王晓兆 外文翻译
TOD ResearchonNewUrb_省略_trictofHefeiCity_778
Research on New Urban Area Planning Based on TOD Mode: A Study on Binhu New District of Hefei CityGU Dazhi, YAN Ping1. IntroductionAs a transit-oriented urban development technique, the TOD mode targets at mak-ing intensive use of land. It is widely adopt-ed in European and some Asian cities with large populations and has achieved certain success. Since the mode was introduced into China in the 1990s, it has been mainly used in mega-cities with urban rail-transit system. In fact, considering the rapid proc-ess of urbanization and accelerated urban construction, the TOD mode also has prac-tical significance for the numerous large and medium-sized Chinese cities whose current conditions do not allow for rail-transit construction①. Most of these cities are at the crucial stage of transformation from being mono-centric to being multi-centric. This paper takes Binhu New Dis-trict of Hefei City as an example to study the TOD-based new urban area design.2. Definition of TOD and its signifi-cance for Chinese citiesThe TOD mode was put forward in the the world average level, and the country has ranked No. 2 in the world in overall en-ergy consumption③. Various problems have appeared: inefficient use of land resources, immense investment in infrastructure, rap-id increase of private automobiles, heavy tidal transportation, etc. How to promote the limitations in private car use and the improvement of land-use efficiency are the main challenges that Chinese cities are fac-ing, forming the demand to adopt a more sustainable TOD mode④. The TOD mode is significant in helping to solve these urban problems in China and lead to a sustainable urban development⑤.3. Background of Binhu New District design and practical conditions for realizing the TOD modeHefei City has developed rapidly since it was established as the capital city of An-hui Province in 1949. In the 1980s’ overall development plan of Hefei, a spatial layout of “three-blade-fan model”, setting the old town area as the center and having three new urban areas built in the east,Abstract As an urban development mode, the TOD (Transit-oriented Development) mode, targeted at energy-saving and based on the public transportation system, has positive signifi cance for solving problems like disordered urban sprawl and traffi c congestion in Chinese cities. This article takes Binhu New District of Hefei as an example to illustrate the practice of the TOD mode in the urban design of large and medium-sized cities. The paper analyzes the relationship between the new district, central urban area, and public transportation development, and puts forward that the TOD mode is suitable for Bihu New District. It states that the TOD mode can be realized through methods such as the building of a “double-rapid” comprehensive public transportation network, the setting up of decentralized-compact urban clusters and TOD communi-ties, the mixevd land-use, as well as the scenery design with complete walking space. The paper also proposes that certain fl exible methods can be adopted in order to promote the TOD mode, including making full use of bus transit when rail transit is lacked, setting up TOD communities surrounding the transport hubs, etc.Keywords TOD; new urban area; road system planning; “double-rapid” comprehensive public transportation network; decentralized-compact urban cluster1980s by Peter Calthorpe, an Americanarchitect and urban planner, in order tosolve urban problems such as serioussuburbanization, large-scale low-densityurban sprawl, overdependence on mini-cars, and a high degree of social isolationin the United States. The TOD mode hasbecome an important part of planning the-ories such as “Neo-urbanism” and “SmartGrowth”. It aims at building an urbanland-use mode that suits the public trans-portation service, i.e., an urban spatiallayout that takes the public transit corridoras the tie and the comprehensive land-useclusters surrounding the traffi c stations asthe joints. Flexible to fit different urbanconditions, the TOD mode is widely usedin practice. For example, Arlington in theUnited Sates employs the subway corridordevelopment mode, which is based on railtransit stations, while Curitiba in Braziladopts the “three-direction road develop-ment mode,” which is based on the BRT(Bus Rapid Transit)②.In the past 10 years, the urbanization levelin China has developed twice as much as6667north and southwest, was formulated forHefei City. The population in Hefei has increased by 25 times in 50 years, reach-ing 1.26 million, and the urbanization rate reached 46.3% in 2002⑥. Since the urban construction could not meet the needs of urban development, it was carried out to develop a new district to solve the problem of a shortage of urban land.Binhu New District is located in the south-east of Hefei City, with Hechao Road in the west, the Southern 2nd Ring Road in the north, South Feihe River in the east, and Chaohu Lake (the fifth largest freshwater lake in China) in the south. The new dis-trict includes all the land in Dawei Town, Yicheng Town, and Yixing Town, as well as a part of the land in Luogang Town, covering a planned land-use area of 110 km 2. With abundant humanistic and natural resources in the area, Binhu New District is designed as an ecological new urban area that integrates the functions of exhibition, commerce, residence, tourism and recrea-tion. The TOD mode was adopted in the new district planning upon the analysis of the following points (see Fig. 1).(1) Relation of functional structure be-tween Binhu New District and the central urban areaCompared with the old urban center, Bin-hu New District has a limited area and is less attractive, so it is only the evacuation location for certain functions of the cen-tral urban area and has little possibility in becoming a new central area. Therefore, Binhu New District, as the extension of the central urban area, should have a close connection and convenient transportation link with the central urban area.Fig. 1 Location of Binhu New District in Hefei City(2) Relation of spatial structure between Binhu New District and the central urban areaThe new district continues the Fan-shaped development mode of the city. Like other three-wing clusters, the new district has a strong economic connection with the central urban area and requires high-speed transit system for commuting between them.(3) Development target of rail transit in Binhu New DistrictAccording to the target of the rail transit network plan of Hefei City, the first rail transit line will be completed in 2014 and will link Binhu New District and the old central area, which will become the foun-dation for adopting the TOD mode in the development of Binhu New District. In ad-dition, according to Hefei’s present trans-portation situation, the city has entered a period of acceleration with rapid increase of urban motorization. The increased tran-sit demand caused by urbanization and motorization will lead to a waste of re-sources, deterioration of environment, and traffic congestion if there are no suitablecounter-measures. Therefore, the adop-tion of a TOD mode in the new district is a natural choice, aiming to guarantee health urban development.4. Binhu New District development strategy concerning the TOD modeThe TOD mode was proposed during the beginning of the planning stage of Binhu New District. A transit-oriented new ur-ban district will be built through the set-ting up of a “double-rapid” comprehensive public transit network, the construction of decentralized-compact urban clusters and TOD communities, mixed land-use, as well as the design of walking space with scenery (see Fig. 2). The main design strategies are as follows.4.1 Building a “double-rapid” compre-hensive public transit networkConsidering the specific transportation conditions of Binhu New District, some changes are made to the conventional TOD mode. Rail transit in the west is combined with the BRT in the east to formHefei CityFirst Ring Road Second Ring RoadOld City Center First Ring Road Second Ring Road312 National RoadHechao RoadPlanning 1 Rail Transit LineFeihe RoadBinhu New DistrictChaohu Lake68Fig. 2 Overall chnography of Binhu New District Development PlanFig. 3 Transportation analysisResidential land Roads and squares Municipal facilities Green spaceSpecially -designated land Intercity transport land Warehouse land Industrial land Public facilities WatersMiscellaneous Sub-level transport hubRail transit station BRT station Bus stop fieldComprehensive transport hub Normal bus transit networksBus rapid transit Rail transit line two transportation corridors, which will serve as the framework for constructing a sub-level bus transit network covering the entire new district (see Fig. 3).4.1.1 “Double-rapid” comprehensive public transit corridorsA transit rail line is designed to run along Hechao Road to connect the old urban area with Binhu New District, which serves as the supplement of the BRT that is designed to run along South Feihe Road. These two transit lines will form the “double-rapid” comprehensive public transit corridors and become the rapid transit line reaching the central urban area. Three comprehensive transport hubs will be set up along the BRT line and be located at the three “decentral-ized-compact” urban clusters of Yicheng Town, Dawei Town, and Yixing Town. The three urban clusters will each develop its own transportation-service areas, business areas, and residential areas around the trans-port hubs that are the centers of the town ina radial shape. Multiple sub-level transport hubs will also be set up within the three ur-ban clusters, and around these hubs, a great number of dispersed TOD communities will be constructed.4.1.2 Multiple bus transit networksThe “double-rapid” comprehensive transit corridors serve as the basis for the bus tran-sit network system. The bus transit network can be divided into basic lines and supple-mentary lines and covers the entire Binhu New District area intensively. The basic lines of the bus transit network can satisfy the transit needs for medium- and short-distance travel between the three urban clusters and the TOD communities, and are responsible for the connection and transfer between the comprehensive transport hubs along the “double-rapid” transportation corridors. The supplementary lines are de-signed to satisfy the transportation needs in the undeveloped areas, as well as the marginal regions.4.1.3 Intensive graded road structurePublic transportation should be given full consideration in the design of the urban road network. The single main-street structure should be changed into an in-tensive graded and multi-functional road network structure. The main streets are designed to link the three “decentralized-compact” urban clusters, and a main road network of “four horizontal and three vertical” structure has been built in the new district. The sub-level road network is designed in the area between the main streets and is mainly located inside each urban cluster in order to divide the different TOD communities. Branch roads are built within the TOD communities. These sub-level streets and branches are mainly used to satisfy the needs of public bus transit and pedestrian.According to the need for public bus lines, the distance between sub-level streets in the city is 400 – 500 m; and the distance between branches is 200 – 300 m. As more roads share the traffic flow and improve the efficiency of bus transit, the intensive road network structure far increases the accessi-bility to the TOD communities. At the same time, the intensive road network reduces the scale of the community and the size of the streets, which makes them more comfort-able and suitable for walking.4.2 Multi-centric hierarchical spatial structureThe multi-centric structure is designed for the spatial layout of Binhu New Dis-trict. According to the plan, the three decentralized-compact urban clusters are formed naturally from north to south, from Yicheng Town to Yixing Town to Dawei Town. The comprehensive transport hubs69Fig. 5 Land-use layout within the transit station areaare designed at the eastern and westernsides of each town. Inside the urban clus-ter, sub-level bus transport hubs are built symmetrically, and the TOD communities will be constructed around these hubs. The entire Binhu New District is in a hierarchi-cal structure composed of urban clusters and TOD communities (see Fig. 4).4.2.1 Decentralized-compact urban clusters The decentralized-compact urban clusters re-gard urban public transit as the link between different multi-functional “urban organic parts” within the urban area. “Decentral-ized” refers to the “multi-centers” of the new district, and “compact” means the intensive utilization of the urban land in the area.The functional layout plan of Binhu New District adopts the idea of “decentralized-compact” urban clusters, which corre-sponds to the influence of the TOD mode. Because of the great attraction of trans-port hubs to the crowd, land development becomes more intensive when it is closer to the hubs, so that the urban construction shows an obvious phenomenon of “float-ing” to the transport hubs. Taking this feature into account, the idea of “decen-tralized-compact” urban clusters requires that the development intensity follows the principle of decreasing from the central area to the outer space, where the height of the buildings should also be lower the further they are from the hub.The three decentralized-compact urban clusters play different roles in the whole area of Binhu New District: the function of Yixing Town is exhibition; that of Yicheng Town is business; and Dawei Town is tour-ism. The development of these urban clus-ters takes the comprehensive transport hubof the “double-rapid” transit corridors as the center and reduces the developmental inten-sity when it is farther from the hub. A large ecological corridor is reserved between the urban clusters as valuable space for future development. Multiple TOD communities are constructed inside the urban clusters around the sub-level transport hubs, which integrate the functions of working, living, and recreation and form multiple mixed-use spatial units.The layout of the decentralized-compact urban cluster satis fi es the living and work-ing needs of the residents inside the TOD communities, and most of the business activities can take place inside the urban clusters so that the amount of commuting is reduced; at the same time, the design of urban clusters and the TOD communities all take the transit hubs as the centers of development, which improves the conven-ience of commuting and the efficiency of public transit. The layout of the decentral-ized-compact urban clusters based on theTOD communities is well integrated with the TOD development mode of the city.4.2.2 TOD communityThe TOD community is an urban spatial unit that connects directly with the residents. It is the main practical subject of mixed land development, transit-oriented development, and pedestrian system design. The TOD community is constructed around the sub-level transport hubs that are scattered sym-metrically in the urban cluster. The central business area with mixed commercial facili-ties and working facilities is built around the transport hubs, while the outer space is built for residential use. The development intensity is decreased from the transport hub to the peripheral area. The open space in the farthest outer ring serves as the boundary of the communities (see Fig. 5). The main plan-ning points are:① Structure: though public transit serves as the tie, it is more convenient for the residents to adopt the “sub-level tran-sit-hub-oriented” development modeFig. 4 Spatial structure Commerce and finance Dispersion-compact urban bodyGreen spaceMixed development area Municipal utilities Community support facilities Administrative office Low density residential area Industrial landMedium-high density residen-tial areaTOD community based on the compre-hensive transport hub TOD commu-nity based on the sub-level transport hub Development inten-sity: strong – weak70rather than the “comprehensive transit-hub-oriented” development mode of the BRT lines.② Scale: the plan of the new district gives up the layout of “large” residences, but rather adopts the traditional neighbor-hood pattern and reticular roads frame-work, and decides on the community scale of every block based on the radius of walking distance. Kindergartens, schools, af fi liated business facilities, and municipal facilities are scattered in the community by different service radii.③ Layout: every community is a multi-functional spatial unit whose center is the sub-level transport hub, and the central area is constructed around the hub. Living facilities such as shopping stores, supermarkets, and restaurants, as well as certain office areas, are lo-cated in the central area. Outside the center is the residential area in high density with walkable size. The outer ring is public open space that includes parks, green land, and squares.Fig. 6 Development of TOD CommunityRail transit lineBus transitTOD community based on the sub-level transport hubTOD community based on the sub-level transport hubTOD community based on the comprehensive transport hubBus rapid transitCapacity ratioVariation curve of capacity ratioCentral areaTOD community based on the comprehensive transport hubCentral functional areaOffice working area Medium-high density residential areaLow density residential areaOpen spaceOpen spaceOpen spaceMedium density residential area Low density residential areaPublic facility and working area Central functional area Office working areaMedium-high density residential area Low density residential areaMedium-high density development area Medium density development areaLow density development areaother cities and considering the present land-use situation in Hefei, the capacity of the comprehensive functional areas of busi-ness, recreation and office, which are close to the comprehensive transport hubs in the urban body, should be controlled at around 4 FAR (Floor Area Ratio), the capacity of multi-functional areas, which are close to sub-level transit hubs in the TOD commu-nities, should be around 3 FAR, and the ca-pacity of residential area should be around 2 FAR (see Fig. 6).4.3.3 Mixed-functional development of trans-port hubsIn order to encourage residents to take public transit, the seamless connection between living space, pedestrian system, and stations should be realized ⑧. Multiple seamless connection tactics are presented in the design through the mixed use of the transit hubs and business services: the station and the shopping facilities form a merging building lot (which can be as deep as three floors underground), where4.3 Mixed and high-intensity land devel-opment4.3.1 Mixed development of landOn the urban cluster level, the surrounding area of the comprehensive transport hub has the highest intensity of development in the whole Binhu New District, with high density and mixed development. The devel-opment intensity is reduced from the center to the peripheral area and the capacity is reduced by the same ratio. Inside the clus-ter, the sub-level transport hub is the center of development, around which the central business area with business facilities and of fi ce facilities are located.4.3.2 High-intensity development of landHigh-intensity development is an important feature of the TOD mode. Overseas prac-tice shows that the suitable residence densi-ty is 25 – 45 houses/acre (about 0.62 – 1.11 houses/100 m 2), and the suitable working post rate is 50/acre (about 1.24/100 m 2)⑦. But this is far from enough to cater to Chi-na’s urban development. Compared with71elevators and lifters are used to connectdifferent floors; more living facilities are set up within walkable distance from the station; the station hall and bus transfer station are built on the same fl oor, etc.4.4 Pedestrian system and public space design associated with the landscape4.4.1 Landscape system constructionNear Chaohu Lake, the new district contains the mother river of Hefei – South Feihe River – fl owing through from north to south, as well as Shiwuli River, Tangxi River, etc., and they are precious urban ecologi-cal corridors in the city. The two ecological landscape belts – the southern Feihe River landscape belt and the scenic belt around Chaohu Lake – are shaped by combining the shorelines of Chaohu Lake and southern Feihe River. The landscape belts circle the whole new district and become its “green lung”, which is mainly for tourism and rec-reational activities in Binhu New District.4.4.2 Public space designThe large area of green land between the urban complexes is preserved for an open city park. The extensive wetlands, tidal flats, and ecological farmlands constitute the pastoral and ecological landscape. The reserved green land between the TOD communities is designed for small parks, ecological controlling green land, and nursery production bases. Associated with the pedestrian system planning in each community, the public space strengthens the mutual exchange and infiltration be-tween the different functional spaces like surrounding commercial space, residential space, and cultural recreational space, etc. 4.4.3 Well-designed pedestrian systemThe TOD community provides good walk-ing and cycling access for residents. All of the streets have clear and convenient walk-ways by which the key business districts are well connected with transit facilities. All the intersections are marked with zebra cross-ings without pedestrian tunnels and over-passes. A complete bikeway system is built in or between the TOD Communities. It is situated at the origin-destination of impor-tance, such as key business districts, transit sites, employment service centers, schools and other public facilities. Within all the blocks, vehicles can go directly into the un-derground parking lots from the entrance of each block to reduce the interference to resi-dents’ walk. Various buildings should have the possible shortest distance to the transit stations, and main commercial facilities and public transportation facilities should be well combined.5. Exploring the planning model of new district based on the TOD modeThis planning exemplifies the develop-ment of Binhu New District in Hefei and studies some of the applied strategies in the development of new districts in large and medium-sized cities. The article points out that the planning of large and medium-sized cities can employ lots of flexible methods for the implementation of the TOD mode, such as making use of all kinds of public transportation to guide the urban development besides rail transit, and building TOD communities around the transport hubs so as to attain public transportation-oriented development.5.1 Making use of all kinds of public transportation to guide the urban devel-opmentThe theory and practice of the TOD modeis comparatively mature and ideal now. However, for the majority of Chinese cit-ies amid the rapid development, it is not possible and realistic to implement a TOD mode mainly based on rail transportation in a short-term period. Therefore, Chinese cities should fully adopt the other kind of transportation approaches, such as BRT, to realize the TOD mode. The successful practice of Curitiba BRT proves that they can serve such purposes as the rail trans-portation does to guide the land develop-ment along the way.Like rail transportation, BRT acting as transit-oriented service bears three traits, which are medium and high transporta-tion volume, limited stations, and per-manently basic facilities such as special highways and stations. The BRT system offers public transportation service that departs at 5-minute intervals, which is equivalent to a train with three carriages departing at 10-minute intervals. Re-garding the passenger flow of the main corridors, the one-way transportation volume of BRT is usually over 8,000 people per hour and can surpass 50,000 people per hour, which exceeds many rail transportation systems ⑨. Compared with rail transportation, the investment in other transportation approaches such as BRT is lower, and they can provide more economi-cal and realistic measures to construct the large-capacity passenger transport cor-ridors. Therefore, they have great signifi-cance in curbing the sporadic development in some Chinese cities.5.2 Planning based on the spatial distri-bution of public transport hubsThe planning of Binhu New District is made based on the spatial distribution of72transport hubs. On the one hand, the plan based on the transportation junction helps to realize the utilization of the decen-tralized-compact model as well as urban development based on transit-oriented services. On the other hand, the plan for the transit network system is also based on the hub distribution, and therefore, the rational classi fi cation and well-distributed transportation arrangements are made in this planning.6. ConclusionIn the new district planning of the past two decades, most Chinese cities have made use of urban expressways, trunk roads, or the town development axis to link the old city with the new districts. Compared with such methods, Binhu New District of Hefei City adopts the TOD mode with the following advantages: fi rst-ly, the public transportation-dominated mode will efficiently control private-car transportation, which can help to set up a reasonable traf fi c structure for the city and relieve a series of problems involving en-ergy, the environment and land resource; secondly, the high-capacity public trans-portation can meet the requirements for commuting between the new urban areas and the central urban districts; thirdly, the public transportation-dominated mode can reduce the car traffic pressure in the downtown and thus improve the mobility of the transportation system there; fourth-ly, it also reflects social justice to some extent, since the large-capacity public trans-portation system provides a lower-price but higher-quality service for many mid- and low-income families in the city. In a word, to promote the sustainable development of the urban transportation in China and to estab-lish a resource-friendly city, the TOD mode should be encouraged in developing the new urban districts to keep the orderly develop-ment of the city.(Fund: Scientific Research Project of the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (2010-R2-21).)Edited by LI Caige Proofread by TANG YanNotes:① ZHANG Ming and LIU Jing. The Chinese Edition of Transit-oriented Development. Urban Planning Forum . 2007, 1, p. 96.② YA NG Tao, GUO Xiucheng, ZHA NG Jian, et al. Integrated Transit System in Curitiba. U rban Transport of China . 2009, 3, p. 36.③ LIU Shilin. Report on Chinese Urbanization in 2008. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2009, p. 88.④ LU Huapu. Urban Integrated Traffic Planning with Its Research Subjects Based on TOD. Bulletin of National Science Foundation of China. 2005, 4, p. 212.⑤ PA N Haixiao and REN Chunyang. Review on “Transit Oriented Development in America: Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects”. Urban Planning Overseas . 2004, 6, p. 65.⑥ WU Yongfa, ZHOU Guoyan, and XU Zhen. Green City, Hefei: Quality and Decorated. Chinese and Overseas Architecture. 2009, 2, p. 8.⑦ LI Linglan, ZHANG Guohua, and CAO Yunli. Approaches to Land-use Planning and Adjustment Adjacent to Rail Transit Stations: A Case Study on Suzhou, Jiangsu Province. Urban Transport of China . 2007, 1, p. 33.⑧ M A O J i a n g x i n g a n d YA N X i a o p e i. A n International Study on the Mutual Relationship Between Urban Transport System and Land-use. City Planning Review . 2004, 7, p. 66.⑨ R. Cervero. Transit-supportive Development in the United States: Experiences and Prospects . Washington, D.C.: Federal Transit Administration, 1993, p. 31.References:LIU Shilin. Report on Chinese Urbanization in 2008. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2009.LU Huapu. Urban Integrated Traffic Planning with Its Research Subjects Based on TOD. Bulletin of National Science Foundation of China . 2005, 4.MAO Jiangxing and YAN Xiaopei. An International Study on the Mutual Relationship Between Urban Transport System and Land-use. City Planning Re-view . 2004, 7.P. Calthorpe and W. Fulton. The Regional City: Planning for the End of Sprawl . Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2001.PA N Haixiao and REN Chunyang. Review on “Transit Oriented Development in America: Experi-ences, Challenges, and Prospects”. Urban Planning Overseas . 2004, 6.R. Cervero. Transit-supportive Development in the United States: Experiences and Prospects . Wash-ington, D.C.: Federal Transit Administration, 1993.YA NG Tao, GUO Xiucheng, ZHA NG Jian, et al. Integrated Transit System in Curitiba. Urban Trans-port of China . 2009, 3.YU Jie, YA NG Xiaoguang, YIN Rui, et al. Public Transport Planning of Developing City Based on TOD mode. Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering . 2007, 6.ZHANG Ming and LIU Jing. The Chinese Edition of Transit-oriented Development. Urban Planning Forum . 2007, 1.AuthorsGU Dazhi, Registered Planner, Lecturer, Department of Urban Planning, College of Architecture and Art, Hefei University of Technology; PhD Candidate, School of Architecture, Southeast University, Nanjing, P . R. China. Research area: urban regeneration, urban design. Email: xuxu_zz@YAN Ping, Registered Planner, Deputy Director, Hefei Urban Planning Bureau; PhD Candidate, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai, P. R. China. Research area: urban transporta-tion planning.。
博士入学PPT模板
Results
2.2. Overexpressed of PTBP1 promotes migration of lung cancer cells
Results
2.3. Knockdown of PTBP1 inhibits levels of EMT-related proteins in lung cancer cells
Background
Seven alternative splicing (AS) subgroups: • Exon skipping accounts for nearly 40% of AS events; • alternative 3′ splice site (3′SS) selection (18.4%) and 5′SS
3. Dewei Niu, ******, Shanze Yi, Feng Wang*. Gene cloning, protein expression and functional analysis of a type 3 metallothionein gene from Sonneratia alba with biosorption potential. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, Accepted. PJOES-00647-2017-02.
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A. PTBP1 expression was elevated in LUAD tissues (N=515) compared with normal lung tissues (N=59) according to TCGA database (p<0.01); B. Kaplan-Meier plots of patients with LUAD according to high (N=127) and low (N=375) PTBP1 expression from the TCGA database and compared by paired t-test, p<0.01.
海外中国研究学者,英汉姓名对照表
海外中国研究学者,英汉姓名对照表海外中国研究学者英汉姓名对照表（下）（L～Z）English/Chinese Comparison Tablefor Names of Chinese Studies Scholars（下）（L～Z）Last updated:31Oct.2015LLaamann, Lars 劳曼Lackner, Michael 朗宓榭Lagerwey, John 劳格文Lai, Guolong 来国龙Lai, Swee Fo (S. F. Lai) 赖瑞和Lai, Whalen 黎惠伦Lam, Joseph S. C. 林萃青Lam, Ling Hon 林凌瀚Lam, Ruby Yuan-chu 刘元珠Lamouroux, Christian 蓝克利Lancashire, Douglas 蓝克实Landry, Fierre F. 李磊Langlois, John D. 蓝德彰Larson, Wendy 文棣Latourette, Kenneth S. 赖德烈Lau, Frederick 刘长江Lau, Joseph S. M. 刘绍铭Laufer, Berthold 劳费尔Lavely, William 雷伟立Lawergren, Bo 劳镈Lawson, Joseph D. 罗周Lawton, Thomas 罗覃Lean, Eugenia 林郁沁Ledderose, Lothar 雷德侯Lee, Ann 李淯Lee, Ching Kwan 李静君Lee, Haiyan 李海燕Lee, Hong Yung 李鸿永Lee, Hwa-Wei 李华伟Lee, Hau L. 李效良Lee, James 李中清Lee, John 李若善Lee, Joseph Tse-Hei 李榭熙Lee, Leo Ou-fan 李欧梵Lee, Sherman E. 李雪曼Lee, Sukhee 李苏姬Lee, Thomas H.C. 李弘祺Lee, Tong Soon 李忠顺Lee, Tsonghan 李宗翰Lee, Yokshiu F 李煜绍Leeb, Leopold 雷立柏Legge, James 理亚各Lei, Shaohua 雷少华Leibold, James 雷国俊Leng, Shao-chuan 冷少川Leong, Sow-Theng 梁肇庭Leung, Frankie Fook-lun 梁福临Leung, Vincent S. 梁萃行Levenson, Joseph R. 列文森Levering, Miriam 罗梅如Levey, Benjamin 许思亮Levine, Nancy E. 列文Levine, Steven 梁思文Lewis, Mark Edward 陆威仪Li, Audrey Y.H. 李艳惠Li, Charles N. 李讷Li, Cheng 李成Li, Chi 李济Li, Chu-tsing 李铸晋Li, Fang-Kuei 李方桂Li, Feng 李峰Li, Guoqing 李国庆Li, He 李和Li, Hongshan 李洪山Li, Hua 李桦Li, Huaiyin 李怀印Li, Huishu 李慧漱Li, Jie 李洁Li, Jieli 李捷理Li, Jing 李荆Li, Jinyan 李金艳Li, Lianjiang 李连江Li, Lillian M. 李明珠Li, Nan 黎楠Li, Peter 李彼德Li, Ping 李平Li, Qiancheng 李前程Li, Ruru 李如茹Li, Shenwen 李晟文Li, Siu Leung 李小良Li, Tze-chung 李志钟Li, Victor H. 李浩Li, Wai-yee 李惠仪Li, Xiaobing 李小兵Li, Xun 李逊Li, Yafei 李亚非Li, Yongji 李泳集Liang, Bin 梁斌Liang, David M. 梁铭越Liang, Ellen Johnston 梁庄爱伦Liang, Lei 梁雷Liang, Zai 梁在Liao, Hsien-huei 廖咸惠Liao, Ping-hui 廖炳惠Libbrecht, Ulrich 李倍始Licent, Emile 桑志华Liebman, Benjamin L. 李本Lieberman, Frederic 李伯曼Lieberthal, Kenneth 李侃如Ligeti, Louis 李盖提Lilley, James R. 李洁明Lin, J.W. 林若望Lin, Jenny 林珍妮Lin, Kun-Chin 林昆瑾Lin, Man-houng 林满红Lin, Nan 林南Lin, Shuanglin 林双林Lin, Shuen-fu 林顺夫Lin, Sylvia Li-chun 林丽君Lin, T.H. Jonah 林宗宏Lin, Wei-Yu 林伟瑜Lin, Yi-min 林义民Lin, Yu-sheng 林毓生Linduff, Katheryn 林嘉琳Link, Perry 林培瑞Ling, Huping 令狐萍(thelast name was confirmed by the scholar) Little, Daniel 李丹Littlejohn, Ronnie 张仁宁Litzinger, Ralph A. 李瑞福Liu, Cary Y. 刘怡玮Liu, C.S. Luther 刘辰生Liu, Chun-Jo 刘君若Liu, Feng-Hsi 刘凤樨Liu, Guoli 刘国立Liu, Guy 刘芍佳Liu, Heping 刘和平Liu, Hsiang-kwang 刘祥光Liu, James C. 刘淸景Liu, James J.Y. 刘若愚Liu, James T.C. 刘子健Liu, Joan 刘丽君Liu, Kwang-Ching 刘广京Liu, Li 刘莉Liu, Lening 刘乐宁Liu, Liyan 刘力妍Liu, Lydia 刘禾Liu, Marjory Bong-Ray 刘邦瑞Liu, Shi-yee 刘晞仪Liu, Shufen 刘淑芬Liu, Sida 刘思达Liu, Ta-chung 刘大中Liu, Ts’un-yan 柳存仁Liu, William 刘融Liu, Xiaohong 刘晓弘Liu, Xiaoyuan 刘晓原Liu, Xin 刘新Liu, Xinmin 刘辛民Liu, Xun 刘迅Liu, Zhiqiang 刘智强Lo, Andrew H.B. 卢庆滨Lo, Dic 卢荻Lo, Irving Yucheng 罗郁正Lo, Jung-pang 罗荣邦Lo, Vai Io 罗惠瑶Lo, Vivienne 罗维前Lo, Winston 罗文Lo, Yuet-keung 劳悦强Loehr, Max 罗樾Loewe, Michael 鲁唯一Loh, Anthony Alexander 乐美棠Lorge, Peter 龙沛Louie, Kam 雷金庆Lowry, Kathryn A. 罗开云Lu, Bingfu 陆丙甫Lu, Ding 陆丁Lu, Guang 卢光Lu, Haimo 陆海默Lu, Hanchao 卢汉超Lu, Hong 陆红Lu, Ning 陆宁Lu, Sheldon H. 鲁晓鹏Lu, Tina 呂立亭Lü, Tonglin 吕彤邻Lu, Victoria Yung-Chih 陆蓉之Lu, Weijing 卢苇菁Lü, Xiaobo 吕晓波Lu, Yang 陆扬Lu, Zhengbin Richard 卢正彬Lubman, Stanley B. 陆思礼Lucian,W. Pey 白鲁恂Lüdke, Michael 吕德凯Lufrano, Richard 陆冬远Lui, Tsun-Yuen 吕振原Lullo, Sheri A 卢诗蕊Luo, I-T o 骆维道Luo, Liang 罗靓Luo, Qin 洛秦Luo, Wei 罗伟Lüthje, Boy 吕博艺Luthi，Lorenz M. 吕德量Lutze, Thomas D. 罗其韬Lynn, Richard J. 林理彰MMa, Jing-heng Sheng 马靜恒Ma, John T. 马大任Ma, Laurence 马润潮Ma, Tai-loi 马泰来Ma, Xiaohe 马小鹤Ma, Y. W. 马幼垣Ma, Zhongdong 马忠东Macauley, Melissa A. 麦柯丽MacFarquhar, Roderick 马若德Maciocia, Giovanni 马万里MacKerras, Colin 马克林MacNair, Harley F. 宓亨利Madancy, Joyce 马家宜Madsen, Richard 赵文词Mair, Victor 梅维恒Major, John S. 梅杰Makeham, John 梅约翰Malmqvist, Goran 马悦然Manion, Melanie 墨宁Mann, James 孟捷慕Mann, Susan 曼素恩Mao, Han-kuang 毛汉光Mao, Nathan K. 毛国权Mark, Lindy Li 李林德Martin, William Alexander Parsons 丁韪良Martzloff, Jean-Claude 马若安Masini, Federico 马西尼Maspéro, Henri 马伯乐Mather, Richard B. 马瑞志Matsuura, Akira 松浦章Matten, Marc 王马克Matthews, Rebecca 马蕊佳Matthews, Stephen 马诗帆Mattingly, Daniel 麦锦林Mattos, Gilbert L. 马几道McCraw, David R. 麦大伟McConville, Mike 麦高伟McCord, Edward A. 麦科德McDermott, Joseph 周绍明McDougall, Bonnie S. 杜博妮McGrath, Jason 马杰声McKhann, Charles F. 孟彻理McKinnon, E. Edwards 马金龙McKnight, Brian 马伯良McLaren, Anne 马兰安McMahon, Keith 马克梦McMullen, David 麦大维McNair, Amy 倪雅梅McNally, Christopher 麦智滔McNeal, Robin 罗斌McNicholas, Marc 马礼彬McRae, John R. 马克瑞McVadon, Eric 麦利凯Medeiros, Evan 麦艾文Mei, Kuang-ti 梅光迪Mei, Tsu-lin 梅祖麟Meisner, Maurice 马思乐Meng, Yue 孟悦Menzies, James M. 明义士Menzger, Thomas 墨子刻Menzies, Gavin 孟席斯Mertha, Andrew 毛学峰Meskill, John 穆四基Meyer-Fong, Tobie 梅尔清Michael, Franz H. 梅谷Michelson, Ethan 麦宜生Miles, Steven 麦哲维Miller, Lucin 米乐山Millward, James 米华健Milwertz, Cecilia 米晓琳Minford, John 闵福徳Minzner, Carl 明克胜Mitchell, Craig 马屹正Mitchell, Derek 米德伟Mittler, Barbara 梅嘉乐Miyazaki, Ichisada 宮崎市定Mizuno, Seiichi 水野清一Mochizuki, Mike 望月Mok, Robert T. 莫德昌Mokros, Emily 墨安屴Mollier, Christine 穆瑞明Monro, Donald J. 孟旦Moore, Gregory J. 莫凯歌Moran, Thomas 穆润陶Moser, David 莫大伟Moser, Jeffrey 孟絜予Moser, Michael 毛瑟Mostaert, Antoine 田清波Mostern, Ruth 马瑞诗Motsch, Monika 莫宜佳Mowry, Robert D. 毛瑞Mote, Frederick W. 牟复礼Moule, A. C. 慕阿德Mu, Aili 穆爱莉Mueggler, Erik 木克尔Mullaney, Thomas S．墨磊宁Mulready-Stone, Kristin 苗可秀Mulvenon, James 毛文杰Mungello, David E. 孟德卫Murck, Alfreda 姜斐德Murowchick, Robert E. 慕容捷Murray, Julia 孟久丽Muthy, Viren 慕唯仁Muyard, Frank 梅豪方Myers, Ramon H. 马若孟NNagahiro, Toshio 长广敏雄NaitōKonan 内藤湖南Naquin, Susan 韩书瑞Narayanan, Raviprasad 那瑞维Nathan, Andrew 黎安友Nattier, Jan 那体慧Nee, Victor 倪志伟Needham, Joseph 李约瑟Nelson, Sarah M. 南莎娜Nelson, Susan 倪肃珊Nevius, John Livingston 倪维思Ng, On-cho 伍安祖Nickerson, Peter 倪辅乾Nielsen, Bent 尼尔森Nienhauser, William H., Jr. 倪豪士Ning, Chunyan 宁春言Ning, Cynthia 任友梅Ning, Qiang 宁强Ning, Xin 宁欣Niou, Emerson M.S. 牛铭实Nivison, David S. 倪德卫Norman, Jerry 罗杰瑞Nugent, Christopher M.B. 倪健Nylan, Michael 戴梅可OOakes, Timothy S. 欧挺木O'Brien, Kevin 欧博文Ocko, Jonathan 欧中坦Ogata, Isamu 尾形勇Ohnesorge, John K.M. 欧志强Oi, Jean 戴慕珍Oksenberg, Michel C. 欧迈格Ong, Chang-Woei 王昌伟Oreglia, Elisa 欧蕾Osburg, John 庄思博Ou, Koei-hing 欧凯新Overmyer, Daniel L. 欧大年Owen, Stephen 宇文所安Ownby, DavidA. 王大为Oxfeld, Ellen 欧爱玲PPackard, Jerome 裴吉瑞Palumbo-Liu, David 刘大卫Pan, An-yi 潘安仪Pan, Haihua 潘海华Pan, Mingshen 潘铭燊Pan, Ping 潘平Pankenier, David W. 班大为Parker, E.H. 庄延龄Parish, William 白威廉Parsons, James B. 潘瞻睦Parsons, William B. 柏生士Pearce, Scott 裴士凱Pearlstein, Elinor 潘思婷Pearson, Margaret 裴松梅Peerenboom, Randy P. 裴文睿Pei, Minxin 裴敏欣Pelliot, Paul 伯希和Peng, Yusheng 彭玉生Penkower, Linda 潘林德Perdue, Peter 濮德培Perkins, Franklin 方岗生Perng, Ching-Hsi 彭镜禧Perry, Elizabeth J. 裴宜理Perushek, Diane 白迪安Peterson, Charles A. 毕德森Peterson, Willard J. 裴德生Petrucci, Raphae?l 佩初兹Phlllips, Steven 费世文Phillips, Tina 费婷Pian, Rulan Chao 赵如兰(亦作卞赵如兰) Picken, Laurence 毕鉴Pickowicz, Paul G. 毕克伟。
学生翻译5
我们永远也回不去了，这一点是确定无疑的。但过去的 一切仍近在咫尺。
The things we have tried to forget and put behind us would stir again, and that sense of fear, of furtive unrest, struggling at length to blind unreasoning panic— now mercifully stilled, thank God— might in some manner unforeseen become a living companion, as it had been before.
全文翻译
我们永远都不可能再回到过去，这一点毫无疑问。但过去依然离我们很近。那些 我们尝试去遗忘，不愿再想起的往事会再次被唤起。那种恐惧感，还有那种隐隐 的不安，最后变成毫无理由的盲目恐慌。现在，感谢上帝的仁慈，一切总算平息 了，不过那些情绪也可能以某种不可预见的方式再次成为我们生活的一部分，就 像过去那样。他是个极为隐忍的病人，从不抱怨，即使是在他回想往事的时候。 我想，他在私底下可能比我了解到的更常回想起过去。我自然能分辨出来。因为 有时候他突然看起来很迷茫，很困惑。所有的表情都会从他可爱的脸上消失，好 像一双看不见的手把他们全部抹掉了，取而代之的是一副面具，一副雕塑的面具 ，严肃而又冰冷生硬，依旧英俊却毫无生气。他会一根接一根的抽烟，也懒得去 把烟头熄灭，那些闪着火星的烟头像花瓣一样洒落一地。他有时讲话很快很急， 会随便找个话题，说起来滔滔不绝，但其实什么实际性的内容也没有，只不过借 此排解心中苦闷。我相信男人和女人在经历痛苦之后会表现的更加出色和强壮的 说法，因此在来世今生我们都必须经受火一样的严酷考验。
211126668_超声波辅助酶法提取牛皮胶原蛋白及其结构表征
赵改名，王壮壮，祝超智，等. 超声波辅助酶法提取牛皮胶原蛋白及其结构表征[J]. 食品工业科技，2023，44（9）：190−199. doi:10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070219ZHAO Gaiming, WANG Zhuangzhuang, ZHU Chaozhi, et al. Ultrasound-Assisted Enzymatic Extraction and Structural Characterization of Cowhide Collagen[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2023, 44(9): 190−199. (in Chinese with English abstract). doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2022070219· 工艺技术 ·超声波辅助酶法提取牛皮胶原蛋白及其结构表征赵改名1，王壮壮1，祝超智1, *，余小领1，张秋会1，祁兴山2（1.河南农业大学食品科学技术学院，河南郑州 450002；2.恒都综合试验站，河南驻马店 463000）摘 要：以牛皮为原料，优化超声波辅助酶提取牛皮中胶原蛋白的工艺。
在单因素实验的基础上设计响应面试验，以牛皮胶原蛋白提取率为响应值，优化得到胶原蛋白的最佳提取工艺，并对其进行结构表征。
结果表明：牛皮中胶原蛋白的最佳提取工艺条件为超声波功率161 W 、超声波处理时间64 min 、胃蛋白酶添加量109 U/g 、料液比1:16 g/mL ，在此条件下胶原蛋白的提取率为63.77%。
十二烷基硫酸钠-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳（SDS-PAGE ）、紫外光谱（UV ）和傅立叶红外光谱（FTIR ）分析表明，超声波辅助酶提取的胶原蛋白符合Ⅰ型胶原蛋白的特征，保持了其完整的三螺旋结构，氨基酸组成和扫描电镜（SEM ）分析得到超声波辅助酶提取的胶原蛋白三螺旋稳定程度略微下降。
(最新整理)《翻译理论与实践》课程阅读书目
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闽江学院《翻译理论与实践》课程（学生课外阅读参考书目）1、 Bell, Roger. T。
1991， 2001. Translation and Translating： Theory and Practice [M］. London：Longman Group UK Ltd.；Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2、 Benjamin， W。
1993。
The Task of the Translator［A]。
In: L。
Venuti ed. 2000. The TranslationStudies Reader［C]. London ＆ New York: Routledge。
3、 Davis, K. 2004。
Deconstruction and Translation ［M]. Shanghai: ShanghaiForeignLanguage Education Press。
4、 Hatim, Basil and Mason, Ian. 1990, 2001。
Discourse and the Translator［M］。
London:Longman Group UK Ltd.； Shanghai： Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press。
世界文学名著汉译本中人名翻译的问题与对策
校园英语 / 翻译研究世界文学名著汉译本中人名翻译的问题与对策西南大学附属中学/李昕辰【摘要】世界文学名著是人类文明的结晶，对于中国青少年的成长有着不可忽视的作用。
然而世界文学名著汉译本的人名翻译往往冗长难记，降低了读者的阅读速度，影响了读者的阅读兴趣。
本研究对两本世界名著的汉译本进行了统计，发现外文人名的翻译中，绝大多数采用了音译的翻译方法，而且不少人名的字数在三个字及以上。
本研究同时对20名高中生进行了问卷调查，其结果表明世界文学名著汉译本中的人名翻译着实造成了阅读障碍。
基于上述研究结果，本文提出了更换汉字、减少字数和适当直译三大对策来解决世界文学名著中的人名翻译问题。
【关键词】世界文学名著 人名翻译 问题 对策 音译 直译【Abstract】The world literature masterpieces are the crystallization of human civilization and play an important role in the growth of young people. However, translation of Chinese names in the Chinese edition of world literature masterpieces are often lengthy and hard to remember, reducing the reading speed of readers and affecting their reading interest. This study has analyzed the Chinese edition of two world literature masterpieces, finding that most of the translated names adopt the method of transliteration and many names’ number of characters is three and above. Meanwhile, the study has conducted a questionnaire-based survey among 20 high school students. The results of the survey show that translation of Chinese names in the Chinese edition of world literature masterpieces do form a barrier in reading. Based on the results above, this article puts forward three countermeasures, which are changing the characters, reducing the number of characters and adopting appropriate literal translation to solve the problems of translation of Chinese names in the Chinese edition of world literature masterpieces.【Key words】world literature masterpieces; name translation; problems; countermeasures; transliteration; literal translation 引言世界文学名著是人类文明的结晶。
上海外国语大学翻译学专业博士生必读书目
上海外国语大学翻译学专业博士研究生培养方案为了配合实施《中华人民共和国学位条例》，保证学位研究生的质量，特制定翻译学专业博士研究生培养方案。
一、培养目标：1、培养我国社会主义建设事业所需要的，具有马克思主义理论修养、坚持四项基本原则、德、智、体全面发展的人才。
2、翻译学博士生通过培养，应具备扎实的相关理论与专业知识，通晓翻译学学科研究的前沿理论和最新国内外研究成果，能从事翻译学科高层次理论研究和教学，勇于进行理论创新，具备独立的科研能力、遵守学术规范的翻译研究工作者。
二、研究方向及导师：三、颁发学位翻译学博士四、学习年限学制三年，视情况可根据申请延长一年或两年五、课程学习以及学分要求总学分：22学分其中：公共必修课2门课10学分；学位必修课3门课6学分学位选修课3门课6 学分六、课程设置学位课七、培养方式采用研讨课（第一学年）、实验和论文指导（第二、三学年）相结合的方式。
八、学位论文要求时间安排：第三学期与导师讨论后选定论文题目，撰写学位论文选题报告，并于期末在学院专业学术委员会组织召开的选题审定会上进行答辩，答辩通过后进入论文撰写。
第四、第五、第六学期撰写论文以及进行与论文相关的实验。
第六学期末进行论文答辩。
字数要求：论文长度中文为12万字左右，英文为5万词左右。
质量要求：论文必须在导师指导下由博士生本人独立完成。
论文内容与本专研究方向相关，代表本学科研究方向的前沿水平，研究成果具有理论和实践的创新意义。
论文应论点明确，结构严谨完整，反映作者的坚实理论基础、系统专业知识、科学研究方法，并有独立见解。
九、对科研能力和水平的要求博士研究生在学期间，应关注和充分了解所学专业的国际和国内的动态与前景，同时参与一些专题的讨论和研究，逐步获得高层次的独立研究能力。
在读期间，博士生在论文答辩前，须以第一作者至少在国内核心刊物上发表至少两篇学术论文，并积极参与导师主持的相关科研项目。
十、对社会实践方面的要求：博士生在条件容许的情况下，应积极参加各种国内外学术交流活动。
NATURE RNA-Seq a revolutionary tool for transcriptomics
The transcriptome is the complete set of transcripts in a cell, and their quantity, for a specific developmental stage or physi-ological condition. Understanding the transcriptome is essential for interpreting the functional elements of the genome and revealing the molecular constituents of cells and tissues, and also for understand-ing development and disease. The key aims of transcriptomics are: to catalogue all species of transcript, including mRNAs, non-coding RNAs and small RNAs; to determine the transcriptional structureof genes, in terms of their start sites, 5′and 3′ ends, splicing patterns and other post-transcriptional modifications; and to quantify the changing expression levels of each transcript during development and under different conditions.Various technologies have been developed to deduce and quantify the transcriptome, including hybridization- or sequence-based approaches. Hybridization-based approaches typically involve incubating fluorescently labelled cDNA with custom-made microarrays or commercial high-density oligo microar-rays. Specialized microarrays have also been designed; for example, arrays with probes spanning exon junctions canbe used to detect and quantify distinct spliced isoforms1. Genomic tiling microar-rays that represent the genome at high density have been constructed and allow the mapping of transcribed regions to avery high resolution, from several basepairs to ~100 bp2–5. Hybridization-basedapproaches are high throughput andrelatively inexpensive, except for high-resolution tiling arrays that interrogatelarge genomes. However, these methodshave several limitations, which include:reliance upon existing knowledge aboutgenome sequence; high background levelsowing to cross-hybridization6,7; and alimited dynamic range of detection owingto both background and saturation ofsignals. Moreover, comparing expressionlevels across different experiments is oftendifficult and can require complicatednormalization methods.In contrast to microarray methods,sequence-based approaches directly deter-mine the cDNA sequence. Initially, Sangersequencing of cDNA or EST libraries8,9was used, but this approach is relativelylow throughput, expensive and generallynot quantitative. Tag-based methods weredeveloped to overcome these limitations,including serial analysis of gene expression(SAGE)10,11, cap analysis of gene expression(CAGE)12–14 and massively parallel signaturesequencing (MPSS)15–17. These tag-basedsequencing approaches are high through-put and can provide precise, ‘digital’ geneexpression levels. However, most arebased on expensive Sanger sequencingtechnology, and a significant portion ofthe short tags cannot be uniquely mappedto the reference genome. Moreover, onlya portion of the transcript is analysed andisoforms are generally indistinguishablefrom each other. These disadvantageslimit the use of traditional sequencingtechnology in annotating the structure oftranscriptomes.Recently, the development of novelhigh-throughput DNA sequencing meth-ods has provided a new method for bothmapping and quantifying transcriptomes.This method, termed RNA-Seq (RNAsequencing), has clear advantages overexisting approaches and is expected to rev-olutionize the manner in which eukaryotictranscriptomes are analysed. It has alreadybeen applied to Saccharomyces cerevisiae,Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Arabidopsisthaliana, mouse and human cells18–24. Here,we explain how RNA-Seq works, discussits challenges and provide an overview ofstudies that have used this approach, whichhave already begun to change our view ofeukaryotic transcriptomes.RNA-Seq technology and benefitsRNA-Seq uses recently developed deep-sequencing technologies. In general, apopulation of RNA (total or fractionated,such as poly(A)+) is converted to a libraryof cDNA fragments with adaptors attachedto one or both ends (FIG. 1). Each molecule,with or without amplification, is thensequenced in a high-throughput mannerto obtain short sequences from one end(single-end sequencing) or both ends(pair-end sequencing).The reads are typi-cally 30–400 bp, depending on the DNA-sequencing technology used. In principle,any high-throughput sequencing technol-ogy25 can be used for RNA-Seq, and theIllumina IG18–21,23,24, Applied BiosystemsSOLiD22 and Roche 454 Life Science26–28I N N OVAT I O NRNA-Seq: a revolutionary tool fortranscriptomicsZhong Wang, Mark Gerstein and Michael SnyderAbstract | RNA-Seq is a recently developed approach to transcriptome profilingthat uses deep-sequencing technologies. Studies using this method havealready altered our view of the extent and complexity of eukaryotictranscriptomes. RNA-Seq also provides a far more precise measurement oflevels of transcripts and their isoforms than other methods. This article describesthe RNA-Seq approach, the challenges associated with its application, and theadvances made so far in characterizing several eukaryote transcriptomes.RNA-Seq […] is expectedto revolutionize themanner in which eukaryotictranscriptomes are analysed.NATURE REVIEwS |genetics VOLUME 10 | jANUARy 2009 |57PeRSPecTiveS© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reservedsystems have already been applied for this purpose. The Helicos Biosciences tSMS system has not yet been used for published RNA-Seq studies, but is also appropriate and has the added advantage of avoiding amplification of target cDNA. Following sequencing, the resulting reads are either aligned to a reference genome or reference transcripts, or assembledde novo without the genomic sequenceto produce a genome-scale transcription map that consists of both the transcrip-tional structure and/or level of expression for each gene.Although RNA-Seq is still a technology under active development, it offers several key advantages over existing technologies (Table 1).First, unlike hybridization-based approaches, RNA-Seq is not limited to detecting transcripts that correspondto existing genomic sequence. For example, 454-based RNA-Seq has beenused to sequence the transcriptome ofthe Glanville fritillary butterfly27. Thismakes RNA-Seq particularly attractivefor non-model organisms with genomicsequences that are yet to be determined.RNA-Seq can reveal the precise locationof transcription boundaries, to a single-base resolution. Furthermore, 30-bp shortreads from RNA-Seq give informationabout how two exons are connected,whereas longer reads or pair-end shortreads should reveal connectivity betweenmultiple exons. These factors make RNA-Seq useful for studying complex tran-scriptomes. In addition, RNA-Seq can alsoreveal sequence variations (for example,SNPs) in the transcribed regions22,24.A second advantage of RNA-Seqrelative to DNA microarrays is thatRNA-Seq has very low, if any, backgroundsignal because DNA sequences canbeen unambiguously mapped to uniqueregions of the genome. RNA-Seq doesnot have an upper limit for quantifica-tion, which correlates with the numberof sequences obtained. Consequently,it has a large dynamic range of expres-sion levels over which transcripts can bedetected: a greater than 9,000-fold rangewas estimated in a study that analysed 16million mapped reads in Saccharomycescerevisiae18, and a range spanning fiveorders of magnitude was estimated for40 million mouse sequence reads20. Bycontrast, DNA microarrays lack sensitivityfor genes expressed either at low or veryhigh levels and therefore have a muchsmaller dynamic range (one-hundredfoldto a few-hundredfold) (FIG. 2). RNA-Seqhas also been shown to be highly accuratefor quantifying expression levels, as deter-mined using quantitative PCR (qPCR)18 andspike-in RNa controls of known concentra-tion20. The results of RNA-Seq also showhigh levels of reproducibility, for bothtechnical and biological replicates18,22.Finally, because there are no cloning steps,and with the Helicos technology there isno amplification step, RNA-Seq requiresless RNA sample.Taking all of these advantages intoaccount, RNA-Seq is the first sequencing-based method that allows the entiretranscriptome to be surveyed in a veryhigh-throughput and quantitative man-ner. This method offers both single-baseresolution for annotation and ‘digital’gene expression levels at the genome scale,often at a much lower cost than eithertiling arrays or large-scale Sanger ESTsequencing.Challenges for RNA-SeqLibrary construction.The ideal methodfor transcriptomics should be able todirectly identify and quantify all RNAs,small or large. Although there are onlya few steps in RNA-Seq (FIG. 1), it doesinvolve several manipulation stages dur-ing the production of cDNA libraries,which can complicate its use in profilingall types of transcript.Unlike small RNAs (microRNas(miRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNas (piRNAs),short interfering RNas (siRNAs)and manyothers), which can be directly sequencedafter adaptor ligation, larger RNA mol-ecules must be fragmented into smallerpieces (200–500 bp) to be compatiblewith most deep-sequencing technologies.Common fragmentation methods includeCoding sequenceORFP e r s P e c t i v e s58 | jANUARy 2009 | VOLUME 10 /reviews/genetics© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reservedRNA fragmentation (RNA hydrolysis or nebulization) and cDNA fragmentation (DNase I treatment or sonication). Each of these methods creates a different bias in the outcome. For example, RNA fragmen-tation has little bias over the transcript body20, but is depleted for transcript ends compared with other methods (FIG. 3). Conversely, cDNA fragmentation is usually strongly biased towards the iden-tification of sequences from the 3′ ends of transcripts, and thereby provides valuable information about the precise identity of these ends18 (FIG. 4).Some manipulations during library construction also complicate the analysis of RNA-Seq results. For example, many shorts reads that are identical to each other can be obtained from cDNA librariesthat have been amplified. These could bea genuine reflection of abundant RNAspecies, or they could be PCR artefacts.One way to discriminate between thesepossibilities is to determine whether thesame sequences are observed in differentbiological replicates.Another key consideration concerninglibrary construction is whether or not toprepare strand-specific libraries, as hasbeen done in two studies21,22. These librarieshave the advantage of yielding informationabout the orientation of transcripts, whichis valuable for transcriptome annotation,especially for regions with overlappingtranscription from opposite directions2,19,29;however, strand-specific libraries arecurrently laborious to produce because theyrequire many steps22 or direct RNA–RNAligation21, which is inefficient. Moreover,it is essential to ensure that the antisensetranscripts are not artefacts of reverse tran-scription30. Because of these complications,most studies thus far have analysed cDNAswithout strand information.Bioinformatic challenges.Like otherhigh-throughput sequencing technolo-gies, RNA-Seq faces several informaticschallenges, including the development ofefficient methods to store, retrieve andprocess large amounts of data, which mustbe overcome to reduce errors in imageanalysis and base-calling and removelow-quality reads.Table 1 |Advantages of RNA-Seq compared with other transcriptomics methodsP e r s P e c t i v e sOnce high-quality reads have been obtained, the first task of data analysis is to map the short reads from RNA-Seq to the reference genome, or to assemble them into contigs before aligning them to the genomic sequence to reveal transcription structure. There are several programs for mapping reads to the genome, including ELAND, SOAP31, MAQ32 and RMAP33 (information about these can be found atthe Illumina forum and at SEQanswers).However, short transcriptomic reads also only needs to be given to poly(A) tailsand to a small number of exon–exonjunctions. Poly(A) tails can be identifiedsimply by the presence of multiple As orTs at the end of some reads. Exon–exonjunctions can be identified by the pres-ence of a specific sequence context (theGT–AG dinucleotides that flank splicesites) and confirmed by the low expressionof intronic sequences, which are removedduring splicing. Transcriptome mapsa junction library that contains all theknown and predicted junction sequencesand map reads to this library19,20. A chal-lenge for the future is to develop computa-tionally simple methods to identify novelsplicing events that take place between twodistant sequences or between exons fromtwo different genes.For large transcriptomes, alignmentis also complicated by the fact that a sig-nificant portion of sequence reads matchP e r s P e c t i v e sgenes are presumably either not expressed under this condition (for example, sporu-lation genes18) or do not have poly(A) tails. Analyzing many different conditions can further increase the coverage; inS. pombe 122 million reads from six differ-ent growth conditions detected transcrip-tion from >99% of annotated genes19.In general, the larger the genome, the more complex the transcriptome, the more sequencing depth is required for adequate coverage. Unlike genome-sequencing cov-erage, it is less straightforward to calculate the coverage of the transcriptome; thisis because the true number and level of different transcript isoforms is not usually known and because transcription activity varies greatly across the genome. One study used the number of unique transcription start sites as a measure of coverage in mouse embryonic cells, and demonstrated that at 80 million reads, the number of start sites reached a plateau22 (FIG. 5b). However, this approach does not address transcrip-tome complexity in alternative splicing and transcription termination sites; presumably further sequencing can reveal additionalvariants.New transcriptomic insights Despite the challenges described above, the advantages of RNA-Seq have enabled us to generate an unprecedented global view of the transcriptome and its organi-zation for a number of species and cell types. Before the advent of RNA-Seq,it was known that a much greater than expected fraction of the yeast, Drosophila melanogaster and human genomes are transcribed2,4,36, and for yeast and humans a number of distinct isoforms have been found for many genes2,4. However, the starts and ends of most transcripts and exons had not been precisely resolved and the extent of spliced heterogeneity remained poorly understood. RNA-Seq, with its high resolution and sensitivity has revealed many novel transcribed regions and splicing isoforms of known genes, and has mapped 5′ and 3′ boundaries for many genes.Mapping gene and exon boundaries. The single-base resolution of RNA-Seq has the potential to revise many aspectsof the existing gene annotation, including gene boundaries and introns for known genes as well as the identification of novel transcribed regions. 5′ and 3′ boundaries can be mapped to within 10–50 bases by a precipitous drop in signal. 3′ boundaries can be precisely mapped by searching forpoly(A) tags, and introns can be mappedby searching for tags that span GT–AGsplicing consensus sites. Using these meth-ods the 5′ and 3′ boundaries of 80% and85% of all annotated genes, respectively,were mapped in S. cerevisiae18. Similarly,in S. pombe many boundaries were definedby RNA-Seq data in combination withtiling array data19.These two studies led to the discoveryof many 5′ and 3′ UTRs that had notbeen analysed previously. In S. cerevisiae,extensive 3′-end heterogeneity wasdiscovered at two levels: first, localheterogeneity exists in which a cluster ofsites are involved, typically within a 10 bpwindow; second, there are distinct regionsof poly(A) addition for 540 genes (FIG. 4).It is plausible that these different 3′ endsconfer distinct properties to the differentmRNA isoforms, such as mRNA localiza-tion or degradation signals, which in turnmight be responsible for unique biologicalfunctions18,19. In addition to 3′ heterogene-ity, the list of upstream ORFs within the 5′UTRs of mRNAs (uORFs) was also greatlyexpanded from 17 to 340 (6% of yeastgenes)18; uORFs regulate mRNA transla-tion37 or stability38, so these sequencesmight make a previously underappreciatedcontribution to the regulatory sophistica-tion of eukaryotic genomes. Interestingly,many mRNAs with uORFs are transcrip-tion factors, suggesting that these regulatorsare themselves heavily regulated.The mapping of transcript boundariesrevealed several novel features of eukaryo-tic gene organization. Many yeast geneswere found to overlap at their 3′ ends18.Using relaxed criteria similar to thoseemployed in a recent study18 we found that808 pairs, approximately 25% of all yeastORFs, overlap at their 3′ ends18. Likewise,antisense expression is enriched in the 3′exons of mouse transcripts22. These featuresmight confer interesting regulatory proper-ties on the affected genes. For multicellularorganisms, antisense transcription couldmodulate gene expression through theproduction of siRNAs or through dsRNaediting39,40. For yeast, which seems to lacksiRNA and dsRNA-editing functions,transcription from one gene might interferewith that from an overlapping gene, orcoordinate gene expression through othermechanisms.Extensive transcript complexity.RNA-Seqcan be used to quantitatively examinesplicing diversity by searching for readsthat span known splice junctions as wellas potential new ones. In humans, 31,618known splicing events were confirmed(11% of all known splicing events) and 379novel splicing events were discovered24.ture Reviews |Genetics′Local heterogeneityDistinct poly(A) sitesFigure 4 | Poly(A) tags from RnA-seq. A region containing two overlapping transcripts (ACT1, from the actin gene, and YFL040W, an uncharacterized ORF) from the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome is shown. Arrows point to transcription direction. The poly(A) tags from RNA-Seq experiments are shown below these transcripts, with arrows indicating transcription direction. The precise location of each locus identified by poly(A) tags reveals the heterogeneity in poly(A) sites, for example, ACT1 has two big clusters, both with a few bases of local heterogeneity. The transcription direction revealed by poly(A) tags also helps to resolve 3′-end overlapping transcribed regions18.P e r s P e c t i v e sNATURE REVIEwS |genetics VOLUME 10 | jANUARy 2009 |61© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reservedglossaryCap analysis of gene expression(CaGe). Similar to SaGe, except that 5′-end information of the transcript is analysed instead of 3′-end information. ContigsA group of sequences representing overlapping regions from a genome or transcriptome.dsRNA editingSite-specific modification of a pre-mRNa by dsRNa-specific enzymes that leads to the production of variant mRNa from the same gene.Genomic tiling microarraya DNa microarray that uses a set of overlapping oligonucleotide probes that represent a subset of or the whole genome at very high resolution.Massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS). a gene expression quantification method that determines 17–20-bp ‘signatures’ from the ends of a cDNa molecule using multiple cycles of enzymatic cleavage and ligation.MicroRNA(miRNa). Small RNa molecules that areprocessed from small hairpin RNa (shRNa)precursors that are produced from miRNagenes. miRNas are 21–23 nucleotides in lengthand through the RNa-induced silencing complexthey target and silence mRNas containing imperfectlycomplementary sequence.Piwi-interacting RNAs(piRNa). Small RNa species that are processedfrom single-stranded precursor RNas. Theyare 25–35 nucleotides in length and formcomplexes with the piwi protein. piRNas areprobably involved in transposon silencing andstem-cell function.Quantitative PCR(qPCR). an application of PCR to determinethe quantity of DNa or RNa in a sample. Themeasurements are often made in real time andthe method is also called real-time PCR.Sequencing depthThe total number of all the sequences reads or basepairs represented in a single sequencing experiment orseries of experiments.Serial analysis of gene expression(SaGe). a method that uses short ~14–20-bp sequencetags from the 3′ ends of transcripts to measure geneexpression levels.Short interfering RNA(siRNa). RNa molecules that are 21–23 nucleotides longand that are processed from long double-stranded RNas;they are functional components of the RNai-inducedsilencing complex. siRNas typically target and silencemRNas by binding perfectly complementary sequencesin the mRNa and causing their degradation and/ortranslation inhibition.Spike-in RNAa few species of RNa with known sequence and quantitythat are added as internal controls in RNa-Seq experiments.62 | jANUARy 2009 | VOLUME 10 /reviews/genetics© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reservedDefining transcription levelAs RNA-Seq is quantitative, it can be used to determine RNA expression levels more accurately than microarrays. In principle, it is possible to determine the absolute quantity of every molecule in a cell population, and directly compare results between experiments. Several methods have been used for quantification. For RNA fragmentation followed by cDNA synthesis, which gives more uniform cov-erage of each exon, gene expression levels can be deduced from the total numberof reads that fall into the exons of a gene, normalized by the length of exons that can be uniquely mapped24; for 3′-biased methods, read counts from a window near the 3′ end are used18. Gene expression levels determined by these methods closely correlate with qPCR and RNA spike-in controls.One particularly powerful advantage of RNA-Seq is that it can capture transcrip-tome dynamics across different tissues or conditions without sophisticated normali-zation of data sets19,20,22. RNA-Seq has been used to accurately monitor gene expres-sion during yeast vegetative growth18, yeast meiosis19 and mouse embryonic stem-cell differentiation22, to track gene expression changes during development, and to provide a ‘digital measurement’ of gene expression difference between differ-ent tissues20. Because of these advantages, RNA-Seq will undoubtedly be valuable for understanding transcriptomic dynamics during development and normal physi-ological changes, and in the analysis of biomedical samples, where it will allow robust comparison between diseased and normal tissues, as well as the subclassification of disease states.Future directionsAlthough RNA-Seq is still in the early stages of use, it has clear advantages over previously developed transcriptomic methods. The next big challenge for RNA-Seq is to target more complex transcriptomes to identify and track the expression changes of rare RNA isoforms from all genes. Technologies that will advance achievement of this goal are pair-end sequencing, strand-specific sequencing and the use of longer reads to increase coverage and depth. As the cost of sequencing continues to fall, RNA-Seq is expected to replace microarrays for many applications that involve determin-ing the structure and dynamics of the transcriptome.Zhong Wang and Michael Snyder are at the Departmentof Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, andMark Gerstein is at the Department of Molecular,Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, 219Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA.Correspondence to M.S.e‑mail: michael.snyder@doi:10.1038/nrg2484Published online 18 November 20081. Clark, T. A., Sugnet, C. W. & Ares, M. Jr.Genomewide analysis of mRNA processing in yeastusing splicing-specific microarrays. Science296,907–910 (2002).2. David, L. et al. A high-resolution map of transcriptionin the yeast genome. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA103,5320–5325 (2006).3. Yamada, K. et al. Empirical analysis of transcriptionalactivity in the Arabidopsis genome. Science 302,842–846 (2003).4. Bertone, P. et al. 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Kumar, A., des Etages, S. A., Coelho, P. S.,Roeder, G. S. & Snyder, M. High-throughputmethods for the large-scale analysis of gene functionby transposon tagging. Methods Enzymol.328,550–574 (2000).AcknowledgementsWe thank D. Raha for many valuable comments.P e r s P e c t i v e sNATURE REVIEwS |genetics VOLUME 10 | jANUARy 2009 |63© 2009 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved。
TEXT TRANSLATION METHOD AND APPARATUS, STORAGE MED
专利名称：TEXT TRANSLATION METHOD ANDAPPARATUS, STORAGE MEDIUM ANDCOMPUTER DEVICE发明人：TU, Zhaopeng,涂兆鹏,WANG, Longyue,王龙跃申请号：CN2019/093337申请日：20190627公开号：WO2020/048195A1公开日：20200312专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：The present application relates to a text translation method and apparatus, a storage medium and a computer device. The method comprises: acquiring an initialsource text and a reconstructed source text, the reconstructed source text being a source text obtained by performing incomplete word position information complementing on the initial source text; semantically encoding the initial source text to obtain a source end vector sequence corresponding to the initial source text; decoding the source end vector sequence in sequence to obtain a target end vector, performing decoding according to a word vector of a previously determined candidate target word each time during decoding, and determining a current candidate target word according to the current target end vector; composing target end vectors sequentially obtained by means of decoding into a target end vector sequence; performing reconstruction evaluation processing on the source end vector sequence and the target end vector sequence according to the reconstructed source text to obtain a reconstruction fraction corresponding to each candidate target word; and generating a target text according to the reconstruction fraction and each candidate target word. The solution provided by the present application may improve the quality of translation.申请人：TENCENT TECHNOLOGY (SHENZHEN) COMPANY LIMITED,腾讯科技（深圳）有限公司地址：35/F, Tencent Building, Kejizhongyi Road, Midwest District of Hi-tech Park, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518057 CN,中国广东省深圳市南山区高新区科技中一路腾讯大厦35层, Guangdong 518057 CN国籍：CN,CN代理人：BEIJING SAN GAO YONG XIN INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AGENCY CO., LTD.,北京三高永信知识产权代理有限责任公司更多信息请下载全文后查看。
Transparent solid detergent
专利名称：Transparent solid detergent 发明人：余田 英二,秦 良子申请号：JP特願昭63-324673申请日：19881221公开号：JP特公平7-122078B2公开日：19951225专利内容由知识产权出版社提供摘要：PURPOSE:To efficiently obtain a high-quality transparent solid detergent in a short time, by incorporating a specified amount of a diethanolamide of a fatty acid into a detergent composition, heating this mixture to a temperature in a specified range to melt, and forming and cooling this melt to solidify. CONSTITUTION:A detergent composition is mixed with 5-40pts.wt. diethanolamide of a fatty acid (especially a fatty acid amide obtained by reacting a 2-22C fatty acid with a 3-14C dialkylolamine at a molar ratio of 1:1.5-2.8). This mixture is heated to 55-100 deg.C to melt, and this melt is formed and cooled to solidify. A high-quality transparent solid detergent can thus be obtained efficiently in a short time.申请人：クローダジャパン株式会社地址：大阪府大阪市中央区徳井町1丁目1番10号国籍：JP代理人：清原 義博更多信息请下载全文后查看。
LED LIGHT TUBE
专利名称：LED LIGHT TUBE 发明人：WEI, Xiaomin,魏晓敏申请号：CN2015/091403申请日：20151002公开号：WO2017/054234A1公开日：20170406专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：An LED light tube comprising: a light strip (1), a transparent cover (2) covering the exterior of the light strip (1), and several LED light sources (3) mounted on the light strip (1). The LED light sources (3) comprise: an LED chip (31) electrically connected to the light strip (1) and a transparent adhesive layer (32) covering a light-emitting side of theLED chip (31). The outer surface (321) on the transparent adhesive layer (32) opposite the LED chip (31) is a coarse surface. The coarse outer surface (321) of the transparent adhesive layer (32) scatters a light emitted by the LED chip (31). The light emitted by the point light source is scattered to produce a light providing a planar light source effect, thus preventing the human body from experiencing dizziness caused by a light in the form of a point light source, and ensuring comfort.申请人：WEI, Xiaomin,魏晓敏地址：518000 CN,518000 CN国籍：CN,CN更多信息请下载全文后查看。
Foreignization vs Domestication
ISSN 1798-4769Journal of Language Teaching and Research, V ol. 1, No. 1, pp. 77-80, January 2010© 2010 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland.doi:10.4304/jltr.1.1.77-80Brief Study on Domestication and Foreignizationin TranslationWenfen YangSchool of Foreign Languages, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, ChinaEmail: wfyoung@Abstract— This essay gives a brief study of Domestication and Foreignization and the disputes over these twobasic translation strategies which provide both linguistic and cultural guidance. Domestication designates thetype of translation in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreigntext for target language readers; while foreignization means a target text is produced which deliberatelybreaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. In the contemporaryinternational translation field, Eugene Nida is regarded as the representative of those who favourdomesticating translation, whereas the Italian scholar Lawrence Venuti is regarded to be the spokesman forthose who favour foreignizing translation, who has also led the debate to a white-hot state.Index Terms— domestication, foreignization, translation strategiesI.O VERVIEW OF D OMESTICATION AND F OREIGNIZATIONDomestication and foreignization are two basic translation strategies which provide both linguistic and cultural guidance. They are termed by American translation theorist L.Venuti (qtd. in Schaffner 1995:4). According to Venuti, the former refers to ―an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values, bring the author back home,‖ while the latter is ―an ethnodeviant pressure on those (cultural) values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad.‖ (Venuti 1995: 20) Generally speaking, domestication designates the type of translation in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers, while foreignization means a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original (Shuttleworth & Cowie 1997:59). Disputes over domestication and foreignization have existed for a long time. However, till 1950s and 1960s, when the more systematic, and mostly linguistic-oriented, approach to the study of translation began to emerge (Jeremy 2001:9), the focus had been on the linguistic level. Since the cultural turn appeared in 1970s, the dispute has been viewed from a brand new perspective ––social, cultural and historical. The conflict between domestication and foreignization as opposite translation strategies can be regarded as the cultural and political rather than linguistic extension of the time-worn controversy over free translation and literal translation (Wang Dongfeng 2002：24).Seen from this, liberal translation and literal translation are not synonymous to domestication and foreignization, but they may overlap sometimes. Foreignness in language or culture can serve as a standard to judge whether a translation is domesticated or foreignized. Literal and liberal translations are techniques to tackle the linguistic form and they are two ways to transcode language. Domestication and foreignization, however, are concerned with the two cultures, the former meaning replacing the source culture with the target culture and the latter preserving the differences of the source culture. Only when there are differences in both linguistic presentation and cultural connotation, domestication and foreignization exist.Nida (2001:82) points out that ―For truly successful translation, biculturalism is even more important than bilingualism, since words only have meanings in terms of the cultures in which they function.‖ Cultural gaps between the source language and the target language have always turned to be a hard nut for translators to crack. Christiane.Nord (2001:34) holds that ―translating means comparing cultures.‖A brief retrospect may facilitate deeper understanding about the question under discussion. For the sake of convenience, the authoress here follows two clues, namely, studies abroad and studies at home.II.S TUDIES A BROADMany of translation theories from Cicero (106-43 B.C.) to the twentieth century centred on the recurring and sterile debate as to whether translation should be literal (word-for-word) or free (sense-for-sense), a dyad that is famously discussed by St Jerome in his translation of the Bible into Latin. Controversy over the translation of the Bible and other religious texts was central to translation theory for over a thousand years (Jeremy 2001:33). However, according to Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies (Baker 1998: 242), the domestication strategy has been implemented at least since ancient Rome, when, as Niethzshe remarked, ―translation was a form of conquest‖ and Latin poets like Horace and Propertius translated Greek text into the Roman present. A foreignizing strategy was first formulated in German culture during the classical and Romantic periods, perhaps most decisively by the philosopher and theologianFriedrich Schleiermacher. In his famous lecture On the Different Ways of Translation, Friedrich Schleiermacher demanded that translations from different languages into German should read and sound different: the reader should be able to guess the Spanish behind a translation from Spanish, and the Greek behind a translation from Greek. He argued that if all translations read and sound alike, the identity of the source text would be lost, levelled in the target culture.In the contemporary international translation field, the person who has initiated the controversy between domestication and foreignization is Eugene Nida, whom is regarded as the representative of those who favour domesticating translation. While it is the Italian scholar Lawrence Venuti who has led the debate to a white-hot state. He can be regarded as the spokesman for those who favour foreignizing translation.A. Nida’s Formal and Functional EquivalencesNida differentiates between two types of equivalences: formal and dynamic (or functional) as basic translation orientations. Formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content. It is a means of providing some insight into the lexical, grammatical or structural form of a source text, which is similar to literal translation. Functional equivalence, however, is based on the principle of equivalent effect, i.e. the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message. In language, Culture and Translating, a minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as ―the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.‖ The maximal, ideal definition is stated as ―the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.‖ (Nida 1995: 118)In fact Nida‘s func tional equivalence is based on and is used to guide the translation of Bible. His translation work, splendid though it is, comes out of a specific purpose: the translation of a Christian text with the goal of converting non-Christians to a different spiritual viewpoint. In order to entail a good understanding and operative function for the receptors of the target language, the message in the Bible with the meaning in Latin ―do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing‖ can be rendered in English as ―do it in such a way that even your closest friend will not know about it‖. Nida points out that this translation first avoids the possible misunderstanding by the receptors and thus makes clear the tangible reference to present-day circumstances of life. This practice may be acceptable in translating Bible, but in handling cultural factors in texts other than Biblical one, functional equivalence is inadequate and even misleading. Peter Newmark thinks that Nida‘s functional equivalence has done too much for the readers by rendering everything so plain, so easy. He states ―Following Nida‘s ‗Translating is communicating‘ with its emphasis on a readable, understandable text (although Nida also insists on accuracy and fidelity), one notices inevitably a great loss of meaning in the dropping of so many Biblical metaphors which, Nida insists, the reader cannot understand.‖(Newmark 2001a: 51)B. Venuti’s Foreignization vs. Domestication: Resistance against the Anglo-American CultureVenuti‘s foreignizing strategy is put forward in the ―aggressive monolingual‖ cultural background such as the Anglo-American culture. As a staunch advocate of foreignization, Venuti believes there is violence residing in the very purpose and activity of domestication. He holds that the phenomenon of domestication involves ‗an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to [Anglo-American] target-language cultural values‘. This entails translating in a transparent, fluent, ‗invisible‘ style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT (Jeremy 2001:146). Venuti proposes the strategy of ―resistant translation‖( i.e. foreignization) against the tradition of ―smooth translation‖. He argues that foreignization ―entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which are excluded by dominant cultural values in the target language (Venuti 1997: 242).Foreignization produces ―something that cannot be confused with either the source-language text or a text written originally in the target language.‖ (qtd. in Albrecht 1992:4) Venuti (1995: 20) considers the foreinizing method to be ‗an ethnodeviant pressure on [target-language culture] values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad‘. It is ‗highly desirable‘, he says, in an effort ‗to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation‘. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‗violently‘ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world (qtd. in Jeremy 2001:147). In summary, foreignization advocated by Venuti and his followers is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture(ibid: 147). According to Venuti, domestication and foreignization are ‗heuristic concepts‘ rather than binary opposites. They may change meaning across time and location. What dose not change, however, is that domestication and foreignization are ‗deal with the question of how much it rather signals the differences of that text‘ (ibid: 148).C. Other StudiesIn the 1970s, polysystem theory was developed by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar. A literary work is studied as part of a literary system, which itself is defined as ‗a system of functions of the literary order which are in continual interrelationship with other orders‘ (Tynjanov 1927: 71-72, Jeremy 2001: 109). Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework and the key concept is that of the system(Jeremy 2001: 109). According to polysystem hypothesis, the translators in a strong literary polysystem tend to apply domesticating strategy and thusproduce translations characterized by superficial fluency, while in a weak culture foreinizing strategy or resistant translation prevails (Zohar 1978: 7-8).Almost contemporary with Zohar‘s polysystem theory, the cultural studies proposed by Andre Lefevere and Susan Bassnett also provide a new perspective on the problem of domestication and foreignization. Generally speaking, Lefevere and Bassnett agree with Nida‘s ‗complete naturalness of expression‘. The difference is that Nida‘s ‗equivalence‘ is at the level of linguistics while Lefevere and Bassnett seek f or a cultural equivalence. Both of them attach great attention to the type of target readers, considering the nature of the text as well. Bassnett also proposes that different historical periods require different translation norms. The specific translation strategy adopted, domestication or foreignization, could reflect and in turn, determine the social and cultural trend in the contemporary society.Also in the 1970s, skopos, the Greek word for ‗aim‘ or ‗purpose‘, was introduced into translation theory and developed by Hans J. Vermeer. His idea is then extended by some second-generation skopos theorists, most notably, Christiane Nord. In the framework of skopos theory, ―translate means ‗to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target a ddresses in target circumstances.‖ (Nord 2001:12) According to skopos theory, the top-ranking rule for any translational action is the ‗skopos rule‘. This rule is intended to solve the eternal dilemmas of free vs. faithful translation, domestication vs. foreignization, etc. It means that the Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‗domestication‘ or a ‗foreignization‘, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which translation is needed. What it does not mean is that a good translation should ipso facto conform or adapt to target-culture behaviour or expectations, although the concept is often misunderstood in this way (Nord 2001: 29).III.S TUDIES AT H OMEIn China, from the 1980s, there are also many debates over domestication and foreignization. In 1987, Liu Yingkai published his paper Domestication –The Wrong Track of Translation in which he pointed out the prevalence of domestication in Chinese translation field. Liu summed up the manifestation of domestication in five forms: (1) the abuse of four-word idioms; (2) the abuse of words of classic elegance; (3) the abuse of abstraction; (4) the abuse of replacement; (5) the abuse of allusions and images. Liu (Liu in Yang, 1994: 269) argues that domesticating translation, by assimilating the national characteristics of the ST, distorts the ST and may efface the national features of a culture. Xu Yuanchong favors domesticating translation. He (Xu 2000:2) sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures, and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences. That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful. For example, as using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language, Xu uses a lot of four-character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation.In 2002, Chinese Translation Journal alone published six papers on translation strategies from the perspective of cross-cultural communication. As a whole the voice for foreignization dominates. Sun Zhili, a representative of foreignization, thinks that the primary task of translating is to precisely and fully convey the thought and style of the source text. He predicts foreignization will be the preferred strategy of literary translation in China in the 21st century (Sun Zhili 2002：40-44). Sun‘s opinion confronts some disagreements. Cai Ping, for instance, says that domestication should be the main stream in literary translation. Cai further explains the essential purpose of translation is to communicate, to lead readers to a good understanding of the source text. A heavily foreignized translation may be too foreign for readers to identify with, let alone to appreciate. In retrospect of translation history, Cai concludes that with the passage of time, foreignization always gives way to domestication (Cai Ping 2002：39-41). Xu Jianping holds a compromise proposal. He distinguishes two types of source texts: in English and in Chinese. Xu suggests that in order to fulfil cross-cultural communication, foreignization should be used in English-Chinese translation with domestication as supplement, while in Chinese-English translation, domestication should be used as much as possible. The reason is that an enormous group of Chinese readers eager to accept the foreign elements known of the foreign culture far more than foreign readers do about the Chinese culture (Xu Jianping 2002: 36-38).The wild variety of viewpoints presented to be for or against domestication or foreignization are from different perspectives. In fact, both domestication and foreignization have their advantages and disadvantages. Domesticating translation is easier for the readers to understand and accept. However, the naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural and stylistic messages of the ST. Foreignizing translation preserves the ST formal features and in turn informs the readers of the SL-culture, but alien cultural images and linguistic features may cause the information overload to the reader. In a word, both domestication and foreignization entail losses, as losses are inevitable in the translation process. It‘s hard to say which strategy is better, if the condition under which a translation is done is not taken into account.R EFERENCES[1]Venuti, Lawrence. 1995. The Translator‘s Invisibility: A History of Tra nslation. London & New York: Routledge.[2]Shuttleworth, M. & M. Cowie. 1997. Dictionary of Translation Studies.Manchester, UK: St Jerome Publishing.[3]Jeremy Munday.2001. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and applications. London and New York: Routledge.[4]Nida, Eugene. 2001. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.[5]Nord, Christiane. 2001. Translating as a Purposeful Activity – Functional Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press.[6]Baker, Mona. 1998. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.London and New York: Routledge. pp.240-242[7]Newmark, Peter.2001.Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.[8]Even-Zohar, Itmar. 1978. Papers in Historical Poetics, in Benjamin Hrushovski and Itamar Even-Zohar (eds) Papers on Poeticsand Semiotics 8. Tel Aviv: University Publishing Projects.[9]Sun Zhili，2002.Literature Translation in China: from Domestication to Foreignization , in China Translation，V ol. 1, pp.40-44.[10]Xu Jianping, Zhang Rongxi, 2002. Domestication and Foreignization in Cross-Cultural Translation , in China Translation, V ol.5, pp. 36-38.[11]Wang Dongfeng, 2002. Domestication and Foreignization: a Contradiction?in China Translation, V ol. 9, pp. 24-26.[12]Cai Ping, 2002. Foreignization as the Main Method in Translation, in China Translation, V ol. 5, pp. 39-41.[13]Xu Yuanchong, 2000. New Translation Theory in the New Century, in China Translation, V ol. 4, pp. 2-6.[14]Liu Yingkai, 1987. Domestication —— the Forked Road in Translation, in Yang Zijian and Liu Xueyun (eds) New ViewpointsonTranslation, Hubei: Hubei Education Press, 1994, pp. 269-282.。
翻译目的与翻译策略--《阿Q正传》的三个英译本比较
翻译目的与翻译策略--《阿Q正传》的三个英译本比较张翠玲【期刊名称】《宜春学院学报》【年(卷),期】2015(37)1【摘要】Based on the Skopos Theory , this paper compares three English translations of Lu Xun ’ s short story The Real Story of Ah Q.Because the three translators (Yang Xianyi, William Lyell, and Julia Lovell) have dif-ferent purposes in translating this novel , their English versions are very different from each other in dealing with the culturally-loaded words.But they are equally important and indispensable in the introduction of Lu Xun to the world.%翻译的目的论认为，翻译目的决定翻译策略。
本文从目的论角度出发，从习语俗语、历史典故、方言等方面比较了鲁迅小说《阿Q正传》的三个英译本（杨宪益译本、莱尔译本和蓝诗玲译本）在翻译策略上的不同。
由于译者的翻译目的不同，他们的翻译方法也有很大差异。
文章最后指出，这三个译本基本反映了三代人对鲁迅的理解和诠释，因而都拥有不可取代的地位。
【总页数】5页(P88-92)【作者】张翠玲【作者单位】北京外国语大学，北京 100189; 北京科技大学，北京 100192【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H059【相关文献】1.翻译目的对翻译策略的影响——《红楼梦》两个英译本中文化信息的翻译对比[J], 朱敏虹2.翻译目的影响下的翻译策略与方法--以闵福德的《聊斋志异》英译本为例 [J], 王拓3.从翻译目的论角度分析《阿Q正传》第二章的英译本 [J], 陈慧4.目的论浅析《阿Q正传》杨、戴英译本及莱尔英译本的不同翻译策略 [J], 刘霞5.目的论浅析《阿Q正传》杨、戴英译本及莱尔英译本的不同翻译策略 [J], 刘霞因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
指代消解研究现状综述
指代消解研究现状综述
黄毳丽
【期刊名称】《现代计算机（专业版）》
【年(卷),期】2012(000)006
【摘要】Anaphora resolution is an important task of natural language processing and information extraction.Concludes the basic problems of anaphora resolution,especially in coreference resolution and introduces the corpus,algorithm,model,feature,evaluation metric of coreference resolution.%指代消解是自然语言处理的一项关键环节,也是信息抽取的核心任务之一。
针对指代消解的一些基本问题进行阐述,主要介绍利用机器学习的方法开展的共指消解相关研究,从共指消解模型、常见算法、语料库、特征、评测标准等方面概述相关工作。
【总页数】4页(P16-19)
【作者】黄毳丽
【作者单位】四川大学计算机学院,成都610064
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TP391.12
【相关文献】
1.基于混合策略的藏文人称代词指代消解研究 [J], 夏吾吉;华却才让
2.面向中文指代消解的最优样本比例研究 [J], 颜晗;刘娟;周炫余
3.中文指代消解模型的对比研究 [J], 周炫余;刘娟;罗飞;刘洋;颜晗
4.名词短语事件指代消解研究 [J], 陈耀文;张兴忠;郝晓燕
5.融合篇章表征的事件指代消解研究 [J], 吴瑞萦;孔芳
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
Jim Seymour解放硬盘空间,加快备份速度
Jim Seymour解放硬盘空间,加快备份速度Seymo.,J;赵永欣
【期刊名称】《个人电脑》
【年(卷),期】1997(3)6
【摘要】我们又在赘述硬盘分区一事了。
别着急,我知道此事听起来没多大刺激性,可能不会使你产生耳目一新,灵感大发之感。
但是如果你能按我说的试一试,定会给你的硬盘带来更大的自由空间,也会使你的PC使用起来更随心意。
以前我曾说过将硬盘分成两个或更小的分区是多么的重要。
如果分区很得体的话,你会将硬盘的簇变小,并恢复相当一部分被DOS或Windows 95浪费掉的簇。
【总页数】2页(P24,26)
【作者】Seymo.,J;赵永欣
【作者单位】不详;不详
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TP368.103
【相关文献】
1.在解放思想中谋求发展在加快发展中解放思想 [J], 胡泊
2.思想再解放机制再突破激励再加大管理再加强速度再加快──宝钢加快技术创新工程步伐为创建世界一流企业而奋斗 [J], ;
3.删除无用系统文件解放硬盘空间 [J], 胡进
4.备份系统有效备份速度研究与分析 [J], 李治民
5.进一步解放思想加快发展速度力争我省邮电事业再上新台阶——第三十二次全省邮电工作会议工作报告(摘要) [J], 梁清章
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
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毕业论文（设计）外文翻译题目：（翻译文献的中文题目）系部名称：专业班级：学生姓名：学号：指导教师：教师职称：201 年月日高度稳压直流电源文摘:目前对于可调式直流电源的设计和应用现在有很多微妙的,多种多样的,有趣的问题。
探讨这些问题(特别是和中发电机组有关),重点是在电路的经济适用性上,而不是要达到最好的性能。
当然，对那些精密程度要求很高的除外。
讨论的问题包括温度系数，短期漂移，热漂移，瞬态响应变性遥感和开关preregualtor型机组及和它的性能特点有关的的一些科目。
介绍从商业的角度来看供电领域可以得到这样一个事实，在相对较低的成本下就可以可以获得标准类型的0.01%供电调节。
大部分的供电用户并不需要这么高的规格，但是供应商不会为了减少客户这么一点的费用而把0.1%改成0.01%。
并且电力供应的性能还包括其他一些因素，比如说线路和负载调解率。
本文将讨论关于温度系数、短期漂移、热漂移,和瞬态的一些内容。
目前中等功率直流电源通常采用预稳压来提高功率/体积比和成本，但是只有某些电力供应采用这样的做法。
这种技术的优缺点还有待观察。
温度系数十年以前，大多数的商业电力供应为规定的0.25%到1%。
这里将气体二极管的温度系数定位百分之0.01[1]。
因此，人们往往会忽视TC（温度系数）是比规定的要小的。
现在参考的TC往往比规定的要大的多。
为了费用的减少，后者会有很大的提高，但是这并不是真正的TC。
因此，如果成本要保持在一个低的水平，可以采用TC非常低的齐纳二极管，安装上差动放大电路，还要仔细的分析低TC绕线电阻器。
如图1所示，一个典型的放大器的第一阶段，其中CR1是参考齐纳二极管，R是输出电位调节器。
手稿日期为1966年5月28日。
笔者与雷神公司，索伦森所作，南诺沃克，美国康涅狄格州图1 电源输入级图2 等效的齐纳参考电路假设该阶段的输出是e3，提供额外的差分放大器，在稳定状态下e3为零，任何参数的变化都会引起输出的漂移；对于其他阶段来说也是一样的，其影响是减少了以前所有阶段的增益。
因此，其他阶段的影响将被忽略。
以下讨论的内容涵盖了对于TC整体的无论是主要的还是次要的影响。
R3的影响CR1-R3分支的等效的电路如图2所示，将齐纳替换成了它的等效电压源E'和内部阻抗R2。
对于高增益调节器，其中R3的变化对差分放大器的输入来说可以忽略不计，所以前后的变化由R3决定。
如果进一步假定IB << Iz;从（1）可以得到同时，消除Iz，由（2b）可得并且现在，假设那么，方程式（2b）也可以写成例1：齐纳二极管齐纳二极管拥有自己的温度系数，通常，它在TC的整体中占有很重要的位置。
对于电路图1，TC电路的介绍，从本质上讲，稳压器的TC部分由齐纳贡献。
如果桥接如电路图1显示.被用于并联一个下降电阻,只有部分输出电压出现过了桥显示电流,TC的单位和齐纳会有所不同。
由于齐纳二极管的特点是众所周知的，各文献对于它的描述非常好，这里将不予讨论[2]。
基级与放射级电压的变化不只是差分放大器Vbe的值不匹配，温度的差距也不匹配。
不应该这样，无论怎样，互相协调是有必要的。
图1真实的参考电压不是E1而是E2+(Vbe1-Vbe2)。
因为，对于大多数的实际应用TC的参考价值将比齐纳的TC优先考虑到很难获得高达50 V/°C的差，这就会变得相当明显，在大多数情况下,TC可能会超出额定值。
例2:一个30AV/°C下安全的，低成本的设计。
与一个1N752并联，整体的TC将会是实验，笔者计算出在室温情况下13个标准的锗晶体管的信号，集电极的电流水平为3mA，说明了它的合理值是90%到95%，基极和集电极之间将有一个-2.1至-2.4毫伏的变化。
人们已经验证出了如此庞大的利差（例如，施泰格[3]）。
最糟糕的情况是电晶体导致不到400V /°C微分。
与一个1N752并联甚至可能会给出一个0.007%/°C更好的TC。
基极电流的变化该基级晶体管的电流由下式给出由于有限源阻抗变化，一个电流变化造成了差分放大器的信号电压输入的变化。
所用的电源的阻抗不是特别的理想，因为对于所使用的晶体管的I∞和β来说它减少了系统的增益和需求。
亨特[4]指出α的值域范围是在+0.2％/℃至-0.2％之间，还有I∞可能近似于其中A0的值由T0决定。
β还取决于温度，施泰格[3]还通过实验证明了它的变化范围是在0.5％/ ° C到0.9％/° C之间。
并且图3 Q2的输入电路当前情况下ΔIB流经图3上的每一个电源阻抗，在电阻串中变小，是由齐纳电压值和基极与发射极之间Q1和Q2之间的落差所造成的EB (and ΔEB)所束缚着。
因此，如果要看温度从T1变到T2时ΔEB的变化输出电压的变化并且，例3:假设有Q3(在25摄氏度)（同例1）∴R1的变化R1A和R1B的TC的变化的影响是很明显的，这里不做讨论。
短期漂移短期漂移是由国家电气制造商协会（NEMA）提供，可以这样说“这段时间的输出与输入，环境和负载无关”[5]。
在上一节中对温度系数的描述在这里也适用。
据试验测定，在电源里面和它附近的热空气极大地提高了短期特性。
流动空气的冷却效果是众所周知的，然而人们通常不会意识到就算空气在齐纳二极管和晶体管中移动的很缓慢，它对温度的影响也是很显著地。
如果提供比较大的TC，那么输出会有很大的变化。
会有低TC实现补偿，也就是说，如果消除了了一些元器件相同或相反的影响，这些元器件的热时间常数仍会受到干扰。
一个常用的方法是使用第一个放大器来消除和平衡掉交界处冷却效果上的差异。
可以通过晶体管的固定或保持来近似模拟这个方案，将晶体管嵌入在一个共同的金属块中，等等。
笔者通过把输入级和参考齐纳放置到一个单独的机箱中取得了很好的效果。
如图4所示。
在图5中通过金属的覆盖，漂移得到了很好的改善。
图4 12V的电源晶体管具有百分之0.01的调节精度。
注意，保护盒是用来给第一放大器和参考组件进行隔热保护。
图5 和图4类似，电源提供了短期漂移，并且没有保护措施。
该元件是没有覆盖的，直到t1。
盒子里面的温度上升，电压随着时间 t1而变化。
如果电位器用于输出地调节（例如R1），应该谨慎的选择价位和设计。
接触电阻的变化可引起漂移。
用有高精密线圈的元件来获得低漂移是没有必要的。
用低电阻的合金和低分辨率的元件可以轮流休息，来缩小范围可以达到同样令人满意的效果。
当然，还要考虑到线路的抗腐蚀性等问题。
有机硅润滑脂可以得到很好的效果。
接触臂的周期的运用对元件的腐蚀有很好的“疗效”。
热漂移符合NEMA定义的热漂移就是“由于不正常的环境的变化引起有关的内部环境温度的变化而照成在一定时间内输出的变化。
温漂通常与线路电压和负载有关”[5]。
温漂与TC的供应以及整体散热的设计有关。
通过对关键部件妥善安置是有可能大大减少甚至完全消除影响。
百分之0.01（规定）的耗材有满负载的百分之0.05到0.15之间的漂移，这非常的罕见。
事实上，一个制造商曾经说过百分之0.15会更好。
减少热漂移除了提高TC以外还可以通过减少内部的消耗来解决。
比如说在关键的放大器和散热元件之间放置热障。
外表面最好位于通风良好处。
应该注意到，只能在百分之0.01和0.05之间索取。
瞬态响应大多数该类型的电源有一个还很受争议的负载端电容器。
这是出于稳定的目的，通常会决定主要的电源时间常数。
这个电容器会导致在遥感模式下短暂的电力供应不良的现象①。
通常情况下，晶体管电源会在很短的时间内作出反应，但是笔者曾经指出[6]，在遥感时，反应会变得很小。
其等效电源如图6所示。
引线从电源到负载电阻R处引入，设备的感应电流Is是相对稳定的。
在平衡条件下，图7表明，一个突然的负荷变化会导致Ldi/dt的瞬间激增，我们称之为“尖峰”；以及线性放电时间越长时电容充放电的情况。
放电时间是，其中并且，①对于Is来说，通常它不会在放大器的最后阶段提供驱动，但是会出现限流现象。
遥感是指电源电压电感的直接负荷。
图6 远程输出传感的等效电路图7 瞬态响应，遥感。
图8 框图。
使用预稳压电源可以减少监测和控制的A型阶段电压的使用和损耗。
由于主要的调节器往往比预调节器响应更快，应该建立足够的储备来使这个阶段下降。
如果不这样可能会导致负载的饱和，那是前置稳压器在响应时间内产生的。
开关前置稳压器型机组传统类- A型晶体管电源供应变得相当笨重，昂贵，与传递阶段拥挤，作为供给增加电流和功率的水平。
要求输出调节范围更大,再加上电力的供应是远程可编程的,会极大地提高条件的要求。
正是由于这些原因,高效利用的开关调节器作为一种压力调节阀在商业和军事用品应用了许多年。
绝大多数的供应整流器可控硅使用与控制元件。
从60-cycle 操作的系统压力调节阀响应来源,在20至50ms之间。
最近对高压、大功率开关晶体管的开关晶体管的方法更具有吸引力。
该系统提供了一种低成本,发行量较小的方法,再加上一个submillisecond响应时间。
通常是独立的电源频率导致了高开关率。
开关频率就可能被固定的,一个被控制的变量或一个独立的自生自储（LC滤波器电路）参数[7],[8]。
更快的反应时间是非常可取的,因为它减少了在预备役电压值必须通过阶段或仓库(的数量)的电力需求在压力调节阀过滤器。
一个晶体管作为电源开关操作适合具有大电流，高电压等级低漏电流耦合。
不幸的是，这些特点是实现了热容量牺牲，同时使电压和电流的条件导致很高的峰值功率可能是灾难性的。
因此，它成为强制性的设计负荷高峰期间有足够的条件，也包含开关驱动电流限制或快速过载保护系统。
商业发展电力供应总是有输出电流限制,但这并不限制压力调节阀电流负载条件下,除了在稳态(包括短路)。
考虑一下,例如,一个电源工作在短路、短被删除突然叫起来。
指图8、9月的产量将会快速上涨,减少通过阶段电压,关闭开关晶体管。
由此产生的瞬态传达很多周期的交换率),这样电感的压力调节阀过滤变得完全不够的限制流量。
因此,当前将会上升直至稳态已恢复、电路电阻引起限制,或不足开车使开关出来的饱和度。
上述第二种情况导致开关失败。
其他营业状况会产生相似的瞬变包括输出电压编程和初始刺激的用度。
输入功率瞬间的中断也应首先要考虑的事。
一个解决这个问题的办法就是限制的电压变化的速率在可出现一值,通过舞台了压力调节阀可以遵循。
这能被做方便加上足够的输出电容。
这电容会同限流特性会产生一种最大的改变的比率其中C0 = output capacity.假设这个压力调节阀遵循这种变化和有滤波电容器冠军杯,然后开关电流在电源在上,压力调节阀的参考电压上升也必须是有限的。
采取这一考虑,其中ER = passing stage voltageTl = time constant of reference supply.策略合作关系SCR的使用来代替电晶体的将是一个明显改善由于较高的增兵电流的收视率,却转身他们去了,需要大量的能源。