The Epic of GILGAMESH
吉尔伽美什主要内容和意义
吉尔伽美什主要内容和意义
《吉尔伽美什》的意义：
《吉尔伽美什史诗》（又称基尔麦什史诗）（The Epic of Gilgamesh）是目前已知世界最古老的英雄史诗。
早在四千多年前就已在苏美尔人（Sumerian）中流传，经过千百年的加工提炼，终于在古巴比伦王国时期（公元前19世纪-前16世纪）用文字形式流传下来。
这是一部关于统治着古代美索不达米亚（Mesopotamia）地区苏美尔（Sumer）王朝的都市国家乌鲁克（Uruk）英雄吉尔伽美什（Gilgamesh）的赞歌，虽然这是一部残缺了近1/3的作品，但从余下的2000多行诗中我们还是能够感受到苏美尔人对他们伟大英雄的崇拜赞美之情。
史诗所述的历史时期据信在公元前2700年至公元前2500年之间，比已知最早的写成文字的文学作作品早200到400年。
《吉尔伽美什》的意义：
（一）是人类已知的第一部表达探索自然与生命奥秘这个永恒愿望的形象化文献。
1.吉尔伽美什为寻访人类始祖探求死与永生之谜的长途跋涉与英雄历险的故事、方舟救渡与人类再造的故事、生命之草得而复失的故事、幽冥地府的故事，象征着人与自然环境、自然法则的协调，又象征着人对生命奥秘的不断探索、理解，以及人认识自身、发现自我的社会化进程。
2.吉尔伽美什从恩启都这个对象化的“我”中认识了自身。
由于意识到自身存在的限度，进而去思考在这个必然限度中怎样争取自由，恩启都的死亡推进了吉尔伽美什自我意识的觉醒。
（二）代表着城邦文化的吉尔伽美什与代表着游牧文化的恩启都的决斗以及和解，象征着苏美尔人的城邦文化与阿卡德人、巴比伦人的游牧文化之间的冲突以及融合，表现了两河流域城邦国家文明与原始蒙昧游牧文明两种文化之间的冲突与融合。
The Epic of Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh was an historical king of Uruk in Babylonia, on the River Euphrates in modern Iraq; he lived about 2700 B.C. Although historians (and your textbook) tend to emphasize Hammurabi and his code of law, the civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates area, among the first civilizations, focus rather on Gilgamesh and the legends accruing around him to explain, as it were, themselves. Many stories and myths were written about Gilgamesh, some of which were written down about 2000 B.C. in the Sumerian language on clay tablets which still survive; the Sumerian language, as far as we know, bears no relation to any other human language we know about. These Sumerian Gilgamesh stories were integrated into a longer poem, versions of which survive not only in Akkadian (the Semitic language, related to Hebrew, spoken by the Babylonians) but also on tablets written in Hurrian and Hittite (an Indo-European language, a family of languages which includes Greek and English, spoken in Asia Minor). All the above languages were written in the script known as cuneiform, which means "wedge-shaped." The fullest surviving version, from which the summary here is taken, is derived from twelve stone tablets, in the Akkadian language, found in the ruins of the library of Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria 669-633 B.C., at Nineveh. The library was destroyed by the Persians in 612 B.C., and all the tablets are damaged. The tablets actually name an author, which is extremely rare in the ancient world, for this particular version of the story: Shin-eqi-unninni. You are being introduced here to the oldest known human author we can name by name!This summary is derived from several sources: translations,commentaries, and academic scholarship on the Shin-eqi-unninnitablets. Verses are derived from several English and Frenchtranslations in consultation with the English and German languagecommentaries and with the Babylonian text. For the entire text,you should turn to The Epic of Gilgamesh , trans. by MaureenGallery Kovacs (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), orGilgamesh , translated by John Maier and John Gardner (NewYork: Vintage, 1981)As you read this short summary, ask yourself the followingquestions:1. Themes. The first things you want to sort out are the ideaswhich seem to animate the work. One of the problems withliterature, art, mythology, etc., is that you can never be quite surethat you've correctly identified the central ideas or philosophy ofthe work, but you should take a stab at it anyway. Keep in mindthat there is no such thing as one and only one idea in a work ofliterature, and that in most art and literature, like life, there is noone correct answer concerning any single issue. To identify anidea, question, or theme that the work seems to treat, look forspecific places where that idea seems to be a concern; mark thesepassages and combine and contrast them when you begin to try toresolve what the work seems to be about. The questions I providein these reading notes are meant to organize the families ofquestions you can bring to these texts.2. Structure. Try to define for yourself the overall structure of the story. This narrative has two distinct parts; what are these parts and how are they separated? How do events in the second part of the narrative repeat or develop ideas in the first part of the narrative? Do these events contrast with or develop themes and values articulated in the first part of the narrative?3. The Nature of the Heroic. When you read the myth, notice how Gilgamesh is presented as superhuman, so powerful that the gods create a counterpart to moderate his desires and actions. Do you get the sense that Gilgamesh and Enkidu should have spared the demon of the cedar forest? Despite all of Gilgamesh's power, he is unable to prevent Enkidu's death, and the narrative changes direction. How can one describe Gilgamesh as a hero in the last half of the work? What has he achieved at the end of the poem? Why is this important?4. The Gods. The gods in Gilgamesh are a bit problematic. How do the gods behave? What is their relation to humans? How much freedom do humans have, or are they merely subject to the will of these gods?6. The Flood. The story of the Flood is a familiar one, as we shall see in Genesis and Popol Vuh (Plato also gives an account of the Flood and the city of Atlantis in the dialogue, Critias ; the Nez Perce of the Palouse also have a flood story in which the only humans that survived did so by climbing the mountain, Yamustus, that is, Steptoe Butte). The earliest surviving reference to the Flood goes back to 1900 B.C. Why is it brought in here? Why do the gods bring on the Flood? Is any reason given? (Later compare the reasons for the floods in Genesis and Popol Vuh.) What does it tell us about the nature of history and the relation of the gods to humanity?Tablet 1The one who saw all [Sha nagba imuru ]I will declare to theworld,The one who knew all I will tell about[line missing]He saw the great Mystery, he knew the Hidden:He recovered the knowledge of all the times before the Flood.He journeyed beyond the distant, he journeyed beyond exhaustion, And then carved his story on stone. [naru : stone tablets ]This great hero who had all knowledge [nemequ ], Gilgamesh, built the great city of Uruk; the tablet invites us to look around and view the greatness of this city, its high walls, its masonwork, and here at the base of its gates, as the foundation of the city walls, a stone of lapis lazuli on which is carved Gilgamesh's account of his exploits, the story you are about to hear.The account begins: Gilgamesh, two-thirds god and one-third human, is the greatest king on earth and the strongest super-human that ever existed; however, he is young and oppresses his people harshly. The people call out to the sky-god Anu, the chief god of the city, to help them. In response, Anu creates a wild man, Enkidu, out in the harsh and wild forests surrounding Gilgamesh's lands. This brute, Enkidu, has the strength of dozens of wild animals; he is to serve as the subhuman rival to the superhuman Gilgamesh.A trapper's son, while checking on traps in the forest, discovers Enkidu running naked with the wild animals; he rushes to his father with the news. The father advises him to go into the city and take one of the temple harlots, Shamhat, with him to the forest; 1 when she sees Enkidu, she is to offer herself sexually to the wild man. If he submits to her, the trapper says, he will lose his strength and his wildness.Shamhat meets Enkidu at the watering-hole where all the wild animals gather; she offers herself to him and he submits, instantly losing his strength and wildness, but he gains understanding and knowledge. He laments for his lost state, but the harlot offers to take him into the city where all the joys of civilization shine in their resplendence; she offers to show him Gilgamesh, the only man worthy of Enkidu's friendship.Gilgamesh meanwhile has two dreams; in the first a meteorite falls to earth which is so great that Gilgamesh can neither lift it nor turn it. The people gather and celebrate around the meteorite, and Gilgamesh embraces it as he would a wife, but his mother, the goddess Rimat-Ninsun, forces him to compete with the meteorite. In the second, Gilgamesh dreams that an axe appears at his door,so great that he can neither lift it nor turn it. The people gather and celebrate around the axe, and Gilgamesh embraces it as he would a wife, but his mother, again, forces him to compete with the axe. Gilgamesh asks his mother what these dreams might mean; she tells him a man of great force and strength will come into Uruk. Gilgamesh will embrace this man as he would a wife, and this man will help Gilgamesh perform great deeds.Tablet 2Enkidu is gradually introduced to civilization by living for a time with a group of shepherds, who teach him how to tend flocks, how to eat, how to speak properly, and how to wear clothes. Enkidu then enters the city of Uruk during a great celebration. Gilgamesh, as the king, claims the right to have sexual intercourse first with every new bride on the day of her wedding; as Enkidu enters the city, Gilgamesh is about to claim that right. Infuriated at this abuse, Enkidu stands in front of the door of the marital chamber and blocks Gilgamesh's way. They fight furiously until Gilgamesh wins the upper hand; Enkidu concedes Gilgamesh's superiority and the two embrace and become devoted friends.Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh gradually weaken and grow lazy living in the city, so Gilgamesh proposes a great adventure: they are to journey to the great Cedar Forest in southern Iran and cut down all the cedar trees. To do this, they will need to kill the Guardian of the Cedar Forest, the great demon, Humbaba the Terrible. Enkidu knows about Humbaba from his days running wild in the forest; he tries in vain to convince Gilgamesh not to undertake this folly.Tablet 3[Most of tablet three doesn't exist]The elders of the city protest Gilgamesh's endeavor, but agree reluctantly. They place the life of the king in the hands of Enkidu, whom they insist shall take the forward position in the battle with Humbaba. Gilgamesh's mother laments her son's fate in a prayer to the sun-god, Shamash, asking that god why he put a restless heart in the breast of her son. Shamash promises her that he will watch out for Gilgamesh's life. Ramat-Ninsun, too, commands Enkidu to guard the life of the king and to take the forward position in the battle with Humbaba. In panic, Enkidu again tries to convince Gilgamesh not to undertake this journey, but Gilgamesh isconfident of success.Tablet 4Tablet four tells the story of the journey to the cedar forest. On each day of the six day journey, Gilgamesh prays to Shamash; in response to these prayers, Shamash sends Gilgamesh oracular dreams during the night. These dreams are all ominous: The first is not preserved. In the second, Gilgamesh dreams that he wrestles a great bull that splits the ground with his breath. Enkidu interprets the dream for Gilgamesh; the dream means that Shamash, the bull, will protect Gilgamesh. In the third, Gilgamesh dreams:The skies roared with thunder and the earth heaved,Then came darkness and a stillness like death.Lightening smashed the ground and fires blazed out;Death flooded from the skies.When the heat died and the fires went out,The plains had turned to ash.Enkidu's interpretation is missing here, but like the other dreams, it is assumed he puts a positive spin on the dream. The fourth dream is missing, but Enkidu again tells Gilgamesh that the dream portends success in the upcoming battle. The fifth dream is also missing.At the entrance to the Cedar Forest, Gilgamesh begins to quake with fear; he prays to Shamash, reminding him that he had promised Ninsun that he would be safe. Shamash calls down from heaven, ordering him to enter the forest because Humbaba is not wearing all his armor. The demon Humbaba wears seven coats of armor, but now he is only wearing one so he is particularly vulnerable. Enkidu loses his courage and turns back; Gilgamesh falls on him and they have a great fight. Hearing the crash of their fighting, Humbaba comes stalking out of the Cedar Forest to challenge the intruders. A large part of the tablet is missing here. On the one part of the tablet still remaining, Gilgamesh convinces Enkidu that they should stand together against the demon. Tablet 5Gilgamesh and Enkidu enter the gloriously beautiful Cedar Forest and begin to cut down the trees. Hearing the sound, Humbaba comes roaring up to them and warns them off. Enkidu shouts at Humbaba that the two of them are much stronger than the demon, but Humbaba, who knows Gilgamesh is a king, taunts the king for taking orders from a nobody like Enkidu. Turning his face into a hideous mask, Humbaba begins to threaten the pair, andGilgamesh runs and hides. Enkidu shouts at Gilgamesh, inspiring him with courage, and Gilgamesh appears from hiding and the two begin their epic battle with Humbaba. Shamash intrudes on the battle, helping the pair, and Humbaba is defeated. On his knees, with Gilgamesh's sword at his throat, Humbaba begs for his life and offers Gilgamesh all the trees in the forest and his eternal servitude. While Gilgamesh is thinking this over, Enkidu intervenes, telling Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba before any of the gods arrive and stop him from doing so. Should he kill Humbaba, he will achieve widespread fame for all the times to come. Gilgamesh, with a great sweep of his sword, removes Humbaba's head. But before he dies, Humbaba screams out a curse on Enkidu: "Of you two, may Enkidu not live the longer, may Enkidu not find any peace in this world!"Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut down the cedar forest and in particular the tallest of the cedar trees to make a great cedar gate for the city of Uruk. They build a raft out of the cedar and float down the Euphrates river to their city.Tablet 6After these events, Gilgamesh, his fame widespread and his frame resplendent in his wealthy clothes, attracts the sexual attention of the goddess Ishtar, who comes to Gilgamesh and offers to become his lover. Gilgamesh refuses with insults, listing all the mortal lovers that Ishtar has had and recounting the dire fates they all met with at her hands. Deeply insulted, Ishtar returns to heaven and begs her father, the sky-god Anu, to let her have the Bull of Heaven to wreak vengeance on Gilgamesh and his city: Father, let me have the Bull of HeavenTo kill Gilgamesh and his city.For if you do not grant me the Bull of Heaven,I will pull down the Gates of Hell itself,Crush the doorposts and flatten the door,And I will let the dead leaveAnd let the dead roam the earthAnd they shall eat the living.The dead will overwhelm all the living!Anu reluctantly gives in, and the Bull of Heaven is sent down into Uruk. Each time the bull breathes, its breath is so powerful that enormous abysses are opened up in the earth and hundreds of people fall through to their deaths. Working together again, Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay the mighty bull. Ishtar is enraged, but Enkidu begins to insult her, saying that she is next, that he and Gilgamesh will kill her next, and he rips one of the thighs off thebull and hurls it into her face.Tablet 7Enkidu falls ill after having a set of ominous dreams; he finds out from the priests that he has been singled out for vengeance by the gods. The Chief Gods have met and have decided that someone should be punished for the killing of Humbaba and the killing of the Bull of Heaven, so of the two heroes, they decide Enkidu should pay the penalty. Enraged at the injustice of the decision, Enkidu curses the great Cedar Gate built from the wood of the Cedar Forest, and he curses the temple harlot, Shamhat, and the trapper, for introducing him to civilization. Shamhash reminds him that, even though his life has been short, he has enjoyed the fruits of civilization and known great happiness. Enkidu then blesses the harlot and the trapper. In a dream, a great demon comes to take Enkidu and drags him to Hell, a House of Dust where all the dead end up; as he is dying, he describes Hell:The house where the dead dwell in total darkness,Where they drink dirt and eat stone,Where they wear feathers like birds,Where no light ever invades their everlasting darkness,Where the door and the lock of Hell is coated with thick dust. When I entered the House of Dust,On every side the crowns of kings were heaped,On every side the voices of the kings who wore those crowns, Who now only served food to the gods Anu and Enlil,Candy, meat, and water poured from skins.I saw sitting in this House of Dust a priest and a servant,I also saw a priest of purification and a priest of ecstasy,I saw all the priests of the great gods.There sat Etana and Sumukan,There sat Ereshkigal, the queen of Hell,Beletseri, the scribe of Hell, sitting before her.Beletseri held a tablet and read it to Ereshkigal.She slowly raised her head when she noticed meShe pointed at me:"Who has sent this man?"Enkidu commends himself to Gilgamesh, and after suffering terribly for twelve days, he finally dies.Tablet 8Gilgamesh is torn apart by the death of his friend, and utters a long lament, ordering all of creation to never fall silent in mourning his dead friend. Most of this tablet is missing, but thesecond half seems to be a description of the monument he builds for Enkidu.Tablet 9Gilgamesh allows his life to fall apart; he does not bathe, does not shave, does not take care of himself, not so much out of grief for his friend, but because he now realizes that he too must die and the thought sends him into a panic. He decides that he can't live unless granted eternal life; he decides to undertake the most perilous journey of all: the journey to Utnapishtim and his wife, the only mortals on whom the gods had granted eternal life. Utnapishtim is the Far-Away, living at the mouth of all rivers, at the ends of the world. Utnapishtim was the great king of the world before the Flood and, with his wife, was the only mortal preserved by the gods during the Flood. After an ominous dream, Gilgamesh sets out. He arrives at Mount Mashu, which guards the rising and the setting of the sun, and encounters two large scorpions who guard the way past Mount Mashu. They try to convince him that his journey is futile and fraught with danger, but still they allow him to pass. Past Mount Mashu is the land of Night, where no light ever appears. Gilgamesh journeys eleven leagues before the light begins to glimmer, after twelve leagues he has emerged into day. He enters into a brilliant garden of gems, where every tree bears precious stones.Tablet 10Gilgamesh comes to a tavern by the ocean shore; the tavern is kept by Siduri. Frightened by Gilgamesh's ragged appearance, Siduri locks the tavern door and refuses to let Gilgamesh in. Gilgamesh proves his identity and asks Siduri how to find Utnapishtim. Like the giant scorpions, she tells him that his journey is futile and fraught with dangers. However, she directs him to Urshanabi, the ferryman, who works for Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh approaches Urshanabi with great arrogance and violence and in the process destroys the "stone things" that are somehow critical for the journey to Utnapishtim. When Gilgamesh demands to be taken to Utnapishtim, the ferryman tells him that it is now impossible, since the "stone things" have been destroyed. Nevertheless, he advises Gilgamesh to cut several trees down to serve as punting poles; the waters they are to cross are the Waters of Death, should any mortal touch the waters, that man will instantly die. With the punting poles, Gilgamesh can push the boat and never touch the dangerous waters.After a long and dangerous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at a shore and encounters another man. He tells this man that he is looking for Utnapishtim and the secret of eternal life; the old man advises Gilgamesh that death is a necessary fact because of the will of the gods; all human effort is only temporary, not permanent.Tablet 11At this point, Gilgamesh realizes that he is talking to Utnapishtim, the Far-Away; he hadn't expected an immortal human to be ordinary and aged. He asks Utnapishtim how he received immortality, and Utnapishtim tells him the great secret hidden from humans: In the time before the Flood, there was a city, Shuruppak, on the banks of the Euphrates. There, the counsel of the gods held a secret meeting; they all resolved to destroy the world in a great flood. All the gods were under oath not to reveal this secret to any living thing, but Ea (one of the gods that created humanity) came to Utnapishtim's house and told the secret to the walls of Utnapishtim's house, thus not technically violating his oath to the rest of the gods. He advised the walls of Utnapishtim's house to build a great boat, its length as great as its breadth, to cover the boat, and to bring all living things into the boat. Utnapishtim gets straight to work and finishes the great boat by the new year. Utnapishtim then loads the boat with gold, silver, and all the living things of the earth, and launches the boat. Ea orders him into the boat and commands him to close the door behind him. The black clouds arrive, with the thunder god Adad rumbling within them; the earth splits like an earthenware pot, and all the light turns to darkness. The Flood is so great that even the gods are frightened:The gods shook like beaten dogs, hiding in the far corners of heaven,Ishtar screamed and wailed:"The days of old have turned to stone:We have decided evil things in our Assembly!Why did we decide those evil things in our Assembly?Why did we decide to destroy our people?We have only just now created our beloved humans;We now destroy them in the sea!"All the gods wept and wailed along with her,All the gods sat trembling, and wept.The Flood lasts for seven days and seven nights, and finally light returns to the earth. Utnapishtim opens a window and the entire earth has been turned into a flat ocean; all humans have been turned to stone. Utnapishtim then falls to his knees and weeps.Utnapishtim's boat comes to rest on the top of Mount Nimush; the boat lodges firmly on the mountain peak just below the surface of the ocean and remains there for seven days. On the seventh day: I [Utnapishtim] released a dove from the boat,It flew off, but circled around and returned,For it could find no perch.I then released a swallow from the boat,It flew off, but circled around and returned,For it could find no perch.I then released a raven from the boat,It flew off, and the waters had receded:It eats, it scratches the ground, but it does not circle around and return.I then sent out all the living things in every direction and sacrificeda sheep on that very spot.The gods smell the odor of the sacrifice and begin to gather around Utnapishtim. Enlil, who had originally proposed to destroy all humans, then arrives, furious that one of the humans had survived, since they had agreed to wipe out all humans. He accuses Ea of treachery, but Ea convinces Enlil to be merciful. Enlil then seizes Utnapishtim and his wife and blesses them:At one time Utnapishtim was mortal.At this time let him be a god and immortal;Let him live in the far away at the source of all the rivers.At the end of his story, Utnapishtim offers Gilgamesh a chance at immortality. If Gilgamesh can stay awake for six days and seven nights, he, too, will become immortal. Gilgamesh accepts these conditions and sits down on the shore; the instant he sits down he falls asleep. Utnapishtim tells his wife that all men are liars, that Gilgamesh will deny having fallen asleep, so he asks his wife to bake a loaf of bread every day and lay the loaf at Gilgamesh's feet. Gilgamesh sleeps without ever waking up for six days and seven nights, at which point Utnapishtim wakes him up. Startled, Gilgamesh says, "I only just dozed off for half a second here." Utnapishtim points out the loaves of bread, showing their states of decay from the most recent, fresh bread, to the oldest, moldy, stale bread that had been laid at his feet on the very first day. Gilgamesh is distraught:O woe! What do I do now, where do I go now?Death has devoured my body,Death dwells in my body,Wherever I go, wherever I look, there stands Death!Utnapishtim's wife convinces the old man to have mercy on him; he offers Gilgamesh in place of immortality a secret plant that willmake Gilgamesh young again. The plant is at the bottom of the ocean surrounding the Far-Away; Gilgamesh ties stones to his feet, sinks to the bottom, and plucks the magic plant. But he doesn't use it because he doesn't trust it; rather he decides to take it back to Uruk and test it out on an old man first, to make sure it works.Urshanabi takes him across the Waters of Death. Several leagues inland, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi stop to eat and sleep; while they're sleeping, a snake slithers up and eats the magic plant (which is why snakes shed their skin) and crawls away. Gilgamesh awakens to find the plant gone; he falls to his knees and weeps: For whom have I labored? For whom have I journeyed?For whom have I suffered?I have gained absolutely nothing for myself,I have only profited the snake, the ground lion!The tale ends with Gilgamesh, at the end of his journey standing before the gates of Uruk, inviting Urshanabi to look around and view the greatness of this city, its high walls, its masonwork, and here at the base of its gates, as the foundation of the city walls, a stone of lapis lazuli on which is carved Gilgamesh's account of his exploitsThe Epic of GilgameshTranslated by Maureen Gallery KovacsElectronic Edition by Wolf Carnahan, I998Tablet IHe who has seen everything, I will make known (?) to the lands.I will teach (?) about him who experienced all things,... alike,Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all.He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden,he brought information of (the time) before the Flood.He went on a distant journey, pushing himself to exhaustion,but then was brought to peace.He carved on a stone stela all of his toils,and built the wall of Uruk-Haven,the wall of the sacred Eanna Temple, the holy sanctuary.Look at its wall which gleams like copper(?),inspect its inner wall, the likes of which no one can equal!Take hold of the threshold stone--it dates from ancient times!Go close to the Eanna Temple, the residence of Ishtar,such as no later king or man ever equaled!Go up on the wall of Uruk and walk around,examine its foundation, inspect its brickwork thoroughly.Is not (even the core of) the brick structure made of kiln-fired brick, and did not the Seven Sages themselves lay out its plans?One league city, one league palm gardens, one league lowlands, the open area(?) of the Ishtar Temple,three leagues and the open area(?) of Uruk it (the wall) encloses. Find the copper tablet box,open the ... of its lock of bronze,undo the fastening of its secret opening.Take and read out from the lapis lazuli tablethow Gilgamesh went through every hardship.Supreme over other kings, lordly in appearance,he is the hero, born of Uruk, the goring wild bull.He walks out in front, the leader,and walks at the rear, trusted by his companions.Mighty net, protector of his people,raging flood-wave who destroys even walls of stone!Offspring of Lugalbanda, Gilgamesh is strong to perfection,son of the august cow, Rimat-Ninsun;... Gilgamesh is awesome toperfection.It was he who opened the mountain passes,who dug wells on the flank of the mountain.It was he who crossed the ocean, the vast seas, to the rising sun, who explored the world regions, seeking life.It was he who reached by his own sheer strength Utanapishtim, the Faraway,who restored the sanctuaries (or: cities) that the Flood had destroyed! ... for teeming mankind.Who can compare with him in kingliness?Who can say like Gilgamesh: "I am King!"?Whose name, from the day of his birth, was called "Gilgamesh"? Two-thirds of him is god, one-third of him is human.The Great Goddess [Aruru] designed(?) the model for his body,she prepared his form ...... beautiful, handsomest of men,... perfect...He walks around in the enclosure of Uruk,Like a wild bull he makes himself mighty, head raised (over others). There is no rival who can raise his weapon against him.His fellows stand (at the alert), attentive to his (orders ?),and the men of Uruk become anxious in ...Gilgamesh does not leave a son to his father,day and night he arrogant[y(?) ...[The following lines are interpreted as rhetorical, perhaps spoken by the oppressed citizens of Uruk.]Is Gilgamesh the shepherd of Uruk-Haven,is he the shepherd. ...bold, eminent, knowing, and wise!Gilgamesh does not leave a girl to her mother(?)The daughter of the warrior, the bride of the young man,the gods kept hearing their complaints, sothe gods of the heavens implored the Lord of Uruk [Anu]"You have indeed brought into being a mighty wild bull, head raised! "There is no rival who can raise a weapon against him."His fellows stand (at the alert), attentive to his (orders !),"Gilgamesh does not leave a son to his father,"day and night he arrogantly ..."Is he the shepherd of Uruk-Haven,"is he their shepherd..."bold, eminent, knowing, and wise,。
《吉尔伽美什》讨论问题
《吉尔伽美什》关于史诗的情节，现代研究者一般把它分为四个部分。
第一部分叙述史诗的主人公吉尔伽美什在乌鲁克城的残酷统治以及吉尔伽美什与恩奇都的友谊。
吉尔伽美什开始出现时是乌卢克城的统治者。
他凭借权势抢男霸女，强迫城中居民为他构筑城垣，修建神庙，害得民不聊生，因而激起了贵族的居民们的愤怒。
人们祈求天上诸神拯救自己。
天上诸神便令大神阿卢卢给创造一个半人半兽的勇士恩奇都与吉尔伽美什相对抗。
吉尔伽美什杀死怪物恩奇都原为草莽野人，在神妓的诱导下来到乌卢克城。
双方经过激烈的搏斗不分胜负，于是相互爱慕，结为好友。
这一部分对主人公吉尔伽美什的批判成分大于赞美成分。
第二部分叙述吉尔伽美什与恩奇都结成友谊之后，一同出走为人民造福，成为被群众爱戴的英雄。
他们先后战胜了沙漠中的狮子，杀死了杉树林中为害人民的怪物芬巴巴，又共同杀死了残害乌卢克城居民的“天牛”等等。
其中同芬巴巴斗争的场面以及杀死“天牛”的场面的描写，比较精彩动人。
这一部分实际上是史诗的核心部分，它的整个情调是高昂激越的。
可是从这以后调子就转为低沉了。
第三部分描写吉尔伽美什为探索“死和生命”问题而进行的长途远游。
恩奇都因得罪天神阿努，受到死的惩罚。
好友恩奇都的突然病逝，引起了吉尔伽美什极大的悲痛。
他回忆起与恩奇都一起远征的岁月，不禁感慨万分，悲痛欲绝：他在〔朋友〕跟前不停地徘徊，一边〔把毛发〕拔弃散掉，一边扯去，摔碎〔身上〕佩戴的各种珍宝。
吉尔伽美什感受到死亡的可怕，特别是神主宰人的命运的威胁，于是怀着探索人生奥秘的愿望到远方去寻求长生不老之术，结果什么也没有得到。
这一部分既表现了他的探索和反抗精神，也反映出很大的悲观情调。
第四部分（第十二块泥板）记述吉尔伽美什同恩奇都幽灵的谈话，吉尔伽美什回到乌卢克城后十分怀念亡友，祈求神的帮助，同恩奇都的幽灵见了面。
《吉尔伽美什》比较真实生动地反映了从原始公社制社会向奴隶制社会过渡时期的历史面貌，表现了古代两河流域居民的生活和斗争，无论在思想上和艺术上都取得了很大的成就。
古代故事的英语阅读理解
古代故事的英语阅读理解In the vast expanse of human history, the stories of our ancestors have captivated the minds of countless generations. These ancient tales, passed down through the ages, offer a glimpse into the beliefs, values, and experiences that have shaped the course of civilization. As we delve into the rich tapestry of these narratives, we find ourselves transported to worlds of wonder, wisdom, and timeless lessons.One of the most captivating aspects of ancient stories is the way they reflect the cultural and societal norms of their time. Through the characters and their actions, we gain insight into the societal structures, gender roles, and power dynamics that defined the lives of our forebears. The stories often serve as a window into the aspirations, fears, and struggles of the people who lived in those bygone eras.Take, for example, the epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest known works of literature. This Sumerian tale, dating back to the third millennium BCE, chronicles the journey of a legendary king as hegrapples with the universal human questions of mortality, the nature of the divine, and the search for meaning. The story provides a fascinating glimpse into the beliefs and values of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, where the gods were seen as both powerful and capricious, and the pursuit of immortality was a driving force.Similarly, the myths and legends of ancient Greece have endured for millennia, captivating readers and scholars alike. From the heroic exploits of figures like Hercules and Odysseus to the intricate web of divine relationships and conflicts, these stories offer a rich tapestry of human experience. They explore themes of hubris, fate, and the consequences of defying the gods, all while revealing the cultural and societal norms that shaped the lives of the ancient Greeks.Beyond the historical and cultural insights, ancient stories also possess a timeless quality that continues to resonate with modern readers. The universal themes of love, loss, courage, and the human condition transcend the boundaries of time and place. The struggles and triumphs of the characters in these narratives often mirror our own experiences, allowing us to connect with them on a deep, emotional level.One of the most striking examples of this timeless quality can be found in the ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata. This vast andcomplex work, composed sometime between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, delves into the intricate web of family, power, and the moral dilemmas that arise in the face of conflict. The story's exploration of themes such as duty, righteousness, and the nature of the divine have continued to captivate and inspire readers across cultures and generations.As we engage with these ancient tales, we are not merely reading words on a page; we are embarking on a journey of discovery, unlocking the secrets of our collective past. Through the act of reading and comprehending these narratives, we gain a deeper understanding of the human experience, the evolution of societal values, and the timeless wisdom that has been passed down through the ages.Moreover, the process of reading and interpreting ancient stories can be a powerful tool for personal growth and self-reflection. As we immerse ourselves in the lives and struggles of the characters, we are often confronted with our own biases, assumptions, and perspectives. This can lead to a heightened awareness of our own place in the larger tapestry of human history, and the ways in which our own beliefs and behaviors have been shaped by the legacies of the past.In the modern era, where technology and globalization have accelerated the pace of change, the study of ancient stories hasbecome increasingly valuable. These narratives offer a counterpoint to the rapid transformations of the present, reminding us of the enduring human qualities that have transcended the boundaries of time and space. By engaging with these ancient tales, we can cultivate a deeper appreciation for the diversity of human experience and the resilience of the human spirit.In conclusion, the reading and comprehension of ancient stories is a rich and rewarding endeavor. These narratives not only provide us with a window into the past but also offer timeless insights into the human condition. As we delve into the worlds of our ancestors, we are reminded of the universal themes that have united humanity across the centuries, and the enduring power of storytelling to shape our understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.。
WhatHappenedtoSam-KhainTheEpicofGilgames
Literary Onomastics StudiesVolume 2Article 71975What Happened to Sam-Kha in "The Epic of Gilgames?"John R. MaierFollow this and additional works at:/los****************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************,pleasecontact ********************.Recommended CitationMaier, John R. (1975) "What Happened to Sam-Kha in "The Epic of Gilgames?","Literary Onomastics Studies : Vol. 2, Article 7.Available at:/los/vol2/iss1/7What Happened to Sam-kha inThe Epic of Gilgame�?John R. MaierBefore a cave not far from the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk (Biblical Erech) rests an ancient poet and seer, grave in his turban and long beard, exiled, the poet says, 11By his own will from all the haunts of men.111 Heis a suitably dignified personage for an epic poem. His name is Heabani--Enkidu, we would say today. He belongs to the excitement caused when a brilliant British Museum scholar, George Smith, unearthed the cuneiform tablets of an epic poem now known as The Epic of Gilgame In spiteof his dignity, the seer Heabani is in a sense no longer with us. Gone is the turban; gone is the sage lover of Nature and Solitude: he belongs to a poem written in 1884 by a man, Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, who intended to complete the fragments translated earlier by George Smith, to make a poem that was both ancient and yet strikingly modern. Its name: Ishtar and Izdubar, The Epic of Babylon. Unlike the famous Rub of Omar Khy y am, the piece did not bring fame to the scholar-poet who labored so long to bring itMaier 2forth, and it inspired no cults. A hundred ye a rs of Gilgame� scholarship has passed it by. Today it is important mostly as a Nineteenth Century literary work reflecting an 1800s image of the Ancient Near East.My interest in this paper is in certain names appearing in one short but important early section of Hamilton's poem. The section is from the third of twelve tablets comprising the epic. For the most part I will mention only those names which subsequent scholarship on theGilgame� has found to be incorrect--almost ridiculous, some might say. But these names will serve as an introduction to the problems of translating names in ancient texts, and also as an indication of the way names deeply effect a narrative line and the concept of character in a1 i t erary work.A few preliminary remarks are necessary. The language of the original epic is Akkadian, an ancient Semitic language. The Akkadian epic of Gilgame�--a version of which goes back to about 1800 B.C.--in turn draws upon the Sumerian Gilgame� stories. (Sumerian is a language unre-Maier 3lated to Akkadian but a language that influenced nearlyall others in the Ancient Near East.) Hamilton, by the way, could not have known Sumerian or the influence oftexts older than the Akkadian version.2The Epic of Gilgame is complex. Here we are interested in only one part: how a creature, Heabani, i s seducedby a person called Sam-kha and makes his way thence to the city of Erech (Uruk) to meet the hero of the poem, Gilgame�, or as Hamilton called him, Izdubar. Doubtless the most moving part of the Gilgame� story is the grief of the heroat the loss of this friend Heabani, and the hero's subsequent search through the universe to find the answer to the problem of death. But the section w e are interestedin deals with .a very fascinating early stage of the story, just before the friendship between the hero and Heabani develops.Though modern scholars disagree about the interpretation of the events in the section (today it is Tablet Iof the epic),3 the events themselves are these. The people of Erech need someone to equal their restless king; inMaier 4response to their prayer, Heabani (Enkidu) is formed from clay and thrown into the wilds where the creature grows up with wild animals. The seduction by the or sacred prostitute, brings Heabani to manhood. Having become a man, he then abandons the wilds and enters the city, to meet the greatest of men, Izdubar (or Gilgame�).So at least goes the story as it is known today, made rather sure by a hundred years of intense research and translation. Hamilton's 1884 version of the events is abit different.The incredible change in the characterization of the wild man, Enkidu, provides a remarkable example of translation problems involving names that have tantalized the student of th� Gilgame� poem for nearly a century. For convenience I have chosen a few lines of the text that illustrate the problems, lines that have the advantage of being "nearly perfect11 in the original, according to George Smith. The same lines in R. Campbell Thompson's transcription and translation show the modern concept ofthe wild man, which he calls "Enkidu11 (see Appendix forMaier 5text, transliteration and translation).Enkidu has just been seduced by a prostitute in the service of the go d dess, I�tar. A savage being with no traces of human behavior, Enkidu is won over to humanityby the prostitute; for 11Six days and seven nights" she sleeps with the wild creature. At the end he has becomea man. The prostitute then initiates Enkidu into thearts and ways of civilization. In this passage the prostitute is encouraging Enkidu to go to the glorious cityof Erech, which has been oppressed by the mighty king, Gilgame�. Enkidu's response, in true epic fashion, is to boast of her might. The passage anticipates the furious battle to follow, when Gilgame� and Enkidu will wrestle-and then suddenly become friends. The heroes will then go off together to a series of great epic adventures.Imagine the astonishment, then, at taking up George Smith's translation of 1876 and the fuller account by Leonidas Hamilton (1884)!4 The character here is called11Heabani,11 not 11Enkidu.11 There is really little to dispute there, though. The modern reading is Sumerian. Hamilton'sMaier 6 11Heabani" is a rendering of the same cuneiform signs inAkkadian. The older suggestion was that the name meant the go d 11Hea11 (moder n 11Ea11) 11begot" or 11Created11 X--a s i n a name like Assurbanipal. "Enkidu,11 similarly',could carry the same meaning in Sumerian, the Sumerian god "Enki" being the equivalent of the Akkadian "(H)Ea."5The so-called temple 11Ellitardusi11 i.n dicates a second, but related, problem in dealing with Akkadian names. Campbell Thompson reads two words, i m qud-du-11holy (and) sacred,11 adjectives describing the dwelling of god Anu and the goddess I�tar (Appendix, line 44). In this case 111im" and "li11 are possible for the same (IGI) sign. 11Qud" is a reading of a sign that could be 11tar; tara; �ar;tir; t{r; kud/t; qud/t; has/s({,/z; �il or sil. "6 Notice . �·.that the texts do not indicate a break between the words in 1 i n e 44.These are typical problems. In a sense they are very minor ones, especially because they do not seriously effect the meaning of the passage or the work as a whole.But Hamilton's handling of 11Sam-kha" (mentioned in the89Maier 7sixth line of his version) and the "middannu" beast are serious indeed. The astonishing transformation of 11Heabani" can be seen in these two names.11Sam-kha," as Hamilton takes her, is both a person (she is Smith's 11Samhat") and "sweet Joy11 mentioned in the fourth line. Another woman--the one with the flashingeyes "half languid" is called Kharimtu. Kharimtu•s description of the "giant" Izdubar has persuaded somewhat the seer to meet the giant. But what really excites the wild man to go to Erech is not to match his strength againstI zdubar. (In fact, he does not fight the great king of Erech, in Hamilton's version.) What excites him is the delicious woman, "Sam-kha." The allegorizing tendency--as her name means '�J oy"--does not fully develop. But the distinction between 11Kharimtu" (or "Seduction11) and "Sam-kha" (11J oy") is based on a misconception that has very serious consequences. The two names actually describe one person-and neither is a proper name. Both refer to the prostitute sent to seduce the wild man. The confusion comes when thenames are written together, without any sign of punctuationMaier 8or coordination, as an epithet of the prostitute, One odd consequence is that Hamilton knew whatwas happening to Kharimtu as he read George Smith•s ver-sion, but Smith's version did not mention Samhat at the point where the women had been brought before Heabani•s11cave." Hamilton solves the problem by asking a question, in his usual florid way:But where hath Joy, sweet Sam-kha, roving gone?When they arrived at setting of the sunShe disappeared within with waving arms;With bright locks flowing she displayed her charms.As some sweet zir-ru did young Sam-kha seem,A thing of beauty Of some mystic dream.(III.III.48-53)Well, where did she go? Into a mystic whilethe other girl waited? According to Hamilton, Sam-khaenters the 11C ave11 where the turbaned seer, a hermit choice, it should be recalled, lives. The lines which describe the sexual encounter between the wild man and the prostitute are very graphic and possibly reach as close to our idea of pornography as Akkadian literature approaches, it seems. The Victorian scholar, George Smith, knew what to do: he simply deleted twenty-two lines of "directions11Maier 9 which he disguises in an innocuous comment buried at the end of his chapter: 11! have omitted some of the detailsin columns III. and IV. because they were on the one side obscure, and on the other hand appeared hardly adapted for genera 1reading.'' The Reverend A. H. Sayee, who revised Smith's book, deciding that even such an innocuous a comment as that was unnecessary, silently dropped even that.7So Hamilton faced the problem of the seduction by in-venting a scene that is delightfully vague.Her glorious arms she opens, flees away,While he doth follow the enticer gay.He seizes, kisses, takes away her breath,And she falls to the ground--perhaps in deathHe thinks, and o•er her leans where she now lay;At last she breathes, and springs, and flees away.But he the sport enjoys, and her pursues.(III.IV.21-27)Thus "sweet Joy" prompts him. Smith knew nothing of any great love of the wild man for this girl (developed in this scene). The only love which he shows again and again is the wild man•s love for Izdubar. The curious line in Smith, 11I join to Samhat my companionship,11 (line 42) isas far as Smith would go For Hamilton, though, a romanticMaier 10affair was a must for an ancient epic. He invents a love interest for Izdubar, a girl, Mua, and even beyond thatthe love interest between Izdubar and the goddess Ishtar. The separation of "Samkha11 and "Harimtu11 becomes the chief motivation for Heabani's entry into Erech.More curious than Sam-kha is the best called mid-dan-nu. The hunt for the "midannu11 beast is one of the fas-cinating chapters in early Assyriology. Smith thought it was a tiger. Sayee added more information, calling it a "fierce carnivorous animal allied to the lion and leopard;'' the 11midannu he found associated with the dumamu or cat.8A famous Khorsabad sculpture showing a hero holding a lion, was taken to be Izdubar strangling the midannu. Hamilton even took the,beast to be a pet of Heabani! usepet, which guarded the cave of Heaban, terri es a in 11Prince Zaidu,11 who had been sent by Izdubar to persuade Heabani to come to Erech, the king had had to send the two girls to seduce the hermit. Notice that (1) Heabani will take his pet to Erech in order to test Izdubar's strength; and (2) he will interpret a dream if Izdubar destroys theMaier 11 beast. In column V Hamilton does indeed describe thefight between the Herakles-figure, Izdubar, and the lion; Heabani then agrees to interpret the puzzling dream forthe king.What is astonishing about this is that no midannu beast existed--at least in this epic. A glance at Campbell Thompson•s text and transliteration will reveal the reason. The first line of column 5, the boast of Enkidu, includes the emphatic (and rather unusual) form of the first person pronoun: 111, too, am mighty!"--anaku-mi together with the ordinary Akkadian word for strength, dannu. Smith, with a corrupt text, had read across anaku-mi to mi-dan-nu. Once that was done, the beast is described as begotten "in desert11 with g�eat strength. It was but a short s to the idea that the beast would contest Izdubar, and the11prize11 would an interpretation of his dream.Hamilton's Heabani is, we see, not a primitive. sav�ge after all. A famous "barb" and seer, Heabani had lived inErech, had sung of the defeat of the city the hands of the Elamites, and had sung of Izdubar•s victory over the94Maier 12Elamites thereafter--this long before the episode we have been considering. But the seer had retired to his solitary cave. Indeed, Hamilton invents an "ode to solitude11in the manner of Coleridge for Heabani to sing when the seer discovers (through a divine revelation) he must go to Erech (Tablet II, column VI). Even Sam-kha•s seduction of him had been foreseen by this more than 11natural man.11With his turban and long beard, the seer Heabani was the archetypal poet-seer.Needless to say, perhaps, the concept of Heabani as a poet, as a seer, as the interpreter of dreams, has since been exploded. There was support for it in fragmentary texts, it seemed, but the laborious task of joining frag-ments of tablets� of establishing the sequence led to a creature fashioned by the godstab 1e ts, Gil g ame�.Campbell Thompson's translation shows the modern concept. The wild man describes, not his pet midannu but himself in the passage. Hardly a seer, Enkidu is entirely ignorant of mankind until the prostitute initiates him. Indeed, this passage is the first one in which Enkidu shows the human95Maier 13 capability of intelligible speech.Thus a misplaced sign sequence and a· split of one common name into two proper names has produced the midannubeast and Sam-kha. Both in turn develop the image of the poet seer, sensitive, a mystic and a loner, with a romantic's feeling for Nature and Love. What happened to Samkha? In her disappearance The Epic of Gilgame lost afirst�rate pre-Raphaelite love interest--and a poet.John R. MaierState University of New YorkCollege at BrockportNoteslLeonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, Ishtar and Izdubar, Theof Babylon (London: W .H. A 11 e n, Tab 1 e t I,Column IV, line 3.962on the Sumerian sources of The �ic of Gilgame see Paul Garell i , ed., Gi 1 g ame �et g_ l "\Paris:Imprimerie Nationale, 39-7. 3The earliest complete text of the epic is Paul Haupt, Das Babylonische Nimrodepos (Leipzig, 1884-1890), which Hamilton had seen. The standard text today is still R : Campbell Thompson, The Epi of Gilgame Text, Transllteration and Notes (London, 19294George Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis(London, 1876), pp. -S An 'Ay ('Ayya-Is-MY-Cre a tor ) is attested in Old Akkadian Sargonic Period )by J.J.M. Roberts, The Earliest Semitic Pantheon (Baltimore, 1972), pp. l g:-6; see also the ban art1cle in Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 2, pp. 81-95. 6Rykle Borger, Akkadische Zeichenliste (NeukirchenVluyn, 1971), p. 78 7smith,p. 205; George Smith, The Chaldean Account of Genesis, ed. , rev. , corrected A. H. Sayee ,p. 2Hamilton used Sayee's i on. B smith, pp. 205-206; Sayee, p. 4.AppendixLeonidas La Cenci Hamilton, ISHTARTHE IC OF BABYLON (1884) Tablet III, Column IV:IZDUBAR,Her flashing eyes half 1 d pierce seer, Until his first resolves a disappear�And rising to his feet his eyes he Toward sweet Joy, whose love for him And eyeing both with beaming sai 11With Sam-kha•s love the seer hath pl faith; And I will go to Elli-tar-d u-si, Great Anu's �eat and Ishtar's where wi thee, I will behold the giant Izdubar, Whose fame is known to me as king of war; And I will meet him there, and test power Of him whose fame above aii men .tower.A mid-dan-nu to Erech I will ke, To see -rfhe its mighty strength can break. In those wild caves i strength mighty If he the beast , I will make known His dream h all97Paul H IS NI , I, IV & VR.Ca mp be ll, THE EPIC}:;!" f:}f\ I, I . � 4-C ..-;:ru 1E! � Tf &>-�r v .q--:-�f31r Tf �T �nrr t:�r ��-�0-�;-;:if 4-s Tf � M-r-t:-r xr:s-:f-f::r JbT �;t':-r-. � �rr ff"'n <-w.. Tf rt�T �y-�rr � .. � .... �-�: ... � ...George Smith, THE CHALDEAN ACCOUNT OF GENESIS (1876) Tablet I II, Column IV:39. She spake to him and before her speech, 45 .40. the wisdom of his heart flew away and disappeared. 41. Heabani to her also said to Harimtu: 42. I join to Samhat my companionship, 43. to the templs of Elli-tardusi the of Anu I shtar, 44. the dwelling of Izdubar the mii 45. who also like a bull towers over 46. I will meet him and see his power,1. I2.3. In Column V:R. 11 Thompson, � I·;:r11'{ i'1--'fff ,_ �1rr�:�11 �·lt. F-�,c!f �"f r J:.r . �rIC ait s [1 , I, V 98R. Campbell Thompson, THE EPIC OF GILGAMISH [1929]Tablet I, Column IV40. i-ta-rna-as-sum-ma ma-gir ka-ba-sa41. mu-du-u lib-ba-su i-se-'-a ib-ra42. il UEN.KI.DU a-na sa-si-ma izakkara(ra) s al ha-rim-t43. -ki sal sam-hat ki-ri-en-ni ia-a-si44. a-na bi el-lim k du-si mu-sab il m il s-tar45. a-sar ilu Gilgamis git-ma-lu e-mu-ki46. u -i rimi ug-da-as-sa-ru eli nise P147. a-na-ku lu-uk-ri-sum-ma da-an-n[is 1] [bi-ma]Tablet I, Column V1. [lu-us]-ri-ih ina lib Uruk ki a-na-ku-mi dan-nu2. [a-na-ku]-um-ma si-ma-tu u-nak-kar3. [sa i-n]a seri 1--du [da-a]n i-mu�ki-suR. Campbell Thompson, THE IC OF LGAMISH [lTablet I, Column IV40. Her counselE'en as spake it found favour, cons ous he was45. Tabl of his longingSome c�mpanion so II Up' ' 0 giin meMe, to1 sh is'I' Co lumn Vi n o'er men li anL I' I 11 summon m, len dl y ( ng throughII , too,al ruly),(is am mighty! 11 NayI s0 is! )I '(I) ' will (e'en)in whoseny。
吉尔伽美什计划
吉尔伽美什计划篇(1):现实世界的人类补完计划——神秘的吉尔伽美什计划《吉尔伽美什史诗》（又称基尔麦什史诗）（The Epic of Gilgamesh）是目前已知世界最古老的英雄史诗，吉尔伽美什是苏美尔神话中的，由大神阿鲁鲁所创造的"三分之二是神，三分之一是人"的半神半人人物，这个故事的心惊之处就是人类不再有神创造——而是由人来创造神！随着科技的发展，人类终于逐渐摆脱自然的枷锁，开始尝试将自己媲美上帝，用科技的力量改写自然的命运，这就是现代人的吉尔伽美什计划，但我们并不知道我们创造出来的是英雄还是“魔鬼”！多莉（Dolly，1996年7月5日-2003年2月14日）是一只通过现代工程创造出来的雌性绵羊，也是世界之初第一个成功克隆的人工动物，这是基因工程学上的奇迹，也是人类对创造生命的原始渴望的最终体现，然而这并不是结束，基因技术随之突飞猛进，一日千里……人耳鼠的出现更是将这种技术带入了我们的生活，器官移植似乎慢慢的已经不再需要等待器官捐献，很多病人要么死在了等待器官的路上，要么死在了和异体器官排斥的路上，即使治好了也需要一辈子离不开抗排斥药物，然而这一切似乎都在一项技术出现后迎刃而解——组织工程，生物工程中有一个「组织工程」的概念是由美国国家科学基金会于 1987年正处提出和确定的，它是应用生物学和工程学的原理，研制和开发能够修复和改善损伤或缺失组织功能的人造组织或器官的一门新兴学科。
目前，组织工程化皮肤和软骨组织工程产品已经实现商品化；而在人工肝脏、人工心脏等的研究也取得了突破性的成果。
当然，组织工程所得到的用于移植的组织和器官并不是完全天然的组织或器官，可以大致理解成是一团生活在人造支架上的细胞。
克隆器官已经在路上了，克隆人还会远么？想当初第一次进行人类基因组定序的时候花费乐15年、30亿美元，但现在只要花上几周、几百美元，就能完成一个人的基因定序。
根据DNA为人度身定做的个人化医学时代已经悄悄到来。
TPO39托福阅读答案解析
1.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about the method of preserving cuneiform texts by sun drying them?A.It was regarded as unnecessary for texts that were actively being used.B.It was discovered accidentally.C.It was used for texts intended for libraries but not for other texts.D.It did not provide enough protection for texts to survive into modern times.Paragraph 1 is marked with ►答案：D 选项正确解析：本题根据题干给出的关键词 preserve 和sun drying 定位到这两句：sun drying was probably reckoned enough to preserve the text for as long as it was being used. 和 Fortunately, however, many tablets survived because they were accidentally fired when the buildings they were stored in burned. 这两句的大意是：在当时人们认为仅仅依靠太阳晒干是可以保存楔形文字的泥板的，但是以后的楔形文字之所以会幸存下来，是因为它们无意间随着储存它们的建筑被烧过了。
所以仅仅依靠阳光晒干并不足以保存这些文字。
选项 D 符合题意。
选项 A 说这种办法不需要，选项 B 说这种办法是偶然间发现的，选项 C 说这种办法只被用在图书馆保存的文字上，都没有在原文中找到依据。
吉尔伽美什英语作文
吉尔伽美什英语作文Title: The Epic of Gilgamesh: An Exploration in English。
Introduction:The Epic of Gilgamesh stands as one of the oldest known pieces of literature, dating back to ancient Mesopotamia.It offers a window into the beliefs, values, and culture of that time. Through the journey of its protagonist, Gilgamesh, the epic delves into themes of friendship, mortality, and the search for meaning. In this essay, wewill delve into the various aspects of the epic, exploring its significance and relevance even in contemporary times.Historical and Cultural Context:To truly appreciate the Epic of Gilgamesh, it's crucial to understand the historical and cultural context in whichit emerged. Mesopotamia, often regarded as the cradle of civilization, was characterized by city-states ruled bykings. The epic reflects the societal structure of ancient Mesopotamia, where kingship held immense power and authority.Gilgamesh as a Character:Gilgamesh, the central figure of the epic, is depicted as a powerful and arrogant king in the city of Uruk. His journey, however, is marked by transformation and growth. Initially, he represents the epitome of hubris, but as the story progresses, he learns humility and the limitations of his power.Themes Explored:The Epic of Gilgamesh explores various themes that resonate across cultures and time periods. Friendship is a prominent theme, particularly in the bond between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Their friendship transcends boundaries, highlighting the importance of companionship in the face of adversity.Another significant theme is mortality. Gilgamesh grapples with the inevitability of death, spurred by the demise of Enkidu. His quest for immortality reflects humanity's eternal desire to transcend the limits of existence.The Search for Meaning:At its core, the Epic of Gilgamesh is a quest for meaning and purpose. Gilgamesh embarks on a journey to seek the secret of eternal life, driven by a fear of mortality. However, his encounters along the way force him to confront deeper questions about the nature of life and the human condition.Relevance Today:Despite being thousands of years old, the Epic of Gilgamesh remains relevant in contemporary times. Its exploration of friendship, mortality, and the search for meaning transcends temporal and cultural boundaries. In an age marked by technological advancement and materialism,the epic serves as a poignant reminder of the enduringquest for existential understanding.Conclusion:The Epic of Gilgamesh endures as a timeless masterpiece, offering insights into the human experience that resonate across generations. Through its exploration of friendship, mortality, and the search for meaning, it continues to captivate readers and provoke reflection. As we delve into its ancient verses, we uncover not only a fascinating narrative but also profound truths about what it means tobe human.。
吉尔伽美什作文素材
吉尔伽美什作文素材Gilgamesh is a legendary figure in ancient Mesopotamian history, known for his great strength and his adventures. 吉尔伽美什是古代美索不达米亚历史上一个传奇的人物，以他的巨大力量和冒险事迹而闻名。
One of the most famous stories about Gilgamesh is his quest for immortality, which is detailed in the Epic of Gilgamesh. 其中最著名的故事之一是他追求永生的传说，这在《吉尔伽美什史诗》中有详细记载。
In this epic, Gilgamesh sets out on a journey to find the secret of eternal life after the death of his friend Enkidu. 在这部史诗中，吉尔伽美什在好友恩基杜死后，踏上寻找永生之秘密的旅程。
Throughout his adventures, Gilgamesh encounters numerous challenges and obstacles, testing his strength, courage, and wit. 在他的冒险过程中，吉尔伽美什遇到了许多挑战和障碍，考验了他的力量、勇气和智慧。
Despite his great physical prowess, Gilgamesh learns that there are limits to what he can achieve and that mortality is an inevitable partof human existence. 尽管他拥有强大的肉体力量，吉尔伽美什却意识到自己的能力是有限的，死亡是人类存在不可避免的一部分。
古典书籍推荐英文作文初中
古典书籍推荐英文作文初中英文回答：Classical literature offers a wealth of timeless literary works that have captivated readers for centuries and continue to resonate today. Here are a few highly recommended classical books for初中 students to explore:1. The Epic of Gilgamesh (Ancient Mesopotamia, c. 2100 BC): An epic poem that tells the story of a legendary Sumerian king and his quest for immortality. It explores themes of friendship, loss, and the human condition.2. The Iliad and the Odyssey (Ancient Greece, c. 8th century BC): Two epic poems attributed to Homer that recount the Trojan War and the subsequent adventures of Odysseus. These works are renowned for their vivid characters, exciting narratives, and insights into ancient Greek culture.3. The Analects of Confucius (Ancient China, 6th-5th century BC): A collection of sayings and teachings attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It emphasizes ethical principles, social harmony, and the importance of education.4. The Tale of Genji (Japan, 11th century): An epic novel by Murasaki Shikibu that follows the life of Hikaru Genji, a nobleman in the Heian period. It is known for its complex characters, intricate plot, and elegant prose.5. The Canterbury Tales (England, 14th century): A collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury Cathedral. These tales offer a diverse range of characters, settings, and themes, providing a glimpse into medieval English society.6. Don Quixote (Spain, 1605): A satirical novel by Miguel de Cervantes that follows the adventures of a man who reads so many chivalric romances that he decides to become a knight. It is a humorous and poignant tale that explores themes of idealism, reality, and the nature ofheroism.7. Pride and Prejudice (England, 1813): A romantic novel by Jane Austen that follows the Bennet family and their five daughters. It is known for its witty dialogue, social satire, and insightful portrayal of human relationships.8. Jane Eyre (England, 1847): A Gothic novel by Charlotte Brontë that tells the story of a young governess named Jane Eyre. It explores themes of love, independence, and the search for identity in a repressive Victorian society.9. Great Expectations (England, 1861): A bildungsroman by Charles Dickens that follows the life of Pip, an orphan who becomes entangled in a wealthy family's secrets. It is a moving and insightful tale about coming of age, love, and the complexities of social class.10. The Scarlet Letter (United States, 1850): A historical novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne that explores thethemes of sin, guilt, and redemption in Puritan New England. It is a powerful and haunting tale that has become aclassic of American literature.中文回答：推荐几本初中生必读的古典书籍：1. 《吉尔伽美什史诗》，美索不达米亚的史诗，讲述了苏美尔国王吉尔伽美什寻找永生的故事，探讨了友谊、失去和人类状况等主题。
关于龙的艺术英文作文
关于龙的艺术英文作文英文回答：Dragons have captured the imaginations of people for centuries, inspiring countless works of art across cultures and time periods. These mythical creatures, known for their strength, wisdom, and enigmatic nature, have been depicted in a myriad of forms through the medium of art.Ancient Origins:Dragons first emerged in mythology as early as the 4th millennium BCE in the region of ancient Mesopotamia. In the epic "Epic of Gilgamesh," the hero battles the monstrous dragon Humbaba, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. Similarly, in ancient Greece, the myth of Jason and the Golden Fleece featured a formidable dragon guardian that had to be overcome.Eastern Influences:Eastern cultures also played a significant role in shaping the artistic portrayal of dragons. In China, dragons were revered as divine beings associated with power and prosperity. They were often depicted in traditional Chinese paintings as sinuous, long-bodied creatures with horns, scales, and claws. Similarly, in Japanese art, dragons were frequently depicted as majestic guardians of temples and shrines.Medieval Manuscripts:During the Middle Ages in Europe, dragons became ubiquitous in illuminated manuscripts and tapestries. They were often portrayed as fearsome beasts with sharp teeth, fiery breath, and bat-like wings. Dragons served as symbols of both danger and divine judgment, featuring prominentlyin religious texts and tales of chivalry.Renaissance and Baroque Art:The Renaissance and Baroque periods saw a resurgence ofinterest in classical mythology, leading to a more elaborate and refined depiction of dragons in art. Artists like Raphael and Rubens portrayed dragons as heroic and imposing creatures, often engaged in battles with knights or saints. Baroque sculptors also created monumental dragon sculptures, adding a touch of drama and grandeur to cathedrals and palaces.Modern Interpretations:In modern times, dragons continue to fascinate artists, who have reinvented them in a variety of styles. From the whimsical, serpentine dragons of Art Nouveau to the fierce, fire-breathing beasts of fantasy art, dragons have adapted to changing artistic trends while retaining their enduring appeal.Chinese-style Dragon:In Western art, dragons are often depicted with a more European-influenced appearance, featuring wings and a more serpentine body. Chinese dragons, on the other hand, aretypically depicted as long, wingless serpents with four legs and a snake-like body. They typically have a long beard and antlers on their head. They are often shown with a pearl or other treasure in their mouth and are considered to be symbols of good luck and prosperity.Western-style Dragon:Western dragons are often depicted with a more fearsome appearance, featuring large wings, sharp teeth, and a more predatory posture. They are often shown breathing fire and are often associated with destruction and evil. In Western mythology, dragons are often seen as guardians of treasure or as obstacles that must be overcome by heroes.中文回答：龙的艺术起源：龙最早出现在公元前 4 世纪美索不达米亚地区的远古神话中。
顺着历史的长河找寻古人生活的痕迹英语作文
顺着历史的长河找寻古人生活的痕迹英语作文As we go along the course of history, we can trace the traces of the lives of ancient people. From ancient ruins to artifacts, traditions to literature, we can delve into the lives they lived, the beliefs they held, and the world they inhabited. Join me in this exploration as we embark on a journey through time to unearth the fascinating relics of ancient civilizations.One of the earliest civilizations we encounter is Ancient Egypt. Known for its majestic pyramids and intricate hieroglyphics, Ancient Egypt offers a glimpse into a rich and complex society. The pyramids, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, stand as towering monuments that astound us with their architectural brilliance. These structures were built as tombs for pharaohs, who were believed to be divine rulers.The hieroglyphics carved on the walls provide us with information about their daily lives, beliefs, and the grandeur of their civilization.Moving eastward, we arrive in Ancient Mesopotamia, often referred to as the cradle of civilization. The remnants of great cities like Babylon and Nineveh reveal insights into the law, literature, and religion of this ancient society. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest known legal codes, offers us a glimpse into the justice system of that era. The epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient poem, takes us on a mythical journey exploring themes of mortality and human nature.Continuing our journey, we arrive at Ancient Greece, a civilization that laid the foundations of western philosophy, democracy, and scientific thought. The ruins of the Parthenon on the Acropolis stands as a testament to the architectural prowess of the Greeks. The works of philosophers like Plato and Aristotle shape our understanding of ethics, politics,and metaphysics. Playwrights such as Sophocles and Euripides provide us with timeless tragedies that delve into the complexities of the human experience.Stepping into Ancient China, we encounter a civilization that flourished for thousands of years. The Great Wall stands as a monumental feat of engineering and speaks to the importance of defense in ancient Chinese society. The philosophy of Confucianism emphasizes filial piety, respectfor elders, and harmonious relationships. Chinese calligraphy, with its graceful strokes, gives us a visual representationof the written word and reflects the aesthetics of theancient Chinese culture.In the realm of the Americas, the Mayan civilization captivates us with its advanced knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. The ruins of Tikal and Chichen Itza showcase the architectural brilliance of the Mayans. Their intricatecalendar system and hieroglyphic writing provide insightsinto their religious practices and traditions.As we journey through these diverse ancient civilizations, we see the common threads that connect humanity across time and space. The pursuit of knowledge, the quest for meaning, and the creation of awe-inspiring monuments are universal human endeavors.By uncovering the traces of ancient lives, we not onlygain a deeper understanding of our history but also acknowledge the achievements and wisdom of those who came before us. It is through this exploration that we honor the legacies of ancient people and ensure that their stories and accomplishments continue to resonate in the present and shape our future.。
古代两河流域著名史诗
古代两河流域著名史诗
古代两河流域是世界上最古老的文明之一，也是许多著名史诗的发源地。
以下是古代两河流域的一些著名史诗：
1. 《吉尔伽美什史诗》（Epic of Gilgamesh）：这是世界上现存最古老的史诗之一，约可追溯到公元前18世纪左右。
该史诗讲述了古代苏美尔王国吉尔伽美什的冒险故事，包括他与天神、巨人和野兽的战斗、追求不朽生命的旅程，以及对友谊和死亡的思考。
2. 《灯火之下的迷失》（The Lost City）：这是一部亦即《奇迹》（The Miracle））是古代苏美尔的神话史诗，叙述了骑兵加尔的故事，他为了拯救被恶魔绑架的沃…..城市而踏上冒险之旅。
3. 《埃努玛·埃利什》（Enuma Elish）：这是来源于巴比伦的史诗，描述了宇宙的起源和诸神之间的冲突。
它讲述了主神摩德鲁克（Marduk）与其他神明之间的战斗，以及他最终成为最高神和宇宙创造者的故事。
这些史诗对于研究古代两河流域文化和宗教有着重要的意义，对后续的文学和宗教发展产生了深远影响。
英语作文我最喜欢的古代故事80词
英语作文我最喜欢的古代故事80词全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1My Favorite Ancient StoryMy favorite ancient story is the Epic of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia. Gilgamesh was a mighty king who went on an amazing adventure to find the secret of immortality after his friend Enkidu died. He battled monsters like Humbaba the Terrible and failed to gain eternal life. But he learned an important lesson - to appreciate the life he had. I love this story because Gilgamesh is brave and determined, even when he fails. The tale teaches us about the inevitability of death in a captivating way.篇2My Favorite Ancient StoryOne of my all-time favorite ancient stories is the legend of Romulus and Remus. It's the mythical tale about the founding of Rome, and it's just so exciting and action-packed!So it starts off with these two baby brothers, Romulus and Remus, getting abandoned in the woods as babies. A fierce wolf finds them and instead of eating them, she actually nurses and cares for them! How crazy is that? The babies get raised by this wolf mom in her cave den.Eventually, a shepherd discovers the wolf cubs and takes them home to raise as his own sons. As they grow up, Romulus and Remus learn they were the long-lost princes born to royalty. They decide to build a new city where the wolf first found them.But then they get into this huge argument over what to name the new city. Romulus wants to name it Rome after himself, but Remus disagrees. Things get really heated between the brothers. Remus ends up killed in the fight, leaving Romulus to name the city Rome and become its first king.There's tons of betrayal, family drama, and violence in this classic myth! Babies raised by wolves, royal princes building an empire, murderous sibling rivalry—what's not to love? It reads like some sort of crazy soap opera from ancient times. The story of Romulus and Remus founding Rome is definitely my favorite tale from way back then.篇3My Favorite Ancient Story: The Epic of GilgameshI love ancient stories from way back in history. My favorite is the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia. It's this super old poem about the adventures of Gilgamesh, the heroic king of the city of Uruk.Gilgamesh was two-thirds god and one-third human, which made him extraordinarily strong and powerful. But he was also kind of a bully who liked to push people around. The people of Uruk got really fed up with how arrogant and mean he was acting. So the gods decided to create an equal for Gilgamesh to humble him - a mighty wild man named Enkidu.Enkidu lived in the wilderness with the animals. He was just as strong as Gilgamesh but more in tune with nature. When Enkidu first ran into Gilgamesh and his warriors, they had an epic battle that lasted for days. But then Enkidu and Gilgamesh realized how evenly matched they were, so instead of fighting they became best friends!Their first big adventure together was venturing into the Cedar Forest to take down the terrifying monster Humbaba who guarded the trees. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeated Humbaba, but this angered the gods. As punishment, they made Enkidu falldeathly ill. Enkidu suffered tremendously before dying, which was really sad. Gilgamesh was devastated to lose his best friend.Enkidu's death made Gilgamesh realize for the first time that he too would die someday. This terrified Gilgamesh, since he deeply feared death. So he went on an epic journey across weird lands to find the secret of eternal life and immortality. Along the way he met all kinds of zany characters and faced crazy challenges that were super dangerous.Eventually, Gilgamesh found the immortal flood survivor Utnapishtim, who told him a story about a mythical plant that could give eternal life. After a ton more adventures, Gilgamesh finally got his hands on this plant. But then, in a frustrating twist, a sneaky serpent stole the plant from Gilgamesh as he was bathing! He had come so close to immortality but lost it.In the end, Gilgamesh never did achieve eternal life. But he realized that the way to conquer death wasn't through some magic plant, but by living life to the fullest and making an impact that would be remembered forever through his great achievements, buildings and heroic tales.I just love the Epic of Gilgamesh because it has such an exciting adventure story filled with monsters, gods, heroes, tragedy, comedy and big life lessons. Gilgamesh is bravelyexploring the biggest mysteries of life itself - why we die and our quest for immortality. Even though it was written thousands of years ago, those questions are still so fascinating today. The story feels both really ancient and also super modern all at once.I get completely absorbed into the vivid world, imagining the fearsome monsters, mythical plants, cedar forests and the glory of the great king Gilgamesh and his mighty friend Enkidu. The wondrous parts with talking beasts and supernatural beings spark my imagination and whisk me away to a magical realm of adventure. I can picture it all so clearly in my mind, like I'm living inside the story myself!But the most meaningful part is how even though Gilgamesh is this powerful demigod hero, he's also just a regular guy trying to figure out life's biggest riddles and come to grips with his mortality, just like the rest of us. He goes through all these insane ordeals and achieves so much, only to find that the true meaning of life is far simpler - to live fully, impact others, and be remembered.That timeless message about the real "eternal life" being the lasting legacy we leave behind is what makes this ancient story feel so relevant, even in the modern day. I find it deeply movingand thought-provoking. When I read the epic, I ponder my own quest in life and what I hope to achieve before my time is up.Reading stories like this expanded my perspective at a young age on what the meaning of life could be. The Epic of Gilgamesh made me realize that the biggest thrills, grandest adventures, deepest mysteries and profoundest truths about existence have been pondered by humans for thousands and thousands of years across all cultures and times. We're all wrestling with the same huge life questions, hopes and fears - a truly unifying human experience that connects us篇4My Favorite Ancient StoryHi there! My name is Emma and I'm 10 years old. Today, I want to tell you about my absolute favorite story from ancient times. It's called the Epic of Gilgamesh and it's from Mesopotamia, which is where Iraq is today. Get ready, because this story is awesome!The Epic of Gilgamesh is about this guy named Gilgamesh who was the king of Uruk. He was two-thirds god and one-third human, so he was super strong and powerful. In the beginning, Gilgamesh was kind of a bully and he treated his people reallybadly. The gods didn't like that, so they created another guy named Enkidu who was just as strong as Gilgamesh.When Enkidu came to Uruk, he and Gilgamesh had an epic battle! They fought for a really long time and eventually became best friends. I think that's so cool how they went from enemies to best buds. After that, Gilgamesh wasn't such a jerk to his people anymore because Enkidu helped him chill out.But then something really sad happened - Enkidu died! Gilgamesh was so upset about losing his best friend that he decided to go on a quest to find the secret of eternal life so he would never have to die. His journey took him all across the ancient world.On his travels, Gilgamesh had to face all kinds of crazy challenges and monsters. There was this scary guy named Humbaba who guarded the Forest of Cedars. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeated Humbaba, but the goddess Ishtar got mad and sent the Bull of Heaven to attack them! It was this massive bull monster and they had an epic fight with it. There was so much action and adventure.Eventually, Gilgamesh found this guy named Utnapishtim who was the only human who got to live forever after surviving a huge flood. But Utnapishtim told Gilgamesh that he couldn'tbecome immortal. Instead, he taught Gilgamesh that he should be satisfied with the life he has and the great deeds he accomplished as king.At the end, Gilgamesh had to accept that he couldn't live forever, but his name would be remembered throughout history because of his heroic quest. I just love how this ancient story has crazy monsters, huge battles, a grieving hero, and an inspirational message about appreciating your own life. It's got everything!The Epic of Gilgamesh shows that even thousands of years ago, people wondered about the same big questions we still think about today - like what's the meaning of life and how can we achieve immortality? I'm just a kid, but those are some deep topics to ponder.I love ancient myths because they're exciting fantasy adventures, but they also teach us lessons about real life. My mom says the Epic of Gilgamesh is like the first ever heroic fantasy story and that so many other stories and books we love today were inspired by it. How cool is that?Maybe that's why I find it so captivating. The story of Gilgamesh has stood the test of time for over 4,000 years! Just imagine, kids in ancient Mesopotamia were sitting aroundhearing tales of Gilgamesh battling the Bull of Heaven, just like I'm learning about it today. It makes me feel connected to those kids from all that time ago because we're both being amazed by the same legendary story.I really hope you've enjoyed me telling you about the Epic of Gilgamesh. I could honestly go on and on because I'm just so fascinated by this ancient tale of heroes, gods, monsters, and the never-ending quest for eternal life. Who knew a story written on clay tablets thousands of years ago could still capture the imaginations of kids like me today?If you've never read the Epic of Gilgamesh, I highly recommend you check it out. And if you have read it, let me know what you think! I'd love to discuss all the crazy adventures Gilgamesh went on. For now, I'm just going to keep diving into other ancient myths and legends because I find them so much fun to learn about. Isn't it amazing how stories from the past can still engage us in the present? That's why I love ancient tales like the Epic of Gilgamesh!篇5My Favorite Ancient Story (80 words)My favorite ancient story is the Greek myth of Perseus and Medusa. I love how the brave hero Perseus has to go on an epic quest to slay the terrifying Gorgon Medusa, whose gaze turns anyone into stone! With help from the gods, Perseus uses his shield like a mirror to avoid looking directly at Medusa. He slays her and cuts off her snaky head. It's such an exciting tale of courage, monsters, and mythical adventures!Would you like me to expand this into a longer 2000-word essay going into more detail on the story and its meaning from a child's perspective? Let me know if you need any clarification or have additional instructions.篇6My Favorite Ancient StoryOnce upon a time, in a land far, far away, there lived a brave and curious young girl named Alice. She had a wild imagination and loved nothing more than curling up with a good book, letting her mind wander into fantastical realms of talking animals, mad hatters, and nonsensical riddles.One sunny afternoon, Alice was sitting under a giant oak tree, her nose buried in a book, when she spotted a peculiar sight – a plump white rabbit wearing a waistcoat and carrying a pocketwatch. Intrigued, Alice hopped to her feet and scampered after the strange creature, following it down a deep, dark rabbit hole.After tumbling and twisting through the narrow tunnel, Alice emerged into a wondrous world unlike anything she had ever seen before. Everything around her seemed to defy the laws of logic and physics – plants and mushrooms grew to towering heights, animals could talk and reason like humans, and the very laws of gravity seemed to shift and bend at a whim.As Alice ventured further into this curious land, she encountered a motley crew of eccentric characters, each more bizarre than the last. There was the grinning Cheshire Cat, whose body would disappear and reappear at will, leaving only its mischievous smile floating in mid-air. Then there were the rambunctious Tweedle Dee and Tweedle Dum, who engaged Alice in a bout of wordplay and nonsensical rhymes.But perhaps the most peculiar encounter of all was with the Mad Hatter and the March Hare, who were forever trapped in a perpetual tea party. Alice joined them at their table, surrounded by a strange assortment of talking dormice, and was immediately swept up in their madcap antics and riddles that seemed to have no rhyme or reason.As Alice navigated this fantastical world, she learned valuable lessons about embracing her curiosity, questioning societal norms, and never losing sight of her sense of wonder and imagination. Along the way, she encountered challenges and obstacles that tested her wit and resilience, but she always emerged triumphant, her spirit unbroken.One of the things I love most about this story is how it celebrates the power of imagination and encourages readers to embrace their unique perspectives and quirks. The characters Alice encounters are all unconventional and unapologetically themselves, teaching her the importance of individuality and accepting others for who they are.Another aspect of the story that resonates with me is the way it plays with language and logic. The puns, riddles, and nonsensical dialogues challenge readers to think outside the box and question the boundaries of conventional thinking. It's a whimsical reminder that sometimes, the most profound truths can be found in the most unlikely of places.But perhaps what truly makes this story a timeless classic is its ability to capture the essence of childhood wonder and curiosity. As a young reader, I found myself transported into Alice's world, eagerly following her adventures and marveling atthe fantastical sights and characters she encountered. It was a reminder that even in the midst of the mundane, there is always room for magic and imagination.To this day, whenever I find myself bogged down by the demands of reality, I revisit the pages of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and allow myself to be swept away into that whimsical world of talking animals, mad hatters, and nonsensical riddles. It's a reminder to never lose touch with that wide-eyed sense of wonder that makes life so enchanting.So, if you ever find yourself feeling a bit too grown-up and jaded, I implore you to pick up this timeless tale and let it whisk you away on a journey down the rabbit hole. Who knows? You might just discover a world of endless possibilities and a renewed appreciation for the magic that lies within us all.。
英语作文历史故事演讲
英语作文历史故事演讲英文回答：History, a tapestry of human endeavor, is a rich and complex narrative that shapes our present and informs our future. Throughout the annals of time, countless stories have been woven into the fabric of our collective memory, inspiring and teaching us valuable lessons.One such tale that has captivated generations is the epic of Gilgamesh, a legendary king of ancient Mesopotamia. This epic poem, dating back to the 3rd millennium B.C.E., tells the story of Gilgamesh's quest for immortality and the profound existential questions he grapples with along the way.Gilgamesh, a powerful and arrogant ruler, embarks on a perilous journey to distant lands, seeking the secret of eternal life. Along his path, he encounters a myriad of challenges and trials that test his limits and force him toconfront the fragility of human existence.The epic culminates in Gilgamesh's encounter with Utnapishtim, a wise and immortal sage who reveals the true nature of mortality and the importance of living a meaningful life in the face of inevitable death. Gilgamesh returns to his kingdom transformed, a wiser and more compassionate ruler.The story of Gilgamesh serves as a timeless reminder of the universal human desire for transcendence and the profound existential questions that accompany our transient existence. Through its rich symbolism and allegorical language, the epic explores the themes of mortality, the search for meaning, and the human condition.Another captivating historical narrative is the saga of the Trojan War, immortalized in Homer's epic poems theIliad and the Odyssey. This legendary conflict between the Greeks and Trojans has been a source of fascination for centuries, inspiring countless works of art, literature, and music.The tale unfolds as the beautiful Helen, wife of King Menelaus of Sparta, is abducted by the Trojan prince Paris. The Greeks, outraged by this act of treachery, assemble a mighty army to besiege Troy. The ensuing war lasts for ten long years, filled with valor, tragedy, and epic battles.The Iliad focuses on the events leading up to andduring the siege, while the Odyssey follows the perilous journey of Odysseus, one of the Greek heroes, as heattempts to return home after the fall of Troy. The Trojan War stands as a testament to the destructive power of pride, hubris, and the devastating consequences of conflict.Both the epic of Gilgamesh and the saga of the Trojan War are enduring historical narratives that continue to resonate with audiences today. They offer invaluableinsights into the human experience, exploring timeless themes of mortality, the search for meaning, and the complexities of human nature.中文回答：历史故事演讲。
世界上最古老的十本书
世界上最古老的十本书下面的十本书，也许与我们如今认为的“书”有很大区别，但这些著作却第一次记录了人类的历史、故事、宗教信仰和日常生活等各个方面。
文明一点一滴的发展、社会一点一滴的进步，全都刻画进了这些书里，历经千年，它们仍值得每一个人尊敬。
1.《苏鲁巴克箴言》（Instructions of Shuruppak）约公元前3000年这本书是迄今为止最古老的已知文献著作之一，讲述了一位神秘的苏美尔国王的故事。
除了《苏鲁巴克箴言》外，在其他文献中几乎找不到关于这位国王的记述，所以一些学者甚至怀疑是否真有其人。
书中关于苏鲁巴克的故事其实是我们耳熟能详的典型大洪水情节。
他和家人一起度过了毁灭性的大洪水，而那张写有《箴言》的泥板文书记载了国王奉行的道德准则。
这些准则令他赢得了神的青睐，让他在洪水退去后统治美索不达米亚。
2.《伊塔那史诗》（Epic of Etana）约公元前2600年根据史诗的记述，伊塔那是基什国（Kish）的国王。
史诗中的故事围绕他对女神伊什塔尔（Ishtar，也称依楠娜Inanna）的奉献和为求得王位继承人的努力展开。
在赢得伊什塔尔的青睐后，伊塔那经过一系列冒险，战胜了难以想象的困难，最终如愿以偿，喜得贵子巴里赫（Balih）。
遗憾的是，现在这首诗仅存片段，其中的很多内容已经失传。
3.《金字塔文本》（Pyramid Texts）约公元前2400—2300年间目前，《金字塔文本》被认为是世界上最古老的宗教文献之一，它是十位古埃及王室成员墓葬铭文的汇编。
这些文字跨度近250年，最古老的部分是第五代王朝统治者乌纳斯（Unas，也称乌里斯Unis）金字塔的文献，可追溯至公元前2400-2300年之间。
这些文字雕刻于金字塔的墙壁两侧和石棺上，详尽地叙述了古埃及人对于死后来生的认识，以及严格的社会等级结构。
这些玄妙的咒语、咒符不仅向神祈求保护法老或王后永生，还概述了他们死后灵魂的所能和所不能。
在乌纳斯的墓中，有一段臭名昭著的“食人歌”，内容暗示活人祭祀和食人肉是统治民众的手段和获取神灵力量的方法。
经典照亮前行路的英语作文
Classics have a profound impact on our lives,illuminating the path ahead and guiding us through the complexities of the world.They are the timeless treasures of human civilization,offering wisdom,inspiration,and solace.Firstly,classics provide us with a wealth of knowledge and insights.They cover a wide range of subjects,from literature and history to science and philosophy.By delving into these works,we can expand our understanding of the world and gain a deeper appreciation of the human experience.For instance,the works of Shakespeare offer profound insights into human nature and the complexities of life,while the theories of Newton and Einstein have shaped our understanding of the physical world. Secondly,classics inspire us to think critically and creatively.They challenge our preconceived notions and encourage us to question the status quo.This intellectual stimulation can be a catalyst for innovation and progress.For example,the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels have inspired social and political revolutions,while the writings of George Orwell have prompted us to reflect on the dangers of totalitarianism. Thirdly,classics offer solace and comfort in times of adversity.They can provide a sense of connection and continuity,reminding us that we are not alone in our struggles.The stories and characters in these works can resonate with our own experiences,offering empathy and understanding.For example,the tales of perseverance and resilience in the works of Charles Dickens can inspire us to overcome our own challenges. Moreover,classics can foster a sense of cultural identity and belonging.They are the products of specific historical and cultural contexts,reflecting the values,beliefs,and aspirations of their time.By engaging with these works,we can develop a deeper appreciation of our cultural heritage and a sense of connection to the past.For instance, the epic of Gilgamesh,one of the earliest known works of literature,offers a window into the ancient Mesopotamian civilization and its worldview.Furthermore,classics can promote empathy and understanding across cultures.They often depict universal human experiences and emotions,transcending geographical and cultural boundaries.This shared humanity can foster a sense of global unity and interconnectedness.For example,the works of Leo Tolstoy,such as War and Peace and Anna Karenina,explore themes of love,loss,and societal expectations that resonate with readers from diverse backgrounds.Lastly,classics can serve as a source of inspiration for personal growth and selfimprovement.They often present models of virtue and wisdom,encouraging us to strive for excellence and moral integrity.By emulating the characters and ideas in theseworks,we can cultivate our own virtues and refine our character.For instance,the teachings of Confucius in The Analects offer guidance on ethical conduct and social harmony.In conclusion,classics play a vital role in illuminating our path forward,enriching our lives in numerous ways.They are a testament to the enduring power of human creativity and intellect,offering us knowledge,inspiration,and solace.By engaging with these timeless works,we can navigate the complexities of the world with greater wisdom and understanding.。
我想畅游世界诗歌英语作文
我想畅游世界诗歌英语作文Roaming the Literary Horizons of Global Poetry.Poetry, an intricate tapestry woven with words, transcends linguistic boundaries, resonating with the human soul across cultures and epochs. Embarking on a literary odyssey around the world, we immerse ourselves in the diverse voices, perspectives, and emotions that have shaped the poetic landscape.Ancient Echoes: The Cradle of Civilization.Our journey begins in the cradle of civilization, where ancient poets left an indelible mark on the literary canon. In Mesopotamia, the Epic of Gilgamesh, a tale of friendship, loss, and immortality, echoes through time. From Egypt, the Book of the Dead guides us through the realms of theafterlife with its enigmatic hieroglyphs.The Iliad and Odyssey: Epics of Heroism and Adventure.Ancient Greece birthed Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems that celebrate heroism, courage, and the allure of adventure. Odysseus's perilous journey home after the Trojan War captivates our imaginations, while Achilles's tragic fate highlights the harsh realities of war.The Divine Comedy: A Journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven.Crossing centuries and cultures, we encounter Dante's Divine Comedy, a masterpiece of medieval literature. Virgil guides Dante through the horrors of Hell, the purifying flames of Purgatory, and the celestial glories of Heaven. This allegorical tale explores the nature of sin, redemption, and the search for God.The Sonnets of William Shakespeare: Timeless Expressions of Love.The Elizabethan era witnessed the emergence of William Shakespeare, whose sonnets have become synonymous with thelanguage of love. With exquisite precision, he captures the ecstasy, torments, and complexities of the human heart. Sonnet 18, with its immortal lines "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?," stands as a testament to poetry's enduring power to express universal emotions.The Romantics: Nature, Emotion, and Imagination.The Romantic era brought forth a surge of poets who celebrated the beauty of nature, the importance of personal emotion, and the boundless power of imagination. William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" explores the connection between childhood and spirituality, while Percy Bysshe Shelley's haunting "Ozymandias" reflects on the transience of power.Modernism: Breaking Boundaries and Exploring Consciousness.The modernist movement in the early 20th century challenged traditional forms and themes. T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land," a fragmented and allusive masterpiece, delvesinto the fragmented consciousness of a modern urban wasteland. Ezra Pound's "The Cantos" experiments with historical and mythological motifs, creating a collage-like epic.Postcolonial Poetry: Voices from the Margins.Postcolonial literature emerged after the era of colonialism, giving voice to marginalized cultures and perspectives. Derek Walcott, a Nobel Prize-winning poet from the Caribbean, celebrated the beauty and diversity of the African diaspora in works such as "Omeros." Chinua Achebe's "The Song of Lawino" explores the resilience of traditional African culture in a changing world.Contemporary Poetry: Exploring Identity, Technology, and the Human Condition.Contemporary poetry continues to push boundaries and explore new themes. Ocean Vuong's "Night Sky with Exit Wounds" navigates the complexities of race, sexuality, and familial relationships in a multicultural society. IlyaKaminsky's "Deaf Republic" examines the nature of language and communication through the lens of a deaf community.Conclusion: A Tapestry of Voices.This literary odyssey has taken us through a kaleidoscope of poetic voices and perspectives, spanning continents and centuries. From ancient epics to contemporary explorations, poetry has served as a mirror to the human soul, reflecting our hopes, fears, dreams, and struggles. By immersing ourselves in the world's poetry, we expand our horizons, deepen our understanding, and connect with the collective tapestry of human experience.。
The-Epic-of-GILGAMESH
6
Places
• Uruk- A city of ancient Sumer. On the Euphrates River….. “G’s Crib.”
• Eanna- Shared temple of Anu and Ishtar. Located in Uruk…. “The love shack”.
wall of Uruk haven. Supreme over other kings. Lordly in
appearance. (Do you think there is a worthy praise to
Gilgamesh or just a flattery)?
• Gilgameshs oppressing the people of Uruk- he has no wife or
the animals)?
• The Harlot seduces Enkidu and Enkidu becomes human. (Why
is this important to the epic? What power does The Harlot hold)?
• Gilgamesh and his dreams- Has two dreams about being
- • Enkidu Wild man sent by
Aruru to challenge Gilgamesh.
More animal than person.
• The Trapper- Notorious
trapper whose trappings were foiled by Enkidu.
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Tablet II
• Enkidu = Human- Enkidu gradually becomes more human by interacting with them and protecting them from animals. (How is this a change from is original behavior and why is this important)? • Enkidu to the rescue- Enkidu tries to stop Gilgamesh from sleeping with newly wed wife as is the custom of the land. (How is this behavior similar to his behavior at the beginning of the epic)? • WWE- Enkidu and Gilgamesh wrestle. Gilgamesh wins and Enkidu accepts him as his superior. They become good friends. (How is this ironic)? • Target Humbaba- Gilgamesh proposes they go kill Humbaba in the Cedar Forest. Both of them know how dangerous Humbaba is. (How would each benefit from killing Humbaba)? •
Guardian demon of the Ceder Forest.
Gods and Goddesses
• NinsunNinsun• Ishtar• AnuAnuThe mother of Gilgamesh. Wife of Lugalbanda. “Lady Wild Cow”.
lo Goddesses of love and war. Shares the temple in Uruk with Anu. The sky God. Father of the Gods. Uruk was his sacred city.
The Epic of GILGAMESH
PRESENTED BY: ANDREW JONES AND AARON WOODWARD AKA……
The A Team!!!!
Characters
• Gilgamesh- King of Uruk,
2/3 god 1/3 man. Epic hero.
• AruruAruru• EnlilEnlil-
The mother Goddesses Cr created mankind. Created the model of Gilgamash and Enkidu.
Lord Wind. In charge of determining destiny. Created Humbaba.
Tablet I
• A praise of Gilgamesh- Granted infinite knowledge. Built the Gilgameshwall of Uruk haven. Supreme over other kings. Lordly in appearance. (Do you think there is a worthy praise to Gilgamesh or just a flattery)? • Gilgameshs oppressing the people of Uruk- he has no wife or Urukheir. (How do you think he was oppressing the people)? • People Complaints- Complained to the Gods about Gilgamesh. ComplaintsDue to the many complaints Aruru created Enkidu in order to challenge Gilgamesh. • Enkidu frees the animals The Trapper trapped. The Trapper goes to Gilgamesh and Gilgamesh tells him to employ The Harlot to get rid of Enkidu. (What is significant of Enkidu freeing the animals)? • The Harlot seduces Enkidu and Enkidu becomes human. (Why is this important to the epic? What power does The Harlot hold)? • Gilgamesh and his dreams- Has two dreams about being dreamschallenged by someone and then “embraces is it as a wife”. (How did you interpret that phrase? How is it foreshadowing events to come)?
•
•
•
Tablet Iv
• Journey of juju- The Journey takes 6 days to the Cedar Forest (PINE???) and each day Gilgamesh gives offering to Shamash in hopes that he will receive favorable messages, however, Shamash sends bad juju..(that’s how I translated it) through dreams. Enkidu interprets them as good juju. (Do you think Enkidu is right or just trying to life Gilgamesh’s spirits)? • Frightening Fight- Enkidu gets scared and wants to leave and the two get into a fight because of it. Humbaba hears the fight and gets pissed off. Gilgamesh convinces Enkidu that they should stick together and fight Humbaba. ( Yes Alex I would like “MORAL?” for 500 GUR)?
பைடு நூலகம்• Enkidu-
Wild man sent by Aruru to challenge Gilgamesh. More animal than person.
• The Trapper• Shamhat• Humbaba-
Notorious trapper whose trappings were foiled by Enkidu. Employed Harlot by the trapper to stop Enkidu by sexual temptation.
The sun God. God
• Shamash-
Places
• Uruk- A city of ancient Sumer. On the Euphrates River….. “G’s Crib.” • Eanna- Shared temple of Anu and Ishtar. Located in Uruk…. “The love shack”. • Cedar ForestProtectorate of Humbab. SW Iran or Amanus Mountains in S Turkey… “we dunno it may be pine?”
Tablet III
• Parental control- (No not the MTV show)…. The elders and Gilgamesh’s mother agree to let the two go on the journey, on the condition that Enkidu take responsibility for Gilgamesh’s safe return. (Foreshadowing anyone….)? • Failure- Enkidu tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from going but fails and they leave.
Tablet V
• The Final Countdown- Humbaba confronts Gilgamesh and Enkidu and tells them to leave the Cedar Forest…(Pine..?). Humbaba tells he should not be hanging out with a LOSER like Enkidu. BOO!!!- Humbaba makes a scary face and Gilgamesh runs and hides. Enkidu manages to get Gilgamesh to stop being a pansy and come and fight like all 1/3 of his manliness. The two manage to beat Humbaba after an EPIC…..(HAHA get it….) battle. PWN3D- Humbaba begs for his life but Enkidu convinces Gilgamesh to kill Humbaba. Enkidu then goes and cuts down the tallest Cedar (Pine…?) tree with which he plans on making a door. The last bullet- The two make a raft out of the Cedar (Pine..?) trees and sail down the Euphrates holding the head of Humbaba.