Geospatial Data and Systems
地理信息系统(名词解释)
1、地理信息系统（geographic information system ， 即gis ）——一门集计算机科学、 信息学、地理学等多门科学为一体的新兴学科， 它是在计算机软件和硬件支持下， 运用系 统工程和信息科学的理论，科学管理和综合分析具有空间内涵的地理数据，以提供对规划 、管理、决策和研究所需信息的空间信息系统。
2．栅格——栅格结构是最简单最直接的空间数据结构， 是指将地球表面划分为大小均匀 紧密相邻的网格阵列， 每个网格作为一个象元或象素由行、列定义， 并包含一个代码表示 该象素的属性类型或量值， 或仅仅包括指向其属性记录的指针。
因此， 栅格结构是以规则 的阵列来表示空间地物或现象分布的数据组织，组织中的每个数据表示地物或现象的非几何属性特征。
特点：属性明显， 定位隐含， 即数据直接记录属性本身， 而所在的位置则根据行列号转换为相应的坐标，即定位是根据数据在数据集中的位置得到的，在栅格结构中，点用一个栅格单元表示；线状地物用沿线走向的一组相邻栅格单元表示，每个栅格单元最 多只有两个相邻单元在线上；面或区域用记有区域属性的相邻栅格单元的集合表示，每个 栅格单元可有多于两个的相邻单元同属一个区域。
3.矢量——它假定地理空间是连续， 通过记录坐标的方式尽可能精确地表示点、线、 多边形等地理实体， 坐标空间设为连续， 允许任意位置、长度和面积的精确定义。
对于点实体， 矢量结构中只记录其在特定坐标系下的坐标和属性代码；对于线实体， 用一系列坐标对的连线表示；多边形是指边界完全闭合的空间区域，用一系列坐标对的连线表示。
4. “拓扑”（topology）一词来源于希腊文，它的原意是 “形状的研究”。
拓扑学是 几何学的一个分支，它研究在拓扑变换下能够保持不变的几何属性——拓扑属性（拓扑属 性：一个点在一个弧段的端点， 一个点在一个区域的边界上；非拓扑属性：两点之间的距离， 弧段的长度， 区域的周长、面积） 。
地球信息科学与技术
地球信息科学与技术地球信息科学与技术地球信息科学与技术（Geographic Information Science and Technology，简称GIST）是一个综合性学科，涉及地球信息的获取、存储、管理、分析和应用等方面。
地球信息科学与技术是将地理空间信息与计算机科学、遥感技术、大数据分析等领域相结合的交叉学科，其研究内容涵盖了地理空间数据的采集与处理、地理信息系统（Geographic Information System，简称GIS）的构建与应用、地理空间分析模型的开发与运用、地理位置智能技术与应用等。
地球信息科学与技术的理论基础主要包括地理学、数学、计算机科学、地理信息系统等学科内容。
地理学为地球信息科学与技术研究提供了空间分析的理论基础，数学为地理信息数据的测量、计算和模型构建提供了数理基础，计算机科学为地理空间数据管理、处理和可视化提供了技术手段，地理信息系统为地理信息的存储、处理和分析提供了软硬件平台。
地球信息科学与技术的应用领域广泛，包括地质灾害评估与预警、城市规划与土地利用、环境保护与资源管理、社会经济发展与政府决策等。
在地质灾害评估与预警方面，地球信息科学与技术可以利用多源遥感数据和地面监测数据，构建地震、火山、泥石流等地质灾害的空间分析模型，实现对灾害风险的评估和预警，提供给有关部门决策依据。
在城市规划与土地利用方面，地球信息科学与技术可以利用高分辨率遥感影像数据和空间分析模型，评估城市发展的压力与潜力，制定合理的规划方案和土地利用政策。
在环境保护与资源管理方面，地球信息科学与技术可以利用遥感数据和地理信息系统，分析森林、湿地、草地等自然资源的空间分布与变化，制定有效的保护措施和合理的资源利用方案。
在社会经济发展与政府决策方面，地球信息科学与技术可以利用大数据分析和地理信息系统，分析人口、交通、经济等社会经济数据的空间分布与关联，为政府决策提供科学支持。
地球信息科学与技术的发展离不开遥感技术的支持。
《地理空间分析》课程教案
《地理空间分析》课程教案地理空间分析课程教案一、教学背景分析与目标确定地理空间分析是地理学的一门重要分支，通过对地理空间的测量、处理和分析，探讨地理现象的分布规律和相互关系。
本课程旨在培养学生运用地理信息技术和地理统计方法，进行地理空间数据分析和地理问题解决能力，为学生提供实践肌理学方面的基础知识和操作技能。
二、教学内容与教学方法1. 教学内容1. 地理空间数据的获取和处理2. 地理空间分布与关联分析3. 地理空间模式与空间插值分析4. 地理空间数据可视化与地图制作2. 教学方法1. 探究教学法：通过让学生参与真实案例的分析和解决，促使学生主动思考和发现问题。
2. 实践操作：通过使用地理信息系统软件和数据分析工具，让学生亲身操作和实践，提高实际运用能力。
3. 讨论与交流：组织学生小组讨论和交流，促进思想碰撞和知识共享。
三、教学计划安排本课程为较为复杂的理论与实践相结合的课程，为确保学生的学习效果，教学时间安排如下：第一周：地理空间数据的获取和处理- 理论学习：地理数据类型与获取途径- 实践操作：地理数据的处理方法和工具第二周：地理空间分布与关联分析- 理论学习：地理空间分布特征与数据关联分析原理- 实践操作：地理空间关联分析方法和实例练习第三周：地理空间模式与空间插值分析- 理论学习：地理空间模式分析原理与方法- 实践操作：地理空间插值分析工具的使用第四周：地理空间数据可视化与地图制作- 理论学习：地理空间数据可视化方法与技巧- 实践操作：基于地理信息系统的地图制作与效果展示四、教学评估与反馈机制1. 课程设计中设置学习任务和练习题，以检验学生对理论知识的掌握情况。
2. 实践操作中，引导学生运用所学方法和工具解决实际问题，评估其应用能力。
3. 定期组织学生进行小组讨论和汇报，以检验学生对课程内容的理解和掌握程度。
4. 借助学生的反馈意见，定期调整和完善课程内容和教学方法，提升教学质量。
五、教学资源支持与设施保障1. 教学资源支持：提供相关教材、参考书和学习资料，为学生提供多元化的学习资源。
中英文地理信息系统(GIS)英语词汇表
accreditation 委派accuracy 准确度acquisition 获取activity patterns 活动模式added value 附加值adjacency邻接Aeolian 伊奥利亚人的, 风的, 风蚀的Age of Discovery 发现的年代aggregation聚合algorithm, definition算法,定义ambiguity 不明确analytical cartography 分析制图application programming interfaces(APIs) 应用编程接口ARCGis 美国ESRI公司开发的世界先进的地理信息系统软件ArcIMS 它是个强大的，基于标准的工具，让你快速设计和管理Internet地图服务ArcInfo 在ArcGIS软件家族中，ArcInfo是GIS软件中功能最全面的。
它包含ArcView和ArcEditor 所有功能，并加上高级空间处理和数据转换ArcNews 美国ESRI向用户终生免费赠送的ArcNews报刊ArcSDE ArcSDE在ESRI GIS软件和DBMS之间提供通道，是一个空间数据引擎ArcUser Magazine 为ESRI用户创建的报刊ArcView 桌面GIS和制图软件，提供数据可视化，查询，分析和集成功能，以及创建和编辑地理数据的能力ARPANET ARPA 计算机网（美国国防部高级研究计划局建立的计算机网）aspatial data 非空间数据？Association of Geographic Information (AGI) 地理信息协会attribute data 属性数据attributes, types 属性，类型attributive geographic data 属性地理数据autocorrelation 自相关Autodesk MapGuide 美国Autodesk公司生产的Web GIS软件Automated mapping/facility management(AM/FM) systems 自动绘图/设备管理系统facilities 设备avatars 化身A VIRIS 机载可见光/红外成像光谱仪azimuthal projections 方位投影batch vectorization 批量矢量化beer consumption 啤酒消费benchmarking 基准Berry, Brianbest fit line 最优线binary counting system 二进制计算系统binomial distribution 二项式分布bivariate Gaussian distribution 二元高斯分布block encoding 块编码Bosnia, repartitioning 波斯尼亚，再分离成两个国家buffering 缓冲区分析Borrough, PeterBusiness and service planning(retailing) application in petroleum and convenience shopping 石油和便利购物的业务和服务规划（零售）应用business drivers 业务驱动business, GIS as 业务，地理信息系统作为Buttenfield, Barbaracadasters 土地清册Callingham, Martincannibalizing 调拨Cartesian coordinate system笛卡尔坐标系Cartograms 统计地图cartographic generalization 制图综合cartographic modeling 地图建模cartometric transformations 量图变换catalog view of database 数据库目录视图census data人口普查数据Census of Population 人口普查central Place Theory 中心区位论central point rule 中点规则central tendency 中心倾向centroid 质心choropleth mapping分区制图choosing a GIS 选择一个地理信息系统class 类别classification generalization 分类综合client 客户端client-server C/S结构客户端-服务器cluster analysis 聚类分析clutter 混乱coastline weave 海岸线codified knowledge 编码知识COGO data 坐标几何数据COGO editing tools 坐标几何编辑工具Collaboration 协作Local level 地方级National level 国家级Collection-level metadata 获取级元数据Commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) systems 成熟的商业化系统chemas-microsoft-comfficeffice" />>> Commom object request broker architecture (CORBA) 公共对象请求代理体系结构Community, GIS 社区，地理信息系统Competition 竞争Component GIS 组件地理信息系统Component object model (COM) 组件对象模型Computer assisted mass appraisal (CAMA) 辅助大量估价，>>Computer-aided design (CAD)-based GIS 基于计算机辅助制图的地理信息系统Models 数据模型Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tool 计算机辅助软件工程工具Concatenation 串联Confidence limits 置信界限Conflation 异文合并Conformal property 等角特性Confusion matrix 混淆矩阵Conic projections 圆锥投影Connectivity 连接性Consolidation 巩固Constant term 常数项Contagious diffusion 传染扩散Continuing professional development (CPD) 持续专业发展Coordinates 坐标Copyright 版权Corridor 走廊Cost-benefit analysis 成本效益分析Cost-effectiveness evaluation 成本效率评估Counting method 计算方法Cresswell, PaulCustomer support 客户支持Cylindrical Equidistant Projection 圆柱等距投影Cylindrical projections 圆柱投影> >Dangermond, Jack 美国ESRI总裁>> dasymetric mapping 分区密度制图>>data 数据>>automation 自动化>>capture costs 获取代价>>capture project 获取工程>>collection workflow 采集工作流>> compression 压缩>>conversion 转换>>definition 定义>>geographic, nature of 地理数据，数据的性质>> GIS 地理信息系统>>industry 产业>>integration 集成>>mining 挖掘>>transfer 迁移>>translation 转化>>data model 数据模型>> definition 定义>>levels of abstraction 提取等级>> in practice 实际上>>types 类型>>database 数据库>>definition 定义>>design 设计>>generalization 综合>>global 全球的>>index 索引>>multi-user editing 多用户编辑>> structuring 结构>>database management system (DBMS) 数据库管理系统>>capabilities 能力>>data storage 数据存储>>geographic extensions 地理扩展>>types 类型>>Dayton Accord 达顿协定，1995年12月达顿协定(DAYTON ACCORD)签订,巴尔干和平已经实现,波斯尼亚(包括黑塞哥维那)再被分解成两个国家>>decision support 决策支持>>deductive reasoning 演绎推理>>definitions of GIS 地理信息系统的各种定义>>degrees of freedom 自由度>>density estimation 密度估算>>dependence in space 空间依赖>>desktop GIS 桌面地理信息系统>>desktop paradigms 桌面范例>>Digital Chart of the World (DCW) 世界数字化图>>digital divide 数字鸿沟>>Digital Earth 数字地球>>Digital elevation models (DEMs) 数字高程模型>>Digital line graph (DLG) 数字线划图>>Digital raster graphic (DRG) 数字影像图>>Digital representation 数字表现>>Digital terrain models 数字地形模型>>Digitizing 数字化>>DIME (Dual Independent Map Encoding) program 美国人口调查局建立的双重独立地图编码系统>> Dine CARE >>Discrete objects 离散对象>>Douglas-Poiker algorithm 道格拉斯-普克算法，一种矢量数据抽稀算法>>Dublin Core metadata standard 都柏林核心元数据标准>>Dynamic segmentation 动态分割>>Dynamic simulation models 动态仿真模型>>> >Easting 朝东方>>Ecological fallacy 生态谬误>>e-commerce 电子商业>>editing 编辑>>education 教育>>electromagnetic spectrum 电磁光谱>>ellipsoids 偏振光椭圆率测量仪>>of rotation 旋转的>>emergency evacuation 应急撤退>>encapsulation 封装>>environmental applications 环境应用>>environmental impact 环境影响>>epidemiology 流行病学>>equal area property 等面积特性>>Equator 赤道>>ERDAS ERDAS公司是世界上最大的专业遥感图像处理软件公司，用户遍布100多个国家，软件套数超过17000套。
地理信息科学在地理学中的地位和意义
地理信息科学在地理学中的地位和意义Geographic Information Science (GIS) plays a vital role in the field of geography by providing valuable tools for data analysis and visualization. It has revolutionized how geographers collect, analyze, and interpret spatial data. GIS integrates concepts from cartography, geographic information systems, remote sensing, and computer scienceto study and understand various earth phenomena.地理信息科学（GIS）通过提供有价值的数据分析和可视化工具，在地理学领域发挥着重要作用。
它已经彻底改变了地理学家收集、分析和解释空间数据的方式。
GIS 整合了地图制作、地理信息系统、遥感以及计算机科学的概念，研究和理解各种地球现象。
One key aspect of GIS is its ability to handle spatial data. Geospatial data include information with inherentgeographic properties, such as location coordinates or boundaries. By allowing geographers to store, manipulate, and analyze this type of data, GIS enables them to identify patterns, relationships, and trends that are geographically significant.GIS 的关键之一在于它处理空间数据的能力。
地理信息系统 英文 教材
地理信息系统英文教材Introduction to Geographic Information Systems.Chapter 1: Overview of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)。
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an integratedset of hardware, software, and data that captures, stores, manages, analyzes, and presents all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS technology has revolutionized the way we understand and interact with the world by enabling the integration and visualization of spatial data with other forms of information.Chapter 2: The Components of GIS.GIS is composed of three main components: hardware, software, and data. Hardware refers to the computers and other devices used to run GIS software. Software is the set of tools and applications that enable users to create, edit,query, analyze, and visualize spatial data. Data is the core of any GIS, and it includes both spatial data (such as geographic coordinates) and non-spatial data (such as demographic information).Chapter 3: Spatial Data and Geospatial Databases.Spatial data is the foundation of GIS, and it represents the geographic features and relationships of the real world. Geospatial databases are specifically designed to store, manage, and retrieve spatial data efficiently. This chapter covers the different types of spatial data, such as vector and raster data, and the principles of geospatial databases.Chapter 4: GIS Software and Applications.GIS software enables users to create, edit, query, analyze, and visualize spatial data. This chapter introduces various GIS software packages, including desktop GIS, web GIS, and mobile GIS. It also covers the different types of GIS applications, such as urban planning,environmental monitoring, and transportation management.Chapter 5: Spatial Analysis and Modeling.Spatial analysis is a critical component of GIS, and it involves the examination of spatial patterns and relationships within a dataset. This chapter covers various spatial analysis techniques, including buffering, overlaying, and network analysis. It also introducesspatial modeling, which allows users to simulate andpredict spatial processes and outcomes.Chapter 6: GIS Data Visualization.Data visualization is a crucial aspect of GIS, as it enables users to communicate complex spatial information effectively. This chapter covers various visualization techniques, including maps, charts, and 3D models. It also discusses best practices for creating effective GIS visualizations.Chapter 7: Applications of GIS in Different Fields.GIS technology has found widespread applications in various fields, including urban planning, environmental science, transportation, health, and more. This chapter explores the specific applications of GIS in these fields and highlights the benefits and challenges of using GIS in each context.Chapter 8: Future Trends and Developments in GIS.GIS technology is constantly evolving, and new trends and developments are emerging. This chapter discusses some of the future trends in GIS, such as the increasing use of cloud computing, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence in GIS. It also explores the potential impact of these trends on GIS practice and research.In conclusion, this textbook provides a comprehensive introduction to Geographic Information Systems, covering the fundamentals of GIS, its components, spatial data and geospatial databases, GIS software and applications, spatial analysis and modeling, data visualization,applications in different fields, and future trends and developments. Through this textbook, students will gain a solid understanding of GIS technology and its applications, enabling them to effectively use GIS in various fields and contexts.。
三维建模毕业论文英文文献翻译
毕业设计(论文)文献翻译Constructing Rules and Scheduling Technology for 3DBuilding ModelsZhengwei SUI, Lun WU, Jingnong WENG, Xing LIN, Xiaolu JIAbstract3D models have become important form of geographic data beyond conventional 2D geospatial data. Buildings are important marks for human to identify their environments, because they are close with human life, particularly in the urban areas. Geographic information can be expressed in a more intuitive and effective manner with architectural models being modeled and visualized in a virtual 3D environment. Architectural model data features with huge data volume, high complexity, non-uniform rules and so on. Hence, the cost of constructing large-scale scenes is high. Meanwhile, computers are lack of processing capacity upon a large number ofmodel data. Therefore, resolving the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive data of model is valuable. By investigating the characteristics of buildings and the regular changes of viewpoint in virtual 3D environment, this article introduces several constructing rules and scheduling techniques for 3D constructing of buildings, aiming at the reduction of data volume and complexity of model and thus improving computers’ efficiency at sc heduling large amount of architectural models. In order to evaluate the efficiency of proposed constructing rules and scheduling technology listed in the above text, the authors carry out a case study by 3D constructing the campus of Peking University using the proposed method and the traditional method. The two results are then examined and compared from aspects of model data volume, model factuality, speed of model loading, average responding time during visualization, compatibility and reusability in 3D geo-visualization platforms: China Star, one China’s own platform for 3D global GIS manufactured by the authors of this paper. The result of comparison reveals that models built by the proposed methods are much better than those built using traditional methods. For the constructing of building objects in large-scale scenes, the proposed methods can not only reduce the complexity and amount of model data remarkably, but can also improving computers’ efficiency.Keywords:Constructing rules, Model scheduling, 3D buildingsI. INTRODUCTIONIn recent years, with the development of 3D GIS (Geographical Information System) software like Google Earth, Skyline, NASA World Wind, large-scale 3D building models with regional characteristics have become important form of geographic data beyond conventional 2D geospatial data, like multi-resolution remote sensing images and vector data [1].Compared to traditional 2D representation, geographic information can be expressed in a more intuitive and effective manner with architectural models being modeled and visualized in a virtual 3D environment. 3D representation and visualization provides better visual effect and vivid urban geographic information, and thus plays an important role in people's perceptions of their environment. Meanwhile, the 3D building data is also of great significance for the construction of digital cities.But how to efficiently visualize thousands of 3D building models in a virtual 3D environment is not a trivial question. The most difficult part of the question is the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive volume of model data, particularly in the procedure of model rendering. Taking the 3D modeling of a city for the example using traditional 3D modeling method, suppose there are 100 000 buildings to model in the urban area and the average size of model data for eachbuilding is roughly 10 M. So the total data volume of building models in the city could reach a TB level. However, the capacity of ordinary computer memory is only in the GB scale. Based on this concern, the authors proposed the scheduling technology for large-scale 3D buildings models in aspects of model loading and rendering. Due to the lack of building constructing rules and standard, models of buildings vary in aspects of constructing methods, textures collection and model data volume, especially in aspects of model reusability and factuality. Such a large amount of data without uniform constructing rules becomes a huge challenge for data storage, processing and visualization in computers. It also brings the problem of incompatibility among different 3D GIS systems.After years of research in GIS (Geographic Information System), people have accumulated a number of ways to solve the above problems [3]. However in virtual 3D environment, because of the difference in data organization and manners of human computer interaction (HCI), we need to apply a new standardized method of modeling and scheduling for 3D models. At present, there is no such a uniform method as the constructing specification or standard for the modeling of 3D buildings. Existing approaches are insufficient and inefficient in the scheduling of large-scale building models, resulting in poor performance or large memory occupancy. In response to such questions, the authors proposed a new method for the construction of 3D building models. Models built using the proposed methods could be much better than those built using traditional methods. For the 3D modeling of building objects in scenes of large scale, the proposed methods can not only remarkably reduce the complexity and amount of model data, but can also improving the reusability and factuality of models. Concerning the scheduling of large-scale building models, the Model Loading Judgment Algorithm (MLJA) proposed in this paper could solve the optimal judgment problem of model loading in 3D vision cone, particularly in circumstance with uncertain user interactions.This paper first examines and analyzes existing problems in constructing and scheduling steps of 3D building models. Then the authors propose a set of constructing rules for 3D building models together with methods of modeloptimization. Besides, special scheduling technology and optimization method for model rendering is also applied in this paper for large-scale 3D building models. In order to evaluate the efficiency of proposed rules and methods, a case study is undertaken by constructing a 3D model for the main campus of Peking University and Shenzhen using both the proposed method and the traditional method respectively. The two resulting 3D models of Peking University campus and Shenzhen are then examined and compared with one other in aspects of model data volume, model factuality, speed of model loading, average responding time during visualization, compatibility and reusability in various 3D geo-visualization platforms like China Star (one China’s own platform for 3D global GIS manufactured by the authors), Skyline, etc. Result of comparison tells that provided similar factuality of models, using the proposed method of us, the data volume of models was reduced by 86%; the speed of model loading was increased by 70%; the average responding time of model during visualization and interaction speed was reduced by 83%. Meanwhile, the compatibility and reusability of 3D model data are also improved if they are constructed using our approach.II. MODELING RULES OF 3D BUILDINGS 3D scene is the best form of visualization for digital city systems. While constructing 3D models for buildings objects, proper methods and rules should be used, which are made with full concerns of the characteristics of 3D building models [2]. The resulting models should be robust, reusable and suitable enough for transmission over computer network, and should at the same time be automatically adapted to system capability.Generally speaking, methods of constructing 3D building models can be classified into three types: wireframe modeling, surface modeling and solid modeling. In normal circumstances, to model buildings in 3D format, the framework of building should be constructed first according to the contour features, number of floors, floor height, aerial photograph and liveaction photos of buildings. Then, gather the characteristics of scene that the buildings to model are representing. Importantcharacteristics include buildings aerial photograph or liveaction shooting photos. Finally, map the gathered texture to model framework, optimize the model and create database of the 3D building models.Although there have already been many approaches for the construction of 3D building models, a unified modeling method and rules are still needed to improve the efficiency, quality, facilitate checking, reusability and archiving of constructed models. By investigating the characteristics of buildings, we found that buildings have regular geometric solid for modeling, similar texture on the surfaces of different directions, high similarity in small-scale models of buildings, etc. According to these, this article gives a discussion on the modeling rules from three aspects, including constructing rules of the 3D building models, texture mapping rules of 3D building models and optimization method for constructed models based on mentioned constructing rules.A. Constructing rules of the 3D building modelsThe 3D building modeling refers to the procedure of representing true buildings from the real world into computer in the form of 3D objects [4]. Human beings, as the creator and at the same time potential users of models, play a key role in this procedure. People are different from each other in the understanding of the building objects, methods of modeling and the software tools they use for modeling. Such differences among people who carry out modeling work at the same time lead to the 3D models of diverse quality and low efficiency. So the 3D building constructing rules proposed in this article become necessary and helpful to solve the above problems.1) Combine similar floors as a whole and keep the roof independent2) Share similar models and process the details especially3) Constructing in the unit of meters4) Define central point of the model5) Unified model codes6) Reduce number of surfaces in a single model7) Reduce combination of the models8) Rational split of modelsB. Texture mapping rules of 3D buildingsBased on the framework of 3D models, we need to attach these models with proper textures to create a better visualization effect for 3D buildings. The quality of texture mapping has a direct impact on the visual effect of the scene whiling being rendered [5]. Since the graphics card of computer will load all the textures together when rendering a model, texture mapping rules and the quality of the texture mapping can directly influence the efficiency of rendering as well.C. Optimization of models based on constructing rulesBased on constructing rules and the characteristics of 3D building models, the authors develop a software tool to optimize the 3D building models automatically. The optimizations implemented in the software tool contain the deletion of models’ internal textures, merging adjacent vertices/lines/surfaces, removing un-mapped framework and so on. Besides, the software can enhance the shape of the whole model, texture position and model facticity in the procedure of model optimization.III. SCHEDULING TECHNOLOGY OF LARGE-SCALE 3DBUILDING MODELSFor the 3D visualization of large-scale architectural models, a series of measures could be applied to ensure the efficient rendering of models. Important measures includes the scene organization, vision cone cutting, elimination of textures on the backside of models, Shader optimization, LOD Algorithm, math library optimization, memory allocation optimization, etc..How to display thousands of 3D city buildings’ models in a virtual 3D environment is not trivial. The main problem is the scheduling of models [7]. It determines when and which models to be loaded. This problem can be divided into two smaller problems: Find visible spatial region of models in 3D environment, and optimization method of model rendering efficiency.A. Find visible spatial region of models in 3D environmentAccording to operating mechanism of computers during 3D visualization and thecharacteristics of large-scale 3D scene, we need to determine the position of current viewpoint first before loading signal models or urban-unit models. Then in response to the regular changes of viewpoint in virtual 3D environment, the system will preload the 3D model data into memory automatically. In this way, frequent IO operations can be reduced and thus overall efficiency of system gets improved. A new algorithm named MLJA (Model Loading Judgment Algorithm) is proposed in this paper in order to find out visible region of models in the 3D environment. The algorithm integrates the graticules and elevation information to determine the current viewpoint of users in the 3D space. And with the movement of viewpoint, the algorithm schedules the loading of model correspondingly and efficiently.B. Optimization method of model rendering efficiencyThe scheduling method of large-scale 3D building models proposed above is an effective way to solve the problem caused the contradiction between large model data volume and limited capacity of computers. According to the algorithm, we can avoid loading the whole large-scale 3D building models at one time for the sake of limited computer memory, and then improve system efficiency in the procedure of model loading and abandoning. Due to the limited capacity of GPU and local video memory, we need a further research on how to display the loaded model data in more efficient manner. In the remaining part of this paper, the authors will continue to introduce several methods on the optimization of model rendering in the vision cone.1) Elimination of textures on the backside of modelsThe backside of the 3D model is invisible to the users. If we omit the texture mapping for the 3D model on the backside, the processing load of graphic card will be reduced as much as at least 50%. Besides, according to an investigation on procedure of actual model rendering, the authors found that on the backside of the 3D model, the invisible texture is rendered in a counter-clockwise manner against the direction of eyesight, while the visible texture mapping is rendered in clockwise manner. So we can omit the rendering of models which is intended to be rendered in counterclockwise manner. Therefore, the textures won’t exist on the back of 3D models. The graphic card could then work more rapidly and efficiently.2) Eliminate the shielded modelBy calculating the geometric relationship between 3D models in the scene, the shielded models can be omitted while displaying the scene with appropriate shielding patches. Through this way, we can effectively reduce the usage of graphics card memory, and thus achieve higher rendering efficiency and faster 3D virtual system.In the virtual 3D geographic information system, we often observe 3D models from a high altitude. It is especially true for large-scale outdoor 3D models. The usual arrangement of 3D building models are always sparse, however the real block is very small. Therefore, establishing an index for visual control, which is similar to the BSP tree, doesn’t amount to much. Through carefully studying DirectX, we found that we can take advantage of the latest Z-buffering technology of DirectX to implement the shielding control of models.3) Optimization method of the Shader instructionsIn shader 3.0 technology, SM (Shader Model) is a model which can optimize the rendering engine. A 3D scene usually contains several shaders. Among these shaders, some deal with the surfaces and skeletons of buildings, and others deal with the texture of 3D building models.Geometry can be handled quickly by shader batch process. The shader can combine similar culmination in 3D building models, deal with the correlation operation of a single vertex, determine the physical shape of the model, link the point, line, triangle and other polygons for a rapid processing while create new polygons, etc. We can assign the computing task to shader and local video memory directly in a very short time without bothering the CPU. In this case, visual effects of smoke, explosions and other special effects and complex graphics are no longer necessary to be processed by the CPU of computer. Such features of shader can speed up both the CPU and graphic card in processing huge amount of 3D models.4) LOD algorithm of large-scale 3D sceneLOD (Level of Detail) is a common and effective solution to resolve the conflicts between real time visualization and the authenticity of models [8]. By investigating the main features and typical algorithms of LOD technology, the authorsproposed a new structure for dynamic multi-level display. This structure not only can be applied to the mesh simplification of models with many different but fixed topologies, but also can be applied to the mesh simplification of models with variable topology. Therefore, the LOD technology can be applied to any grid model. Based on the above concerns, the authors also design a mesh simplification algorithm for variable topology through vertices merge. Via the dual operations of vertex merging and splitting, we can achieve smooth transition across different LOD levels of models, and automatically change the model topology.These above techniques plays important role in 3D scene. It can not only enable a rapid visualization of large-scale scene, but also can provide a high-resolution display of scene at a local scale with plenty of architectural details.IV. CONCLUDING REMARKSConstructing rules and scheduling technology plays an important role in the application of large-scale 3D buildings. Since people’s demand for 3D expression brings a challenge of high-efficiency and high-quality to virtual 3D environment, the methods proposed in this article give a good try in these aspects. According to the authors’ research and case studies in this paper, integration of constructing rules and scheduling technology is promising in providing powerful tools to solve the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive data of models. The result of our case study on Peking University indicates that the proposed new method on constructing rules and scheduling technology for large-scale 3D scene is highly feasible and efficient in practice. The proposed methods can not only standardize the procedure of model construction, but also can significantly shorten the time taken in scheduling large-scale 3D buildings. It introduces a new effective way to develop applications for large-scale three-dimensional scene.构建三维建筑模型的规则和调度技术隋正伟，邬伦, 翁敬农，林星,季晓璐摘要三维模型已成为超越了传统的二维地理空间数据的一种重要的地理数据形式。
GIS英语
现整理ArcGIS空间分析扩展模块涉及到术语（英汉对照）Altitude 高度,海拔,地平纬度Analysis extent 分析范围Analysis mask 分析掩码Arithmetic functions 算术函数Arithmetic operators 算术运算符Aspect 坡向Attribute table属性表Azimuth方位角，地平经度Barrier 界线、中断线、阻碍线Boolean Operators 逻辑运算符cell 单元（注：pixl 像元）cell size 单元大小cell statistics 单元统计continuous raster 连续栅格数据contour 等值线coordinate system坐标系统cost dataset 成本数据集cost weighted allcation 成本权重分配cost weighted direction 成本权重方向cost weighted distance 成本权重距离Density 密度Destination目的地Discrete raster 离散栅格数据feature 要素feature Dataset 要素数据集field 字段、域Focal functions 邻域函数Global functions全局函数Grid格网Hillshade山体阴影Histogram 直方图Interpolation 内插、插值Inverse Distance Weighted 反距离权重（插值）Kriging 克里格（插值）least-cost path 最低成本路径local functions局域函数Make permanent 生成永久文件Map Algebra 地图代数GIS英文词汇翻译GIS英文词汇翻译abscissa横坐标absolute accuracy绝对精度absolute coordinates绝对坐标absorption吸收abstraction抽取accuracy 精度across-track scanner跨径扫描仪active remote sensing主动遥感Add Data 添加数据address geocoding地址地理编码address locator地址定位器address matching地址匹配Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 高级甚高分辨率辐射仪agreement licensee 协议被许可人air station航摄站alidade照准仪along-track scanner沿径扫描仪alphanumeric grid字母数字网格视差立体图analog image模拟图像analysis mask分析掩模anisotropy各向异性antipode对跖点apogee远地点arc弧architecture架构archive档案argument参数arithmetic expressionaspatial data非空间数据aspect ratio纵横比astrolabe星盘atlas grid地图集网格atmospheric window大气窗口atomic clock原子钟attenuation衰减authentication身份验证author 作者autocorrelation自相关automated cartographyautomation scale自动化比例autovectorization自动矢量化axis轴azimuthal projection 方位投影backscatter后向散射band波段band ratio波段比band-pass filter带通滤波器bandwidth带宽bar scale比例尺(图形比例尺) base layer底层base station基站batch 批量batch geocoding批量地理编码batch processing批处理batch vectorization 批量矢量化bathymetric curve 等深线battleships grid战舰网格Bayesian statistics 贝叶斯统计bearing方位角Bézier curvebilinear interpolation双线性内插法binding绑定binomial distribution二项式分布biogeography生物地理学blind digitizing盲目数字化block group街区群block kriging块段克里金法bookmark 书签boolean 1.布尔数据类型; 2.布尔值Boolean operator布尔运算符boundary边界界线boundary monument界标boundary survey 边界测量bounding rectangle边界矩形Bowditch rule包狄法则break point 断点breakline断裂线browser 浏览器buffer area 缓冲区business logic 业务逻辑CAD 计算机辅助设计(computer-aided design) cadastral survey地籍测量cadastre地籍calibration 校准,定标callout line标注线camera station摄站capacity容量cardinal point方位基点cardinality基数Cartesian coordinate system 笛卡尔坐标系cartogram统计图cartographer制图员cartography制图学cartouche地图饰框catalog tree 目录树catchmentcategorical raster 类目栅格celestial sphere天球cell size栅格大小cells 栅格cellular automaton 元胞自动机census block人口普查区块census geography 人口普查地理学center 中心点centerline中心线centerpoint中点central meridian 中央子午线centroidchart 图表chi-square statistic卡方统计choropleth map面量图chroma色度chronometer天文钟circle圆circular variance圆方差civilian code民用码Clarke Belt克拉克带Clarke ellipsoid 克拉克椭球Clarke spheroid 克拉克椭球面clearinghouse(信息或服务)交换中心clinometric map坡度图code-phase GPS码相位GPScognitive map认知图coincident重叠cokriging协同克里金法command 命令command line 命令行compass north罗经北compass point罗经点compass rose罗经盘compass rule罗盘仪法则compression program 压缩程序computational geometry计算几何学conformal projection等角投影,保角投影,正形投影conformality保形性conic projection圆锥投影conjoint boundary共同边界constant azimuth恒定方位containment包含Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata 数字地理空间元数据的内容标准continuous raster连续栅格contour 等高线,等值线contour drawings 等高线图,等值线图contour interval等高线间距,等值线间距contour line等高线,等值线contour tagging等高线标注,等值线标注contrast ratio对比度contrast stretch对比度扩展convergence angle收敛角conversion转换convex hull凸包coordinate geometry坐标几何学coordinate system??坐标系??coordinated universal time 协调世界时correlation相关corridor analysis走廊分析, 廊道分析county subdivision县级分区covariance协方差coverage1.覆盖面；2.ESRI图层cracking裂化Crandall rule Crandall 法则crop guide裁切参考线crop marks裁切标记cross correlation交叉相关cross covariance交叉协方差cross tabulation 交叉表cross validation交叉验证cross variogram交叉变差函数cubic convolution立方卷积插值法cultural feature人文要素cultural geography文化地理学curb approach路边通道curve fitting曲线拟合customizations 自定义cylindrical projection圆柱投影dangle length悬线长度dangle tolerancedangling arc 悬弧dasymetric mapping分区制图（多用于人口数据）data management 数据管理data table 数据表dataset 数据集datum基准DBMS 数据库管理系统(data-base management system) dead reckoning航位推测法declination 1.偏角;2.磁偏角degree slope坡度Delaunay triangulation德洛内三角delimiter分隔符demography人口统计学densify增密密度计density slicing密度分割deploy 部署或安装（硬件、软件等）depression contour洼地等高线depth contour等深线depth curve深度曲线descending node降交点desire-line analysis期望线分析desktop 桌面desktop clients 桌面客户端Desktop GIS 桌面GIS destination目标determinate flow direction确定性流向deterministic model确定性模型detrending趋势分离developable surface可展表面developer 开发人员development environment开发环境diazo process重氮晒印法difference 差异differential correction差分校正differential Global Positioning System差分全球定位系统diffusion扩散Digital elevation model 数字高程模型Digital Geographic Information Exchange Standard 数字化地理信息交换标准Digital Geographic Information Working Group 数字地理信息工作组digital image processing数字图像处理digital line graph数字线划图digital nautical chart数字海图digital number数值digital orthophoto quadrangle数字正射影像图digital orthophoto quarter quadrangle数字正射影像象限图digital raster graphic数字栅格图digital terrain elevation data??数字地形高程数据??digital terrain model数字地形模型digitizer数字化仪Dijkstra’s algorithm狄捷斯特拉算法dilution of precision精度衰减因子dimension 尺寸，维，维度directed network flow有向网络流direction 方向Dirichlet tessellation荻瑞斯莱特镶嵌，荻瑞斯莱特剖分discovery 发现discrete data离散数据discrete digitizing离散数字化discrete raster离散栅格数据displacement 位移display scale显示比例display unit显示单位dissemination 扩散,传播distance距离distance decay 距离衰减distance unit 距离单位distortion变形district 地区dithering抖动diurnal arc周日弧docking停靠Doppler shift 多普勒位移Doppler-aided GPS多普勒辅助GPSdot density map点密度图dot distribution map点分布图double precision双精度double-coordinate precision 双坐标精度Douglas-Peucker algorithm 道格拉斯-普克算法downstream下游drafting描绘draping叠加，披盖drift漂移drive-time area驾车时间区drop-down list 下拉列表drum scanner鼓式扫描仪Dual Independent Map Encoding 双重独立坐标地图编码dynamic zoom 动态缩放easting东距eccentricity偏心率ecliptic黄道edge边edgematching边缘匹配elastic transformation弹性变形electromagnetic spectrum 电磁光谱electronic atlas电子地图集electronic navigational chart 电子航海图element元素elevation guide高程指南ellipsoid 椭球体ellipticity椭圆率end offset末端偏移endpoint 端点enterprise GIS企业级GISentity objects 实体对象envelope包络矩形environmental model环境模型ephemeris星历表equal competition area平等竞争区equal-area classification等积分类equal-area projection等积投影equal-interval classification 等距分类equatorial plane 赤道面equidistant projection等距投影ESRI Data ESRI 数据event事件exponent指数export导出exposure stationexpression表达式extended 扩展extent范围extrapolation外插法extrude 拉伸extrusion拉伸face平面false easting东移假定值false northing北移假定值feature 要素Federal Geographic Data Committee 美国联邦地理数据委员会field 字段fill 填充圆角filter过滤器，过滤flow direction流向flow map流向图focal analysis 邻域分析focal functions 邻域函数form 地形，形式fractal分形framework 框架frequency频率from-node起点Full Extent完整范围fuzzy boundary模糊边界fuzzy classification模糊分类fuzzy set模糊集合fuzzy tolerance模糊容差Gauss-Krüger projection高斯-克吕格投影generalization概化，（数据库或地图的）综合技术geocentric coordinate system??地心坐标系??geocode地理编码geocoding 地理编码geocomputation地理计算geodata 地理数据geodatabase 地理数据库geodatabase data model地理数据库数据模型geodataset地理数据集geodesic测地线geodetic 测地学geographic coordinate system 地理坐标系geographic information science地理信息学Geographic Information System (GIS) 地理信息系统(GIS) geography地理学geography level地理等级Geography Markup Language地理标记语言geoid大地水准面geoid-ellipsoid separation大地水准面-地球椭球面分离geolocation几何定位geometric coincidence几何重叠geometric correction几何校正geometric dilution of precision 几何精度衰减因子geometric network几何网络geometric transformation几何变换geometry 几何学geomorphology地貌学geoprocessing 地理处理georectification地理校正georeference 地理参考georeferencing地理参考georelational data model地理相关数据模型geospatial data地理空间数据geospatial data clearinghouse 地理空间数据交换中心geospatial technology地理空间技术geospecific model地学相关模型geostationary对地静止geostatistics地理统计学geosynchronous对地同步geotypical model典型地理模型GIS地理信息系统GIScience地理信息学Global Navigation Satellite System 全球卫星导航系统Global Positioning System全球定位系统global spatial data infrastructure全球空间数据基础架构glyph字形gnomonic projection日晷投影Go to XY 转至XYGPS全球定位系统grad梯度(原英文单词可能有误) gradian梯度gradient坡度，斜率graticule经纬网gravimeter重力计gravimetric geodesy大地重力学gravity model引力模型gray scale灰度great circle大圆Greenwich mean time 格林尼治标准时间Greenwich meridian格林尼治子午线grid 网格grid cell网格单元ground 大地,地面GUI GUI (图形用户界面) hachure晕渲线Hamiltonian circuit汉密尔顿回路Hamiltonian path汉密尔顿路径height高度Helmert transformation线性正形变换hemisphere半球heuristic试探算法，试探函数hexadecimal十六进制High Accuracy Reference Network高精度基准网High Precision Geodetic Network高精度大地基准网hillshading 坡面阴影，晕渲histogram equalization直方图均衡化hole孔洞horizontal geodetic datum 水平大地基准human geography人文地理学hydrography水文地理学hydrologic cycle水循环hydrology水文学hyperlink 超链接hypsography测高学，地势图hypsometric curve等高线hypsometric map地势图hypsometry测高法Identify 识别identity link一致性链接illumination照度image coordinate图像坐标image data图像数据image division图像除法运算image scale图像比例尺image space图像空间imager成像仪impedance阻抗import导入IMS IMS (网络地图服务器,Internet Map Server) incident energy入射能量index索引index map索引图infrared scanner红外扫描仪infrastructure基础设施inset map插图instance 实例instantiation实例化integer data整数型数据integration 集成intensity亮度interactive vectorization 交互矢量化interchange format交换格式interferogram干涉图intermediate data中间数据international date line 国际日期变更线international meridian 国际子午线International Organization for Standardization 国际标准化组织interpolation内插法interrupted projection分瓣投影intrinsic stationarity内在稳态inverse distance weighted interpolation反距离加权内插法irregular triangular mesh不规则三角网irregular triangular surface model不规则三角面模型isanomal等地平isarithm等数线isobar等压线isochrone等时线isohyet等雨量线isolines 等值线isometric line等容线isopleth等值线isotherm等温线isotropy无向性iteration 迭代iterative procedure迭代过程jaggies 锯齿Jenks’ optimization詹克斯优化joint operations graphic联合作战地图junction element交点元素kernel内核key identifier 主标识符kinematic positioning动态定位knockout分离区(信号或通讯的中断) known point已知点Kohonen map柯霍南图kriging克里金法label标签labeling 标注lag间隔land cover土地覆盖land information system土地信息系统land use土地利用landform地形landmark地标Landsat陆地卫星landscape ecology景观生态学large scale大比例尺lattice点阵面layers 层layout布局least squares 最小二乘法level水平leveling水平测量library 类库license 许可证license agreement 许可协议licensee 被许可人lidar激光雷达line线line feature线要素line of sight视线line simplification线条简化line smoothing线条平滑linear dimension线性尺寸linear feature线性要素linear interpolation线性内插法linear referencing线性参考(用于交通GIS) linear unit线性单位localization本地化location query位置查询location-allocation位置分配location-based services 基于位置的服务logarithm对数logical network逻辑网络loop traverse闭合导线loxodrome恒向线magnetic bearing磁方位magnetometer磁力计majority resampling 多数重新采样map algebra地图代数map collar地图边缘map display地图显示map document地图文档map element地图元素map extent地图范围map feature 地图要素map generalization 地图概化,地图综合map projection地图投影map query地图查询map readingmap scale地图比例尺map series地图系列map service地图服务map sheet地图map style地图风格map unit地图单位mapping 制图mask掩模mass point散点mathematical operator 数学运算符matrix矩阵mean center平均中心mean sea level平均海平面mean stationarity平均稳态Measure 测量measure valuemeasurement residual测量残差median中间数median center平均中心mental map意境图meridian子午线metadata 元数据metropolitan statistical area 大都市统计区microdensitometer测微密度计micrometer1.测微计;2.微米minimum bounding rectangle 最小边界矩形minimum map unit最小地图单位minor axis短轴misclosure闭合差Mitigation 减轻mobile clients 移动客户端Mobile GIS移动GISmodel模型monument标石morphology形态学mosaic镶嵌图mud pit 泥浆池multichannel receiver多频道接收器multidimensional data多维数据multipart feature多部分要素multipatch feature带纹理要素multiplexing channel receiver多路复用频道接收器multipoint feature多点要素multispectral scanner多光谱扫描仪multivariate analysis多元分析My Places 我的位置National Spatial Data Infrastructure美国国家空间数据基础设施natural breaks classification??自然分类??navigation导航NavstarNavstar (美国国防部全球定位系统联合服务项目)neighborhood statistics邻域统计networked 联网node节点noncoterminous polygon 非相连多边形nonversioned 非版本normal distribution 正态分布normal probability distribution正态概率分布northing北距oblate ellipsoid扁椭球体oblate spheroid扁椭球面offset 偏移oill spill 溢油(原文oill 应为Oil)Online GIS 在线GISOpen Geodata Interoperability Specification开放地理空间数据互操作规范Open Geospatial Consortium开放地理空间协会open traverse不闭合导线OpenGIS ConsortiumOpenGIS 协会OpenLSOpenLS (OpenGIS所包含的Open Location Service) operand运算数operator运算符optical center光学中心ordinal data序数数据ordinary kriging普通克里金法ordinate纵坐标Ordnance Survey英国陆地测量局orientation方向origin point 原点orthogonal offset正交偏移orthographic正交orthomorphic正形orthophoto 正射影像orthophotograph正射影像orthophotoquad无等高线正射影像orthophotoscope正射投影仪orthorectification 正射校正outlier 异常值outline vectorization轮廓矢量化output data 输出数据overlay重叠overprinting套印overview map总览图pan平移panchromatic sharpening 全色锐化parallax bar视差尺parameter参数parametric curve参数曲线passive remote sensing被动遥感passive sensors被动传感器path路径pathfinding路径搜寻peak山峰percent slope斜率perigee近地点persistence持久性photogeology摄影地质学photogrammetry摄影测量学photomap摄影地图photometer光度计physical geography自然地理学pit洼地，山谷placement 放置planar coordinate system 平面坐标系planar enforcement平面强化planarize平面化plane平面planimetric map平面图planimetric shift平面位移platform平台plot 绘图plotter绘图仪plumb line铅垂线。
地理信息系统的发展历程
• • • • • • • • • •
地理信息系统的起源
• • • （一）模拟的“地理信息系统” 国外不少人认为，19世纪以来就得到普遍应用的地图（包括地形图和专题图）和描述地理信息的文献著作的结合 （图形数据库和属性数据库的结合）就是一种模拟的地理信息系统。照此定义，我国地理信息系统的产生更加源远 流长。苏州文庙保存下来的宋代天文图碑、地理图碑、平江图碑等就是有力的证明。 天文图碑是根据宋代天文学家在元丰年间（AD 1078-1085）对天体实际观察的结果绘制而成，分天体、地体、北极、 南极、赤道、日、黄道、月、白道、经星、天汉、十二次、十二分野记载了1440颗星的位置。平江图采用了平面与 立体结合的传统画法，刻绘了苏州府城的地理状况，不仅有城墙、街坊、寺观、桥梁、园林、古迹等，还用“缩写 法”绘制了城外的一些重要山水。地理图碑是宋代的中国地图，刻绘了山脉、长江、黄河、长城及全国各级行政机 构——路、府、州的位置。这些碑刻图表现了不同比例尺、不同区域空间内各种地理要素之间的空间位置，隐含地 表示了这些要素之间的拓扑关系，并以平面和立体结合的绘画方法将空间地理要素进行复合分解为多维显示。因此， 以计算机为平台的现代地理信息系统在一定程度上可以看成是古代这些模拟的“地理信息系统”的继承和延伸。 但是，上述模拟式的、基于地图的地理信息系统很复杂，而且使用起来很不方便。首先，要经过专门的学习和培训， 才能看懂和用好地图，地图的阅读和使用主要依赖于用户的水平。其次，模拟形式的、表示在图面上的空间数据不 便于作多层叠置分析，不便于作精确和快速的量算，不便于经常和及时地更新。此外，图形数据和属性数据不便于 相互作用和共同分析。因此，末级用户，包括非地理、测绘等专业的各级领导和管理人员，以及广大老百姓不可能 充分利用这种模拟式的地理信息系统。 （二）地理信息系统的提出 20世纪50年代，由于电子计算机科学的兴起和发展，使人们有可能用计算机来收集、存贮和处理各种与空间和地理 分布有关的图形和属性数据，并希望通过计算机对数据的分析来直接为管理和决策服务，这就导致了地理信息系统 的问世。 1956年，奥地利测绘部门首先利用电子计算机建立了地籍数据库，随后各国的土地测绘和管理部门开始逐步发展自 己的土地信息系统用于地籍管理。1960年，加拿大测量学家 R. F. Tomlinson 提出了地图数字化管理分析的构想，并 于1962年利用计算机进行森林分类和统计取得了成功，1963年在联邦科学与工业研究组织（CSIRO）一次学术会议上 提交的一篇题为“区域规划中的地理信息系统”论文中正式提出了地理信息系统（Geographic Information System） 这一术语， 1968年在加拿大建成了世界上第一个地理信息系统──加拿大地理信息系统（CGIS），用于自然资源的管 理和规划。
我的专业地理科学英语作文
我的专业地理科学英语作文英文回答：Geography is an interdisciplinary science that combines the study of physical features, human activity, and the environment. It addresses the spatial distribution of natural and human phenomena on Earth's surface and explores the relationships between them. As a broad and complex field, geography encompasses a wide range of sub-disciplines, including physical geography, human geography, environmental geography, and geospatial science.Physical geography focuses on the physical characteristics of the Earth, including its landforms, climate, water resources, and ecosystems. It investigates the processes that shape the Earth's surface and the interactions between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Human geography, on the other hand, examines the spatial patterns of human activities and their relationship with the physical environment. It exploresissues such as population distribution, migration, urbanization, and economic development.Environmental geography investigates the interactions between humans and the natural environment. It examines the impact of human activities on the environment and develops strategies for sustainable resource management. Geospatial science, also known as geographic information science (GIS), employs spatial data and analytical techniques to visualize and analyze geographic information. It is used in various fields, including land use planning, environmental modeling, and disaster management.The study of geography provides a comprehensive understanding of the Earth's systems and the complex interactions between humans and their environment. Itequips students with the analytical and problem-solvingskills necessary to address contemporary global challenges, such as climate change, urbanization, and resource scarcity.中文回答：地理科学是一门综合性学科，它结合了对自然地理、人文和环境的研究。
地理空间信息工程英语
地理空间信息工程英语English:Geographic Information Engineering (GIE) integrates various technologies and methods to acquire, manage, analyze, and visualize spatial data. It encompasses disciplines such as geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), and geospatial analysis. GIE plays a crucial role in diverse fields including urban planning, environmental management, natural resource exploration, disaster management, and transportation. It enables professionals to gather geospatial data from multiple sources, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and ground surveys, and process it to extract valuable insights for decision-making. GIE professionals utilize sophisticated software tools and algorithms to model geographic phenomena, create digital maps, and conduct spatial analysis to address complex spatial problems. With the advancements in technology, GIE continues to evolve, incorporating developments in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics to enhance its capabilities and applications in solving real-world challenges.中文翻译:地理空间信息工程（GIE）集成了各种技术和方法，用于获取、管理、分析和可视化空间数据。
gms建模原理
gms建模原理English:Geographic Information System (GIS) Modeling and Simulation (GMS) involves the process of creating a digital representation of the real-world environment to analyze and predict spatial patterns and processes. The modeling principle of GMS relies on collecting and integrating geospatial data, defining input parameters, and applying mathematical algorithms to simulate and analyze various environmental phenomena. Through GMS, users can create different scenarios, test hypotheses, and make informed decisions about land use, urban planning, environmental management, transportation,and natural resource exploration. GMS also facilitates the visualization of complex spatial relationships and the identification of potential spatial patterns, allowing for better understanding and management of real-world geographic systems.中文翻译:地理信息系统（GIS）建模与仿真（GMS）涉及创建数字化的真实环境表示，以分析和预测空间模式和过程的过程。
geotools常用的方法
geotools常用的方法Geotools is a powerful library for geospatial data manipulation and analysis in Java. It provides a wide range of functionalities that are essential for working with geographic information systems. One of the most commonly used methods in Geotools is the ability to read and write different formats of geospatial data, such as shapefiles, GeoJSON, and WKT.Geotools also provides various spatial analysis tools, such as buffering, clipping, and spatial join operations. These tools are essential for performing complex geospatial analyses and processing spatial data effectively. In addition, Geotools offers support for working with different coordinate reference systems, allowing users to work with spatial data from different sources seamlessly.Another important feature of Geotools is its support for rendering geospatial data on maps. It provides functionalities for styling and labeling spatial data, as well as creating interactive maps with different layers. This makes it an essential tool for developinggeospatial applications and visualizing geographic information effectively.Furthermore, Geotools offers functionalities for performing geometric operations on spatial data, such as calculating distances, areas, and intersects between geometries. These functionalities are essential for performing spatial calculations and analyses in geospatial applications.Moreover, Geotools provides tools for working with raster data, such as reading and writing raster files, as well as performing raster operations, such as resampling and reprojecting. This makes it a versatile library for working with both vector and raster data in geospatial applications.Overall, Geotools is a comprehensive library for geospatial data manipulation and analysis, providing a wide range of functionalities for working with spatial data effectively. Its support for different data formats, spatial analysis tools, rendering capabilities, and geometric operations make it an essential tool for developing geospatial applications and performing spatial analyses.。
《空间统计与分析》课程教学大纲
《空间统计与分析》教学大纲一、课程基本信息1.课程代码：211227002.课程中文名称：空间统计与分析课程英文名称：Spatial Statistics and Analysis3.面向对象：地理信息科学，软件工程，信息工程及遥感科学与技术专业4.开课学院(课部)、系(中心、室)：信息工程学院空间信息工程系5.总学时数：40讲课学时数：28,实验学时数：126.学分数：2.57.授课语种：中文，考试语种：中文8.教材：二、课程内容简介本课程介绍了空间数据、空间统计和空间分析的概念、基础理论、方法和技术，并结合具体的应用案例，使学生了解空间数据的基本类型、特性和应用潜力，掌握相关空间统计分析方法，并能应用这些方法解决地理、环境、经济、生态等相关领域的空间问题，锻炼学生基本的分析问题与解决问题的科研能力。
三、课程的地位、作用和教学目标尽管空间分析和空间统计已经存在了半个多世纪，但是GIS一一不管其中的S是代表系统(system)还是代表"科学(science)" 的历史却相对较短。
GIS近些年的开展与成熟与空间分析和空间统计的进步密切相关。
空间统计分析，即空间数据的统计分析，是现代计量地理学中的一个快速开展的方向和领域，其核心是认识与地理位置相关的数据间的空间依赖、空间关联或空间自相关，通过空间位置建立数据间的统计关系。
《空间统计与分析》是地理信息科学专业本科生必修的一门专业主干课程，面向地理信息科学专业的大三学生，该课程从基础理论、方法与技术、应用实践三个层次来对空间统计与分析技术进行讲解，由浅入深地引导学生学习、回顾和总结低年级时所学的基本概率统计知识，并逐渐过渡到空间统计与地学分析方法的学习和实践中来。
其目的是帮助学生掌握空间数据的定量统计分析方法，学会对空间数据进行表示、描述、测度，学习如何利用统计知识来挖掘空间模式，进行空间相关性、空间自相关等规律的探索，增强学生的基本科研能力，学会能够针对具体案例，综合利用多种统计方法和软件来解决具体空间问题。
提高应急管理能力英语作文
提高应急管理能力英语作文Enhancing Emergency Management Capabilities: A Comprehensive Approach.In an era characterized by escalating natural disasters and complex man-made emergencies, bolstering emergency management capabilities has emerged as a critical imperative. The ability to effectively respond to, mitigate, and recover from catastrophic events is paramount to safeguarding lives, protecting property, and maintaining societal stability.Prevention and Preparedness: A Foundation for Resilience.At the forefront of emergency management liesprevention and preparedness. By identifying and addressing potential hazards, communities can significantly reduce the likelihood and severity of emergencies. This involves comprehensive risk assessments, proactive infrastructureinvestments, and public education campaigns.For instance, implementing building codes that adhereto seismic standards in earthquake-prone areas reduces the risk of structural collapse during seismic activity. Similarly, establishing early warning systems for floods or wildfires enables residents to evacuate to safety in advance.Furthermore, preparedness plans outline specificactions and responsibilities for all stakeholders involvedin emergency response. These plans should includedesignated evacuation routes, communication protocols, and procedures for coordinating resources effectively.Response and Recovery: Minimizing Impact and Expediting Rebuilding.When an emergency strikes, rapid and coordinated response is vital to minimize damage and mitigate suffering. This entails activating emergency response teams,mobilizing resources, and establishing a command structure.Effective response requires seamless collaboration among multiple agencies, including law enforcement, fire departments, emergency medical services, and government agencies. Communication systems must be resilient and redundant to ensure uninterrupted information flow during emergencies.Moreover, timely and accurate public information is crucial for guiding citizens' actions and maintaining public trust. Official sources should provide regular updates on the situation, evacuation orders, and available resources.Post-emergency recovery focuses on restoring essential services, rebuilding damaged infrastructure, and addressing the long-term needs of affected communities. This involves coordinating financial assistance, providing shelter, and facilitating access to healthcare and counseling services.Technological Advancements: Empowering Emergency Management.Technological advancements play a pivotal role in enhancing emergency management capabilities. Communication devices such as satellite phones and mobile apps enablereal-time information sharing and coordination among responders.Geographic information systems (GIS) provide geospatial data and visualization tools that facilitate situational awareness and decision-making. Remote sensing technologies, such as drones, can assess damage, monitor evacuation routes, and provide aerial footage for planning and resource allocation.Training and Education: Building a Competent Workforce.A highly trained and well-educated workforce is essential for effective emergency management. This includes training for responders in all aspects of emergency operations, from search and rescue to medical assistance.Specialized training programs should focus ondeveloping technical skills, decision-making abilities, and leadership qualities.Public education campaigns are equally important, targeting individuals, families, and community organizations. These campaigns aim to raise awareness about potential hazards, promote preparedness measures, and provide guidance on what to do during emergencies.Collaboration and Partnerships: Leveraging Collective Expertise.Effective emergency management hinges on strong collaboration among all stakeholders. This includes partnerships with government agencies, emergency response organizations, community groups, and businesses.Interagency agreements, joint training exercises, and shared resources foster coordination and efficient response during emergencies.Community engagement is paramount, involving citizensin preparedness efforts and empowering them to actively contribute to their own safety and resilience.Continuous Improvement and Evaluation: Ensuring Excellence.Emergency management is a constantly evolving field, necessitating ongoing evaluation and improvement. Regular drills and exercises test preparedness plans and identify areas for refinement.Post-incident reviews assess the effectiveness of response and recovery efforts, highlighting lessons learned and informing future improvements.Performance metrics, such as response times, evacuation rates, and recovery progress, provide objective measures of progress and areas for enhancement.Conclusion: A Holistic Approach to Safer Communities.Enhancing emergency management capabilities requires acomprehensive approach that encompasses prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and continuous improvement. By leveraging technological advancements, fostering collaboration, and investing in training and education, communities can build a more resilientfoundation against the inevitable challenges that lie ahead.Effective emergency management not only safeguardslives and property but also promotes public trust, fosters community cohesion, and contributes to the long-term prosperity of our society. By investing in these capabilities, we create a more secure and resilient future for generations to come.。
土地的信息英语精读主旨 -回复
土地的信息英语精读主旨-回复1. Introduction to land information [土地信息简介]- Briefly explain the importance and significance of land information.- Highlight how land information aids in various sectors such as urban planning, real estate development, agriculture, and environmental conservation.2. Types of land information [土地信息的类型]- Provide an overview of the different types of land information, such as cadastral data, land use classification, land valuation, land ownership, and land tenure.- Explain how cadastral data helps in delineating boundaries and maintaining property records.- Discuss the role of land use classification in urban planning and zoning regulations.- Highlight the importance of land valuation for property transactions and tax assessments.- Explain how land ownership data allows individuals andorganizations to establish legal rights over land.- Discuss land tenure information, its role in recognizing land rights, and preventing land disputes.3. Sources and acquisition of land information [土地信息的来源和获取方法]- Discuss the various sources of land information, including government records, surveys, satellite imagery, and geospatial data.- Explain the process of acquiring land information from different sources, highlighting any challenges and limitations.- Highlight the role of technology in modernizing land information systems, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing.4. Uses and applications of land information [土地信息的用途和应用]- Discuss how land information facilitates urban planning by identifying suitable locations for infrastructure development, housing, and public facilities.- Explain the role of land information in real estate development, helping investors make informed decisions and facilitating property transactions.- Discuss the use of land information in agriculture, including land suitability assessment, precision farming, and agricultural land management.- Highlight the importance of land information in environmental conservation, such as identifying protected areas, monitoring land-use changes, and assessing land degradation.5. Challenges and future prospects of land information management [土地信息管理的挑战和未来前景]- Discuss the challenges in managing land information, including data quality, accessibility, and integration.- Highlight the importance of standardized data formats and interoperability for effective land information management.- Discuss the potential benefits of emerging technologies such as blockchain and artificial intelligence in enhancing land information systems.- Highlight the need for capacity-building and knowledge sharingto improve land information management practices.6. Conclusion [总结]- Summarize the importance of land information in various sectors.- Emphasize the need for efficient land information management to support sustainable development.- Highlight the potential of technology in improving land information systems and addressing the challenges in land information management.。
基于Linux_系统的地理信息数字水印系统设计与实现
第 22卷第 11期2023年 11月Vol.22 No.11Nov.2023软件导刊Software Guide基于Linux系统的地理信息数字水印系统设计与实现邹秀珍1，胡宇宸2，朱长青2（1.南京吉印信息科技有限公司，江苏南京 210013；2.南京师范大学虚拟地理环境教育部重点实验室，江苏南京 210097）摘要：地理信息作为国家基础建设的关键数据，对其进行版权保护的重要性不言而喻。
然而，现有地理信息数字水印系统均基于Windows系统进行开发，无法实现软件的自主可控及满足在Linux操作系统上实现地理信息版权保护的需求。
因此，基于开源的地理空间数据抽象库（GDAL），采用Java语言、Swing框架开发了适用于Linux系统的地理信息数字水印系统，并从系统设计、关键技术、系统实现等方面介绍系统及其实现细节。
该系统由水印嵌入、水印检测、日志管理、权限管理4个部分组成，针对不同的地理信息数据格式分别设计了数字水印算法，在实现过程中解决了读写ESRI FileGeodataBase（FileGDB）数据的问题。
实验表明，该系统的不可感知性强、算法鲁棒性较高，可抵抗常见的攻击，弥补了当前地理信息版权保护软件在Linux系统中的空白，真正实现了GIS软件的自主可控，为推动GIS软件国产化作出了积极贡献。
关键词：版权保护；地理信息；数字水印；软件设计；Linux操作系统DOI：10.11907/rjdk.231737开放科学（资源服务）标识码（OSID）：中图分类号：TP316.81 文献标识码：A文章编号：1672-7800（2023）011-0009-09Design and Implementation of Digital Watermarking System for GeographicInformation Based on Linux SystemZOU Xiuzhen1， HU Yuchen2， ZHU Changqing2（1.Nanjing Geomarking Information Technology Co.，Ltd， Nanjing 210013， China；2.Key Laboratory of Virtual Geographic Environment of Ministry of Education， Nanjing Normal University， Nanjing 210097， China）Abstract：As the key data of national infrastructure， the importance of copyright protection of geographic information is self-evident. Howev‑er， the existing digital watermarking systems for geographic information are all developed based on Windows operating system， which cannot realize the independent control of the software and meet the demand of copyright protection of geographic information on Linux operating sys‑tem. Therefore， based on the open-source Geospatial Data Abstraction Library （GDAL）， this paper develops a geographic information digital watermarking system for Linux operating system by using Java language and Swing framework， and introduces the system and its implementa‑tion details from the aspects of system design， key technologies， system implementation， etc. . The system consists of four parts： watermark embedding， watermark detection， log management， and permission management， and it designs digital watermarking algorithms for different geographic information data formats and solves the problem of reading and writing data in ESRI FileGeodataBase （FileGDB） in the process of implementation. The experimental results show that the system is imperceptible and the algorithm is robust against common attacks. The imple‑mentation of this system makes up for the blank of the current geographic information copyright protection software in Linux system， truly real‑izes the autonomy and control of GIS software， and makes a positive contribution to promoting the localization of GIS software.Key Words：copyright protection； geographic information； digital watermarking； software design； Linux operating systems收稿日期：2023-07-10基金项目：国家自然科学基金项目（42071362）；国家重点研发计划项目（2022YFC3803600）作者简介：邹秀珍（1988-），男，硕士，南京吉印信息科技有限公司工程师，研究方向为地理空间数据安全；胡宇宸（1999-），男，南京师范大学虚拟地理环境教育部重点实验室硕士研究生，研究方向为地理空间数据安全；朱长青（1962-），男，博士，南京师范大学虚拟地理环境教育部重点实验室教授、博士生导师，研究方向为空间数据安全、空间数据不确定性等。
地理学科英文
地理学科英文The study of geography is an incredibly diverse and multifaceted field that encompasses a wide range of topicsand disciplines. It explores the physical features of the Earth, such as mountains, rivers, and deserts, as well as the human activities that shape and are shaped by the environment. With its focus on spatial relationships and patterns, geography provides a unique perspective on the world around us.One of the fundamental aspects of geography is physical geography, which examines the natural processes and phenomena that occur on the Earth's surface. This includes the study of landforms, climates, ecosystems, and the impact of natural disasters. Physical geographers also investigate the ways in which human activities, such as urbanization and agriculture, interact with the natural environment.Human geography, on the other hand, looks at the ways in which human societies and cultures are distributed and organized across the Earth's surface. This includes the study of population, migration, urbanization, and the relationships between people and their environment. Human geographers also examine topics such as globalization, development, and the impact of technology on society.Geography also plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing contemporary global challenges, such as climate change, natural resource management, and sustainable development. By studying the interactions between physical and human systems, geographers can provide valuable insights into the complex relationships that shape our world.In addition to its academic significance, geography is also a practical and applied discipline. Geospatial technologies, such as geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing, are widely used in fields ranging fromurban planning and environmental management to business and marketing. These tools allow geographers to analyze and visualize spatial data, making it possible to address real-world problems and make informed decisions.Overall, the study of geography offers a holistic and integrated understanding of the Earth and its inhabitants. By examining the relationships between people and their environment, geographers contribute to our knowledge of the world and our ability to address the challenges we face. Whether through research, education, or practical applications, geography continues to be a vital and relevant field in the modern world.。
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Appendix AReferencesA-1. Required ReferencesBureau of the Budget 1947Bureau of the Budget. 1947 (17 June). "United States National Map Accuracy Standards," US Bureau of the Budget.Public Law 92-582Brooks Architect-Engineer Act (10 US Code 541-544)FM 3-34.331Topographic SurveyingNOTE: The following Corps of Engineers publications can be downloaded from a link at:.ER 405-1-12Real Estate HandbookER 1110-1-8156Policies, Guidance, and Requirements for Geospatial Data and SystemsER 1110-2-1150Engineering and Design for Civil Works ProjectsEM 1110-1-1000Photogrammetric MappingEM 1110-1-1002Survey Markers and MonumentationEM 1110-1-1003NAVSTAR Global Positioning System SurveyingEM 1110-2-1009Structural Deformation SurveyingEM 1110-1-2909Geospatial Data and SystemsEM 1110-2-1003Hydrographic SurveyingEP 715-1-7Architect-Engineer ContractingNOTE: The following CADD/GIS Technology Center publications can be downloaded at: https://ERDC/ITL 1999a"Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) and Geographic Information System (GIS)-- Concepts and Terminology, 1999," The CADD/GIS Technology Center, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, Information Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180ERDC/ITL 1999b"CADD/GIS Technology Center Guidelines for Installation Mapping and Geospatial Data," 1999, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, Information Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180ERDC/ITL 2001"A/E/C CADD Standard (TR-01-6)," September 2001, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, TheCADD/GIS Technology Center, Information Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180ERDC/ITL 2002aSpatial Data Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, & Environment (SDSFIE) and Facility Management Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, & Environment (FMSFIE)--History of Development and Benefits,", June 2002, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, Information Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180ERDC/ITL 2002bSpatial Data Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, & Environment (SDSFIE) and Facility Management Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, & Environment (FMSFIE)--Data Model and Structure,", June 2002, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, The CADD/GIS Technology Center, Information Technology Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180NOTE: The following FGDC publications can be downloaded at: FGDC 1998a"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 1: Reporting Methodology," Federal Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.1-1998FGDC 1998b"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 2: Standards for Geodetic Networks," Federal Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.2-1998FGDC 1998c"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy," Federal Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-007.3-1998FGDC 1998d"Content Standard for Digital Geospatial Metadata (Version 2.0)," Federal Geographic Data Committee, FGDC-STD-001-1998FGDC 2002"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, PART 4: Standards for Architecture, Engineering, Construction (A/E/C) and Facility Management," Federal Geographic Data Committee,FGDC-STD-007.4-2002NOTE: The following FGCS publications can be downloaded at: /FGCS FGCS 1984Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee 1984"Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks," Rockville, MD.FGCS 1988Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee 1988"Geometric Geodetic Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Using GPS Relative Positioning Techniques (Preliminary)", Rockville, MD. (Reprinted with Corrections: 1 Aug 1989).NOTE: The following NOAA/NGS publications can be downloaded at: NGS 1988National Geodetic Survey 1988“Guidelines for Submitting GPS Relative Positioning Data to the National Geodetic Survey”NOAA 1994"Input Formats and Specifications of the National Geodetic Survey Data Base," NOAA, National Geodetic Survey, September 1994.NOAA 1997NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, Zilkoski, D.B., D'Onofrio, J. D., and Frankes, S. J. (Nov 1997) "Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm)," Version 4.1.3. Silver Spring, Maryland.TEC 2003CVTPC ASCII Import MicroStation V8 Utility User’s Manual, Version 4.5, US Army Topographic Engineering Center, March 2003 US Bureau of Land Management 1973“Manual of Instruction for the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States”USFS/BLM 2001"Standards and Guidelines for Cadastral Surveys using Global Positioning System Methods," Version 1.0, 9 May 2001, USDA (Forest Service) and USDI (Bureau of Land Management)A-2. Recommended Surveying Manuals and TextbooksAnderson and Mikhail 1998Anderson, James M. and Mikhail, Edward M., “Surveying: Theory and Practice,” 7th Ed., McGraw Hill. Brinker and Minnick 1995Brinker, R.C., and Minnick, R., "The Surveying Handbook," 2nd Ed., New York, NY. Chapman & Hall. CALTRANS Surveys Manual 2001-2004"Surveys Manual", (14 chapters, various updates 2001-2004), California Department of Transportation, Division of Right of Way and Land Surveys, Office of Land Surveys. (Download entire manual at /hq/esc/geometronics)Chen and Mikhail 1995Chen, W.F., “The Civil Engineering Handbook: Section VII--Surveying Engineering,” (Mikhail, E.M.), Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.Kavanagh 1997Kavanagh, Barry, F. “Surveying With Construction Applications,” 3rd Ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall.Wolf and Brinker 1994Wolf, Paul R., and Brinker, Russell C., “Elementary Surveying,” 9th Ed., New York, NY. Harper Collins.Wolf and Ghilani 2002Wolf, Paul R., and Ghilani, Charles D., “Elementary Surveying--An Introduction to Geomatics,” 10th Ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall.A-3. Other Government and Industry Publications Cited in ManualALTA 1999“Minimum Standard Detail Requirements for ALTA/ACSM Land Title Surveys,” as adopted by the American Land Title Association and American Congress on Surveying and Mapping and National Society of Professional Surveyors, 1999 /alta.htmlASPRS 1989American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 1989. "ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps," Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, pp 1068 and 1070./asprs/resources/standards.htmlFAC 2003Florida Administrative Code, Chapter 61G17, “Board of Professional Surveyors and Mappers,” August 18, 2003. Jacobs 2004“Understanding the Useful Accuracy of Laser Scanners”, Geoff Jacobs, Professional Surveyor Magazine, November 2004. MNDOT 2000“Surveying and Mapping Manual,” Minnesota Department of Transportation, July 2000./manual/SM/SM_Manual.pdfOregon DOT 2000"Basic Surveying--Theory and Practice," 2000, Oregon Department of Transportation, Geometronics Unit, Salem, OR/ODOT/HWY/GEOMETRONICS/ManualsAndDocuments.shtmlPOB 2004a“2004 Total Station Survey,” March 2004, Point of Beginning magazine, BNP Media, Troy, MI.POB 2004b“Data Collector Software Survey,” November 2004, Point of Beginning magazine, BNP Media, Troy, MI. POB 2004c“POB 2004 CAD/Surveying Software Survey,” December 2004, Point of Beginning magazine, BNP Media, Troy, MI. TDS 1999"TDS-48GX--Surveying Card Tutorial Manual for use with the HP-48GX," 1991-1999, © Tripod Data Systems, Inc. Corvallis, OR. TDS 2004a"ForeSight DXM User’s Manual," 2004, © Tripod Data Systems, Inc. Corvallis, OR.TDS 2004b"ForeSight DXM Reference Manual", 2004, © Tripod Data Systems, Inc. Corvallis, OR.Trimble 2001“Trimble Survey Controller Reference Manual,” Version 7.7, Revision A, Trimble Navigation Limited, Sunnyvale, CA. VADOT 2004“Survey Manual 2004,” Virginia Department of Transportation, Location and Design Division, 2004. /locdes/GEOPAK/downloads/Survey1.zipA-4. Superseded or Obsolete DA ReferencesTM 5-232Elements of Surveying (1971--Superseded by FM 3-34.331)TM 5-235Special SurveysTM 5-237Surveying Computers Manual (1964--Superseded by FM 3-34.331)TM 5-241-2Universal Transverse Mercator Grid--Zone to Zone Transformation Tables (1957)TM 5-441Geodetic and Topographic Surveying (1970)TM 5-880-2Planning for Emergency Construction: Surveys, Maps, and Construction Plans (1951) NOTE: Archived copies of the above publications can be obtained from DOD library sources.。