Chapter One An Introduction to Pragmatics
新编英语词汇学教程 第二版 Chapter 1 Introduction
Interesting vocabulary phenomenon
Are they words? • disrespectfulness • prowesternizationalisticity • antidisestablishmentarianism If they are, can you guess the meanings of them?
Why do languages differ so much?
1.1 The Tower of Babel
According to the Bible, the whole earth once had one language and few words, but the ambitious humans attempted to build themselves a tower, later known as Babel, in order to extend its top through to the heaven. When the Lord got to know this, He said angrily, “Come, let us go down, and confuse their language, that they may not understand one another’s speech.” (Genesis, Chapter 11) That is why it is called Babel. The Lord there made a babble of languages of the entire world and from that place the Lord scattered men all over the face of the earth.
PragmaticPresupposition英文版
The results of this study will help deepen our understanding of language, promote the development of linguistics and philosophy, and also provide new ideas and methods for interdisciplinary research.
Research background: With the continuous development of linguistics and philosophy, scholars have begun to pay attention to the phenomenon of presupposition in language use and attempt to conduct in-depth research from different perspectives.
Overview of Pragmatic Presumption Theory
CATALOGUE
02
Pragmatic presupposition, also known as pragmatic presupposition, is a linguistic phenomenon that refers to the implicit and non explicitly stated information conveyed by the speaker to the listener through specific contexts and language usage in verbal communication.
《英语语言学导论》(第四版)课件Chapter 7 Pragmatics
world; 3) the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of
Contents
1 Introduction to Pragmatics 2 Deixis and Reference
3 Speech Acts 4 Pragmatic Presupposition
5 The Cooperative Principle and Implicature
6
Apply PP to teaching in future Politeness
7.2.6 Social deixis
the encoding of social distinctions, or the use of deictic expressions to indicate social status of the interlocutors
● honorifics e.g. tu/vous (in French) du/sie (in German) nǐ/nín (in Chinese)
--- the addressees being audio-visually present during the utterances to be able to understand these expressions
e.g. I like that one, not this one.
7.2 Deixis and reference
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One IntroductionWith the development of the global cross-cultural communication, the introduction of film and television works which serve as a type of culture carrier promotes the exchange and collision between two different cultures. In recent years, increasing number of foreign films and television works were introduced into China and people can get access to them through many different ways like theaters, television or just internet which is more convenient. However, because of the language barrier and cultural differences, only with the help of Chinese captions can a great majority of the audience could understand the meaning，even the spirit in it better, and experience an audio-visual feast while getting their inner heart deeply touched. Subtitle is not only recreation of the original language, but also it is a kind of aesthetic activity. With the growing call for the return of aesthetics in the realm of translation recently, there is increasing need to study subtitle translation from the perspective of aesthetics.In China, aesthetics is of special significance to Chinese translation, in which the combination of aesthetics and translation is one of its greatest characteristics. Some scholars believe that aesthetics is the base of Chinese traditional translation. Although western translation theory builds on philosophy, it also has a long history in terms of aesthetics. So it is reasonable to integrate aesthetics and translation together. Beauty is everywhere even in the language itself and it is one of the basic properties of language as well. Preference for beauty is a common nature of human, which is a universal phenomenon. Take the following as examples, in China when people refer to the old, they use probably “双鬓斑白” instead of “满脸皱纹”. Again, “oval” is adopted to describe a girl’s face rather than using the image of the duck egg. Also because of the beautiful rhythm of language, “mathematics, physics, chemistry” is preferred than any other group of combination o f the three subjects. This potential principle applies to English as well. In English, it is not the“work at another job at night” but the “moonlight” suggests that someone takes a second job during night. In addition, there is no exception for translation. Collecting the most classical part of novel, drama, music, arts, dance and photography in it, movie is a kind of comprehensive art. Therefore, how to reappear the beauty of subtitle to audience becomes the focus of filmtranslation.Chapter Two Translation Aesthetics2. 1 Definition of Translation AestheticsAccording to the “A Dictionary of Translation Studies” edited by Fang Mengzhi, translation Aesthetics reveals the aesthetical origin of translation, studies the special significance of aesthetics on translation, discovers the scientific and artistic feature of translation from the aesthetic perspective and put forwards aesthetic standards towards different type of translation texts, in order to analysis, interpret and solve the aesthetic problems in intercultural conversion by using basic aesthetic principles.With full understanding of the basic properties of translation aesthetic subject (the original work) and the aesthetic object (translator), we can analysis the made up of aesthetic object and the dynamic effect of the aesthetic subject, clarify the relationship between aesthetic subject and aesthetic object and provide the reproduction of aesthetic with means and different forms; therefore, it all can be used to instruct translation practice.2.2 The Development of Translation AestheticsIn China, translation has a rather long history dating back to about 1800 years ago in terms of the translation of Buddhist texts. Taking a look at this, it is not difficult to find that almost all the translation theories is inseparable with aesthetics, and this is also the general trend of history and cultural pattern in future. From the theory “Exquisite Diction” by Zhi Qian, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” by Yan Fu, “Spiritual Conformity” by Fu Lei, the “Theory Sublimation” promoted by Qian Zhongshu to the “Three Beauties” by Xu Yuanchong and so on, each provides strong support to the natural birth of translation aesthetics in history. Having absorbed the essence of beauty, all of these theories suggest obvious aesthetic features —emphasis on faithfulness, parataxis and beauty of connotation, which glitters just like gold.In modern period, translation theories mainly focus on the translation standards, translation processes and translation methods before 1970s. While after that, increasing researchers use descriptive methods to study translation theory and therefore has developed a deep understanding towards it. Translation aesthetics enter the systematical researching period in this background. “Practical Translation Aesthetics” by Fu Zhong in 1993 is the first translation aesthetic monograph in our country. It talks about the main categories of translation aesthetic, namely aesthetic subject, aesthetic object, aesthetic activity, standards of translation aesthetics and the method of reappearance of beauty. “Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation”published in 2000 by Xi Yongji is one of representative works studying comparative literary translation. While “Aesthetics Process during Liter ary Translation: the Reconstruction of Gestalt Image”authorized by Jiang Qiuxia in 2002 primarily focuses on the aesthetic process. In 2005 Mao Ronggui published “Translation Aesthetics”which is made up of four parts and expands the research scope of translation theory and practice. However, the most important work in the field may be “An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics” by Liu Miqing. It has fully reflected the author’s thought about Chinese translation aesthetics and posed a rather important position in the connection between western aesthetics and basic Chinese translation theory.Globally, the developing trend of translating field and the “Cultural Turn” have created suitable environment for the birth of translation aesthetics. It is widely acknowledged that aesthetics belong to culture and translation is a kind of communication, so translation is a way to transfer beauty in essence. Therefore, we got to know that the outcome of translation aesthetics can not be resisted.2.3 Achievements of Translation AestheticsThe book Aesthetic Progression inLiterary Translation: Image- G Actualization, written by Jiang Qiuxia in herdoctorial paper in 2002, holds that there is no way to unveil the “black box” existing in human psychology. So it uses descriptive method to explore the psychological mechanism of the reconstruction of gestalt image in literary translation. Besides, it emphasizes how the reader (the translator) can make use of gestalt psychology to recreate the whole image of the original works and present the target readers with the equivalence between original works and target works. This is, from the Angle of aesthetics, development of Nida's functional equivalence theory (2000). Since there is no complete equivalence translation, “functional equivalence” may be the best choice, generally speaking. In general it is best to speak of “functional equivalence” in terms of a range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different translations can in fact represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “equivalence” cannot be understood in its mathematical meaning of identity, but only in terms of proximity, i.e. on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity. (Nida , 2000 :117)This type of aesthetic has taken advantage of Gestalt psychology. (Lakoff, 1982:20)defined Gestalt in such a way —take the thing as an independent gestalt from the perspective of wholeness on that level. While at a lower level in order to give confirmation, specific details needs to be picked out. Gestalt recreation is the basic principle of translation aesthetics —interdisciplinary subject, which benefits from translation studies, literary studies, aesthetic and cognitive psychology. Gestalt image is a new conception out of the old idea of “image” as literary metaphor or symbol mainly concerned in poetry. When explored in this context as a holistic whole, it is taken as a relatively independent contextual entity rather than a single word or words constitution.) ( 姜秋霞,2002 : 241) Broadly speaking, translation studies，a discipline in the development period, is in constant growth and expansion. “An Introduction of Translation Aesthetics (revision, Peter, 2005)”reprinted by China Translation and Publishing Corporation greatly enriched and developed the theory of translation aesthetics.2.4 Prospect of Translation AestheticsFrom the perspective of prose translation, Wang Hongtao (2006:2006-4) categorizes Western and Chinese Comparative Aesthetic into three levels: Western and Chinese Comparative Translation Aesthetics; prose translation under the Chinese and western Comparative Aesthetics; the meaning of application of Chinese and Western Comparative Aesthetics in prose translation. As can be seen, translation aesthetic has marched no matter in terms of aesthetic subject, aesthetic reception or gestalt aesthetics. This is of great benefit to future translation aesthetic development. However, we should not only strongly opposite the overuse of aesthetics in translating field but also fight against the pseudo translation aesthetics. What we pursuit are the unity of formal beauty, implicational beauty and receiving beauty, and the unity of universal law and special performance of translation aesthetics. Meanwhile, we can not promise translation is filled with aesthetics, but translation can also not be totally separated from aesthetics. There are not only inheritance, experience from others but also merit and recreation in itself. So it is necessary to find out whether “Tr anslation Aesthetics”, created by Chinese scholars, has fully absorbed the widely acknowledged theories — Aesthetics of Reception and Gestalt. This is a blessing as well as a new issue for China’s translation studies.Chapter Three Subtitle Translation3.1 Definition of Subtitle TranslationUp to now, there is not an authorized definition about translating subtitles. Following are some definitions:(1)Subtitling can be defined as the process of providing synchronizedcaptions for film and television dialogue (and more recently for live opera)(2)Subtitling, sometimes referred to as captions, are transcriptions of film orTV dialogue, presented simultaneously on the screen.(3) A subtitle is a printed statement or fragment of dialogue appearing on thescreen between the scenes of a silent motion picture or appearing as a translation at the bottom of the screen during the scenes of a motion picture or television show in a foreign language.(4)··· the words printed or super imposed on a film in a foreign language totranslate what is being said on the sound track ···Although all these definitions explained subtitle in some degree, it is far from enough. The first definition points out that subtitle translation is used as a process to provide synchronization instruction for film and television dialogue. The second definition is similar to the first one, but the category where the subtitle suits is too narrow in those two definitions for the following two reasons: first of all, it is limited to film and television. In fact, if possible, subtitle is applied to any kind of multimedia. Secondly, apart from film and television, subtitle can also be used to give illustration to even the non-dialogue texts. The third definition refers to the caption that is displayed in the silent film or at the bottom of television screen. It serves as interpretation to another language or just illustrative fragments and this definition has fully explained the concept of subtitles. Definition four indicates translating the language being played in the sound track into another and printing it on the film. However, translating subtitle does not refer to the language that is being said at themoment.From the above, we also get to know that subtitle is a kind of text but with a different presenting mode like the common one. And it is this special presenting form that makes subtitle limited in many aspects.3.2 Characteristics of Subtitle TranslationSubtitle provides the audience with a large mount of information about the multimedia works. Following are four of its characteristics:3.2.1 ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness refers that subtitles must appear together with other factors of the film and television programs like sound and picture image at the same time instead of showing alone. The audience are willing to hear the actors as well as the music, background sounds and seeing the picture changes. The audience enjoy the film and television by watching the motion picture, listening to the dialogue and reading the subtitles and so on. So without pictures and sounds, the film and television can not convey the information fully; without captions, the effect of sounds and pictures can not achieve the best level. Generally speaking, in all of the factors mentioned above, pictures and sounds are the most important, while subtitles serve only as an auxiliary factor. Therefore, comprehensiveness offer subtitle some convenience namely subtitles can be omitted where the information can fully express through sounds and pictures. Thus translator should take full advantage of this characteristic and omit as much subtitles as possible.3.2.2 InstantaneityInstantaneity indicates that the subtitle, which is unrepeatable, appear and disappear simultaneously with the corresponding pictures and sounds. Although subtitle exists in the form of language, it is still different from the desk literature, such as poetry, prose and fiction for desk literature all appear in independent text form. Readers can appreciate desk literature over and over again at any time and any place as long as he wants. By contrast, subtitle can not be appreciated repeatedly withoutlimitation because of its instantaneous characteristic. While watching the plots the audience has to give up if he did not catch up with the subtitles because there is only one chance. Instantaneity decides that the audience cannot spend more time to understand the content of the captions; otherwise, it will affect the understanding of follow-up plots.3.2.3 PopularityPopularity means that the film and television subtitle translation must use a popular language or has the characteristic of popular language. Following are three main reasons: In the first place, film and television works aiming at the masses belong to the public. Majority of the audience are common people despite that some are well-educated and have higher artistic accomplishment. Therefore, we should use the most popular language to translate the original language to convey information, considering about the acceptance ability and appreciative level of majority part of the audience. The reason lies in that most audiences will be impeded while understanding too much elegant and abstract language. Secondly, with the characteristic of instantaneity, translation subtitle appears only once at the bottom of the screen. So only by using the popular and colloquial translation texts can the audience grasp the general meaning. Thirdly, the principle of “acceptance first” aims at helping the audience to understand the plot better. If too much euphemistic and expressive language is adopted as subtitle, the audience can not follow the plots closely while spending a long time trying to understanding the language.3.2.4 ConcisenessConciseness means that the language of film and television subtitle is concise and refined. There are two causes contributing to this characteristic.Firstly, the translation of film and television subtitle is limited by time and space, so the translator has to finish tasks in the limitation while keeping the picture and subtitle appear simultaneously. This determines subtitles can not use over-complicated language. The second reason is about the instantaneous acceptance of the audience, which indicates the simpler and easier the language the better while providing themore rich contents to the audience.Chapter Four Application of Translation Aesthetics in SubtitleTranslation4.1 Aesthetic Principles and Aesthetic strategy4.1.1 Aesthetic PrinciplesFirstly, the translation version shall accord the characters’ emotion and personality. So it is rather important for the translator to devote his own aesthetic emotion to the four stages of the whole work —“watching, understanding, analyzing and translating”. Only by understanding and appreciating the original work, integrating the emotions and characteristics of different roles into the translation, thinking from the perspective of different roles, speaking for them can the translator produce vivid, individualized characters, corresponding translational texts with the original dialogues as well as creating an immersive feeling for the audience.Secondly, the translation shall measure up the original work’s style. Film and television work is mainly made up of four different types, namely national style (a stable artistic character which reflects the national life in a particular area), period style (reflecting the life style of different time period), directing style (owing subjective or objective factors, different director prefer different theme, language and acting ways) and aesthetic style (such as drama, documentary, romantic style). So in the translating process (more accurately, that is adding, omitting and changing the original dialogue), the translator should abandon their preferring style, overcoming as many limiting factors as possible to get close to the original style.The third one is alienation, an important method to get to know about an exotic culture. How to help the audience to understand more about foreign history and costumes is a vital task. In order to incarnate the cultural diversity, translators can adopt alienation. For example, in American TV play, Rose said proudly: “I got 1450 on my SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test, which is a kind of academic test in America when students graduating from high school)”. When SATs is translated into “毕业会考”, it will be much easier for people to understand. Also some words, like NBA and FBI have already been popular between Chinese, so there is no need to translate.Next is about domestication. In the practice of translation, the existence of cultural differences between the two languages led to the production of translation variation and sometimes the semantic meaning changed or even lost. Adoption of domestication decreased the exoticism. More importantly, it can avoid ambiguity in order to present the audience with a more natural and easier way to understand the translation version. Liberal translation, substitution and even rewriting all these methods can help to translators to comprehend the original language better. For instance, in the movie “A Beautiful Mind”, the sentence “Shall we say swords, gentlemen? Pistols at dawn?” can be translated into “我们该谈谈剑了，绅士们。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One: Introduction1. Linguistics and English linguistics1) As the name suggests, linguistics is the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history, culture, and so on.2) According to John Lyons（约翰·莱昂斯），linguistics is divided into types: general linguistics（普通语言学）and descriptive linguistics (描述语言学).A. Differences:i. General linguistics deals with language in general, or the whole human language. Descriptive linguistics studies particular languages.ii. General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish models that describe the rules of particular languages like Chinese, German, English, etc.B. Relationship:They explicitly or implic itly depend on each other.i. On the one hand, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described.ii. On the other hand, the descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguists. Thus, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other.3) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics. It deals with a particular language --- English, for the purpose of constructing a model to represent the unconscious linguistic knowledge possessed by a fluent English speaker.Actually the study of any particular language is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2. The nature of language(s)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.1) Language is a system.i. Every language consists of a set of rules, including phonological rules, morphological rules, syntactic rules, semantic rules, grammatical rules, and so on. These rules underlie people's actual speech or writing.ii. In de Saussure's（索绪尔）term, the system of language is called langue（语言体系）and the speaker's speech is called parole (言语).iii. According to Chomsky（乔姆斯基）, competence（语言知识）is "the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language"，while performance（言语行为）is "the actual use of language in concrete situations".iv. Langue or competence is abstract and not directly observed, while parole or performance is concrete and directly observable. It has to take in a definite time and place, and in a particular situation.2) Language is symbolic.i. What is a symbol? How many parts does a symbol consist of?A symbol is essentially made up of two parts: a concrete object or form, and the meaning or the idea that it conveys.ii. There are a few words which cannot be classified as symbols such as the, a, an, etc.3) Language is a system of vocal symbols.i. Two types: visual symbols, auditory symbolsii. Not all sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols. For example, sneezes, coughs and so on usually do not have symbolic value.iii. Language is primarily speech, and not the written form. Three reasons: A. Biolog ically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write. B. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life. C. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the world today which have not been written down.4) Language is arbitrary.i. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.ii. By saying language is arbitrary, we mean that we cannot give a reason why a certain linguistic form should represent a certain meaning and why a certain meaning should be represented by a certain form.iii. It does not imply that any individual speaker has the freedom to determine the pronunciation of a word.5) Language is creative.i. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.ii. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.6) Language is double-structured.Two levels: grammatically --- meaningful and sound --- meaningless7) Language is changeable.Language has changes in three systems: sound system, lexical system and grammatical system.3. Scientific method3.0 Definition: Generally speaking, a scientific method is the procedure adopted by scientists in conducting their investigation and establishing their conclusion.3.1 Scientific method in generalFour stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions3.2 Scientific method in linguisticsFour stages: gather data, construct a tentative rule, examine the tentative rule, finalize the ruleAn important principle --- objectivity3.2.1 ObjectivityThree common linguistic biasesA. Some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.B. Only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.C. Change is not natural for living languages and such a change is a sign of corruption and decay.3.2.2 Sources of dataA. Collecting data is the initial work for any linguistic description.B. If the linguist describes a language that he does not know himself, he may find a suitable native speaker of that language as his informant（（为语言学调查）提供资料的本地人），who is usually a bilingual.3.2.3 Rules constructionA. The essential task of linguistic description is to construct rules which may account for a native speaker's implicit knowledge about the language.B. How does a linguist construct a rule?Step 1: the linguist starts with collecting data.Step 2: based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple rule as a tentative version.Step 3: then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.Step 4: he keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected.Attention: very likely, the data gathered are not complete. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.4. The goal of linguistics4.0 Definition: the goal of linguistics is to establish a model of a native speaker's competence.4.1 Modeli. There are two kinds of models:A. a physical or literal model --- it can be used to investigate the function and construction of the real object.B. a conceptual or theoretical model --- it can be used to examine something unobservable such as the nature of economy.Which type does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? --- The latter.ii. Two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness（明确性）and generativeness（生成性）A. By saying a model is explicit, we mean that the rules of the language the model contains are clearly defined.B. By saying a model is generative, we mean that we can use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number of sentences.4.2 CompetenceA native speaker has four types of linguistic knowledge: phonological knowledge（音位知识）, morphological knowledge（词法知识）, syntactic knowledge（句法知识）and semantic knowledge（语义知识）i. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.ii. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about how a word is formed.iii. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.iv. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker's intuition about the meaning of language.5. Sub-branches of linguistics1) Phonetics（语音学）is the study of speech sounds of all human languages. It deals with questions like how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, how English sounds are classified and described.2) Phonology （音系学）is the science that deals with the sound system of a language.3) Morphology（词法、形态学）deals with word formation and the internal structure of words.4) Syntax（句法）is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.5) Semantics（语义学）is the study of the meaning of words and sentences6. Saussure: The Father of Modern Linguistics1) When did modern linguistics start? --- At the beginning of the 20th century.2) What are the most influential schools of modern linguistics? --- Structural linguistics（结构语言学）and Transformational-generative Grammar (TG Grammar)（转换生成语法）3) Who is commonly acknowledged as the father of modern linguistics? --- Ferdinand de Saussure4) Why is he regarded as the founder of modern linguistics?Answer:1。
Chapter One Introduction
1.2 The nature of translation
Discussion
Definitions of translation
Definitions given by Chinese scholars
翻译是将一种文字之真义全部移至另一种文字而绝不失其风格 的神韵。（吴献书，1949） 翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整 地重新表达出来的语言活动。（张培基，1980） 翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。（刘宓庆，1990） 翻译的定义应该是：“将一种语言传达的信息用另一种语言传 达出来。”（蔡毅，1995） 翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出 来的文化活动。（王克非，1997） 翻译是语际之间的信息传递和语族之间的文化交流。（萧立明， 2001）
Come, let us go down, and confuse their language there, so that they will not understand one another’s speech.” So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. Therefore it was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth; and from there the Lord scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.
Different views on translation
Chapter One An Introduction to PragmaticsPPT教学课件
2020/12/09
5
Chapter One Introduction to pragmatics
1.1 The origin and development of pragmatics
1.2 Definitions of pragmatics 1.3 Focus of pragmatics 1.4 Criticisms of pragmatics
He ignores the use of language and the communicative function of language.
2020/12/09
11
In 1950, he discovered Syntax. Like the structuralists, he focused his study on language form, still regarded meaning as too messy for serious contemplation.
2020/12/09
7
The term “pragmatics” is attributed to the philosopher Charles Morris (1938) who was concerned to outline the general shape of a science of signs or semiotics as Morris
one part of semiotics, studying the origin of signs, the usage and the function of signs in behaviour.
The development of pragmatics owes much to the heated dispute over Chomsky’s view of language.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Topography
• China is a country of varied topographical features with highlands in the west and plains in the east. Mountainous land and very rough terrains make up about 67% of Chinese territory, basins and plains 33%.
Hale Waihona Puke • It was during the Xia Dynasty that the institution of slavery began. There are many legends describing the life of the people in this period, especially of the three sage kings after Emperor Huang and Emperor Yan---Yao, Shun and Yu. Yao made great contributions to the lunar calender. His successor, Shun, was physically and intellectually gifted and was a man with great virtues.
the May 4th Movement in 1919 and the birth of New China under the people’s democratic dictatorship led by the working class on the basis of the worker-peasant alliance.
Chapter one Introduction
(4)language
is the institution whereby human communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oralauditory arbitrary symbols. Hall, 1968 (5)from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences (finite and infinite), each finite in length and constructed out of a set of elements.---Chomsky, 1957
introduction Three questions related to linguistics
What?
Why? How?
What
is linguistics? morpheme division: linguist (economist, scientist, biologist, zoologist)) -ics(physics, economics, statistics, stylistics): it is a discipline in which some people are involved in the study of languages, and it takes all the language in the world into consideration.
Further
examples of morpheme analysis Such as universe
Linguistics is a branch of science
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining ofhuman language that distinguish it from anypoperties of humananimal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性文化传递Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
Summary of Chapter One 1
Chapter One: The Beginning Period of English LiteratureⅠThe Old English Period1. Historical BackgroundEngland has a long history of civilization. But historians are still uncertain about who first came to the island. The ancient Greeks first mentioned Britain and described it as a remote and legendary place. From the recorded history we know that the land was occupied by the Celts before the Romans invaded it.The native Celtic Britons suffered repetitive invasions by foreign forces. From 55 B.C. to 407 A.D., the British Isles was under the rule of the Roman Empire and the Celts were subjugated to the rule of Rome for nearly 400 years. It was during the Roman occupation that London was founded. The Romans, however, did not gain full control of Britain, and they made little influence on the cultural life of the Celts. By the 4th century, the Roman Empire was weakening. In 410, the Romans abandoned the island.England was soon invaded by three Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. We often refer to them as the Anglo-Saxons for convenience. This is the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period in British history (449-1100). By 550, the Anglo-Saxons were firmly established. The English language became the dominant language in England. No matter how uncomfortable the native Celts felt about the invasions, these foreign elements played vital roles in the creation of English history and literature.They became the new masters of the British Isles and were the ancestors of the present English people.It was around 500 A.D. the founder of the kingdom of Wessex, that the Celtic King Arthur, a legendary figure, is said to have acquired his fame.The Anglo-Saxons admired greatly the wisdom and courage of their war leaders. In Anglo-Saxon society, the king was essentially a warrior, whose duty was mainly to lead his tribe to fight against any possible foreign or hostile tribes. The Anglo-Saxons, who were largely pagans or heathens when they came to the island, gradually accepted Christianity. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity changed their intellectual outlook. Christianity offered them some values that were more consistent and solid than their pagan beliefs. It also enabled them to learn book knowledge in monasteries or schools from the Scriptures and the classical writings of Virgil and the ancient Greeks. They traveled long distances to Rome on pilgrimages, and these experiences enriched their understanding of the world, broadened and deepened their mental and spiritual powers.2. Beowulf: an English EpicOf the earliest heroic poetry, the most important poem now preserved is Beowulf. It probably existed in oral from as early as the 6th century as historical events related in the poem indicated. It was probably written down in the 8th century though the manuscript of the poem preserved today dates back to the 10th century and was written in the Wessex dialect. The poem contained altogether 3,193 lines and the story in it is based on partly historical and partly legendary materials, brought over by theAnglo-Saxons from their original homes.Though traces of Christian values can be clearly seen in Beowulf, it is pervaded with paganism. In the noble figure of Beowulf, pagan heroism and fatalism are mingled with Christian qualities.Like Homer’s poetry, Beowulf sings of the exciting adventures of a great legendary hero whose physical strength demonstrates his high spiritual qualities, i.e., his resolution to serve his country and kinsfolk, his true courage, courteous conduct, and his love of honor. In the poem Beowulf is strong, courageous, and selfless, ready to risk his life in order to rid his people of evil monsters.Beowulf is more than a fairy story of heroes fighting against monsters. The poem unfolds a picture of an early Danish society, of its public life, its customs, rituals and cultural activities. It recaptures the values, beliefs and longings of the Anglo-Saxon people before they came to England. Beowulf is not simply a courageous warrior. He is a wise ruler, and a brave fighter.Beowulf is a pagan poem concerned with the heroic ideal of kings and kingship in North Europe. Battle is a way of life at that time. Strength and courage are basic virtues for both kings and his warriors. The king should protect his people and show gentleness and generosity to his warriors. And in return, his warriors should show absolute obedience and loyalty to the king. By praising Beowulf’s wisdom, strength and courage, and by glorifying his death for his people, the poem presents the heroic ideal of a king and his good relations to his warriors and people. Present-day readers are often charmed by its depiction of a remote world, a world of legend, fantasies and primitive beauty.Like many other Anglo-Saxon poems, Beowulf was written in long lines. The lines do not rhyme but alliteration was extensively used. The most striking feature is its use of “word pictures”.。
chapter1 intro
23
3.4 Displacement
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.
The dog barks “汪汪汪” in Chinese. 汪汪汪” 嗙bang
20
Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after he came in.
16
“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” communication.” Vocal: Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. Symbolic: Symbolic: words are associated with objects, actions and ideas by conventions. Human: Human: language is human-specific. human17
Chapter1Introduction练习题
Chapter1Introduction练习题Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION考研真题与典型题详解1.1 What is linguistics?I.Fill in the blanks.1.Linguistics is usually defined as the _______ study of language. (北二外2003研)2.The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called _______.3.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called________.4.The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called________.(北二外2003、2004、2008研)5.In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of rules governing the way words are combined toform sentences in a language, or simply , the study of the formation as sentence.(中山2008)6.Semantics and ________ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研)7.________ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand,attempts to show the relationship between language and society.8.Modern linguistics is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what languageis rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.9.The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.10.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ________ over writing.11.One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the Frenchword for “language”, which is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, reading and writing. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by people in speech and writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.12.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena ordata of linguistics (utterances) as _______ and ________.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.(人大2006研) 13.Chomsky initiated the distinction between ________ and performances. (北二外2007研) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?_________.(大连外2008研)A. MacrolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. Sociolinguistics2.The study of language at one point in time is a ________ study. (北二外2010研)A. historicalB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. diachronicIII.True or false.1.Applied linguistics is the application of the linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.2.Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us howto speak correct language.3.Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study.4.By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language./doc/479964943.html,ngue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints./doc/479964943.html,petence and performance refer respectively to a language us er’s underlying knowledgeabout the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.IV.Explain the following terms.1.Descriptive linguistics2. Diachronic linguistics3. CompetenceV.Short answer questions.1.Point out three major differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar.VI.Essay questions1.Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward theconcept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon he differences and similarities, if any, of two pairs: langue andparole vs. competence and performance. (北京交大2007研)1.2 What is language?I.Fill in the blanks.1.The features that define our human languages can be called ________features.(北二外2006) II.Multiple choices.1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design features?(大连外2008研)A. ArbitrarinessB. ConventionC. Duality2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?(西安交大2008研)A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang3.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrierscaused by time and space, due to this feature of language, speakers are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness4.“A person can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of _______.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement5.The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performativeIII.True or false./doc/479964943.html,nguage is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used bythe deaf-mute is not language.2.The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATRES. (大外2008)3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of languagemakes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign learner, the latter is more important for us.4.Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.(清华2000研)5.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language hastwo levels of structures: the system of sounds and the systems of meanings.IV.Explain the following terms.1. Arbitrariness(川大2006研)2.Duality(北二外、南开2010研)3. Displacement(清华、南开2010) V.Short answer questions.1.What makes language unique to human beings? (北航2010研)VI.Essay questions1.Displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission and duality are sometimeslisted as the 5 core features of human language. Choose 3 out of 5 and explain with examples what they mean. (北外2002研)。
语用学Pragmatics An Introduction
1
Chapter 1:Defining Pragmatics
Preliminaries Pragmatics: definition and delimitation What use is pragmatics?
2
Preliminaries
15
Dynamic communication perspective: Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance. (Yule, 1996:3) Pragmatics is the study of the ability of language users to pair sentences with the contexts in which they would be appropriate. (Levinson, 1983:24)
11
The complementarity by Leech
Semanticism (pragmatics inside semantics) Pragmaticism (semantics inside pragmatics) Complementarism (complementary but independent)
12
Definitions
Speaker’s perspective: Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning. (George Yule, 1996:3) Pragmatics is the study of how people use language for successful communication. (Kempson, 1977:84)
Chapter One-1-2012
Why to study Linguistics?
Second, linguists‟ modes of thought are generalizable and can inform other studies. Particularly, learning linguistics can help improve your logical and dialectical thinking. How can we approach an object scientifically? Principles (the three canons of science): (i) exhaustiveness; (ii) consistency; (iii) economy. Methodology：Prescriptive or descriptive Levels of study: Observation，description，explanation
What to Learn
Introduction: language and function Introduction: linguistics and its branches Introduction: linguistic concepts Phonetics Phonology Morphemes Word formation Syntax: word classes and structural approaches
Chapter One Invitations to Linguistics
Lectured by Liu Donglou February 14/15, 2011
Overview of Todanguistics? What to study? How to study it? What is language? What are the design features of it?
德国功能主义翻译理论视角下法律术语翻译
Second, I also show my sincere thanks to the respectable Professors at the School of Foreign Languages. They are Professor Song Lei, Professor Xiong Demi, Professor Zhao Liang, Professor Xiao Yunshu, Professor Ni Qingquan, Professor Zhang Jianbo, Professor Huang Chunfang, Professor Zheng Daxuan,and Professor Wu Shuqiong who arouse my interest for forensics and render my postgraduate study a memorable experience.
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter Chapter Chapter theory Chapter
Five Adaptation theory Six Speech acts Seven Face and politeness Eight Conversation analysis
Chapter Nine Deixis Chapter Ten Systemic Functional grammar Chapter Eleven Critical discourse analysis Chapter Twelve Pragmatic transfer in intercultural communication
An Introduction to Pragmatics
Fundamental theories and research practice
Main Contents
Chapter One Introduction to plment Chapter Three Presupposition Chapter Four Co-operative principle and conversational implicature
Chapter Thirteen Appraisal Theory Chapter Fourteen Classroom research on interlanguage pragmatics Chapter Fifteen Data collection in pragmatics research
1.1 The origin and development of pragmatics
Although pragmatics is a relatively new branch of linguistics, research on it can be dated back to ancient Greece and Rome where the term pragmaticus’ is found in late Latin and pragmaticos’ in Greek, both meaning being practical’, it was discussed in the research area of Oratory.
Then in Signs, Language and Behavior (1946), he remarks that pragmatics is one part of semiotics, studying the origin of signs, the usage and the function of signs in behaviour. The development of pragmatics owes much to the heated dispute over Chomsky’s view of language.
Chapter One Introduction to pragmatics
1.1 The origin and development of pragmatics 1.2 Definitions of pragmatics 1.3 Focus of pragmatics 1.4 Criticisms of pragmatics
The term “pragmatics” is attributed to the philosopher Charles Morris (1938) who was concerned to outline the general shape of a science of signs or semiotics as Morris preferred in Foundations of the Theory of Signs by Charles Morris Morris distinguished three distinct branches of inquiry: Semiotics can be divided into syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics.
Syntactics (syntax)---the study of the formal relation of signs to one another Semantics---the study of the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable Pragmatics---the study of the relation of signs to interpreters
In 1950, he discovered Syntax. Like the structuralists, he focused his study on language form, still regarded meaning as too messy for serious contemplation. Many linguists are against Chomsky’s practice of ignoring the social and contextual factors in language use.
Chomsky believes that people are born to have the LAD. language is the internal representation, grammar is the description of the language mechanism in human mind. He ignores the use of language and the communicative function of language.