道歉语，请求语等中出现的礼貌语用失误进行阐述。
研究发现，中国人并不是没有礼貌，只是在句子的使用及表达方面未注意到礼貌的问题。
无论是单词还是句式的选择，在英语的礼貌表达上都发挥着很大的作用。
总的来说，本文利用认知语言学的理论和观点来分析英语礼貌问题，为英语的学习与教学，以及跨文化交际等方面提供了参考和借鉴。
关键词：礼貌跨文化日常交际Abstract: This paper concerns itself with the politeness failure when Chinese speak English. Though Chinese has learned English vocabularies and grammar for many years, the English we speak is not even polite enough for native speakers. According to many natives from English-speaking countries, Chinglish, which is regarded as English of Chinese, is rude and impolite sometimes. However, at home, many English learners and teachers have not realized this issue yet. The politeness failure has influenced the image of China while Chinese communicate with foreigners. Based on the examples from daily life, this paper explains details to the politeness failure during the transforming between Chinese and English. In terms of daily speech acts, such as greetings, compliment, farewell, refusal apology request and so on, pragmatic failures in practice are illustrated and simply discussed. By collecting typical cases from daily life, we find this research that Chinese fail to use sentences in a polite way in the result of unnoticing politeness instead of being rude on purpose. The selection of words and sentence structure make great difference in expression.In a conclusion, to support the point of this paper, the linguistic cognitive theory is used to analyze the problems existing in Chinglish. This paper presents the discussion of causes and provides a reference for English learning and teaching, as well asintercultural communication.Key words: politeness, cross-culture, daily communicationⅠ.IntroductionIn cross-cultural communication, pragmatic failure in politeness has become an essential problem. However, politeness is the key pragmatic principles in language use, especially in the intercultural communication between different groups. Due to some differences in language, culture, and some living environments, politeness in utterances differ dramatically from one community to another community sharing no universal language. In more and more exchanges，trade businesses and other interactive activities among different countries, different polite philosophy has brought various obstacles for inter-cultural communications. Because of those clear discrepancies from different groups，distinct understanding of communication context and other factors that a great number of pragmatic failures in politeness have become the prevailing phenomena in inter-cultural communication.Pragmatic failures in polite utterances are unavoidable. Participants as native speakers and those as non-native speakers encounter all kinds of violation of polite principles.Failures in politeness are most reflected in the speech acts to display the intended meanings and to convey the expected ideas. Therefore, the main issue to be discussed in this thesis is narrowed to the specific pragmatic failures in daily life. Ⅱ.Literature ReviewA.Politeness Study AbroadThe four conversational maxims proposed by Grice in logic and Conversation (1967) are formulated as quantity maxim, quality maxim, relation maxim and manner maxim. Grice advocates these conversational maxims and the Cooperative Principle (CP) to reveal the ways or the mechanisms by which people interpret implicature to accomplish their conversations. His theory has been seen as pragmatic principles in conversations for interpersonal communications.But there is another type of implicature that receives no account in the pragmatic theory of the cooperative principle, which is implicature of politeness. As argued by Thomas (1995), politeness as an illocutionary phenomenon, is closely connected withpragmatics.Following Thomas, we have grouped the pragmatic approach to politeness under four headings: the conversational maxim view advocated by Leech (1980), the face-management view proposed by Brown and Levinson (1987), the conversational-contract view put forward by Fraster (1990)and the pragmatic scales view presented by Spencer-Oatey(1992). Particularly, Leech …s six maxims which include the tact maxim, the generosity maxim, the approbation maxim, the modesty maxim, the agreement maxim and the sympathy maxim are regarded as the politeness principle.According to Leech, communicators generally observe some rules of good behavior which he terms the Politeness Principle. The principle can explain why people are sometimes indirect in conveying what they mean. It is a necessary complement that may rescue the CP from serious trouble in theorizing.B.Politeness Study in Chinathe most worth mentioning is Prof．Gu Yueguo (p237-257)，who summarizes four essential elements of Chinese politeness：respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth and refinement. Later on, Gu (1992) elaborates these four essentials into five maxims of politeness in Chinese, They are Self-denigration Maxim; Address Term Maxim; Refinement Maxim; Agreement Maxim; Virtues-word deeds Maxim.C.Studies of Pragmatic Failures AbroadThe notion of pragmatic failure has been initially defined by British linguist Thomas in her paper of cross—cultural pragmatic failure. Thomas defines it as “the inability to understand” what is meant by what is said (Thomas, 1983:p91-112). In other words, it means that the speaker‟s utterance is interpreted or understood by a hearer as different from what the speaker intends to be interpreted. So often pragmatic failure occurs in interactions between native and non-native speakers, and it also can be found in cross-cultural communications between native speakers.D.Studies of Inter-cultural Pragmatic Failure in ChinaChinese famous scholar Mr. He Ziran ( 2002) argues that the umbrella notion of pragmatic failure can refer to any failure that speakers have not accomplished theexpected effect in language communications. He remarks that it is not the wrong grammatical structure that leads to inadequate expression of meaning and sense.Chen Xinren (2004) has also explored pragmatic failures from the aspect of pragmatic competence．He holds that the skills of using language can be seen as pragmatic competence. Language grammar stipulates the correct form and structure of language, and semantic codes regulates that the form must take some meaning or sense.Ⅲ. The pragmatic failure of politeness in daily lifeA.Greeting failureWe are obviously more familiar with some expressions, such as, “hello”, “hi”“I am so sorry”. However, “Good bye” and “See you” is not always equal to the other. Especially when you are a waiter/waitress and the hearer is your customer. The customer can say “See you”when he/she is going to leave. This sentence means he/she likes to be here, and he/she may come here next time. But as a waiter/waitress, using “See you”seems too aggressive; actually, it will make customers feel uncomfortable. The best way, also the simplest way is just say “Bye”.Similarly, “You are welcome” cannot be used to answer every “Thank you”. It sounds too much formal. You can say “Cheers”or “No worry”. If the hearer likes saying “Thank you”, sometimes you can ignore his/her “thanks”and continue your speech. If you are the customer, there is no necessity to say “You are welcome” to the seller. The better way is just say “Thank you” back.According to last two examples, we can clearly see that some expressions in English are not as that familiar to us as what we think of. When we are at school or some other training institutions, we are taught their meanings, but those are the semantic meanings, as for pragmatic meaning, we can only get them from foreigner‟s laughter or contempt. Obviously, that is the reason that most foreigners think Chinese rude and impolite.B.Invitation failureWhen you get a good friend who is an America or British, someday, he says”Would you like to have dinner with me in my house?” Unfortunately, you do not havetime to go there. Some people may say “No, thanks. I have another appointment.”Then, congratulations, you probably will not be invited next time. Or even worse, you just lose a friend. How to say “No” politely is a complex skill no matter in China or abroad. In this condition, “Thanks”cannot make up the hurt you have made. In a polite way, you should say” That is a good idea. I would like to join in, but I have another appointment today.” In this way, you show that you are sorry about not going and give a respect to his/her invitation.C.Request failureIn a restaurant, you want to have a hamburger. You tell the waiter” I want a hamburger”. You are so lucky if he does not treat you like rubbish. It is not a polite way to give a request. Through this way, nothing can even be called “a request”. You should say “Could I have a hamburger, please?”, or “Can I have a hamburger, please?”.D.Euphemism failureWhen British say “I only have a few minor comments”, they mean “Please re-write completely”. But what others understand is “He has found a few typos”. This is a very common phenomenon in daily life. Sometimes, when a British says “Could we consider some other options?”, It means “I do not like your idea” But what others understand is “They have not yet decided.” These two examples show that we cannot get what the British mean completely. Then we should remember more examples.“That is not bad”means “That is good”. “That is very brave”means “That is very stupid” or “You are insane”. “Quite good” means” a bit disappointment”. “Very interesting” means “That is clearly nonsenses”.According to these examples, we can see that if we do not know anything about pragmatics, it is very difficult to get what they actually mean. In this condition, pragmatic failure in politeness is inevitable.Ⅳ. Reason analysis on pragmatic failure in politenessA.Model Verbs(Model Auxil-iaries)The cultured westerners would use model verbs more frequently to show their politeness to others. Therefore, model verbs like “can, could, may, might, and would”will function well in conversations. It sounds more polite to express suggestion, request, willing and so on. For example, “Pass me the salt” is less polite than “Could you please pass me the salt?” apparently.B.Subjunctive moodBy using words like”would rather, would sooner, would as soon”and “had”which is also called as subjunctive mood. It will cause hearer to feel that you are considering a better result or way to avoid the bad ones. It will also show that you are deducing the probable problems and trying to find a way to solve it.C.PleaseWhen “please” goes after the sentence, it sounds better than when it goes before the sentence. Because the sentence sounds like an order when you use “please” as the beginning of a sentence. For example, “Could you please reply to me by Monday? Thank you.” is much more polite than “Please reply to me by Monday. Thank you.”D.Passive voiceSometimes, declarative sentences may be stiff and impolite. This is time to use passive voice or negative sentences or interrogative sentences to show you politeness. In this way, it avoids our subjective opinions and gives the hearer a positive mood. For instance, “Every piece of luggage has to be examined through.” is better than “We will examine every piece of luggage”.E.Past tenseSimilarly, when you use past tense to make a request, it sounds more comfortable and acceptable. For example,”I thought you were needing me, Mr. Smith.”Ⅴ. ConclusionFollowing the definition of pragmatic failures in inter-cultural communication given by Thomas in the 1970s, pragmatic failures in inter-cultural communication has been the hot topic discussed by many scholars more than ever both at home and abroad and many scholars have explored the pragmatic failures from various points of view, such as sociolinguistics, psychology, second language acquisition and so on. This paper mainly investigates the pragmatic failures in politeness, more specificallyin a variety of polite speech acts.The studies of causes of pragmatic failures in inter-language communication can also be applied to those occurring in the politeness and such traditional causes are generalized into four categories as culture and language differences, language transfer in second language acquisition, teaching induced causes and violation of pragmatic rules in language use. But few scholars turn their attention to causes studies in a cognitive approach. That is a reason why this paper is engaged in the exploration of the causes leading to politeness failures in a cognitive perspective.The major causes of politeness failures discussed in this paper are concluded as politeness transfer, different culture-based cognitive environment and an improper choice of context. The study of the causes for politeness failures is on the basis of the common politeness failure phenomena in different speech acts. From a cognitive perspective, prototype and category theory as well as cognitive approach on relevance theory are applied to explain the causes for politeness failures in inter-cultural communication between Chinese and English native speakers.Though, this paper is facilitated with some new perspectives on the analysis of certain causes for politeness failures, there are still some other important causes to generate pragmatic failures, like individual factors, society and others. The focus here is only on three causes, which may be one limitation of this paper. Besides, due to some limitations, no empirical survey is conducted to illustrate the failure phenomenon, and some of those pragmatic failures are collected directly from the books of other scholars, but still they bear pragmatic significance and are scientific enough to be used as evidence in this paper.ReferencesBrown. P & Levinson. S. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Leech, G.N. Principles of pragmatics. New York: Longman Group Limited, 1983. Levinson, S.C. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressThomas, J. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 1983.Yule, G. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985陈新仁. 当代语用学. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2004.何自然. 语用学概论. 长沙: 湖南教育出版社, 2002何伟, 彭漪, 于晖. 当代语言学. 北京: 高等教育出版社,2007顾曰国. “Politeness phenomenon in modern Chinese.”Journal of Pragmatics 141- 990(1993): 237-257.何兆熊.Study of Politeness in Chinese and Eng1ish Cultures. 北京: 北京外国语大学出版社，1995。
大三语言学基础Week-VII：Pragmatics-(A-General-View)
so, each contributing new rules and assertions to the
study of language and leaving behind plenty of waste for latecomers to deal with. “The semantics basket being filled to the brim, another waste-basket had to be created to catch the overflow”
different deep structures may merge into a single ambiguous surface structure
1.1 Wastebasket of Pragmatics
When Chomsky threw his “green ideas” “furiously” into the wastebasket of semantics, others who claim themselves to be syntactic analysts or semanticists continue doing
S(1) I slept badly. S(2) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. S(3) Flying planes can be dangerous.
Chomskyian dichotomy of sentence structure: deep structure and surface structure.
He Zhaoxiong’s Classification of Context Linguistic knowledge
英语语用学pragmatics
context
For example, “ It is cold in here.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings
Definitions of Pragmatics
Definition 1: Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. 语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化 或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系 的研究。
Austin’s new model
Later,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionary act言内行 为,illocutionary act言外行为 and perlocutionary言后行为.
《语用学Pragmatics》课件 第一周
wh-trace
❖ eg. 1. Susan’s brother was killed t in the tsunami.
❖ 2. Who do you love t?
Overt NPs
❖ 1. Lexical anaphors ❖ The composers admire themselves. ❖ 2. Pronouns ❖ He is Italian enough to understand the culture, and
Eg. 1. Lance Armstrong won the centenar Tor de France. 2. Lance Armstrong the centerary Tour de France won.
Sentence-meaning
❖ Those aspectof meaning that are ascribeed to a sentence in the abstract, that is, a sentence independent of its realization in any concrete form.
❖ Eg. 1. Liszt adored chopin. ❖ 2. Chopin was adored by Liszt. ❖ 3. LISZT ADORED CHOPIN.
1.4 The advantage of studying language via pragmatics
❖ one can talk about people’s intended meanings, their assumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kinds of actions that they are performing when they speak.
专八英语阅读
英语专业八级考试TEM-8阅读理解练习册（1）(英语专业2012级)UNIT 1Text AEvery minute of every day, what ecologist生态学家James Carlton calls a global ―conveyor belt‖, redistributes ocean organisms生物.It’s planetwide biological disruption生物的破坏that scientists have barely begun to understand.Dr. Carlton —an oceanographer at Williams College in Williamstown,Mass.—explains that, at any given moment, ―There are several thousand marine species traveling… in the ballast water of ships.‖ These creatures move from coastal waters where they fit into the local web of life to places where some of them could tear that web apart. This is the larger dimension of the infamous无耻的，邪恶的invasion of fish-destroying, pipe-clogging zebra mussels有斑马纹的贻贝.Such voracious贪婪的invaders at least make their presence known. What concerns Carlton and his fellow marine ecologists is the lack of knowledge about the hundreds of alien invaders that quietly enter coastal waters around the world every day. Many of them probably just die out. Some benignly亲切地，仁慈地—or even beneficially — join the local scene. But some will make trouble.In one sense, this is an old story. Organisms have ridden ships for centuries. They have clung to hulls and come along with cargo. What’s new is the scale and speed of the migrations made possible by the massive volume of ship-ballast water压载水— taken in to provide ship stability—continuously moving around the world…Ships load up with ballast water and its inhabitants in coastal waters of one port and dump the ballast in another port that may be thousands of kilometers away. A single load can run to hundreds of gallons. Some larger ships take on as much as 40 million gallons. The creatures that come along tend to be in their larva free-floating stage. When discharged排出in alien waters they can mature into crabs, jellyfish水母, slugs鼻涕虫，蛞蝓, and many other forms.Since the problem involves coastal species, simply banning ballast dumps in coastal waters would, in theory, solve it. Coastal organisms in ballast water that is flushed into midocean would not survive. Such a ban has worked for North American Inland Waterway. But it would be hard to enforce it worldwide. Heating ballast water or straining it should also halt the species spread. But before any such worldwide regulations were imposed, scientists would need a clearer view of what is going on.The continuous shuffling洗牌of marine organisms has changed the biology of the sea on a global scale. It can have devastating effects as in the case of the American comb jellyfish that recently invaded the Black Sea. It has destroyed that sea’s anchovy鳀鱼fishery by eating anchovy eggs. It may soon spread to western and northern European waters.The maritime nations that created the biological ―conveyor belt‖ should support a coordinated international effort to find out what is going on and what should be done about it. (456 words)1.According to Dr. Carlton, ocean organism‟s are_______.A.being moved to new environmentsB.destroying the planetC.succumbing to the zebra musselD.developing alien characteristics2.Oceanographers海洋学家are concerned because_________.A.their knowledge of this phenomenon is limitedB.they believe the oceans are dyingC.they fear an invasion from outer-spaceD.they have identified thousands of alien webs3.According to marine ecologists, transplanted marinespecies____________.A.may upset the ecosystems of coastal watersB.are all compatible with one anotherC.can only survive in their home watersD.sometimes disrupt shipping lanes4.The identified cause of the problem is_______.A.the rapidity with which larvae matureB. a common practice of the shipping industryC. a centuries old speciesD.the world wide movement of ocean currents5.The article suggests that a solution to the problem__________.A.is unlikely to be identifiedB.must precede further researchC.is hypothetically假设地，假想地easyD.will limit global shippingText BNew …Endangered‟ List Targets Many US RiversIt is hard to think of a major natural resource or pollution issue in North America today that does not affect rivers.Farm chemical runoff残渣, industrial waste, urban storm sewers, sewage treatment, mining, logging, grazing放牧,military bases, residential and business development, hydropower水力发电,loss of wetlands. The list goes on.Legislation like the Clean Water Act and Wild and Scenic Rivers Act have provided some protection, but threats continue.The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported yesterday that an assessment of 642,000 miles of rivers and streams showed 34 percent in less than good condition. In a major study of the Clean Water Act, the Natural Resources Defense Council last fall reported that poison runoff impairs损害more than 125,000 miles of rivers.More recently, the NRDC and Izaak Walton League warned that pollution and loss of wetlands—made worse by last year’s flooding—is degrading恶化the Mississippi River ecosystem.On Tuesday, the conservation group保护组织American Rivers issued its annual list of 10 ―endangered‖ and 20 ―threatened‖ rivers in 32 states, the District of Colombia, and Canada.At the top of the list is the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River, whereCanadian mining firms plan to build a 74-acre英亩reservoir水库，蓄水池as part of a gold mine less than three miles from Yellowstone National Park. The reservoir would hold the runoff from the sulfuric acid 硫酸used to extract gold from crushed rock.―In the event this tailings pond failed, the impact to th e greater Yellowstone ecosystem would be cataclysmic大变动的，灾难性的and the damage irreversible不可逆转的.‖ Sen. Max Baucus of Montana, chairman of the Environment and Public Works Committee, wrote to Noranda Minerals Inc., an owner of the ― New World Mine‖.Last fall, an EPA official expressed concern about the mine and its potential impact, especially the plastic-lined storage reservoir. ― I am unaware of any studies evaluating how a tailings pond尾矿池，残渣池could be maintained to ensure its structural integrity forev er,‖ said Stephen Hoffman, chief of the EPA’s Mining Waste Section. ―It is my opinion that underwater disposal of tailings at New World may present a potentially significant threat to human health and the environment.‖The results of an environmental-impact statement, now being drafted by the Forest Service and Montana Department of State Lands, could determine the mine’s future…In its recent proposal to reauthorize the Clean Water Act, the Clinton administration noted ―dramatically improved water quality since 1972,‖ when the act was passed. But it also reported that 30 percent of riverscontinue to be degraded, mainly by silt泥沙and nutrients from farm and urban runoff, combined sewer overflows, and municipal sewage城市污水. Bottom sediments沉积物are contaminated污染in more than 1,000 waterways, the administration reported in releasing its proposal in January. Between 60 and 80 percent of riparian corridors (riverbank lands) have been degraded.As with endangered species and their habitats in forests and deserts, the complexity of ecosystems is seen in rivers and the effects of development----beyond the obvious threats of industrial pollution, municipal waste, and in-stream diversions改道to slake消除the thirst of new communities in dry regions like the Southwes t…While there are many political hurdles障碍ahead, reauthorization of the Clean Water Act this year holds promise for US rivers. Rep. Norm Mineta of California, who chairs the House Committee overseeing the bill, calls it ―probably the most important env ironmental legislation this Congress will enact.‖ (553 words)6.According to the passage, the Clean Water Act______.A.has been ineffectiveB.will definitely be renewedC.has never been evaluatedD.was enacted some 30 years ago7.“Endangered” rivers are _________.A.catalogued annuallyB.less polluted than ―threatened rivers‖C.caused by floodingD.adjacent to large cities8.The “cataclysmic” event referred to in paragraph eight would be__________.A. fortuitous偶然的，意外的B. adventitious外加的，偶然的C. catastrophicD. precarious不稳定的，危险的9. The owners of the New World Mine appear to be______.A. ecologically aware of the impact of miningB. determined to construct a safe tailings pondC. indifferent to the concerns voiced by the EPAD. willing to relocate operations10. The passage conveys the impression that_______.A. Canadians are disinterested in natural resourcesB. private and public environmental groups aboundC. river banks are erodingD. the majority of US rivers are in poor conditionText CA classic series of experiments to determine the effects ofoverpopulation on communities of rats was reported in February of 1962 in an article in Scientific American. The experiments were conducted by a psychologist, John B. Calhoun and his associates. In each of these experiments, an equal number of male and female adult rats were placed in an enclosure and given an adequate supply of food, water, and other necessities. The rat populations were allowed to increase. Calhoun knew from experience approximately how many rats could live in the enclosures without experiencing stress due to overcrowding. He allowed the population to increase to approximately twice this number. Then he stabilized the population by removing offspring that were not dependent on their mothers. He and his associates then carefully observed and recorded behavior in these overpopulated communities. At the end of their experiments, Calhoun and his associates were able to conclude that overcrowding causes a breakdown in the normal social relationships among rats, a kind of social disease. The rats in the experiments did not follow the same patterns of behavior as rats would in a community without overcrowding.The females in the rat population were the most seriously affected by the high population density: They showed deviant异常的maternal behavior; they did not behave as mother rats normally do. In fact, many of the pups幼兽，幼崽, as rat babies are called, died as a result of poor maternal care. For example, mothers sometimes abandoned their pups,and, without their mothers' care, the pups died. Under normal conditions, a mother rat would not leave her pups alone to die. However, the experiments verified that in overpopulated communities, mother rats do not behave normally. Their behavior may be considered pathologically 病理上，病理学地diseased.The dominant males in the rat population were the least affected by overpopulation. Each of these strong males claimed an area of the enclosure as his own. Therefore, these individuals did not experience the overcrowding in the same way as the other rats did. The fact that the dominant males had adequate space in which to live may explain why they were not as seriously affected by overpopulation as the other rats. However, dominant males did behave pathologically at times. Their antisocial behavior consisted of attacks on weaker male,female, and immature rats. This deviant behavior showed that even though the dominant males had enough living space, they too were affected by the general overcrowding in the enclosure.Non-dominant males in the experimental rat communities also exhibited deviant social behavior. Some withdrew completely; they moved very little and ate and drank at times when the other rats were sleeping in order to avoid contact with them. Other non-dominant males were hyperactive; they were much more active than is normal, chasing other rats and fighting each other. This segment of the rat population, likeall the other parts, was affected by the overpopulation.The behavior of the non-dominant males and of the other components of the rat population has parallels in human behavior. People in densely populated areas exhibit deviant behavior similar to that of the rats in Calhoun's experiments. In large urban areas such as New York City, London, Mexican City, and Cairo, there are abandoned children. There are cruel, powerful individuals, both men and women. There are also people who withdraw and people who become hyperactive. The quantity of other forms of social pathology such as murder, rape, and robbery also frequently occur in densely populated human communities. Is the principal cause of these disorders overpopulation? Calhoun’s experiments suggest that it might be. In any case, social scientists and city planners have been influenced by the results of this series of experiments.11. Paragraph l is organized according to__________.A. reasonsB. descriptionC. examplesD. definition12．Calhoun stabilized the rat population_________.A. when it was double the number that could live in the enclosure without stressB. by removing young ratsC. at a constant number of adult rats in the enclosureD. all of the above are correct13.W hich of the following inferences CANNOT be made from theinformation inPara. 1?A. Calhoun's experiment is still considered important today.B. Overpopulation causes pathological behavior in rat populations.C. Stress does not occur in rat communities unless there is overcrowding.D. Calhoun had experimented with rats before.14. Which of the following behavior didn‟t happen in this experiment?A. All the male rats exhibited pathological behavior.B. Mother rats abandoned their pups.C. Female rats showed deviant maternal behavior.D. Mother rats left their rat babies alone.15. The main idea of the paragraph three is that __________.A. dominant males had adequate living spaceB. dominant males were not as seriously affected by overcrowding as the otherratsC. dominant males attacked weaker ratsD. the strongest males are always able to adapt to bad conditionsText DThe first mention of slavery in the statutes法令，法规of the English colonies of North America does not occur until after 1660—some forty years after the importation of the first Black people. Lest we think that existed in fact before it did in law, Oscar and Mary Handlin assure us, that the status of B lack people down to the 1660’s was that of servants. A critique批判of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660’s suggests that assumptions about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanation for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.The Handlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that, during the 1660’s, the position of white servants was improving relative to that of black servants. Thus, the Handlins contend, Black and White servants, heretofore treated alike, each attained a different status. There are, however, important objections to this argument. First, the Handlins cannot adequately demonstrate that t he White servant’s position was improving, during and after the 1660’s; several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures indicate otherwise. Another flaw in the Handlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against Black people. It is true that before the 1660’s Black people were rarely called slaves. But this shouldnot overshadow evidence from the 1630’s on that points to racial discrimination without using the term slavery. Such discrimination sometimes stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status—the two attributes of true slavery—yet in other cases it included both. The Handlins’ argument excludes the real possibility that Black people in the English colonies were never treated as the equals of White people.The possibility has important ramifications后果，影响.If from the outset Black people were discriminated against, then legal slavery should be viewed as a reflection and an extension of racial prejudice rather than, as many historians including the Handlins have argued, the cause of prejudice. In addition, the existence of discrimination before the advent of legal slavery offers a further explanation for the harsher treatment of Black slaves in North than in South America. Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality— explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. But this cannot be the whole explanation since it is merely negative, based only on a lack of something. A more compelling令人信服的explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed. (462 words)16. Which of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage about the effects of “several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures” (Para.2) passed during and after the 1660‟s?A. The acts negatively affected the pre-1660’s position of Black as wellas of White servants.B. The acts had the effect of impairing rather than improving theposition of White servants relative to what it had been before the 1660’s.C. The acts had a different effect on the position of white servants thandid many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.D. The acts, at the very least, caused the position of White servants toremain no better than it had been before the 1660’s.17. With which of the following statements regarding the status ofBlack people in the English colonies of North America before the 1660‟s would the author be LEAST likely to agree?A. Although black people were not legally considered to be slaves,they were often called slaves.B. Although subject to some discrimination, black people had a higherlegal status than they did after the 1660’s.C. Although sometimes subject to lifetime servitude, black peoplewere not legally considered to be slaves.D. Although often not treated the same as White people, black people,like many white people, possessed the legal status of servants.18. According to the passage, the Handlins have argued which of thefollowing about the relationship between racial prejudice and the institution of legal slavery in the English colonies of North America?A. Racial prejudice and the institution of slavery arose simultaneously.B. Racial prejudice most often the form of the imposition of inheritedstatus, one of the attributes of slavery.C. The source of racial prejudice was the institution of slavery.D. Because of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, racialprejudice sometimes did not result in slavery.19. The passage suggests that the existence of a Roman conception ofslavery in Spanish and Portuguese colonies had the effect of _________.A. extending rather than causing racial prejudice in these coloniesB. hastening the legalization of slavery in these colonies.C. mitigating some of the conditions of slavery for black people in these coloniesD. delaying the introduction of slavery into the English colonies20. The author considers the explanation put forward by Freyre andTannenbaum for the treatment accorded B lack slaves in the English colonies of North America to be _____________.A. ambitious but misguidedB. valid有根据的but limitedC. popular but suspectD. anachronistic过时的，时代错误的and controversialUNIT 2Text AThe sea lay like an unbroken mirror all around the pine-girt, lonely shores of Orr’s Island. Tall, kingly spruce s wore their regal王室的crowns of cones high in air, sparkling with diamonds of clear exuded gum流出的树胶; vast old hemlocks铁杉of primeval原始的growth stood darkling in their forest shadows, their branches hung with long hoary moss久远的青苔;while feathery larches羽毛般的落叶松,turned to brilliant gold by autumn frosts, lighted up the darker shadows of the evergreens. It was one of those hazy朦胧的, calm, dissolving days of Indian summer, when everything is so quiet that the fainest kiss of the wave on the beach can be heard, and white clouds seem to faint into the blue of the sky, and soft swathing一长条bands of violet vapor make all earth look dreamy, and give to the sharp, clear-cut outlines of the northern landscape all those mysteries of light and shade which impart such tenderness to Italian scenery.The funeral was over,--- the tread鞋底的花纹/ 踏of many feet, bearing the heavy burden of two broken lives, had been to the lonely graveyard, and had come back again,--- each footstep lighter and more unconstrained不受拘束的as each one went his way from the great old tragedy of Death to the common cheerful of Life.The solemn black clock stood swaying with its eternal ―tick-tock, tick-tock,‖ in the kitchen of the brown house on Orr’s Island. There was there that sense of a stillness that can be felt,---such as settles down on a dwelling住处when any of its inmates have passed through its doors for the last time, to go whence they shall not return. The best room was shut up and darkened, with only so much light as could fall through a little heart-shaped hole in the window-shutter,---for except on solemn visits, or prayer-meetings or weddings, or funerals, that room formed no part of the daily family scenery.The kitchen was clean and ample, hearth灶台, and oven on one side, and rows of old-fashioned splint-bottomed chairs against the wall. A table scoured to snowy whiteness, and a little work-stand whereon lay the Bible, the Missionary Herald, and the Weekly Christian Mirror, before named, formed the principal furniture. One feature, however, must not be forgotten, ---a great sea-chest水手用的储物箱,which had been the companion of Zephaniah through all the countries of the earth. Old, and battered破旧的，磨损的, and unsightly难看的it looked, yet report said that there was good store within which men for the most part respect more than anything else; and, indeed it proved often when a deed of grace was to be done--- when a woman was suddenly made a widow in a coast gale大风，狂风, or a fishing-smack小渔船was run down in the fogs off the banks, leaving in some neighboring cottage a family of orphans,---in all such cases, the opening of this sea-chest was an event of good omen 预兆to the bereaved丧亲者;for Zephaniah had a large heart and a large hand, and was apt有…的倾向to take it out full of silver dollars when once it went in. So the ark of the covenant约柜could not have been looked on with more reverence崇敬than the neighbours usually showed to Captain Pennel’s sea-chest.1. The author describes Orr‟s Island in a(n)______way.A.emotionally appealing, imaginativeB.rational, logically preciseC.factually detailed, objectiveD.vague, uncertain2.According to the passage, the “best room”_____.A.has its many windows boarded upB.has had the furniture removedC.is used only on formal and ceremonious occasionsD.is the busiest room in the house3.From the description of the kitchen we can infer that thehouse belongs to people who_____.A.never have guestsB.like modern appliancesC.are probably religiousD.dislike housework4.The passage implies that_______.A.few people attended the funeralB.fishing is a secure vocationC.the island is densely populatedD.the house belonged to the deceased5.From the description of Zephaniah we can see thathe_________.A.was physically a very big manB.preferred the lonely life of a sailorC.always stayed at homeD.was frugal and saved a lotText BBasic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country' s impressive population growth. For every three Canadians in 1945, there were over five in 1966. In September 1966 Canada's population passed the 20 million mark. Most of this surging growth came from natural increase. The depression of the 1930s and the war had held back marriages, and the catching-up process began after 1945. The baby boom continued through the decade of the 1950s, producing a population increase of nearly fifteen percent in the five years from 1951 to 1956. This rate of increase had been exceeded only once before in Canada's history, in the decade before 1911 when the prairies were being settled. Undoubtedly, the good economic conditions of the 1950s supported a growth in the population, but the expansion also derived from a trend toward earlier marriages and an increase in the average size of families; In 1957 the Canadian birth rate stood at 28 per thousand, one of the highest in the world. After the peak year of 1957, thebirth rate in Canada began to decline. It continued falling until in 1966 it stood at the lowest level in 25 years. Partly this decline reflected the low level of births during the depression and the war, but it was also caused by changes in Canadian society. Young people were staying at school longer, more women were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families. It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through theWestern world since the time of the Industrial Revolution. Although the growth in Canada’s population had slowed down by 1966 (the cent), another increase in the first half of the 1960s was only nine percent), another large population wave was coming over the horizon. It would be composed of the children of the children who were born during the period of the high birth rate prior to 1957.6. What does the passage mainly discuss?A. Educational changes in Canadian society.B. Canada during the Second World War.C. Population trends in postwar Canada.D. Standards of living in Canada.7. According to the passage, when did Canada's baby boom begin?A. In the decade after 1911.B. After 1945.C. During the depression of the 1930s.D. In 1966.8. The author suggests that in Canada during the 1950s____________.A. the urban population decreased rapidlyB. fewer people marriedC. economic conditions were poorD. the birth rate was very high9. When was the birth rate in Canada at its lowest postwar level?A. 1966.B. 1957.C. 1956.D. 1951.10. The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines inpopulation growth after 1957 EXCEPT_________________.A. people being better educatedB. people getting married earlierC. better standards of livingD. couples buying houses11.I t can be inferred from the passage that before the IndustrialRevolution_______________.A. families were largerB. population statistics were unreliableC. the population grew steadilyD. economic conditions were badText CI was just a boy when my father brought me to Harlem for the first time, almost 50 years ago. We stayed at the hotel Theresa, a grand brick structure at 125th Street and Seventh avenue. Once, in the hotel restaurant, my father pointed out Joe Louis. He even got Mr. Brown, the hotel manager, to introduce me to him, a bit punchy强力的but still champ焦急as fast as I was concerned.Much has changed since then. Business and real estate are booming. Some say a new renaissance is under way. Others decry责难what they see as outside forces running roughshod肆意践踏over the old Harlem. New York meant Harlem to me, and as a young man I visited it whenever I could. But many of my old haunts are gone. The Theresa shut down in 1966. National chains that once ignored Harlem now anticipate yuppie money and want pieces of this prime Manhattan real estate. So here I am on a hot August afternoon, sitting in a Starbucks that two years ago opened a block away from the Theresa, snatching抓取，攫取at memories between sips of high-priced coffee. I am about to open up a piece of the old Harlem---the New York Amsterdam News---when a tourist。
1. Deixis指示语
咱爸咱妈
咱老爷子身体怎么样？
‘You‟:
indefinite pronoun in informal situations My son is very naughty. Once you buy him any toy, he will always break it into little pieces before you know it.
(2) Listen, I'm not disagreeing with you but
with you, and not about this but about this.
(3) Meet me here a week from now with a
stick about this big.
(4) Arriving at 11:30am tomorrow.
John loves me. me: deictic expression the person who is uttering the sentence: deictic information
The meaning of deictic expressions cannot be captured by truth-conditional semantics, and their interpretation must depend on analysis of the context of utterance in which they occur.
‘We‟ means „I‟
《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案
语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。
英语作文prak rule
IntroductionThe concept of the pragmatic rule is an integral aspect of language usage and communication, encapsulating the idea that language users adapt their utterances to suit specific contexts, purposes, and audiences. It serves as a guiding principle in understanding how meaning is effectively conveyed and interpreted beyond the literal meanings of words and sentences. This essay delves into a comprehensive, multi-perspective analysis of the pragmatic rule, exploring its significance, theoretical underpinnings, practical applications, and its implications for cross-cultural communication.I. Theoretical Foundations and SignificanceA. The Coalescence of Linguistics and PragmaticsThe pragmatic rule finds its roots in the broader field of pragmatics, a linguistic discipline concerned with the study of meaning in context. Pragmatics bridges the gap between semantics, which deals with the literal meanings of words and phrases, and the complexities of real-life communication. It emphasizes that meaning is not solely derived from linguistic structures but is co-constructed by speakers and listeners based on shared knowledge, social norms, and contextual cues. The pragmatic rule thus underscores the need to consider these extralinguistic factors when interpreting and producing language.B. Grice's Cooperative Principle and MaximsOne of the most influential frameworks for understanding the pragmatic rule is Paul Grice's Cooperative Principle (CP), which posits that effective communication relies on participants adhering to certain conversational maxims. These maxims – quantity, quality, relation, and manner – provide guidelines for speakers to ensure their messages are informative, truthful, relevant, and clear, respectively. The pragmatic rule can be seen as the application of the CP in practice, as it encourages individuals to tailor their language use to align with these principles and maximize communicative efficiency.C. Relevance TheoryAnother key theoretical perspective is Relevance Theory, proposed by DanSperber and Deirdre Wilson. This theory posits that humans are cognitive misers who constantly seek maximally relevant information with minimal processing effort. The pragmatic rule, in this context, is the mental process through which speakers anticipate and cater to their audience's expectations of relevance, ensuring that their messages are easily accessible and interpreted correctly. By doing so, they facilitate efficient communication and maintain mutual understanding.II. Practical Applications of the Pragmatic RuleA. Implicature and Conversational InferencingThe pragmatic rule plays a crucial role in generating and interpreting implicatures – meanings implied but not explicitly stated. Speakers often rely on implicatures to convey subtle nuances, sarcasm, or irony, while listeners utilize their knowledge of context, speaker intentions, and shared norms to infer these unstated meanings accurately. The pragmatic rule guides this process by ensuring that both parties consider the broader communicative context when constructing or deciphering implicatures.B. Politeness StrategiesIn social interactions, the pragmatic rule governs the use of politeness strategies, which help manage interpersonal relationships and mitigate potential face-threatening acts. Brown and Levinson's theory of politeness highlights the importance of considering social distance, power dynamics, and the severity of the imposition when choosing appropriate linguistic devices, such as indirect requests, hedging, or using positive politeness strategies like compliments. The pragmatic rule ensures that speakers adapt their language to these variables, fostering harmonious interactions and preserving social harmony.C. Discourse Coherence and CohesionIn extended discourse, the pragmatic rule contributes to the overall coherence and cohesion of the text or conversation. It guides speakers in signaling discourse relations, providing connectives, and using cohesivedevices to help listeners follow the flow of ideas and maintain a coherent mental representation. Moreover, it facilitates the interpretation of ambiguous references, presuppositions, and ellipsis, enabling listeners to reconstruct the intended meaning based on the context and their prior knowledge.III. Cross-Cultural Communication and the Pragmatic RuleA. Cultural Variation in Pragmatic NormsThe pragmatic rule operates within the framework of culturally-specific communicative norms and conventions. Different cultures may have distinct expectations regarding directness, formality, turn-taking, and nonverbal cues, among others. For instance, while high-context cultures like Japan may value implicit communication and rely heavily on contextual cues, low-context cultures like the United States tend to prefer explicitness and clarity in speech. The pragmatic rule, in this context, necessitates cultural awareness and adaptability, urging speakers to be sensitive to these differences and adjust their language use accordingly.B. Challenges and MisunderstandingsDespite the universality of the pragmatic rule, cross-cultural communication can still be fraught with challenges and misunderstandings due to variations in pragmatic norms. Speakers may inadvertently violate the expectations of their interlocutors, leading to confusion, offense, or breakdowns in communication. To mitigate such issues, the pragmatic rule advocates for active listening, open-mindedness, and willingness to seek clarification when faced with unfamiliar communicative practices.C. Intercultural Pragmatic CompetenceDeveloping intercultural pragmatic competence – the ability to navigate diverse communicative contexts effectively –is essential for successful cross-cultural communication. This involves not only understanding one's own pragmatic norms but also acquiring knowledge about other cultures' communicative styles, being flexible in adjusting one's language use, and displaying empathy and respect towards different perspectives. The pragmatic rule serves as aguiding principle in cultivating this competence, promoting effective communication across cultural boundaries.ConclusionThe pragmatic rule, deeply rooted in linguistic theories and grounded in practical applications, is a fundamental principle governing the use and interpretation of language in various contexts. It underscores the dynamic nature of meaning-making, emphasizing the importance of considering context, audience, and social norms in shaping and understanding communicative acts. Moreover, it plays a pivotal role in navigating the complexities of cross-cultural communication, advocating for cultural awareness, adaptability, and the development of intercultural pragmatic competence. As global interactions continue to intensify, the pragmatic rule remains an indispensable tool for fostering effective, meaningful, and harmonious communication across linguistic and cultural divides.。
陈新仁答案
《英语语言学实用教程》教学提示Unit 1 Some Preliminaries about Language[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.(1) There is universal agreement about the origin of language. F(2) Pet dogs can speak human languages. F(3) All human infants can speak some language. FNote: All normal human infants can learn to speak some language.(4) By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets. FNote: By creativity we mean that we can always create and understand new sentences never used before.(5) With different cultures there will be different languages. FNote: Some cultures can share the same language.(6) Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information. TNote: Example: language used for phatic communion is not meant to convey new information.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What does ―language‖ mean in each of the context s?a. a natural language; language in particular.b. a human-specific tool for communication; language in general.c. individual style of language use.d. a metaphorical way of referring to bees’ system of communication.(2) Is there any other context in which the use of the word means something else?Yes. Example: language for the computer like C+2. ASK:(1) What if there were no language?Omit.(2) What if there were only one language the world over?Omit.(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.3. ASK:(1) Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?(a) is more likely than (b), because the word as the basic unit of meaning that can occur independently in language is finite in number, whereas the sentence as composed of words, though almost infinite in number, is made possible by our knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. We canalways produce and understand sentences that we never come across before. In that sense, no sentence is really new.(2) In what context do we make the second statement?When we focus our attention on the meaning of a sentence or when we are concerned with the form of a sentence as found in a language class.4. ASK:(1) Are there onomatopoeic words in Chinese?Yes. e.g. “哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.(2) Does the existence of onomatopoeic words overthrow the claim that language is arbitrary?No. Onomatopoeic words account for a very limited percentage in the vocabulary of a language.5. ASK:(1) Can one really invent a language of one’s own?No.(2) If not, why?A language comes into being and use by convention or agreement among its speakers.6. ASK:(1) Is there any basic flaw in this experiment?The process is not strictly controlled. There may have been some coincidence. The sample size is too small for the experiment to be valid.(2) Do you think we really can answer the question about the beginning of language?No, at least in the present condition where/when we cannot perform experiments on the human brain, the key organ of speech.7. ASK:(1) Can you identify the most likely order (from least to most advanced) of these samples?C→B→A(2) What features in each child’s utterances can you use as evidence to support your ordering?Child A: good syntax except for improper question form.Child B: visible development of syntax; overgeneralizationChild C: Not much syntax; two-word utterances; telegraphic sentences (sentences that contain only content words but lack function words)8. ASK:(1) It is often assumed that children imitate adults in the course of language acquisition. Canimitation account for the above production on the part of the child?Not wholly. There is counter evidence against the assumption, like the overgeneralization ―go-ed‖ for ―went‖.(2) What distinguishes the child’s production from that of the adult?Overgeneralization of ―-ed‖ for the past tense as shown by ―holded‖.9. ASK:(1) How do adults reinforce the process of children’s acquisition as exemplified here?They use explicit correction.(2) Do children know what they are doing wrongly?Not exactly.(3) Do the adults succeed in their reinforcement?Not always, at least.(4) How should we treat the ―mistakes‖ that children make while acquiring their mother tongue?We may ignore them sometimes, although some amount of reinforcement may turn out to be helpful.10. ASK:(1) Do children learn through structured or simplified input, as suggested?Not always. There is evidence for both sides.(2) Can you offer some examples illustrating, representing the way adults talk to infants?Omit.Note: Motherese is characterized by shorter sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, higher proportion of content words to function words, simple syntax, more interrogatives and imperatives, more repetitions. Yet it is not syntactically simpler. Rather, it may include syntactically complex sentences such as questions: Do you want your juice now?Embedded sentences: Mommy thinks you should sleep now. Imperatives: Pat the dog gently! Negatives with tag questions: We don‟t want to hurt him, do we?Indeed, it is fortunate that motherese is not syntactically restricted. If it were, children might not have sufficient information to extract the rules of their language.11. ASK(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages?Omit.(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or somedayno dialect will exist?Omit.12. ASK:Are there any universals that you think all languages share but are not mentioned here?E.g. All languages have internal structures.All languages have numericals.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. What do you think is essential to the emergence of language?The existence of social activities; the need to express diverse ideas, emotions, etc.; the need to communicate ideas to distant places; etc.2. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.3. What role does body language play in language communication?Omit.4. N aturally occurring ―experiments‖ with so-called ―wolf-children‖, ―bear-children‖,―Mowgli‖or ―monkey-children‖ and other such feral youngsters have been widely reported for hundreds of years. None of these children could speak or understand speech and, indeed, most efforts to teach them language ended in failure. How would you account for the failure?The language acquisition device has to be triggered before a certain age (that of puberty). Sufficient expose to a language environment at the right time is essential to language acquisition.5. The following are some instances of using English for communication. What specific functiondoes each use of English serve in the following pictures?Informative (in the form of commanding)Directive (Advertising in the form of requesting)Directive (Persuading in the form of threatening)Directive (Recruiting)6．Iconicity of language is an aspect of language where form echoes meaning. Onomatopoeia, also known as ―sound symbolism‖, is one type of iconicity. Some researchers have found other evidence of iconicity. For example, words beginning with the sound combination sl- in English often have an unpleasant sense, as in slithering, slimy, slugs. Here are some questions:a. Is the ―unpleasant‖ sense actually true of all, or even most, words beginning with sl- in English? No. e.g. slight.b. Are there any other sounds or sound combinations that you associate with particular meanings? Gliding: slide, slip, slippery;Rolling: tumble, crumble, stumblec. How about the vowel sounds in words that identify near-to-speaker concepts (this, near, here) versus far-from-speaker concepts (that, far, there)? What is the difference? Is it a general pattern distinguishing terms for things that are near versus far in English? What about the case in Chinese?Front vowels for near-speaker concepts; central or back vowels for far-from-speaker concepts. There seems to be a similar kind of pattern in Chinese. C.f. 近jin /远yuan；这zhe /那na7. In many of the world’s languages there are so-called nursery names for parents. In English, for example, corresponding to the word mother is the nursery name mama, and for father one finds dada and papa. There is remarkable similarity across different languages in the form of these nursery names for parents. For example, in Chinese and Navajo ma corresponds to English mama. Why do you think that this is the case?Bilabials are learned and produced first because they are the easiest.8.a. What are some of the changes which appear to have taken place in the child’s ability to useEnglish during that period?Like the basically proper use of interrogatives and the correct use of inflection.b. What do these changes suggest about the order of language acquisition?Complete sentences are acquired later than elliptical ones. Inflection is acquired at a late stage.Unit 2 The Sounds of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme. F2. Not all English phonemes have allophones. TNote: /☠/ and /j/ occur in one single position and therefore do not have allophones.3. The same set of vowels is used in all languages. F4. All syllables must contain at least one vowel. FNote: Some syllables may contain no vowels. They may, instead, employ some syllabic consonant, as in people and muscle.5. The marking of word stress is arbitrary for the most part in English. F6. English is a tone language. FNote: Chinese is a tone language.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What is the phonetic environment of [t] in [pit]?[i_#](2) Are the following pairs of words minimal pairs?(a) desk vs. task No.(b) leave vs. Leak Yes. ( li:v vs. li:k )2. ASK:(1) Characterize how the allophones of the phoneme /k/ are complementarily distributed.[k h ] in initial position; [k]after /s/; [k¬] in final position.(2) Is there any other way of charactering the complementary distribution of clear [l] and dark [ł]?[l] before vowels; [ł] elsewhere.3. ASK:(1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different?[voiced](2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes?(a) /☞/ [fricative] + [voiceless] + [palatal](b) /k/ [velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive](c) /n/ [nasal]+[voiced] +[alveolar]4. ASK:(1) Are [r] and [l] in complementary distribution? In what environment does each occur?Yes. [r] occurs before vowels; [l] occurs after vowels.(2) Do they occur in any minimal pairs?No.(3) Suppose [r] and [l] are allophones of one phoneme. State the rule that can derive the allophonicforms.[r] is lateralized when it occurs after vowels.5. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of assimilation?compatriot, sing(2) Can you find any exceptions?input, unbeatable, Canberra(3) What phonetic segments condition this change?The consonant immediately after the vowel.[Note] 2) [tai] should be [tay].6. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of free variation?advertisement [əd΄və:ti s mənt] [əd΄və:ti z mənt]association [ə səu s i΄ei☞ən] [ə səu☞i΄ei☞ən](2) Why do you think such a phenomenon exists in a language like English?Individual variation is responsible for this phenomenon.7. ASK:(1) Which sound is deleted in ―sign‖, ―design‖, and ―resign‖?[g](2) Can you offer other examples of deletion?paradi g m (atic), condem n(ation)(3) Can you give some words that involve total deletion?plum b, plum b er; clim b, clim b ing(4) Are there any other types of deletion in English?de b t, k now8. ASK:(1) Can you think of a phonetic description of the regular pattern in these expressions?They all start with a front, high vowel and follow up with a mid or low vowel.(2) Can you think of any possible explanation for the observed pattern?[i] involves the least degree of mouth opening while the mid or low vowels necessitate biggeropening. There is an increase of mouth opening in pronouncing the whole word, which is symbolic in meaning.9. ASK:(1) What are likely positive effects of using alliteration? Use one of the poetic examples toillustrate.Coherence, connectedness, smoothness, consistency. Take ―I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance‖for example. The double alliteration involved helps to create a picture of smooth and coherent dance.(2) Is there a similar use of alliteration in Chinese?Yes, though less often. 花好月圆is a good example.10. ASK:(1) What is the stylistic effect of rhyming?echoing, agreement, correspondence, etc.(2) Can you find more proverbs that involve internal rhyming?First thrive and then wive.Fancy passes beauty.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1.a. Does the string of sounds mean anything to you?If we want to talk really good, we’ll have to invent vowels.b. What does the picture suggest to you about the role of consonants and vowels in English? Consonants are the backbones of syllables and words.2. Some phonetic transcriptions below are English words, some are not existing words but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are definitely ―foreign‖or impossible because they violate English sequential constraints. Specify each of the a-e cases as illustrated.Word Possible Foreign ReasonExample:[pa:k][tif][lkib]a. [ŋa:f] √[☠] must occur after a vowel.b. [ski:] skic.[knait] √d.[meij] √[ ] must occur initially before avowel.e.[blaft] √3. In English, the /i/ vowel becomes almost as long as /i:/ under certain conditions (written as /i:/ for convenience). Consider the examples listed below:a. List the phonemes that condition the change.voiced consonantsb. State the rule that seems involved.[i] is lengthened before a voiced] consonant.Note: Start with the fact that the /i/ is basic and that short /i/ becomes long /i:/. The change from short /i/ to long /i:/ is phonologically determined; that is, the lengthening takes place in the presence of certain phonemes. A good strategy is to first list the phonemes to the right of long /i:/, then list those to the left. As an answer to (a), then, one would propose that /i/ become /i:/ whenever the phonemes to the right (/d, m, l, b, z, j, ŋ/) occur immediately after that vowel. This hypothesis looks promising because, in fact, the short variant /i/ never occurs before these segments. The next question is, what is it about the phonemes on the right that unify them as a class? One may find that these phonemes are all voiced ([+voice]), and, in fact, the short /i/ never lengthens before voiceless segments. Thus the answer to (b) is that the vowel /i/ is lengthened before (the natural class of) voiced consonants.4. The use of plural–s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives.a. Can you work out the set of sounds which regularly precedes each of these alternatives?/s/ to words like ship, bat, book and cough;voiceless plosives [voiceless]/z/ to words like cab, lad, cave, rag and thing;after voiced consonants [voiced]/əz/ to words like bus, bush, judge, church and maze.after /s/, /☞/, /d✞/, /z/b. What features does each of these sets have in common?[palatal] or [alveolar]+[fricative]c. Is there any pattern regarding the different pronunciations of the past tense marker?[t] after voiceless consonants except [t]; [d] after voiced consonants except [d]; [id] after [t] or [d].d. Do you think that one of these phonological forms for –ed is more basic, with the others beingderived from it in a regular way? Which, and how?[d] is more basic. [t] after devoicing. [id] after epenthesis (i.e. addition of a sound).5. Below are three columns of words with different patterns of stress:a. How is stress distributed in each column?penultimate for A; last syllable for B; on the last syllable.b. In Column B, what kinds of vowels appear in the last syllable? How does the syllabic structure of Column C differ from A and B?In Column B, long vowels or diphthongs appear in the last syllable.The last syllable of the words in C ends in consonant clusters.[Note] For ―usurp‖, ―r‖ may be pronounced as in /ju(:)΄zə(r)p/.6. The following is a list of words that are spelt in a similar way:fuddy-duddy hocus-pocus namby-pambyfuzzy-wuzzy hurly-burly razzle-dazzlehanky-panky lovey-dovey roly-polyhelter-skelter mumbo-jumbo super-dupera. What similarity can you spot among the words listed?All pairs are the same except the initial consonants.b. What effects may such words have in common when they are put into use?Redundancy, repetitiveness, etc.7. Write the phonetic transcription for each of the following words.Omit.8. Read the following words or phrases and point out the phonological processes that yield assimilation.(a) pat /pæt/ pan /pãn/ sat /sæt/ Sam /sãm/Nasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] /_____ [+nasal](b) since /sins/ sink /siŋk/ hint /hint/ dink /diŋk/Velarization rule: [-velarl] →[+velar] /_____ [+velar](c) five pits /faifpits/ love to /l∧ftə /Devoicing rule: [+voiced →[-voiceless] /_____ [-voiceless]9.a. Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration, and assonance(that is, use of syllables with a common vowel, as in ―come‖ - ―love‖) in this poem. How are they used to stress the sense of superficiality and lack of meaning the poet is trying to convey here? (Note especially the role of rhyming pairs of monosyllables and their effect on meter.)assonance: [ri:t☞] [skri:n] [spi:t☞][♈ud] [huk] [buk]The ryhmed words, all monosyllabic and stressed, are semantically unrelated and separated.Alliteration is only sporadically used. Assonance suggests apparent connection but actual disconnectedness.b. Comment more carefully on meter in the first two stanzas. How does it contribute to the meaning? How and where does it work against our expectations?Lack of regularity and thus unpredictability.10. Collect some data to show that English advertisements, newspaper headlines, English songs,and presidential addressee sometimes make use of alliteration and rhyming.Omit.11. What interesting things do speech errors tell us about language and its use? Collect a few casesof slips of tongue from daily conversations.Speech errors are often explainable, often semantically motivated.Unit 3 The Units of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. All words in English have a hierarchical structure. FNote: Mon-morphemic words do not.2. Clipping is one of the three most important devices of word-formation in English. FNote: The three most important devices are affixation, compounding (or composition) and conversion (or functional shift).3. Idioms in English are modifiable in some grammatical ways. T4. The presence of constructions is unique to English. F5. Every English sentence has a subject. FNote: Imperative sentences do not have any subject.■ In-Class Activities1．ASK:(1) What is the infix used in the above language data?―-um-―(2) What is the verb form in Bontoc for ―to be poor‖, given that pusi means ―poor‖?―pumusi‖2. ASK:(1) What is the Samoan for: (a) ―they travel‖ (b) ―he sings‖ respectively?(a) savavali (b) pese(2) Formulate a morphological rule regarding how to form the plural verb form from the singularverb form in Samoan.Duplicate the penultimate syllable.3. ASK:(1) Which other affixes are there in English that function as markers of negation?dis-, non-, a-, in-, il-, im-, ir-(2) What pattern underlies the use of un- in the data above?Positive terms can have negative morphemes added to them, as in ―happy-unhappy‖, but semantically negative ones rarely do, because un- is deprecatory as well as negative.(3) Why are ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖ not found in English, although George Orwell coined―ungood‖in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four? Do you think they are accidental gaps in the lexicon of English?There already exist words that correspond to ―ungood‖ and ―unbig‖. It is not accidental. This is what is technically called lexical blocking.(4) Read the following extract from Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass. How do you think Humpty Dumpty would explain the word ―un-birthday‖ to Alice?―Un-birthday‖ means some day that is not one’s birthday.(5) The fact that un- can be both a verb prefix and an adjective prefix may explain the occurrenceof the ambiguous word ―unlockable‖. Can you imagine two situati ons corresponding to the two senses of the word?? Can you give mo re examples like ―unlockable‖?Imagine you are inside a room and you want some privacy. You would be unhappy to find the door is unlockable–―not able to be locked.‖ Now imagine you are inside a locked room trying to get out. You would be very relieved to find that the door is unlockable–―able to be unlocked.‖ These two meanings correspond to two different structures, as follows:Adjective Adjectiveun- Adjective Verb -ableV erb -able un- V erblock lockIn the first structure the verb ―lock‖ combines with the suffix –able to form the adjective lockable (―able to be locked‖). Then the prefix un-, meaning ―not,‖ combines with the derived adjective to form a new adjective unlockable (―not able to be locked‖). In the second case, the prefix un- combines with the verb lock to form a derived verb, unlock. Then the derived verb combines with the suffix –able to form unlockable, ―able to be unlocked.‖Other examples are unbuttonalbe, unzippable, and unlatchable.4. ASK:(1) How are the verbs in Column A different from those in Column B?Verbs in Column A are transitive while those in Column B are generally intransitive.(2) Can we use ―able to be X-ed‖ to paraphrase ―perishable‖?No. ―Perish‖ is intransitive.(3) A further complication with -able is that in words li ke ―unthinkable‖, the suffix means morethan ―able to be X-ed‖. Why? Can you think of more words of this type?unbreakable,presentable, readable, questionable, payable, washable.(4) Now, let’s l ook at another complication. None of the following words are permitted. What doesthis suggest about the use of the suffix ―-able‖?―-able‖ are not attached to nouns, adjectives, or prepositions.5. ASK:(1) Note the contrast between list A and List B. Can you think of any reason that can explain whythe set of words on List B are impossible words in English?Verbs on List B are intransitive.(2) How are the re- words on List C and List D different from those on List A?Words on List C are made up of re- +adjectives. In the words on List D, ―re-‖ means ―back‖instead of ―again‖.(3) Some re- prefixed words may mean more than the simple addition of the meaning of re- andthe meaning of its base. For example, ―rewrite‖ means ―write something again, especially in a different or improved form‖.Can you give more examples like ―rewrite‖?rebuild, rethink, retry, retell, reorganize, reconsider, reform, etc.6. ASK:(1) Can you give some examples that you consider to be chunks?Omit.(2) Read the following spoken data of a Chinese student. Can you point out the chunks used in it?Can you classify them into some types?It is the most unforgettable birthday um ... that I ... and I can not forget it for forever. Um ... it it was when I was a freshman. It is the first year um ... I left my family and spend my birthday alone. Um ... I remember clearly um ... that day I strode gloomily at campus along for a long time um. And um ... um ... I I felt very ... I I felt ...I felt very gloomy because no one, um no one except my parents um remember my birthday and, and, wan and wanted to um ... and wanted to stay with me for my birthday. Um ... um ... I did, I did not went back I did not go back to the dormitory um ... until um ... until seven o‟clock in the evening. Um ... the light, the lig ht in the dormitory was off. Obviously, um there was no ... there was nobody staying in the dormitory. Um ...but now um ... it may ... it ... it ... seemed um ... it seemed that it doesn‟t matter. Um ... And I open the door um ... and I found except darkness there was nothing. Suddenly a song “Happy birthday to you” sound. I felt, I felt very astonished. Then, the light was turned on. Some familiar faces um ... um full of full of sweet smiles towards me. Um they were my dorm they were my dorm mates ... Yes, they still remembered um ...my birthday, my birthday. And in fact they have ... they indeed prepared for it two years ago. They bought er ... a very beautiful cake for me, and that night um ... we sang, we danced and ... and had that delicious cake. I felt very happy, and and later I (I)made a call to my parents that told them that I has spent a very unforgettable birthday with my roommates.verbal: went/go back; turn(ed) on; prepare for; make a call toadjectival: full ofprepositional: at campus (it should be ―on campus‖, though); for a long time; in the evening; in factclausal: it seemed that ….; it doesn’t matter7. The notion of subject may be classified into three types: grammatical subject(the major nominal part corresponding to the predicate), logical subject (the doer or executor of the action concerned), and psychological subject(the first major component of the sentence, like a nominal phrase, an adverbial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). For instance,a. John(grammatical subject, psychological subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank last night.b. The City Bank (grammatical subject, psychological subject) was robbed by John (logical subject) last night.c. Last night (psychological subject) John (grammatical subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank.Analyze the following newspaper headlines from the Washington Post (July 21-24, 2006) in terms of the effect of subject type selection.(a) In Iraq, Military Forgot Lessons of Vietnam (psychological)(b) Evacuation Rules Separate N.Va. Friends (grammatical)(c) Woods Is Closely Followed At British (logical, grammatical)8. ASK:(1) Can you write the public signs in complete forms?You may push the button and wait for the signal of walk.You must use caution when the ground is wet.(2) What rules are there when we write elliptical English newspaper headlines?a. Omit auxiliary or linking verb BE;b. Omit determiners;c. Omit indefinite nouns of person.d. Omit There Be.Task 3: Study Questions1. Point out the word-formation process that applies to each of the following words: Affixation: worsen endearmentConversion: dust (v.) plane (v.)Compounding: laptop airsick daughter-in-lawBack-formation: edit televise peddle swindle (swindler)Shortening: tec (detective) prof (professor) bike (bicycle)Blending: brunch urinalysis (urine + analysis) fantabulous (fantasy + fabulous)Initialism: WTO (World Trade Organization)Acronym: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association)Coinage (in the forms of invention and eponym—words derived from proper names): Xerox nylon jumbo (name of an elephant brought to the United States by P. T. Barnum)2. How are the open-class words and the closed-class words different from each other?Open-class words:(1)large in number;(2)easy to expand;(3)mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Closed-class words:(1) small in number;(2) stable;(3) basically pronouns, prepositions, function words, etc.3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?(a) the government‟s policies ’s; -s(b) the latest news -est(c) Isn‟t it snow ing! -ing(d) two frightened cows-ed; -s4. Suppose a speaker of English invents the following italicized English words as a joke: ―they’re always causing a commotion. I tell them not to commote, but they insist on being big commoters.” What process of word creation does this example illustrate, and why? What do the new words mean?It is a process of back-formation. ―Commote‖means the act of causing disorder and ―commoter‖ means someone who causes disorder.。
【VIP专享】Pragmatics语言学
Nice to see you all back againChapter One Introduction1. the origin of pragmatics1) about the term “pragmatics”语用学The term "Pragmatics" was first used by Charles William Morris" Foundations of the Theory of Sign"( 1938) .Semiotics syntax semantics users2) the establishmentPragmatics, as a comparatively new and independent discipline of linguistics, appeared in1970s with the publication of "Journal of Pragmatics" in Hetherlands in1977. Before that time the study of pragmatics was limited in the field of linguistic philosophy.3) The three stages in the development of pragmatics:the first stage is from the late 1930s to late 1940s----Pierce, Morris and Carnap considered pragmatics to be a branch of semiology符号学and all the studies were within the domain of philosophy;The second stage is from the beginning of 1950s to late 1960s----Austin, Searle and Grice made studied on speech act and implicature theory, and their achievements sustained the basic theory of pragmatics. The studies were still within the domain of philosophy then;The third stage is after 1970s----the biggest three events happened and pragmatics became an independent discipline.a) In 1977 Mey and Haberland started the Journal of Pragmatics in Holand.b) In 1983 Levinson and Leech published their respectiveworks Pragmatics and Principle of Pragmatics, which set up the theoretic system of pragmatics.c) the set-up of the International Pragmatics Association in 1986 in Belgium.2. What is PragmaticsSome definitions of Pragmatics:1) Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.2) Pragmatics is the study of the relations betweenlanguage and context that are basic to an account of lang understanding.3) Pragmatics is the study of linguistic acts and the contextsin which they are performed.4) Pragmatics is a theory which seeks to characterise howspeakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.5) Pragmatics is the study of language use and linguistic communication.6) Pragmatics can be defined as the study of howutterances have meanings in situations.What do we find in common in the above definitions of Pragmatics？meaning contextBriefly speaking, pragmatics refers to the study language in use, or the meaning in context, or the use of language in communication, or the relationship between linguistic elements and the contexts or situations in which they are used.Language use----language systemthe distinguishing feature of language use from language system is:“One can mean more than one says”Examples:（1）只可意会，不可言传，言有尽而意无尽，词不达意，不知从何说起。
Detecting pragmatic infelicities
Consider the following utterances: (1) John bought a new car but I don't believe that he did. (2) This book is short | in fact, long. (3) Ed went to the airport and ew to California, but he ew to California rst. (4) John forgot to lock the door, but he did not intend to lock the door. A linguist will say that utterances (1){(4) are infelicitous and will notice that in all of them a pragmatic inference is infelicitously defeated: utterance (1) tries to cancel a conversational implicature that is triggered by the maxim of quality (Grice 1975); utterance (2) tries to cancel a conventional scalar implicature (Horn 1972; Gazdar 1979); utterance (3) tries to cancel a conversational implicature that is triggered by the maxim of
Abstrቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱct
We study the logical properties that characterize pragmatic inferences and we show that classical understanding of notions such as entailment and defeasibility is not enough if one wants to explain infelicities that occur when a pragmatic inference is cancelled. We show that infelicities can be detected if a special kind of inference is considered, namely infelicitously defeasible inference. We also show how one can use stratied logic, a linguistically motivated formalism that accommodates indefeasible, infelicitously defeasible, and felicitously defeasible inferences, to reason about pragmatic inferences and detect infelicities associated with utterances. The formalism yields an algorithm for detecting infelicities, which has been implemented in Lisp.
Language_and_Culture_2010.11.4
Characteristics of language
Language is vocal. Speech is the primary medium of language, while writing is secondary. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing systems. Besides, the sequence of people’s acquisition of language is speech and then writing. Children first learn to speak at a very young age and may learn to read and write at an older age. Speech is more important than writing in people’s life. A person who cannot read and write is only an “illiterate”; however, a person who cannot speak is normally regarded as “disabled.”
permeates everything we do
About language
Enable human to send literally an infinite array of messages
Capable of producing an infinite number of meaning
英语学习新编简明英语语言学教程笔记必备
英语学习新编简明英语语言学教程笔记必备-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1弃我去者，昨日之日不可留乱我心者，今日之日多烦忧Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompet ence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
Pragmatics 语义学
Chapter 1: Invitations to Pragmatics
1.1 What is Pragmatics? 1.2 The Origin and Development of Pragmatics 1.3 The Scope of Pragmatic Study Discussion questions
rule-governed formal product static sentence meaning sense representation context-free
principle-governed functional process dynamic utterande meaning force interpretation context-bound
e. Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. (Leech, 1983:X) f. Pragmatics is the science of language seen in relation to its users.(1993:5) g. Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker(or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). (1996:3)
1.3 The Scope of Pragmatic Study
1.3.1
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Some Usage of Pragmatics in Daily SpeechHaoPing English Class 3 Grade 2008 0815101066郝平英语3班 2008级 0815101066Abstract: In expectation to enrich studies for daily speech linguistics, this paper, with daily speech as study object and pragmatics in theory, try to discover the pragmatics in daily speech systematically combined with personal life experiences. It is written based on both daily speech and daily life experiences. In theory, pragmatics is adopted together with fuzzy linguistics assisted. During the study, daily speech and daily life experiences in previous work are adopted. After these, careful observation, deeply thinking and repeatedly comparing are done for final induction and classification.Key word: daily speech linguistics; pragmatics; deixis; conversational principle; indirect speech act; fuzzy linguistics; cross-cultural communicationI. IntroductionThough more and more people choose message, email or other instruments to communicate, face to face speech still takes a large share of people‟s communication. The language used in daily speech is different from that in other areas, often changes according to the situation. So it is important to know how to use proper words to express our thoughts correctly in a certain occasion. Only effective communication is meaningful.Pragmatics originated from philosopher‟s exploration of language. Pragmatics, the word is firstly mentioned by Charles William Morris in 1938 in his book Foundations of the Theory of Signs from middle 1950s to late 1960s, pragmatics gained great development. The speech act theory put up by John Langshaw Austin and John R. Searle, H.R Grice‟s implicature theory, the tow theories laid the foundation of pragmatics. As time went on, this area gained more and more attention. Along with the development of pragmatics, increasing number of scholars devoted into different areas to do research in this aspect.Till now, many studies have been done in many areas, such as, guide, literature, management, law, stock, teaching, news, ads and so on. But seldom have people paid attention to the daily speech. Under this back drop, combining pragmatic theory and daily communication, standing on the shoulders of previous achievement, using the newer theory to analyses daily speech, we hope to study it in a new angle and help people create a harmonious air in communication.The main means are as follows:1. Both definition and description, the tow important means in studying pragmatics as well as daily speech, are adopted. We collected a lot of materials concerning this subject. Using description, induction and synthesis, we concluded some regulations to define.2. Combined theories and practices, based on previous achievements, our study was conducted in a new angle. Regarding theory as guide, we analyzed the language material and make full use of it to do research.3. By researching, analysis, and comparison, we make sure that the language material is true, the sight is wide. In short, we connected every level of pragmatics theory with the study of daily speech, aspired to find some regulations, which can expound the pragmatic features of daily speech.I. Deictic Expressions in Daily Speech1. deictic expressions and deictic informationDeixis means …pointing‟via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this …pointing‟is called a deictic expression. Deictic meaning in deictic expression is deictic information. Briefly, some deictic expressions should be understood in certain context. In communication, deictic expressions provide important information for correct understanding. Without certain situation, people can‟t figure out the right meaning.2. usage of deictic expressionsTraditionally deixis consists of person deixis, time deixis and place deixis. They are the most initial and common three kinds of deixis. Besides these, Levin added another tow kinds—discourse deixis and social deixis.In daily speech we use first person to show close relationship. (1) We should get up earlier. The usage of …we‟ decreases the tone of complaint by putting speaker and listener together. When we use time deixis, we usually stand in the time point of now. If we say tow days ago we mean tow days before today. The meaning of time deixis changes with the time, at which the speaker is speaking. So we must put them into certain situation. For instance: (2) I eat too much yesterday. (3) I ate too much yesterday. The word …yesterday‟ in tow sentences refers to different time. Space deictic expressions are also used frequently in daily speech. (4) The car is on the right. In (4) the …right‟ was taken from the angle of the speaker. In the angle of the listener, it may be not right. Discourse deixis is common in daily speech. For instance: That is what I want to say. …That‟is a discourse deictic expression. We use it to make oursentences more coherent. Social deixis means the tow sides of a conversation via different speech measures to achieve their needs for social communications. The choice of deictic words as teacher, doctor, professor, manager and so on, to show respect.II. Implicature and principle in daily speech1. Implacture theory and principleFace to face talking is an important way to give and get information. When people use language to convey their meaning, tow occasions will occur. One is he means what he said. Another is he hides what he said in his words. In daily speech, people do not usually say things directly, but tend to imply them. Then there is implacture. Let‟s see the following example.There is a woman sitting on a park bench and a large dog lying on the ground in front of the bench.A man comes along and sits down on the bench.(1)Man: Does your dog bit?Woman: No. (The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bits the man‟s hand.)Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn‟t bit.Woman: Yes. He doesn‟t. But that‟s not my dog.One of the problems in this example has to do with communication. Specifically, it seems to be a problem caused by the man‟s assumption that more was communicated than was said. It isn‟t a problem with presupposition because the assumption in …your dog‟ is true for both speakers. The problem is the man‟s assumption that the dog in his question and the woman‟s answer both apply to the dog in front of them. From the man‟s perspective, the woman‟ answer provides less information than expected. In other words, she might be expected to provide the information stated in the last line.The concept of there being an expected amount of information provided in conversation is just one aspect of the more general idea that people involved in a conversation will cooperate with each other. In most circumstance, the assumption of cooperation is so pervasion that it can be stated as a cooperative principle of conversation and elaborated in five sub-principles, called maxims, as shown in the following table.The cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. The maximsQuantity1. Make you contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.QualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Attitude1. be polite2. be humorous3. be tactful RelationBe relevant MannerBe perspicuous1. Avoid obscurity of expression2. Avoid ambiguity3. be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)4. be orderlyIt is important to recognize these maxims as unstated assumptions we have in conversations. We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information; we assume that they are telling the truth, be relevant, and trying to be as clear as the can. Because these principles are assumed in normal interaction, speakers rarely mention them. Once these principles were broken, just as in (1) implacture will occur.2. Usage of principles in daily speechFirst, let‟s see the following exampleA: Could you tell me how to get to the library?B: Sorry. I don‟t know clearly.If B really don‟t know, though B didn‟t provide information needed by A, he is still cooperative. He obeys the principle of quality and attitude. He is polite and telling the truth.Child: Mum, I want to eat another candy.Mother: Ok.By saying only one word …ok‟, the mother provides enough information. She obeys the principle of quantity and manner.A: tomorrow is Sunday, how about go for a walk?B: tomorrow will be a fine day, let‟s go hiking.C: it will be too tired. Let‟s go boating.D: your ideas are all good, but lack of creations. Shall we have a picnic?ABC: Good idea!Though their opinion are different, they ling to the same topic. So they all insist on the principle of being relevant.III. Indirect speech acts in daily speechIn attempting to express, people do not only produce utterance containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterance. If you work in a situation where a boss has a great deal of power, then the boss‟s utterance of the expression in (1) is more than just a statement. (1) You are fired. The utterance in (1) can be used to perform the act of ending your employment However; the actions performed by utterance do not have to be as dramatic as unpleasant as in (1). The action can be quit pleasant, as in the compliment per formed by (2a), the acknowledgement of thanks in (2b), or the expression of surprise in (2c).(2) a. You are so delicious. b. you are welcome. c. you are crazy!Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts and in English, are commonly given more specific labels, such apology, compliant, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.An approach to distinguishing types of speech acts can be made on the basis of structure. A fairly structural distinction between three general types of speech acts is provided, in English, by the three basic sentence types. As shown in (3), there is an easily recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, question, command).(3) a. You wear a seat belt. (declarative)b. Do you wear a seat belt? (interrogative)c. Wears a seat belt! (imperative)Whenever there is a direct relation ship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act. Whenever there is an indirect speech act.Different structures can be used to accomplish the basic function, in daily speech, as in (4), where the addressee not to stand in front of the TV. The basic function of all the utterances in (4a) represents a direct speech act. The interrogative structure in (4b) is not being used only as a question; hence it is an indirect speech act. The declarative structures in (4c) and (4d) are also indirect requests.(4) a. More out of the way!b. Do you have to stand in front of the TV?c. You are standing in front of the TV.d. You‟d make a better door than a window.One of the most common types of indirect speech act in English, as shown in (5), has the form of an interrogative, but is not typically used to ask a question. The examples in (5) are normally understood as requests.(5) a. Could you pass the salt? b. Would you open this?Indeed, there is a typical pattern in indirect speech acts. We usually don‟t say we really want to say. But by our words, the listener usually can get our idea. Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech acts. So in order to avoid possible quarrel, we‟d better adopt indirect speech acts more often.IV. Fuzzy linguistics in daily speechThe concept of fuzzy was first put up by Zadeh. He holds the idea that many things in nature are impossible to be classified precisely. So he puts them together and calls them fuzzy muster. Since its appearance, fuzzy theory has been brought into many other subjects as well as linguistics.Pragmatic fuzziness was first raised by Leech Brown and Levinson and then promoted by Thomas. One speech may have more than one illocutionary force is the foundation of fuzzy theory.It is advisable to use more of fuzzy linguistics in some special situations in daily life. (1) If you want to enjoy the full flavor of your food and drink, you will, naturally, not smoke during this meal. Moreover, if you did smoke you would be also impairing the enjoyment of other guests. The language force in (1) is fuzzy. It requires the guest make the decision. The sentences are more suitable than “No Smoking” in a restaurant. It gives the right to guests, who decides whether smoking or not.By using fuzzy linguistics, the listeners usually feel relative more comfortable. It reduces the possibility of quarrel and compliant. Because of the features of fuzzy linguistics, in some occasion, more information should be added after fuzzy linguistics.(2)A: Would you like another drink?B: Yes, I would, thank you, but make it a small one.As in (2) “Yes, I would.” is fuzzy. By adding the later sentence, B made it accurate. When we want to give out a precise expression of, we usually provide more information to make fuzzy linguistic accurate.V. Cross-cultural communication in daily speech1. Background knowledge and culture schemataWhen globalization becomes a fact, the importance of cross-cultural communication is further highlighted. On the other hand, we have to admit that more and more miscommunication occurs in international society because of the lacking of another language‟s background knowledge.Our ability to arrive automatically at interpretations of the unwritten and the unsaid must be based on pre-existing knowledge structures. These structures function like familiar patterns from previous experience that we use to interpret new experiences. The most general term for a pattern of this type is a schema. A schema is a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory.If there is a fixed, satic pattern to the schema, it is sometimes called a frame. A frame shared by every one within a social group would be something like a typical version, which is the background knowledge of that group shared by every one in it. For example, within a frame for an apartment, there will be assumed components such a kitchen, bathroom, and bedroom. The assumed elements of a frame are generally not stated, as in the advertisement in (1). (1)Apartment for rent. $ 500.Everyone has had the experience of surprise when some assumed component of an event is unexpectedly missing. A Chinese visits a Moroccan restaurant and the absence of one of his …restaurant script‟requirements—there is no chairs. (The large comfortable cushions were on excellent replacement.) it is almost inevitable that our background knowledge structures, our schemata for making sense of the word, will be culturally determined. We develop our cultural schemata in the contexts of our basic experiences.2. Cross-cultural communication in daily speechFor some obvious differences, we can readily modify the details of a cultural schema. For many other subtle differences, however, we often don‟t recognize that there may be a misinterpretation based on different schemata. In one reported example, an Australian factory supervisor clearly assumed that other factory workers would know that Easter was close and hence they would all have a holiday. He asked another worker, originally from Vietnam, about her plans, as in (2).(1)You have five days off. What are you going to do?The Vietnamese worker immediately interpreted the utterance in terms of being laid off rather than have a holiday. Something good in one‟s schema can sound like something bad in another‟s. So it‟s important for us to know more objective background of another culture and chose the suitable words tomake successful cross-cultural communication.Conclusion: From five aspects, deixis, conversational principle, indirect speech acts, fuzzy linguistics, cross-cultural communication, this article analyzed the application of pragmatics in daily speech, not new but a rich topic.First is the deixis in daily speech. Meaning, usage and application of deixis in daily speech are introduced.Second is session meaning and principle of conversational implicature in daily speech. Tow important principle, cooperative principle and politeness principle, together with session meaning are introduced.The next is speech acts. Not only relative principle of speech acts but also how to apply these principles are introduced.The forth is about fuzzy linguistics. The fuzzy linguistics with both wording and daily communication are analyzed, and also introduces that in different occasion fuzzy linguistics and accurate linguistics are in selective or replaced for daily communication.The last is cross-cultural communication for daily speech. Back ground knowledge and culture schemata are analyzed and discussed.The author also proposed some suggestions for daily speech in every chapter. Because of the limit of the author, the materials are not so wide and not all aspects of daily speech are considered. The studies of pragmatics in daily speech still need more efforts. Once more effort are made, the vales of learning and practice will be enlarged.Bibliography:[1] George Yule Pragmatics[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2000，.[2] Louise Cummings Pragmatics a multidisciplinary perspective[M].北京：北京大学出版社.2007，75-110.[3] 胡壮麟.语言学教程[M].北京：北京大学出版社.2006，185-209.[4] 金立.合作与会话[M].北京：北京社会科学出版社2005，9-16,48-105.[5] 刘森本.语用策略[M].北京：北京科学文献出版社2007，43-175.[6] 沈阳.语言学常识十五讲[M].北京：北京大学出版社2005，248-271.[7] 严辰松高航.语用学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社2005，124-139.[8] 张佳慧.导游语言的语用学研究[D].扬州：扬州大学 2010.。